The Theory of Andragogy Applied To Police Training
The Theory of Andragogy Applied To Police Training
The Theory of Andragogy Applied To Police Training
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The training of police at all levels has taken on a significant role in US police
organizations. When properly used, training increases both effectiveness and
efficiency of employees (Swanson, 1992). The current spotlight and attention
centering on police-training, in part, have been initiated due to the evolving
community-policing strategy that has been implemented in some form in many
US police organizations. Community-policing implies fundamental and
strategic change in police operations both at the service delivery and within the
organization. Within this framework, and if community-policing is to be
successfully implemented within police organizations, then it is important for
training to reflect these changes.
Police-training in the USA is not uniform in content or in the number of
hours that are required for certifying a police officer (Palmiotto et al., 2000).
However, one area of police-training that has remained fairly uniform is the
manner in which academy training is conducted. Many police-training
programs are conducted in a very behavioral and militaristic environment.
This environment has paralleled police officer selection strategies over the past
50 years. Hence, police officers of the past were hired for their good physical
condition, their interest in crime control, and their ability to follow command
decisions without hesitation. This explains why agencies often hired former
military personnel as patrol officers (Gutierrez and Thurman, 1997).
The behavioral training method may not be the best environment for the
teaching-learning transaction to occur. In fact, many have argued that the
paramilitary model of policing has created a myriad problems not only in the Policing: An International Journal of
Police Strategies & Management
training environment but also in the general culture of the organization (e.g. Vol. 26 No. 1, 2003
pp. 29-42
Lorinskas and Kulis, 1986; Weisburd et al., 1989). Theoretical scholarship has # MCB UP Limited
1363-951X
pointed out that the behavioral and paramilitary training environment has DOI 10.1108/13639510310460288
PIJPSM created a warrior-like mentality on the part of the police. For example,
26,1 according to McNeill (1982, p. viii):
The police constitute a quasi-military warrior class. In common with warriors generally, they
exhibit bonds of solidarity [that] are fierce and strong indeed, [their] human propensities find
fullest expression in having an enemy to hate, fear, and destroy and fellow-fighters with
whom to share the risks and triumphs of violent action.
30 The theme of this discourse will present the notion that the majority of police
subjects in the recruit and in-service training curriculum should be taught
utilizing adult education methodologies rather than behavioral techniques
which are currently utilized in a fair number of police academies. This paper
will accomplish three objectives. First, an examination of the traditional police-
training methods will be undertaken; second, the presentation of the adult
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technical and procedural skills but does little to promote the acquisition of
essential non-technical competencies such as problem solving, judgment, and
leadership. The paradox here is that police learn in a very behaviorist and
mechanistic training environment but, as Bayley and Bittner (1984) observed, if
police officers acted like automatons most of the time, then there would be little
scope for learning. Hence, most police work is fraught with decisions, choice
and discretion on a regular basis.
The philosophy of most police-training programs is based on three precepts:
``that it should closely follow the military training model; it is a punishment-
centered experience in which trainees must prove themselves; and it helps
screen out those who are not up to par'' (McCreedy, 1983, p. 32). Some have
pointed out that many trainees have a difficult time adapting to a rigid
behavioral training structure in as much as one day they find themselves living
a normal life and the next day they find themselves thrown into an academy
environment, the structure of which is based on a semi-military system
(Satterfield, 1986).
Under the realm of behaviorism the intellect, feelings, and emotions of a
person's inner life are not observable or measurable and therefore not
investigated (Elias and Merriam, 1995). A behavioral trainer would advocate
that learning is a change of behavior and would rely heavily upon behavioral
objectives. Advocates of behavioral objectives assert that learning outcomes
can be measured objectively and precisely, which will subsequently reveal how
much progress has made by the learner. Elias and Merriam (1995, p. 89) point
to three components that can readily be found in behaviorism:
(1) the relevant conditions or stimuli under which a student is expected to perform; (2) the
behavior a student is to perform including a general reference to the product of the student's
behavior; and (3) a description of the criteria by which the behavior will be judged acceptable
or unacceptable, successful or unsuccessful.
There will always be those police trainers who cling to the notion that we
should not tamper with what has worked in the past. This is part of the
problem in the sense that the scholarship regarding how effective neophyte and
veteran police learn is not terribly extensive. However, there are several
PIJPSM observations that provide considerable insight into the dynamics of the
26,1 behavioral training environment. First, the problem with learning under the
behavioral realm of training is that learning constitutes much more than a
uniform, structured environment, as advocated by behaviorists. For example,
each individual learner may approach learning from a distinct strategy and
style. Second, learning is a very complex process and involves many different
32 types of behavior in order to reveal that learning has occurred.
