DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE IN ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING –

(CEE)

INFROMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

(ICT)

MODULE I

TERM ONE WORK

Eleven Weeks –(11)

8th Sep 2017 – 24th Nov 2017

TRAINING MANUAL

© 2017

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 COURSE OUTLINE
TERM 1:
THEORY

1. Introduction to Computers: Definition, Advantages & Limitations

2. Anatomy of Computers: Classification of Computers; Components of
Computers and its functions ; Hardware: Input and Output devices; Memory,
Processors and speed; Software: Softwares; Operating System, Application
Software; Translators; Programming languages: Utility Programmes; General
Purpose Programmes,
3. Operating System: Functions of OS; Types of OS-DOS & WINDOWS;
Booting process
4. Windows: Desktop; Starting; shutting down of windows; Anatomy of a
windows; Title bar, Minimize, Maximize, Restore and Close Buttons, Scroll Bars,
Menus and Tool; files and folders, Copy, Move and Print files, setting time and
date.

TERM 2:
THEORY AND PRACTICE

5. MS WORD: Word processing and units of document, features of word

processing packages; Creating, Editing, Formatting and Saving a document;
Features of File, Edit and Format menus
6. MS EXCEL: Electronic Spreadsheets – concept, packages, creating, editing and
saving a spreadsheet with MS EXCEL; Use of in-built functions and writing
expressions, Creating Data Analysis; Analysis Tools –
7. DATABASE: Creating Graphs; Units of database, creating database

TERM 3
THEORY AND PRACTICE
8. Internet and networking: World Wide Web (WWW), Concepts, WAN, LAN,
MAN etc
9. Emerging issues with ICT trends and security
10. Revision and Practical practice

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 LABORATORY WORK

TERM: 1
1. Study of Computer Components: Booting of Computer and its Shut Down
2. Practice of some fundamental DOS commands – TIME, DATE, DIR,MD,
CD, RD, DEL, TREE, COPY, VOL and LABEL
3. Practicing WINDOWS Operating System: Use of Mouse, Title Bar,
minimum, Maximum and Close Buttons, Scroll, Bars, Menus and Tool Bars
4. WINDOWS Explorer: Creating Folders, COPY and PASTE functions

TERM: 2
5. MS WORD: Creating a Document, Editing and Saving. Use of options from the
Tool Bars – Format, Insert and Tools (Spell Check),Alignment of paragraphs and
Text, Creating a Table, Merging of Cells, Columns and Row Width
6. MS EXCEL: Creating a Spreadsheet, Alignment of Rows, Columns and Cells
using Format Tool Bar
7. MS EXCEL: Entering formula expression through the formula tool bar and use
of inbuilt functions – SUM, AVERAGE and STDEV
8. MS EXCEL: Data Analysis using in built Tool Packs
9. MSEXCEL: Data Analysis using inbuilt Tool Packs – tests of significance
10. MS EXCEL: Creating and Saving Graphs

TERM: 3
11. MS ACCESS: Creating Database, structuring with different types of fields,
MS ACCESS: use of Query facility for accessing the information
12. Transforming the data - WORD and EXCEL to other forms
13. Internet Exploration: Using Search Engines, Google, Opera, Google chrome,
Mozilla, etc

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 INTRODUCTION TO ICT
EVOLUTION OF COMMUNICATION
Communication has improved and evolved to facilitate our daily activities. In the
21st century, everything related to communication utilizes technology to ‘send out’
or disseminate information to a wider audience. Information can be ‘sent out’ in
many ways. The inventions of cellular phones, television and other electronic
devices are important in enhancing communication.

WHAT IS ICT?
ICT is the technology required for information processing, in particular, the use of
electronic computers, communication devices and software applications to convert,
store, protect, process, transmit and retrieve information from anywhere, anytime.

INFORMATION
Information refers to the knowledge obtained from reading, investigation, study or
research. The tools to transmit information are the telephone, television and radio.
We need information to make decisions and to predict the future. For example,
scientists can detect the formation of a tsunami using the latest technology and
warn the public to avoid disasters in the affected areas. Information is knowledge
and helps us to fulfill our daily tasks. For example, forecasting the stock exchange
market.

COMMUNICATION
Communication is an act of transmitting messages. It is a process whereby
information is exchanged between individuals using symbols, signs or verbal
interactions. Previously, people communicated through sign or symbols,
performing drama and poetry. With the advent of technology, these ‘older’ forms
of communication are less utilized as compared to the use of the Internet, e-mail or
video conferencing. Communication is important in order to gain knowledge. With
knowledge, we are more confident in expressing our thoughts and ideas.

TECHNOLOGY
Technology is the use of scientific knowledge, experience and resources to create
processes and products that fulfill human needs. Technology is vital in
communication.

Aiding Communication
Telephone and fax machines are the devices used in extending communication.

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Spreading Information
To broadcast information such as news or weather reports effectively. Radio,
television, satellites and the World Wide Web (www) are powerful tools that can be
used.

