The Theory of Andragogy Applied To Police Training

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The theory of andragogy applied to police training

Article  in  Policing An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management · March 2003


DOI: 10.1108/13639510310460288

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Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management
The theory of andragogy applied to police training
Michael L. Birzer
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Michael L. Birzer, (2003),"The theory of andragogy applied to police training", Policing: An International
Journal of Police Strategies & Management, Vol. 26 Iss 1 pp. 29 - 42
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The theory of andragogy The theory of


andragogy
applied to police training
Michael L. Birzer
Washburn University, Topeka, Kansas, USA 29
Keywords Police, Adult education, Training, Learning styles, USA
Abstract Police-training is an important tool in the process of facilitating change within police
organizations. With the further implementation of community-oriented policing strategies in US
police agencies, training becomes a critical centerpiece. Traditionally, the majority of subjects in the
police-training environment have been taught utilizing behavioral approaches which may not be
effective when teaching an evolving police curriculum which has been implemented under the axiom
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of community-policing. Trainers have also relied heavily on teacher-centered approaches when


teaching both neophyte and veteran police. Authorities who train police might benefit from a more
student-centered instructional format. This manuscript examines incorporating the theory of
andragogy into police-training and identifies particular characteristics about the learning
transaction in the police-training classroom. Given the theory-to-practice gap that haunts police-
training authorities, andragogy holds much promise in closing this gap.

The training of police at all levels has taken on a significant role in US police
organizations. When properly used, training increases both effectiveness and
efficiency of employees (Swanson, 1992). The current spotlight and attention
centering on police-training, in part, have been initiated due to the evolving
community-policing strategy that has been implemented in some form in many
US police organizations. Community-policing implies fundamental and
strategic change in police operations both at the service delivery and within the
organization. Within this framework, and if community-policing is to be
successfully implemented within police organizations, then it is important for
training to reflect these changes.
Police-training in the USA is not uniform in content or in the number of
hours that are required for certifying a police officer (Palmiotto et al., 2000).
However, one area of police-training that has remained fairly uniform is the
manner in which academy training is conducted. Many police-training
programs are conducted in a very behavioral and militaristic environment.
This environment has paralleled police officer selection strategies over the past
50 years. Hence, police officers of the past were hired for their good physical
condition, their interest in crime control, and their ability to follow command
decisions without hesitation. This explains why agencies often hired former
military personnel as patrol officers (Gutierrez and Thurman, 1997).
The behavioral training method may not be the best environment for the
teaching-learning transaction to occur. In fact, many have argued that the
paramilitary model of policing has created a myriad problems not only in the Policing: An International Journal of
Police Strategies & Management
training environment but also in the general culture of the organization (e.g. Vol. 26 No. 1, 2003
pp. 29-42
Lorinskas and Kulis, 1986; Weisburd et al., 1989). Theoretical scholarship has # MCB UP Limited
1363-951X
pointed out that the behavioral and paramilitary training environment has DOI 10.1108/13639510310460288
PIJPSM created a warrior-like mentality on the part of the police. For example,
26,1 according to McNeill (1982, p. viii):
The police constitute a quasi-military warrior class. In common with warriors generally, they
exhibit bonds of solidarity [that] are fierce and strong indeed, [their] human propensities find
fullest expression in having an enemy to hate, fear, and destroy and fellow-fighters with
whom to share the risks and triumphs of violent action.
30 The theme of this discourse will present the notion that the majority of police
subjects in the recruit and in-service training curriculum should be taught
utilizing adult education methodologies rather than behavioral techniques
which are currently utilized in a fair number of police academies. This paper
will accomplish three objectives. First, an examination of the traditional police-
training methods will be undertaken; second, the presentation of the adult
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learning theory of andragogy; and third, a discussion of applying the theory of


andragogy in police-training.

