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Theory of Errors and Basic Adjustment Principles: Tewodros

1. Measurement involves observing quantities but is never perfectly exact, containing some error. 2. Errors can be from personal limitations, instrument imperfections, or environmental effects. 3. Mistakes are large errors due to carelessness while systematic errors are smaller but predictable. 4. Adjustment techniques like least squares are used to adjust redundant measurements for consistency.

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Abdulselam Abdurahman
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127 views15 pages

Theory of Errors and Basic Adjustment Principles: Tewodros

1. Measurement involves observing quantities but is never perfectly exact, containing some error. 2. Errors can be from personal limitations, instrument imperfections, or environmental effects. 3. Mistakes are large errors due to carelessness while systematic errors are smaller but predictable. 4. Adjustment techniques like least squares are used to adjust redundant measurements for consistency.

Uploaded by

Abdulselam Abdurahman
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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CHAPTER

heory of Errors and Basic Adjustment Principl

Tewodro
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Theory of Errors and Basic Adjustment Principle
oduction
easurement is an observation carried out to determine the
ues of quantities (distances, angles, directions, temperature
volves physical operations like setting up, caliberating, pointi
atching comparing etc of the instrument.
Fundamental principle of measurement
measurement is exact and the true value of quantity bein
measured is never known.
Theory of Errors and Basic Adjustment Principle

oduction
vey measurement will contain some error due to:

ack of perfection by the surveyor in his senses of


eing touching, hearing.

mperfection by the instruments and methods


Theory of Errors and Basic Adjustment Principle
sures of quality
curacy: is a parameter indicating the closeness of measu
ue to the “true’’ or ‘’exact” value of a quantity. It indicates
gree of perfection obtained in measurements. The furthe
easured value from the its “true” value the less accurate it is.
ecision or apparent accuracy: is the closeness of
easured values to one another regardless of their closeness
e true value.
Theory of Errors and Basic Adjustment Principle
Theory of Errors and Basic Adjustment Principle
ght
a parameter indicating the relative reliability
orded values .
For measurements carried under similar conditions
weight is assigned proportional to the number
observations.
Also if variance of the measurement is known it is assig
proportional to 1/variance (the inverse of variance).
Theory of Errors and Basic Adjustment Principle
r
The deviation of the measured value from the “exact” value of a quan
ces
Personal: the error that occurs due to lack of perfection in the surve
sense of sight, touch, hearing etc during survey activity. Also mis
due to carelessness or fatigue of the surveyor are classed under
category. This type of error can be minimized with care and vigilan
the part of the surveyor.
Instrumental: it is the error type that occurs due to imperfection o
instruments in manufacture and during adjustments and due to
and tear by usage. Also included are mistakes due to failure or da
of the instrument. This type of error can be minimized
Natural: included under this are errors due to effect of temp, pres
humidity, magnetic variation etc. this type of error can be minimize
applying correction and by carrying out the survey when their effe
minimal.
Theory of Errors and Basic Adjustment Principle

or Types
Mistakes
These actually are not error because they usually are so g
in magnitude compared to the other two types.
Blunder made by surveyor or his equipment and can occu
any stage of the survey (during reading, recording, compu
and plotting).
Source:
• Carelessness or fatigue by surveyor
• Failure of equipment
Theory of Errors and Basic Adjustment Principle

or Types
Mistakes
xamples are:

Reading wrong scale


• Transposing figure in recording ex 56 instead of 65 or readi
instead of 9.
• Omitting digits during recording ex 200 instead of 2000 –

Sighting towards wrong target etc.


Theory of Errors and Basic Adjustment Principle
r Types
Mistakes
ome of the procedures and methodologies to detect and eliminate
Taking multiple independent readings and checking for reaso
consistency
Careful checking of both sighting on targets and recording
Using simple and quick techniques for verification, applying logi
common sense
Checking and verifying performance of equipment particularly
with an electronic read out
Repeating the measurement with slightly different techniqu
adopting different datum/ index
In relatively complex models, applying geometric or algebraic che
detect mistakes
Simply noting that mistakes have large magnitude so can eas
detected
Theory of Errors and Basic Adjustment Principle
or Types
Systematic errors
These are error types with relatively small magnitude compar
mistakes, and are result of some systems whose effect ca
expressed in mathematical relations;
Their magnitude and sign can be estimated (determined).
Cause of systematic error can be personal, instrumental or ph
and environmental conditions or may be result of choi
geometric or mathematical model used.
For constant conditions remain the same as to sign and magnit
• Repetition will not help in detection and elimination.
• Correction can be applied to improve the data.
• Proper calibration and adjustment of instruments also contrib
minimizing their effect.
Theory of Errors and Basic Adjustment Principle

nificant figures
Designate those digits in a number that have meaning.

Can be any one of the digits 1, 2, 3… 9; and 0 is a signif


figure except when used to fix a decimal point.

Example
• The number 0.00456 has three significant figures and

• The number 45.601 has five significant figures.


Theory of Errors and Basic Adjustment Principle

nificant figures
Rules of significant numbers applied to arithmetic operations:
• Round all the numbers to one more decimal than the least significant n
and add.
• To subtract one approximate number from another, first round each n
to the same decimal place before subtracting.
• During multiplication, round the more accurate numbers to one
significant figure than the least accurate number and the answer sho
given to the same number of significant figures as found in the least ac
factor.
• In division, the same rules apply as for multiplication.
Theory of Errors and Basic Adjustment Principle

justments
mply that the given values of the observations must be alter
djusted, to make them consistent with the model, leading t
niqueness of the estimated unknowns.
echniques used to adjust redundant measurements.
• Least squares method
• Other approximate adjustment techniques
– If measurements are of equal quality, or weight, the residual could be divided equally am
observations.
– If these were not true and the different weights of the observations could be estimated, t
observation would be assigned a residual that is somewhat different from the others.

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