STUDY GUIDE

MEC03- MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES

MODULE 1
STRESSES: NORMAL STRESS, SHEAR STRESS & BEARING STRESS

INTRODUCTION
The study of mechanics of materials provides future engineers with the means of analyzing and designing
various machines and load-bearing structures involving the determination of stresses and deformations.
Short review of the basic methods of statics and their application to determine the forces in the members
of a simple structure consisting of pin-connected members must be remembered by the students. The
concept of stress in a member of a structure and how that stress can be determined from the force in the
member such as the normal stresses in a member under axial loading, the shearing stresses caused by the
application of equal and opposite transverse forces, and the bearing stresses created by bolts and pins in
the members they connect. A two-force member under axial loading will be observed where the stresses on
an oblique plane include both normal and shearing stresses, followed by the six components that required
to describe the state of stress at a point in a body under the most general loading conditions. The
determination of the ultimate strength from test specimens and the use of a factor of safety to compute
the allowable load for a structural component made of that material.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the module, the students should be able to:
1. Understand the concept of normal, shear, and bearing stresses.
2. Analyze and perform calculation stresses and their appropriate units
3. Understand the concept of ultimate strength and able to provide the factor of safety to structural
components.
4. Perform the analysis of structure with application of factor of safety.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

For this Module; Introduction – Concept of Stresses by Beer et al, pages

4-19 the author described thoroughly the concept of normal, shear, and
bearing stress and application of each concept.

1.1 REVIEW OF THE METHODS OF STATICS

Consider the structure shown in Fig. 1.1, which was designed to support a 30-kN load. It consists of a boom
AB with a 30 3 50-mm rectangular cross section and a rod BC with a 20-mm-diameter circular cross section.
These are connected by a pin at B and are supported by pins and brackets at A and C, respectively. First
draw a free-body diagram of the structure by detaching it from its supports at A and C and showing the
reactions that these supports exert on the structure (Fig. 1.2). Note that the sketch of the structure has
been simplified by omitting all unnecessary details. Many of you may have recognized at this point that AB
and BC are two-force members. For those of you who have not, we will pursue our analysis, ignoring that
fact and assuming that the directions of the reactions at A and C are unknown. Each of these reactions are
represented by two components: Ax and Ay at A, and Cx and Cy at C. The equilibrium equations are.
We have found two of the four unknowns, but cannot determine the other two from these equations, and
no additional independent equation can be obtained from the free-body diagram of the structure. We must
now dismember the structure. Considering the free-body diagram of the boom AB (Fig. 1.3), we write the
following equilibrium equation:

Substituting for Ay from Eq. (1.4) into Eq. (1.3), we obtain Cy 5 130 kN. Expressing the results obtained for
the reactions at A and C in vector form, we have

Note that the reaction at A is directed along the axis of

the boom AB and causes compression in that member.
Observe that the components Cx and Cy of the reaction
at C are, respectively, proportional to the horizontal
and vertical components of the distance from B to C
and that the reaction at C is equal to 50 kN, is directed
along the axis of the rod BC, and causes tension in that
member.

These results could have been anticipated by recognizing that AB and BC are two-force members, i.e.,
members that are subjected to forces at only two points, these points being A and B for member AB, and B
and C for member BC. Indeed, for a two-force member the lines of action of the resultants of the forces
acting at each of the two points are equal and opposite and pass through both points. Using this property,
we could have obtained a simpler solution by considering the free-body diagram of pin B. The forces on pin
B, FAB and FBC, are exerted, respectively, by members AB and BC and the 30-kN load (Fig. 1.4a). Pin B is
shown to be in equilibrium by drawing the corresponding force triangle (Fig. 1.4b). Since force FBC is directed
along member BC, its slope is the same as that of BC, namely, 3/4. We can, therefore, write the proportion

𝐹𝐴𝐵 𝐹𝐵𝐶 30kN

= =
4 5 3

From which we obtain

𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 40kN 𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 50kN

Forces F’ AB and F’BC exerted by pin B on boom AB and rod BC are equal and opposite to FAB and FBC (Fig. 1.5).
Knowing the forces at the ends of each member, we can now determine the internal forces in these
members. Passing a section at some arbitrary point D of rod BC, we obtain two portions BD and CD (Fig.
1.6). Since 50-kN forces must be applied at D to both portions of the rod to keep them in equilibrium, an
internal force of 50 kN is produced in rod BC when a 30-kN load is applied at B. From the directions of the
forces FBC and F’ BC in Fig. 1.6 we see that the rod is in tension. A similar procedure enables us to determine
that the internal force in boom AB is 40 kN and is in compression.