Training in a time of change


As more and more police organizations evolve towards community-oriented
policing strategies, training increasingly becomes a focal point. Community-
policing has been presented in the contemporary literature as constituting a
viable entity for effective change within police organizations, while at the same
time being applied with the goals of detecting and preventing crime (Bennet
and Lupton, 1992; Eck and Spelman, 1987; Kerley-Kent and Benson, 2000;
Mastrofski and Ritti, 2000; Oliver, 2000; Torres and Vogel, 2001; Yates et al.,
1997). The ideas of community-policing are relatively simplistic in as much as
the police take on a role of being more community-oriented and the citizens take
on a role of being more involved with assisting the police with information
(Oliver, 2001; Wadman and Bailey, 1993). Watson et al. (1998) argued that, with
community-policing, police officers will be expected to become partners with
the community in maintaining social order. Other scholars propagated a
similar thesis (e.g. Alpert and Dunham, 1992; Carter and Radelet, 1999;
LaGrange, 1998; Peak and Glensor, 2002). Community-policing differs from
traditional law enforcement because it allows officers the freedom to expand
the scope of their jobs. Likewise, community-policing requires police officers to
learn a host of new skills.
If the policing profession is to effectively evolve into community-oriented
policing strategies, then it becomes paramount to identify the most effective
methods to accommodate the changes required. To change an organization or a
profession requires training and education. Critical examination of past
methods of doing business will have to be undertaken as well as the adoption of
improved techniques to teach the new skills that accompany community-
oriented policing. Moreover, it is important for authorities that are involved in
training police to have specific knowledge on the most effective teaching-
learning methods so that trainees learn and conceptualize new information and
tasks more effectively.
Traditional police pedagogy The theory of
Behaviorism is a well-known orientation to learning that encompasses a andragogy
number of individual theories. Developed by John B. Watson in the early
decades of the twentieth century, behaviorism loosely encompasses the work of
such people as Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, Hull and Skinner (Ormrod, 1995).
Behaviorist theories equate humans to machines in that, as with machines, if
you introduce an input (stimulus) into a human being and control how that 31
input is processed (operant conditioning), you will get a predetermined output
(response). Behaviorist instructional methodologies are commonplace in many
police-training environments. Some scholars have argued that law enforcement
training is a field dominated by a militaristic and behaviorist orientation
(Birzer, 1999; Ramirez, 1996). Ortmeier (1997) argued that a militaristic and
behavioral environment in policing may indeed be effective when teaching
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technical and procedural skills but does little to promote the acquisition of
essential non-technical competencies such as problem solving, judgment, and
leadership. The paradox here is that police learn in a very behaviorist and
mechanistic training environment but, as Bayley and Bittner (1984) observed, if
police officers acted like automatons most of the time, then there would be little
scope for learning. Hence, most police work is fraught with decisions, choice
and discretion on a regular basis.
The philosophy of most police-training programs is based on three precepts:
``that it should closely follow the military training model; it is a punishment-
centered experience in which trainees must prove themselves; and it helps
screen out those who are not up to par'' (McCreedy, 1983, p. 32). Some have
pointed out that many trainees have a difficult time adapting to a rigid
behavioral training structure in as much as one day they find themselves living
a normal life and the next day they find themselves thrown into an academy
environment, the structure of which is based on a semi-military system
(Satterfield, 1986).
Under the realm of behaviorism the intellect, feelings, and emotions of a
person's inner life are not observable or measurable and therefore not
investigated (Elias and Merriam, 1995). A behavioral trainer would advocate
that learning is a change of behavior and would rely heavily upon behavioral
objectives. Advocates of behavioral objectives assert that learning outcomes
can be measured objectively and precisely, which will subsequently reveal how
much progress has made by the learner. Elias and Merriam (1995, p. 89) point
to three components that can readily be found in behaviorism:
(1) the relevant conditions or stimuli under which a student is expected to perform; (2) the
behavior a student is to perform including a general reference to the product of the student's
behavior; and (3) a description of the criteria by which the behavior will be judged acceptable
or unacceptable, successful or unsuccessful.
There will always be those police trainers who cling to the notion that we
should not tamper with what has worked in the past. This is part of the
problem in the sense that the scholarship regarding how effective neophyte and
veteran police learn is not terribly extensive. However, there are several
PIJPSM observations that provide considerable insight into the dynamics of the
26,1 behavioral training environment. First, the problem with learning under the
behavioral realm of training is that learning constitutes much more than a
uniform, structured environment, as advocated by behaviorists. For example,
each individual learner may approach learning from a distinct strategy and
style. Second, learning is a very complex process and involves many different
32 types of behavior in order to reveal that learning has occurred.
Researchers examining learning strategies have found that there are distinct
patterns of learning that individuals use when approaching a learning task
(Birzer and Nolan, 2002; Conti and Kolody, 1998; Conti and Fellenz, 1991;
Courtnage, 1998; James, 2000; Korinek, 1997). Such studies clearly point to a
salient paradox, in as much as research has identified that individuals may
indeed approach learning from distinct patterns, but a large majority of police-
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training is conducted in a very uniform manner, consistent with behaviorism,