Researchers examining learning strategies have found that there are distinct
patterns of learning that individuals use when approaching a learning task
(Birzer and Nolan, 2002; Conti and Kolody, 1998; Conti and Fellenz, 1991;
Courtnage, 1998; James, 2000; Korinek, 1997). Such studies clearly point to a
salient paradox, in as much as research has identified that individuals may
indeed approach learning from distinct patterns, but a large majority of police-
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Adult learning
Adult education scholars have long recognized that approaches such as those
discussed above may result in a spurious notion of learning and that the
teaching-learning transaction should evolve towards more effective strategies.
The police function is to uphold constitutional guarantees on the part of all
citizens and to enforce laws impartially. The paradox here readily comes to
light: the police work in a democratic society but are trained and learn their
jobs in a very paramilitary, punitive, and authoritarian environment.
Police today interact in an ever-changing environment. In light of this, there
are a myriad literary sources from the adult education realm that may serve as
a guide for police authorities when teaching and fostering new skills. This
becomes increasingly important as policing evolves into community-oriented
strategies. Learning is a process central to human behavior which has been of
interest to philosophers, psychologists, and educators for centuries. Systematic The theory of
investigations of learning phenomena have resulted in many different andragogy
explanations. Although these investigations may not allow for the development
of a fully comprehensive theory of learning, the insights are important for two
reasons. First, on a practical level they offer police trainers information that
may be beneficial when teaching new skills and competencies. Second, the
adult education theory of andragogy discussed next may actually foster 33
organizational change and enhance learning at the same time.
Andragogy
The training conducted in police academies should highlight self-directed
learning on the part of trainees. This can go hand-in-hand with community-
policing. For community-policing to be successful police officers will have to be
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outcome. For example, when teaching changes in the law of search and seizure,
trainees should be given case studies that they will analyze and provide a
rationale of why one may or may not search in a certain situation. This
approach is similar to the method used in law school training, where law
students are presented with a scenario in which they in turn are required to
identify the issues, analyze many facts, provide a legal rationale, and propagate
a conclusion. Medical schools have also made extensive use of case study
approaches.
The example used above is indicative of many other subjects which could, in
part, be taught using case study approaches. Of course, it is recognized that
some lecture on criminal procedure will have to be conducted for trainees to
learn and conceptualize the foundation, for example of the exclusionary rule,
fruits of the poisonous tree doctrine, and exceptions to the Fourth Amendment
search warrant requirement. Unfortunately, the author has a myriad anecdotal
accounts and personal observations showing that much of the criminal
procedure curriculum in the police academy is taught using almost exclusively
the lecture (teacher-centered) method. In many cases this consists of an
assistant district or county attorney lecturing many hours to trainees on the
legal aspects of policing with little or no class interaction.
Community-policing officers engage in learning a variety of skills
compared with traditional patrol officers. Community-policing officers are
expected to conceptualize problems and seek appropriate solutions (Palmiotto,
2000). In contrast, traditional policing methods are more reactive in nature.
With community-policing, officers are more proactive in as much as they seek
to eliminate small disorder problems to prevent them from escalating into
serious crime-related problems. Thus, it becomes an important goal of training
to reduce the disconnect between the training classroom and the skills and
competencies required for police to perform and apply learned material in the
real world. Andragogy presents an opportunity to more appropriately
facilitate police subjects in a real and experiential manner.
It is important for police-training to emphasize the experiences of the learner,
not only their past experiences but also with the use of experiential learning
PIJPSM activities. This reinforces the andragogical theme that adults bring a vast
26,1 amount of experiences to the classroom. Knowles (1990, p. 59) asserted:
Hence, the greater emphasis in adult education on experiential techniques ± techniques that
tap into the experience of the learners, such as group discussion, simulation exercises,
problem-solving activities, case method, and laboratory methods ± over transmittal
techniques. Hence, also the greater emphasis on peer-helping activities.
36 It is beneficial to make the training of police officers as experiential, interactive
and participatory as possible. For example, a fair amount of law enforcement
training could include simulation exercises and problem-solving activities that
help develop communication and language skills (Codish, 1996). Police trainers
and police officers could be used as actors to construct, for example, a domestic
violence or a bias crime situation. Learners could then be required to bring to
bear their experience, powers of observation and communication skills to solve
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the problem. Situations should be designed in such a manner that learners use
previous knowledge, and so that they can appropriately connect the theory of
the classroom to practice. Obviously, role plays and improvisations are not new
adult learning techniques, but they are often relegated to one or two hastily
conceived practical skills sessions that are poorly performed, monitored and
evaluated. Properly prepared activities lead to increased retention. Thus, police
officers are more likely to understand legal concepts and may empathize on
heightened levels with citizens they encounter on the street because of their
classroom experiences.