1.2 STRESSES ON MEMBERS OF THE STRUCTURE

AXIAL STRESS. We found forces in individual members. This is the first and necessary step in the analysis
of a structure. However it does not tell us whether the given load can be safely supported. Rod BC of the
example considered in the preceding section is a two-force member and, therefore, the forces FBC and F9
BC acting on its ends B and C (Fig. 1.5) are directed along the axis of the rod. Whether rod BC will break or
not under this loading depends upon the value found for the internal force FBC, the cross-sectional area of
the rod, and the material of which the rod is made. Actually, the internal force FBC represents the resultant
of elementary forces distributed over the entire area A of the cross section (Fig. 1.7). The average

intensity of these distributed forces is equal to the force per

unit area, FBC/A, on the section. Whether or not the rod will
break under the given loading depends upon the ability of
the material to withstand the corresponding value FBC/A of
the intensity of the distributed internal forces.

Let us look at the uniformly distributed force using Fig. 1.8.

The force per unit area, or intensity of the forces distributed
over a given section, is called the stress and is denoted by
the Greek letter σ (sigma).
The stress in a member of cross-sectional area A subjected to an axial load P is obtained by dividing the
magnitude P of the load by the area A:

A positive sign indicates a tensile stress (member in tension), and a negative sign indicates a compressive
stress (member in compression).
As shown in Fig. 1.8, the section through the rod to determine the internal force in the rod and the
corresponding stress is perpendicular to the axis of the rod. The corresponding stress is described as a
normal stress. Thus, Eq. (1.5) gives the normal stress in a member under axial loading:
Note that in Eq. (1.5), s represents the average value of the stress over the cross section, rather than the
stress at a specific point of the cross section. To define the stress at a given point Q of the cross section,
consider a small area ∆A (Fig. 1.9). Dividing the magnitude of ∆F by ∆A, you obtain the average value of the
stress over ∆A. Letting DA approach zero, the stress at point Q is
In general, the value for the stress s at a given point Q of the
section is different from that for the average stress given by Eq.
(1.5), and s is found to vary across the section. In a slender rod
subjected to equal and opposite concentrated loads P and P9 (Fig.
1.10a), this variation is small in a section away from the points of
application of the concentrated loads (Fig. 1.10c), but it is quite
noticeable in the neighborhood of these points (Fig. 1.10b and d).

It follows from Eq. (1.6) that the magnitude of the resultant of the
distributed internal forces is

∫ 𝑑𝐹 = ∫ 𝜎𝑑𝐴
𝐴

But the conditions of equilibrium of each of the portions of rod

shown in Fig. 1.10 require that this magnitude be equal to the
magnitude P of the concentrated loads. Therefore,

which means that the volume under each of the stress surfaces
in Fig. 1.10 must be equal to the magnitude P of the loads.
However, this is the only information derived from statics
regarding the distribution of normal stresses in the various
sections of the rod. The actual distribution of stresses in any
given section is statically indeterminate. To learn more about
this distribution, it is necessary to consider the deformations
resulting from the particular mode of application of the loads at
the ends of the rod.
In practice, it is assumed that the distribution of normal stresses
in an axially loaded member is uniform, except in the immediate
vicinity of the points of application of the loads. The value s of
the stress is then equal to save and can be obtained from Eq.
(1.5). However, realize that when we assume a uniform
distribution of stresses in the section, it follows from elementary
statics† that the resultant P of the internal forces must be
applied at the centroid C of the section (Fig. 1.11). This means
that a uniform distribution of stress is possible only if the line of
action of the concentrated loads P and P9 passes through the
centroid of the section considered (Fig. 1.12). This type of
loading is called centric loading and will take place in all straight
two-force members found in trusses and pin-connected
structures, such as the one considered in Fig. 1.1. However, if a
two-force member is loaded axially, but eccentrically, as shown
in Fig. 1.13a, the conditions of equilibrium of the portion of
member in Fig. 1.13b show that the internal forces in a given
section must be equivalent to a force P applied at the centroid
of the section and a couple M of moment M 5 Pd. This
distribution of forces—the corresponding distribution of
stresses—cannot be uniform.
SHEARING STRESS. The internal forces and the corresponding stresses discussed in Sec. 1.2A were
normal to the section considered. A very different type of stress is obtained when transverse forces P and P’
are applied to a member AB (Fig. 1.14). Passing a section at C between the points of application of the two
forces (Fig. 1.15a), you obtain the diagram of portion AC shown in Fig. 1.15b. Internal forces must exist in
the plane of the section, and their resultant is equal to P. These elementary internal forces are called
shearing forces, and the magnitude P of their resultant is the shear in the section. Dividing the shear P by
the area A of the cross section, you obtain the average shearing stress in the section. Denoting the shearing
stress by the Greek letter τ (tau), write