with little regard for individual differences in learning.
Many traits from the behavioral orientation are readily identifiable in police-
training. For example, when the police receive firearms training there are a
number of behavioral objectives set by the trainers, e.g. shoot at a 70 percent
proficiency level, shoot under conditions of darkness and properly shoot in a
prone position. Other examples include defense tactics training, emergency
vehicle operation training, and felony vehicle stops training. Police-training is
most often designed to teach new skills, hone existing skills, and to improve
performance with performance usually being objectively and quantitatively
measured. It is not denied that some of the skills the police are required to learn
should be instructed in a behavioral format. However, this is notwithstanding
that the behavioral format perpetuates a few problems. For example, the
behavioral environment of police-training may create an unnecessary amount
of stress on the learner which in some cases may minimize the learning
experience. Police-training environments, for the most part, should be free of
fear. A stressful environment fraught with threats is not likely to elicit trainees'
openness, participation, and positive feelings (Torrence, 1993).

Adult learning
Adult education scholars have long recognized that approaches such as those
discussed above may result in a spurious notion of learning and that the
teaching-learning transaction should evolve towards more effective strategies.
The police function is to uphold constitutional guarantees on the part of all
citizens and to enforce laws impartially. The paradox here readily comes to
light: the police work in a democratic society but are trained and learn their
jobs in a very paramilitary, punitive, and authoritarian environment.
Police today interact in an ever-changing environment. In light of this, there
are a myriad literary sources from the adult education realm that may serve as
a guide for police authorities when teaching and fostering new skills. This
becomes increasingly important as policing evolves into community-oriented
strategies. Learning is a process central to human behavior which has been of
interest to philosophers, psychologists, and educators for centuries. Systematic The theory of
investigations of learning phenomena have resulted in many different andragogy
explanations. Although these investigations may not allow for the development
of a fully comprehensive theory of learning, the insights are important for two
reasons. First, on a practical level they offer police trainers information that
may be beneficial when teaching new skills and competencies. Second, the
adult education theory of andragogy discussed next may actually foster 33
organizational change and enhance learning at the same time.

Andragogy
The training conducted in police academies should highlight self-directed
learning on the part of trainees. This can go hand-in-hand with community-
policing. For community-policing to be successful police officers will have to be
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self-starters. When they discover a problem they will be expected to solve it


working with members of the community. Thus, this self-directed culture
should be initiated within the context of training. The theory of andragogy may
in part be one mechanism to assist police trainers in accomplishing this
perplexing task.
Knowles (1980) argued that adults must be taught differently from children
and that the learning process of adults is drastically distinct when compared
with children or the traditional pedagogical approach. Knowles, a strong
proponent of self-directed learning and the teacher's role as a facilitator in the
process of adult education, is well-known for his theory of andragogy.
``Andragogy is a theory which is vastly in contrast with the traditional
pedagogical model and it advocates both the self-directed learning concept and
the teacher as the facilitator of learning'' (Knowles, 1990, p. 57).
The writings of Knowles are fraught with the message of self-directed
learning and learning based upon the experience of the student. Knowles (1990,
p. 61) argued:
Adults are motivated to devote energy to learn something to the extent that they perceive that
it will help them perform tasks or deal with problems they confront in their life situations.
Furthermore, they learn new knowledge, understandings, skills, values, and attitudes most
effectively when they are presented in the context of application to real life situations.