Whenever possible, the training curriculum should include the needs,
interests, and desires of the learner. This is a central component when
developing a training curriculum for adult learners. This does not suggest or
advocate the abandonment of the traditional police-training curriculum, but
only proposes that it be facilitated in a way that makes the curriculum genuine
subject matter. Police subjects should be presented so that trainees can use
them in purposefully working through some problematic situation.
The instructional process itself should be flexible and provide the learner
with options. Offering learners options will allow them to take responsibility
for the learning process and guide their own learning. Once again, this may be
difficult to accomplish in a law enforcement context, since federal and state law
and training commissions in many jurisdictions mandate much of the
curriculum content. However, as Codish (1996) pointed out, choices can be
offered in a law enforcement curriculum that emphasizes original research,
critical thinking, and community involvement. Furthermore, police trainers
should strive for active participation. According to Brookfield (1986),
facilitators who ignore the use of participatory techniques will find (unless they
are stunningly charismatic performers) that their learners are physically absent
in the sense of not being actively engaged with the ideas, skill, and knowledge
being presented.
Birzer and Tannehill (2001) found that it has become common in many
police-training curricula to provide instruction on topics that were once absent
in training curricula. For example, a few subjects that are increasingly being
taught in the police academy are problem solving, cultural diversity, sexual The theory of
harassment, conflict resolution, interpersonal communication skills, and andragogy
community organization skills. The emergence of these subjects will require
police trainers to facilitate using andragogical techniques. Thus, lecture
(teacher-centered) techniques will become more and more deficient in teaching
these skills.
The remainder of this discourse will be devoted to illustrate how a simple 37
andragogical approach can foster the learning of several skills in one training
activity. Ideally, this activity should be conducted towards the end of the
academy training. For this activity, police trainees conduct a neighborhood
survey in a minority neighborhood. Trainees work in teams when conducting
this survey. The purpose of the survey is to discover citizen satisfaction with
police services, citizen satisfaction with the police, neighborhood problems, and
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other concerns. Trainees within their teams plan and design the survey,
including conducting and administering the survey, and analyzing and
reporting the data.
The purposes of the training exercise are several. It will allow trainees an
opportunity to practice the skills that they have learned in the academy
classroom. By conducting the survey in minority neighborhoods trainees will
be exposed to diverse populations of citizens. This may require learning
something about the minority group predominant in the neighborhood prior to
conducting the survey. If the neighborhood is predominantly Hispanic in
demographic make-up, the trainees may desire to study or brush up on this
culture. This may require the trainee to identify resources in the Hispanic
community to assist in developing the questionnaire, perhaps writing the
questionnaire in Spanish. The very nature of this activity not only requires
trainees to learn about a culture but requires them to practice skills such as
communication, problem solving, resource identification, research, data
analysis, teamwork, and community organization skills. Trainees then plan
and facilitate a neighborhood meeting for the purpose of revealing the survey
results and to brainstorm with citizens on appropriate solutions to the
problems that have been identified. After the neighborhood meeting and when
back in the classroom, trainees then hold debriefing sessions where they can
share their experiences with other trainees who may have been assigned to
other neighborhoods.
Within the context of the exercise described above, the instructor plays an
important role in the training. The instructor acts as a facilitator and guide in
the learning process. The instructor is also a learner in the sense that he or she
may actually learn from the trainees' experience. Furthermore, the instructor
provides an environment and setting which are much more conducive to
learning. This gives new meaning to the andragogical theme that there must be
a reciprocal relationship between trainee and instructor. Ramirez (1996, p. 24)
argues this point well:
By embracing the humanistic paradigm, which presents the instructor as a collaborative
facilitator who works with the learners in creating objectives, methods and evaluative
PIJPSM criteria, law enforcement training can begin to give more validity to the experience and
perspective that the students bring with them. Facilitators need to encourage students to
26,1 question and challenge the subject-matter being presented.
Limitations
While andragogical approaches to police-training offer the prospect of more
38 effectively facilitating the teaching-learning transaction, there are a number of
limitations that come to light. The difficult aspect of andragogy is transforming
the theory and design into action. First, there may be resistance at the
management level because maintaining the hegemonic status of training is
easier than implementing change. The ability to move andragogy from theory
to institutionalization is to some extent based on management's ability to
implement change. Second, authorities responsible for the design and
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