The value obtained is an average value of the shearing stress over the entire section. Contrary to what was
said earlier for normal stresses, the distribution of shearing stresses across the section cannot be assumed
to be uniform. As you will see in Chap. 6, the actual value t of the shearing stress varies from zero at the
surface of the member to a maximum value 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 that may be much larger than the average value 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑒

Shearing stresses are commonly found in bolts, pins, and rivets used to connect various structural members
and machine components (Photo 1.3). Consider the two plates A and B, which are connected by a bolt CD
(Fig. 1.16). If the plates are subjected to tension forces of magnitude F, stresses will develop in the section
of bolt corresponding to the plane EE9. Drawing the diagrams of the bolt and of the portion located above
the plane EE9 (Fig. 1.17), the shear P in the section is equal to F. The average shearing stress in the section is
obtained using Eq. (1.8) by dividing the shear P 5 F by the area A of the cross section:

The previous bolt is said to be in single shear. Different loading situations may arise, however. For example,
if splice plates C and D are used to connect plates A and B (Fig. 1.18), shear will take place in bolt HJ in each
of the two planes KK9 and LL9 (and similarly in bolt EG). The bolts are said to be in double shear. To
determine the average shearing stress in each plane, draw free-body diagrams of bolt HJ and of the portion
of the bolt located between the two planes (Fig. 1.19). Observing that the shear P in each of the sections is P
5 Fy2, the average shearing stress is
BEARING STRESS IN CONNECTIONS. Bolts, pins, and rivets
create stresses in the members they connect along the bearing
surface or surface of contact. For example, consider again the two
plates A and B connected by a bolt CD that were discussed in the
preceding section (Fig. 1.16). The bolt exerts on plate A a force P
equal and opposite to the force F exerted by the plate on the bolt
(Fig. 1.20). The force P represents the resultant of elementary forces
distributed on the inside surface of a half- cylinder of diameter d and
of length t equal to the thickness of the plate. Since the distribution
of these forces—and of the corresponding stresses—is quite
complicated, in practice one uses an average nominal value sb of the
stress, called the bearing stress, which is obtained by dividing the
load P by the area of the rectangle representing the projection of
the bolt on the plate section (Fig. 1.21). Since this area is equal to td,
where t is the plate thickness and d the diameter of the bolt, we
have
SOLVING PROBLEMS ON YOUR OWN:
EXERCISES NO. 1.1

1. Two solid cylindrical rods AB and BC are welded together at B and loaded as shown. Knowing that d1
= 30 mm and d2 = 50 mm, find the average normal stress at the midsection of (a) rod AB, (b) rod BC.

2. Link AC has a uniform rectangular cross section 1 8 in. thick and 1 in. wide. Determine the normal
stress in the central portion of the link.

3. For the Pratt bridge truss and loading shown, determine the average normal stress in member BE,
knowing that the cross-sectional area of that member is 5.87 in^2 .
4. Two wooden planks, each 1 2 in. thick and 9 in. wide, are joined by the dry mortise joint shown.
Knowing that the wood used shears off along its grain when the average shearing stress reaches
1.20 ksi, determine the magnitude P of the axial load that will cause the joint to fail.

5. When the force P reached 1600 lb, the wooden specimen shown failed in shear along the surface
indicated by the dashed line. Determine the average shearing stress along that surface at the time
of failure.

6. Three wooden planks are fastened together by a series of bolts to form a column. The diameter of
each bolt is 12 mm and the inner diameter of each washer is 16 mm, which is slightly larger than the
diameter of the holes in the planks. Determine the smallest allowable outer diameter d of the
washers, knowing that the average normal stress in the bolts is 36 MPa and that the bearing stress
between the washers and the planks must not exceed 8.5 MPa.