Additionally, scores of other scholars have found andragogy to be the principal


guiding force in the practice of teaching adults (e.g. Brookfield, 1986; Caffarella,
1993; Collins, 1991; Cotton, 1995; Merriam and Caffarella, 1999).
Can andragogy with its emphasis on incorporating life experiences into the
learning process be an appropriate means to foster learning a new job or skill?
Many scholars answer yes. Putman and Bell (1990) asserted that, since older
learners will naturally have more life experience, learning specialists will need
to find better ways to capitalize that experience in a learning area. Others have
argued that andragogical approaches to teaching and learning will be
dramatized, and that this will ultimately alter the learning specialist's approach
from content dispenser to facilitator (e.g. Konicek, 1996; Matthews, 1995). As
Charles (2000, p. 73) so eloquently pointed out:
PIJPSM It is critical in the police profession as elsewhere that law enforcement personnel learn how to
think critically, conceptually, and creatively when confronted with situations needing
26,1 analysis and when developing solutions to problems. They must also have the needed skills
to learn from their experiences.

Andragogical applications to training


The undercurrent of the literature giving attention to adult training and
34 education is quite convincing of the fact that andragogical assumptions are far
more realistic than many of the behavioral methods of teaching and learning.
Because andragogy is a change from the traditional form of training delivery, it
may require some change in the basic recruit curriculum. Some agencies may
be limited in facilitating this change due to a state-mandated curriculum. Thus,
there may be a substantial amount of the curriculum that may be difficult to
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change in order to allow for more andragogical approaches without first