7. Determine the largest load P that can be applied at A when u 5 608, knowing that the average
shearing stress in the 10-mmdiameter pin at B must not exceed 120 MPa and that the average
bearing stress in member AB and in the bracket at B must not exceed 90 MPa.

8. Knowing that u 5 40° and P 5 9 kN, determine (a) the smallest allowable diameter of the pin at B if
the average shearing stress in the pin is not to exceed 120 MPa, (b) the corresponding average
bearing stress in member AB at B, (c) the corresponding average bearing stress in each of the
support brackets at B.
 9. Two wooden members are joined by plywood splice plates that are fully glued on the contact
surfaces. Knowing that the clearance between the ends of the members is 6 mm and that the
ultimate shearing stress in the glued joint is 2.5 MPa, determine the length L if the shearing stress in
the glue is not to exceed 840kPa.

10. Link AB, of width b 5 2 in. and thickness t 5 1 4 in., is used to support the end of a horizontal
beam. Knowing that the average normal stress in the link is 220 ksi and that the average shearing
stress in each of the two pins is 12 ksi determine (a) the diameter d of the pins, (b) the average
bearing stress in the link.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2

Now read – Concept of Stresses by Beer et al, pages 27-34 the author
described thoroughly the concept of stress on oblique surface, design
consideration and factor of safety, also discussion on materials under
consideration.

1.3 STRESS ON AN OBLIQUE PLANE UNDER AXIAL LOADING

Previously, axial forces exerted on a two-force member (Fig. 1.26a) caused normal stresses in that member
(Fig. 1.26b), while transverse forces exerted on bolts and pins (Fig. 1.27a) caused shearing stresses in those
connections (Fig. 1.27b). Such a relation was observed between axial forces and normal stresses and
transverse forces and shearing stresses, because stresses were being determined only on planes
perpendicular to the axis of the member or connection. In this section, axial forces cause both normal and
shearing stresses on planes that are not perpendicular to the axis of the member. Similarly, transverse
forces exerted on a bolt or a pin cause both normal and shearing stresses on planes that are not
perpendicular to the axis of the bolt or pin.

Consider the two-force member of Fig. 1.26 that is

subjected to axial forces P and P’. If we pass a section
forming an angle u with a normal plane (Fig. 1.28a) and
draw the free-body diagram of the portion of member
located to the left of that section (Fig. 1.28b), the
equilibrium conditions of the free body show that the
distributed forces acting on the section must be
equivalent to the force P.

Resolving P into components F and V, respectively

normal and tangential to the section (Fig. 1.28c),

Force F represents the resultant of normal forces

distributed over the section, and force V is the resultant
of shearing forces (Fig. 1.28d). The average values of the
corresponding normal and shearing stresses are
obtained by dividing F and V by the area Au of the
section:

Substituting for F and V from Eq. (1.12) into Eq. (1.13),

and observing from Fig. 1.28c that 𝐴0 = 𝐴𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 , or
𝐴𝜃 = 𝐴0 ⁄𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, where 𝐴0 is the area of a section
perpendicular to the axis of the member, we obtain

Note from the first of Eqs. (1.14) that the normal stress s is maximum when u 5 0 (i.e., the plane of the
section is perpendicular to the axis of the member). It approaches zero as u approaches 908. We check that
the value of s when u 5 0 is

1.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

In engineering applications, the determination of stresses is seldom an end in itself. Rather, the knowledge
of stresses is used by engineers to assist in their most important task: the design of structures and machines
that will safely and economically perform a specified function.

DETERMINATION OF THE ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF A MATERIAL. An important element to be

considered by a designer is how the material will behave under a load. This is determined by performing
specific tests on prepared samples of the material. For example, a test specimen of steel may be prepared
and placed in a laboratory testing machine to be subjected to a known centric axial tensile force, as
described in Sec. 2.1B. As the magnitude of the force is increased, various dimensional changes such as
length and diameter are measured. Eventually, the largest force that may be applied to the specimen is
reached, and it either breaks or begins to carry less load. This largest force is called the ultimate load and is
denoted by PU. Since the applied load is centric, the ultimate load is divided by the original cross-sectional
area of the rod to obtain the ultimate normal stress of the material. This stress, also known as the ultimate
strength in tension, is
𝑃𝑈
𝜎𝑈 = 𝐴
(1.18)

Several test procedures are available to determine the ultimate shearing

stress or ultimate strength in shear. The one most commonly used
involves the twisting of a circular tube (Sec. 3.2). A more direct, if less
accurate, procedure clamps a rectangular or round bar in a shear tool
(Fig. 1.39) and applies an increasing load P until the ultimate load PU for
single shear is obtained. If the free end of the specimen rests on both of
the hardened dies (Fig. 1.40), the ultimate load for double shear is
obtained. In either case, the ultimate shearing stress tU is
𝑃𝑈
𝜏𝑈 = (1.19)
𝐴

In single shear, this area is the cross- sectional area A of the specimen,
while in double shear it is equal to twice the cross-sectional area.
ALLOWABLE LOAD AND ALLOWABLE STRESS: FACTOR OF SAFETY, The maximum load that a
structural member or a machine component will be allowed to carry under normal conditions is
considerably smaller than the ultimate load. This smaller load is the allowable load (sometimes called the
working or design load). Thus, only a fraction of the ultimate load capacity of the member is used when the
allowable load is applied. The remaining portion of the load-carrying capacity of the member is kept in
reserve to assure its safe performance. The ratio of the ultimate load to the allowable load is used to define
the factor of safety: †

𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐹𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑂𝑅 𝑂𝐹 𝑆𝐴𝐹𝐸𝑇𝑌 = 𝐹. 𝑆. =
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
(1.20)

An alternative definition of the factor of safety is based on the use of stresses:

𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑂𝑅 𝑂𝐹 𝑆𝐴𝐹𝐸𝑇𝑌 = 𝐹. 𝑆. =
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
(1.21)

These two expressions are identical when a linear relationship exists between the load and the stress. In
most engineering applications, however, this relationship ceases to be linear as the load approaches its
ultimate value, and the factor of safety obtained from Eq. (1.26) does not provide a true assessment of the
safety of a given design. Nevertheless, the allowable-stress method of design, based on the use of Eq.
(1.21), is widely used.

FACTOR OF SAFETY SELECTION. The selection of the factor of safety to be used is one of the most
important engineering tasks. If a factor of safety is too small, the possibility of failure becomes unacceptably
large. On the other hand, if a factor of safety is unnecessarily large, the result is an uneconomical or
nonfunctional design. The choice of the factor of safety for a given design application requires engineering
judgment based on many considerations.
1. Variations that may occur in the properties of the member. The composition, strength, and
dimensions of the member are all subject to small variations during manufacture. In addition,
material properties may be altered and residual stresses introduced through heating or
deformation that may occur during manufacture, storage, transportation, or construction.
2. The number of loadings expected during the life of the structure or machine. For most materials,
the ultimate stress decreases as the number of load cycles is increased. This phenomenon is known
as fatigue and can result in sudden failure if ignored
3. The type of loadings planned for in the design or that may occur in the future. Very few loadings are
known with complete accuracy— most design loadings are engineering estimates. In addition,
future alterations or changes in usage may introduce changes in the actual loading. Larger factors
of safety are also required for dynamic, cyclic, or impulsive loadings.
4. Type of failure. Brittle materials fail suddenly, usually with no prior indication that collapse is
imminent. However, ductile materials, such as structural steel, normally undergo a substantial
deformation called yielding before failing, providing a warning that overloading exists. Most
buckling or stability failures are sudden, whether the material is brittle or not. When the possibility
of sudden failure exists, a larger factor of safety should be used than when failure is preceded by
obvious warning signs.
5. Uncertainty due to methods of analysis. All design methods are based on certain simplifying
assumptions that result in calculated stresses being approximations of actual stresses.
6. Deterioration that may occur in the future because of poor maintenance or unpreventable natural
causes. A larger factor of safety is necessary in locations where conditions such as corrosion and
decay are difficult to control or even to discover.
7. The importance of a given member to the integrity of the whole structure. Bracing and secondary
members in many cases can be designed with a factor of safety lower than that used for primary
members.