addressing state training commission guidelines. Nevertheless, veteran police
officers and neophyte police officers alike can benefit from an environment that
incorporates many of the principles from the andragogy model of learning.
Police-training academies may find it advantageous to deviate from the
mechanical, militaristic and behavioral aspects of training and evolve into
training programs that inform police how to identify, respond to, and solve
problems such as crime, drugs, fear of crime, and urban decay within the
neighborhoods they serve. It is essential that training be conducted in such a
way as to be as meaningful as possible to the adult participants. Training
should become mission-oriented and respond to what police have to know to
perform their jobs effectively. If the mission of the organization is written with
the underpinnings of community-oriented policing, then training should reflect
this. So often there is a disconnect between the mission, the organization and
training. One example of this is the police organization that is striving to
implement community-oriented policing into operations but fails to change
training both in the curriculum and the manner in which training is carried out
in the learning environment. Learning environment is used here in the context
that trainees should be allowed whenever possible to discuss critically within
the classroom and be allowed to initiate debate and dialogue on various police
subjects.
Learning may be enhanced by allowing trainees to participate in self-
directed group discussions and active debate within the context of the
classroom. Police should work out differences and develop personal
understandings in the training classroom environment. Palmiotto et al. (2000,
p. 19) asserted ``when recruits are allowed to engage in self-directed group
discussions with instructors allowing for the airing of many viewpoints, the
recruit-training classroom should begin to mirror the community with its many
voices and perspectives.'' Zemke and Zemke (1988) offered a similar theme
when they defined the three specific needs of adult learners:
(1) In a classroom training situation, it is important that the environment be
comfortable, both physically and psychologically;
(2) Trainers must understand the participants' expectations of the course The theory of
because the self-concepts of the participants are involved; and andragogy
(3) By serving as a facilitator or orchestrator, the effective instructor can
manage the classroom by allowing participants to share their
experiences and knowledge, can integrate new knowledge, and can
provide strategies that will allow transfer of learning back to the job.
35
Police trainees should be allowed to engage in self-directed group discussions
and the instructor should facilitate these and allow for critical discussion and
debate. Ramirez (1996) argued that, to effectively train today's police officers,
there must be a move away from the behavioral training environment in which
the teacher feeds knowledge to a dependent learner and then the learner is
expected to reproduce the knowledge in some clearly observable behavioral
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outcome. For example, when teaching changes in the law of search and seizure,
trainees should be given case studies that they will analyze and provide a
rationale of why one may or may not search in a certain situation. This
approach is similar to the method used in law school training, where law
students are presented with a scenario in which they in turn are required to
identify the issues, analyze many facts, provide a legal rationale, and propagate
a conclusion. Medical schools have also made extensive use of case study
approaches.
The example used above is indicative of many other subjects which could, in
part, be taught using case study approaches. Of course, it is recognized that
some lecture on criminal procedure will have to be conducted for trainees to
learn and conceptualize the foundation, for example of the exclusionary rule,
fruits of the poisonous tree doctrine, and exceptions to the Fourth Amendment
search warrant requirement. Unfortunately, the author has a myriad anecdotal
accounts and personal observations showing that much of the criminal
procedure curriculum in the police academy is taught using almost exclusively
the lecture (teacher-centered) method. In many cases this consists of an
assistant district or county attorney lecturing many hours to trainees on the
legal aspects of policing with little or no class interaction.
Community-policing officers engage in learning a variety of skills
compared with traditional patrol officers. Community-policing officers are
expected to conceptualize problems and seek appropriate solutions (Palmiotto,
2000). In contrast, traditional policing methods are more reactive in nature.
With community-policing, officers are more proactive in as much as they seek
to eliminate small disorder problems to prevent them from escalating into
serious crime-related problems. Thus, it becomes an important goal of training
to reduce the disconnect between the training classroom and the skills and
competencies required for police to perform and apply learned material in the
real world. Andragogy presents an opportunity to more appropriately
facilitate police subjects in a real and experiential manner.
It is important for police-training to emphasize the experiences of the learner,
not only their past experiences but also with the use of experiential learning
PIJPSM activities. This reinforces the andragogical theme that adults bring a vast
26,1 amount of experiences to the classroom. Knowles (1990, p. 59) asserted:
Hence, the greater emphasis in adult education on experiential techniques ± techniques that
tap into the experience of the learners, such as group discussion, simulation exercises,
problem-solving activities, case method, and laboratory methods ± over transmittal
techniques. Hence, also the greater emphasis on peer-helping activities.
36 It is beneficial to make the training of police officers as experiential, interactive
and participatory as possible. For example, a fair amount of law enforcement
training could include simulation exercises and problem-solving activities that