In addition to these considerations, there is concern of the risk to life and property that a failure would
produce. Where a failure would produce no risk to life and only minimal risk to property, the use of a
smaller factor of safety can be acceptable. Finally, unless a careful design with a non-excessive factor of
safety is used, a structure or machine might not perform its design function. For example, high factors of
safety may have an unacceptable effect on the weight of an aircraft.
For the majority of structural and machine applications, factors of safety are specified by design
specifications or building codes written by committees of experienced engineers working with professional
societies, industries, or federal, state, or city agencies. Examples of such design specifications and building
codes are
 1. Steel: American Institute of Steel Construction, Specification for Structural Steel Buildings 2.
2. Concrete: American Concrete Institute, Building Code Requirement for Structural Concrete 3
3. Timber: American Forest and Paper Association, National Design Specification for Wood Construction
4. Highway bridges: American Association of State Highway Officials, Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges

LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN. The allowable-stress method requires that all the
uncertainties associated with the design of a structure or machine element be grouped into a single factor
of safety. An alternative method of design makes it possible to distinguish between the uncertainties
associated with the structure itself and those associated with the load it is designed to support. Called Load
and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD), this method allows the designer to distinguish between uncertainties
associated with the live load, 𝑷𝑳 (i.e., the active or time-varying load to be supported by the structure) and
the dead load, 𝑷𝑫 (i.e., the self-weight of the structure contributing to the total load).
Using the LRFD method the ultimate load, 𝑷𝑼 , of the structure (i.e., the load at which the structure ceases
to be useful) should be determined. The proposed design is acceptable if the following inequality is
satisfied:
𝛾𝐷 𝑃𝐷 + 𝛾𝐿 𝑃𝐿 ≤ 𝜙𝑃𝑈 (1.22)

The coefficient ϕ is the resistance factor, which accounts for the uncertainties associated with the structure
itself and will normally be less than 1. The coefficients 𝛾𝐷 and 𝛾𝐿 are the load factors; they account for the
uncertainties associated with the dead and live load and normally will be greater than 1, with 𝛾𝐿 generally
larger than 𝛾𝐷 .
SOLVING PROBLEMS ON YOUR OWN:
EXERCISES NO. 1.2
1. Two wooden members of uniform rectangular cross section are joined by the simple glued scarf
splice shown. Knowing that P = 11 kN, determine the normal and shearing stresses in the glued
splice.

2. Two wooden members of uniform rectangular cross section are joined by the simple glued scarf
splice shown. Knowing that the maximum allowable shearing stress in the glued splice is 620 kPa,
determine (a) the largest load P that can be safely applied, (b) the corresponding tensile stress in
the splice.

3. The block is subjected to a compressive force of 2kN. Determine the average shear stress
developed in the wood fibers that are oriented along section a-a at 30° with the axis of the block.
4. The pin is made of a material having a failure shear of 𝜏𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 = 100MPa. Determine the minimum
required diameter of the pin to the nearest mm. Apply factor of safety of F.S. = 2.5 against shear
failure.

5. In the structure shown, an 8-mm diameter pin is used at A, and 12-mm-diameter pins are used at B
and D. knowing that the ultimate shearing stress is 100MPa at all connections and that the
ultimate normal stress is 250MPa in each of the two links joining B and D, determine the allowable
load P if an overall factor of safety of safety of 3.0 is desired.

6. In an alternative design for the structure of the preceding problem, a pin of 10-mm-diameter is to
be used at A. assuming that all other specifications remain unchanged, determine the allowable
load P if an overall factor of safety of 3.0 is desired.

1 1
7. Link AC is made of a steel with a 65-ksi ultimate normal stress and has 4 𝑥 2-in. uniform
rectangular cross section. It is connected to a support at A and to member BCD at C by 3 /4-in.-
diameter pins, while member BCD is connected to its support at B by a 5 /16-in.-diameter pin. All
of the pins are made of a steel with a 25-ksi ultimate shearing stress and are in single shear.
Knowing that a factor of safety of 3.25 is desired, determine the largest load P that can be applied
at D. Note that link AC is not reinforced around the pin holes.
8. If the bolt head and the supporting bracket are made of the same material having a failure shear
stress of 𝜏𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 = 120MPa, determine the maximum allowable force P that can be applied to the
bolt so that it does not pull through the plate. Apply a factor of safety of F.S. =2.5 against shear
failure.