help develop communication and language skills (Codish, 1996). Police trainers
and police officers could be used as actors to construct, for example, a domestic
violence or a bias crime situation. Learners could then be required to bring to
bear their experience, powers of observation and communication skills to solve
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the problem. Situations should be designed in such a manner that learners use
previous knowledge, and so that they can appropriately connect the theory of
the classroom to practice. Obviously, role plays and improvisations are not new
adult learning techniques, but they are often relegated to one or two hastily
conceived practical skills sessions that are poorly performed, monitored and
evaluated. Properly prepared activities lead to increased retention. Thus, police
officers are more likely to understand legal concepts and may empathize on
heightened levels with citizens they encounter on the street because of their
classroom experiences.
Whenever possible, the training curriculum should include the needs,
interests, and desires of the learner. This is a central component when
developing a training curriculum for adult learners. This does not suggest or
advocate the abandonment of the traditional police-training curriculum, but
only proposes that it be facilitated in a way that makes the curriculum genuine
subject matter. Police subjects should be presented so that trainees can use
them in purposefully working through some problematic situation.
The instructional process itself should be flexible and provide the learner
with options. Offering learners options will allow them to take responsibility
for the learning process and guide their own learning. Once again, this may be
difficult to accomplish in a law enforcement context, since federal and state law
and training commissions in many jurisdictions mandate much of the
curriculum content. However, as Codish (1996) pointed out, choices can be
offered in a law enforcement curriculum that emphasizes original research,
critical thinking, and community involvement. Furthermore, police trainers
should strive for active participation. According to Brookfield (1986),
facilitators who ignore the use of participatory techniques will find (unless they
are stunningly charismatic performers) that their learners are physically absent
in the sense of not being actively engaged with the ideas, skill, and knowledge
being presented.
Birzer and Tannehill (2001) found that it has become common in many
police-training curricula to provide instruction on topics that were once absent
in training curricula. For example, a few subjects that are increasingly being
taught in the police academy are problem solving, cultural diversity, sexual The theory of
harassment, conflict resolution, interpersonal communication skills, and andragogy
community organization skills. The emergence of these subjects will require
police trainers to facilitate using andragogical techniques. Thus, lecture
(teacher-centered) techniques will become more and more deficient in teaching
these skills.
The remainder of this discourse will be devoted to illustrate how a simple 37
andragogical approach can foster the learning of several skills in one training
activity. Ideally, this activity should be conducted towards the end of the
academy training. For this activity, police trainees conduct a neighborhood
survey in a minority neighborhood. Trainees work in teams when conducting
this survey. The purpose of the survey is to discover citizen satisfaction with
police services, citizen satisfaction with the police, neighborhood problems, and
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other concerns. Trainees within their teams plan and design the survey,
including conducting and administering the survey, and analyzing and
reporting the data.
The purposes of the training exercise are several. It will allow trainees an
opportunity to practice the skills that they have learned in the academy
classroom. By conducting the survey in minority neighborhoods trainees will
be exposed to diverse populations of citizens. This may require learning
something about the minority group predominant in the neighborhood prior to
conducting the survey. If the neighborhood is predominantly Hispanic in
demographic make-up, the trainees may desire to study or brush up on this
culture. This may require the trainee to identify resources in the Hispanic
community to assist in developing the questionnaire, perhaps writing the
questionnaire in Spanish. The very nature of this activity not only requires
trainees to learn about a culture but requires them to practice skills such as
communication, problem solving, resource identification, research, data
analysis, teamwork, and community organization skills. Trainees then plan
and facilitate a neighborhood meeting for the purpose of revealing the survey
results and to brainstorm with citizens on appropriate solutions to the
problems that have been identified. After the neighborhood meeting and when
back in the classroom, trainees then hold debriefing sessions where they can
share their experiences with other trainees who may have been assigned to
other neighborhoods.
Within the context of the exercise described above, the instructor plays an
important role in the training. The instructor acts as a facilitator and guide in
the learning process. The instructor is also a learner in the sense that he or she
may actually learn from the trainees' experience. Furthermore, the instructor
provides an environment and setting which are much more conducive to
learning. This gives new meaning to the andragogical theme that there must be
a reciprocal relationship between trainee and instructor. Ramirez (1996, p. 24)
argues this point well:
By embracing the humanistic paradigm, which presents the instructor as a collaborative
facilitator who works with the learners in creating objectives, methods and evaluative
PIJPSM criteria, law enforcement training can begin to give more validity to the experience and
perspective that the students bring with them. Facilitators need to encourage students to
26,1 question and challenge the subject-matter being presented.

Limitations
While andragogical approaches to police-training offer the prospect of more
38 effectively facilitating the teaching-learning transaction, there are a number of
limitations that come to light. The difficult aspect of andragogy is transforming
the theory and design into action. First, there may be resistance at the
management level because maintaining the hegemonic status of training is
easier than implementing change. The ability to move andragogy from theory
to institutionalization is to some extent based on management's ability to
implement change. Second, authorities responsible for the design and
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implementation of the training curriculum may be limited because of mandated


guidelines from training commissions and legal requirements.
It may be helpful to recall that andragogical approaches seem to be a natural
complement to community-policing. This presents another limitation that must
be overcome. If andragogy is associated with community-policing, then it may
be difficult to implement because of the resistance that has been shown toward
community-policing. For example, Skogan and Hartnett (1997) examined the
Chicago Police Department's success in implementing new training modules to
support community-policing. They found that there were several impediments
including a lack of time for training preparation and curriculum revision, a lack
of unity of among rank and file police, and hostility toward the curriculum. In
fact, the Chicago Police curriculum was designed in a manner to foster adult
learning principles but ultimately the recruits were lectured in the traditional
manner.

Summary and conclusion


The theory of andragogy applied to police-training may in part be the
methodology to improve the teaching-learning transaction. It is recognized that
there are subjects in the police-training curriculum discussed previously in this
paper that will still require instruction using behaviorist techniques. In fact, the
behaviorist strategies are preferred in some situations where police need to
learn new mechanistic skills (e.g. defensive tactics, defensive baton, defensive
driving technique). However, using andragogy when teaching neophyte police
or veteran police can facilitate many subjects in the police curriculum.
Andragogical technique:
. emphasizes the skills of analysis and decision making through a series
of job-related cases or problems;
. establishes a learning approach rather than a teaching approach by a
series of planned, structured activities enabling the learner to acquire
the appropriate knowledge; and
. is a practical, job-based approach which keeps the learners constantly The theory of
aware of the value of the training program to them and their work andragogy
(Knowles, 1984, p. 48).
Andragogy has increased in popularity in the recent past as both an
educational and a training technique. Many institutions and organizations have
adopted many of the components of the andragogical method of adult training 39
and education. Knowles (1984, p. 20) captured this sentiment:
The andragogical model has been widely adopted or adapted in a variety of programs ± from
individual courses at entry level of education to total programs of in-service education,
human resources development, continuing professional education, technical training,
remedial education, and religious education.

When authorities in law enforcement agencies begin to initiate the change to


Downloaded by Wichita State University At 12:23 25 April 2016 (PT)

andragogy it becomes increasingly important for police instructors to be


grounded in adult learning theory. Often, police employees find themselves in
the role of trainer without having adequate preparation. Research on training
adults in the workplace typically focus on the needs of the organization
(Sleezer, 1992; Knowles, 1984). Much less is known and said about the specific
problems facing novice trainers and their role in delivering instruction.
Trainers should, when they think about what occurs in a teaching and learning
encounter that seems to be significant, stop and reflect on what guiding
principles made it a good event. The andragogical approach advocates that the
teacher of adults possess both technical and interpersonal skills to be an
effective facilitator of learning. Central to the success of this approach are the
personality characteristics and the interpersonal and human relations skills of
the instructor in relationship to the adult learner (Galbraith, 1998).
One implication of changing police philosophy is that there will be a number
of new roles for trainers when facilitating workplace training. The facilitator of
action learning will be one such role. Competencies for this new role will require
police trainers who are skilled at problem framing, able to communicate
perceptions using directly observable data while inquiring into others' views of
the world, and able to question actively their own and others' previous
assumptions and perceptions. Thus, becoming an effective trainer suggests
that individuals are forever changing and evolving, making new assumptions
about police practices, our thinking, our learners, our training purpose, and
about ourselves. It is a matter of constantly examining the effect the teaching
process is having on the learner and the learning process.
Advice and speculation abound about the best training techniques for police
in the twenty-first century. Authorities responsible for training police are
offered little guidance due to the dearth of research available about practical
problems trainers face when training police. Likewise, little has been written in
the general human resource development literature about the ways in which
expert trainers handle specific training problems in the training classroom. It is
clear, however, that the changing nature of policing will assuredly create an
expanded conception of training from predominantly behavioral and
PIJPSM militaristic classroom training to the promotion of andragogical training
26,1 approaches throughout the organization. The changing police profession is
bringing a new vision of learning, with a greater emphasis on interpersonal
helping skills, community partnerships and problem solving. Moreover, given
the theory-to-practice gap that haunts police-training authorities, andragogical
training techniques may be helpful in closing that gap.
40
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