9. The joint is fastened together using two bolts. determine the required diameter of the bolts if the
failure shear stress for the bolts is 𝜏𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 = 350𝑀𝑃𝑎. Use a factor of safety for shear of F.S. = 2.5

10. The three steel wires are used to support the load. If the wires have an allowable tensile stress of
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 165𝑀𝑃𝑎. And wire AB has a diameter of 6mm, BC has a diameter of 5mm, and BD has a
diameter of 7mm, determine the greatest force P that can be applied before one of the wires fails.
SUMMARY
Review of statics was discussed and emphasis was placed on the use of a free-body diagram to obtain
equilibrium equations that were solved for unknown reactions. Free-body diagrams were also used to find
the internal forces in the various members of a structure.

1) AXIAL LOADING : NORMAL STRESS

The concept of stress was first introduced by considering a two-force member under an axial loading.
The normal stress in that member (Fig. 1.41) was obtained by

The value of s obtained from Eq. (1.5) represents the average stress over the section rather than the
stress at a specific point Q of the section. Considering a small area DA surrounding Q and the magnitude
DF of the force exerted on DA, the stress at point Q is

In general, the stress s at point Q in Eq. (1.6) is different from the value of the average stress given by
Eq. (1.5) and is found to vary across the section. However, this variation is small in any section away
from the points of application of the loads. Therefore, the distribution of the normal stresses in an
axially loaded member is assumed to be uniform, except in the immediate vicinity of the points of
application of the loads.
For the distribution of stresses to be uniform in a given section, the line of action of the loads P and P’
must pass through the centroid C. Such a loading is called a centric axial loading. In the case of an
eccentric axial loading, the distribution of stresses is not uniform.

2) TRANSVERSE FORCE AND SHEARING STRESS

When equal and opposite transverse forces P and P9 of magnitude P are applied to a member AB (Fig.
1.42), shearing stresses t are created over any section located between the points of application of the
two forces.
 These stresses vary greatly across the section and their distribution cannot be assumed to be uniform.
However, dividing the magnitude P—referred to as the shear in the section—by the cross-sectional area
A, the average shearing stress is:

3) Single and Double Shear

Shearing stresses are found in bolts, pins, or rivets connecting two structural members or machine
components. For example, the shearing stress of bolt CD (Fig. 1.43), which is in single shear, is written
as

4) BEARING STRESS
Bolts, pins, and rivets also create stresses in the members they connect along the bearing surface or
surface of contact. Bolt CD of Fig. 1.43 creates stresses on the semi-cylindrical surface of plate A with
which it is in contact (Fig. 1.45). Since the distribution of these stresses is quite complicated, one uses
an average nominal value 𝜎𝑏 of the stress, called bearing stress.

5) STRESSES ON AN OBLIQUE SECTION

When stresses are created on an oblique section in a two-force member under axial loading, both
normal and shearing stresses occur. Denoting by u the angle formed by the section with a normal plane
(Fig. 1.46) and by A0 the area of a section perpendicular to the axis of the member, the normal stress s
and the shearing stress t on the oblique section are
We observed from these formulas that the normal stress is maximum and equal to 𝜎𝑚 = 𝑃⁄𝐴 for 𝜃 = 0,
0
𝑃
while the shearing stress is maximum and equal to 𝜏𝑚 = ⁄2𝐴 for 𝜃 = 45°. We also noted that 𝜏 = 0 =
0
0when 𝜃 = 0, while 𝜎𝑚 = 𝑃⁄2𝐴 when 𝜃 = 45°.
0

6) FACTOR OF SAFETY
The ultimate load of a given structural member or machine component is the load at which the member
or component is expected to fail. This is computed from the ultimate stress or ultimate strength of the
material used. The ultimate load should be considerably larger than the allowable load (i.e., the load
that the member or component will be allowed to carry under normal conditions). The ratio of the
ultimate load to the allowable load is the factor of safety:

7) LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN

Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) allows the engineer to distinguish between the uncertainties
associated with the structure and those associated with the load.

REFERENCES
Beer et al, Mechanics of Materials 7th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2015

Hibbeler, Russel C., Mechanics of Materials, 6th ed. Prentice Hall, Inc., 2011

Strength of Materials 4th Edition, Andrew Pytel and Ferdinand singer, Harper Collins, 1997

Mechanics of Materials 8th Edition, James M. Gere & Barry J. Goodno, Cengage Learning 2013