Usage of ICT in Daily Life

EDUCATION
Today, most schools and higher educational institutions have computers in the
classroom for teacher and students. In education, teachers, students, researchers
and school administrators benefits from the usage of ICT.

BANKING
The computer is the nerve centre of the banking system around the world. It
functions to control the entire banking system that also includes 'Electronic
Banking Services'. In the banking sector, customers, businessman and bank
administrator benefits from the usage of ICT.

INDUSTRY
Computers are used to facilitate production planning and control systems, to
support chain management and to help in product design in the industrial sector. In
the industrial sector, workers, researchers and administrator benefits from the
usage of ICT.

E-COMMERCE
E-commerce helps in boosting the economy. It makes buying and selling activities
easier, more efficient and faster. For this application, computers, Internet and
shared software are needed. In the e-commerce sector, customers, suppliers and
employees benefits from the usage of ICT.

COMPUTER
What is a Computer?
In general terms, a computer is a machine operating under the control of
instructions stored in its own memory. These operations and instructions enable the
computer to receive data from a user (input), transform and manipulate the data
according to specified rules (process), produce results (output). Additionally, data,
instructions, and information are stored (storage) for future retrieval and use. Many
computers are also capable of another task: communicating directly with other
machines. The user performs the input task with a device such as a keyboard,
mouse, or digital scanner.

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These devices allow the user to enter data and instructions into the computer. A
secondary storage system stores and retrieves additional data and instructions that
may also be used in the input and processing stages. This system might include
magnetic or optical devices, such as CD-ROMs, hard disks, floppy disks, and
tapes. The central processing system, which manipulates the data, is perhaps the
most important part of the computer. This system is the “brain” of the computer in
that it enables the computer to transform unorganized inputs into useful
information. The central processing system includes the central processing unit
(CPU) and the primary memory. The computer’s output system displays the results
of the data manipulation. The output system might include a monitor, a printer, a
plotter, a voice output device, or microfilm/microfiche equipment. A final element
of a computer is the communication system, which passes information from
computer to computer over communication media.

Generations of Computers
First Generation (1946-1954):-Vacuum tubes
The first generation of computer were huge, slow, expensive and often unreliable.
In 1946, two Americans, Presper Eckert and Willian Mauchly build the ENIAC
(Electronic Numerical integrator and Computer). It use vacuum tube instead of
mechanical switches of the MARK 1.Problems that arose with this generation:
 the vacuum tubes generated a great deal of heat causing many problems in
temperature regulation and climate control
 the tubes also burnt out frequently
 people operating the computer did not know that the problem was in the
programming machine
 the second generation computer scientists invented something new due to
lots of problem created by vacuum tubes.

Second Generation (1955-1965): -Transistors

The creation of transistor sparked the production of a wave of second generation
computer. Transistor was small devices use to transfer electronic signals across a
resister. Transistors had many advantages compared to other hardware technology.
 transistors were smaller than vacuum tubes
 they needed no warm up time
 consumed less energy
 generated much less heat
 faster and more reliable

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Third Generation, (1968-1975):- Integrated Circuits (IC)
In the third generation era, the IBM 370 series were introduced in 1964. It came in
several models and sizes. It was used for business and scientific programs. Other
computer models introduced were CDC 7600 and B2500. The development of
integrated circuit (IC), signal the beginning of the third generation computers.
Silicone chips were manufactured in 1961 at the Silicone Valley. Then came the
integrated circuit technology, which had reduced the size and cost of computers.

Advantages
A new concept in this generation was that of a family of computer which allowed
computer to be upgraded and expanded as necessary.
 Silicone chips were reliable, compact and cheaper.
 Sold hardware / software separately which created the software industry.
 customer service industry flourished (reservation and credit checks)

Fourth Generation (1976-1980):- Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits (VLSI)

It took only 55 years for the 4 generations to evolve. The growth of the computer
industry developed technologies of computer inventions. In 1971 Intel created the
first microprocessor. In 1976, Steve Jobs built the first Apple computer. Then, in
1981, IBM introduced its first personal computer. There are many types of
computer models such as: Apple Macintosh, IBM, DELL and ACER. During the
fourth generation, hardware technology such as silicone chips, microprocessor and
storage devices were invented. A microprocessor is a specialized chip which is
developed for computer memory and logic. The microprocessor is a large-scale
integrated circuit which contained thousands of transistors. The transistors on this
one chip are capable of performing all of the functions of a computer's central
processing unit.

Advantages
 Computers became 100 times smaller than ENIAC (Electronic
 Numerical Integrator and Computer) the first computer
 Gain in speed, reliability and storage capacity
 Personal and software industry boomed

Fifth Generation (1980 – till today)

Ultra Scale Integrated Circuits (ULSI) Micro Processor (SILICON CHIP). The
fifth generation computers are technologically advance and are still being
development to become more efficient. The inventions of new hardware
technology in the fifth generation have grown rapidly including many other
modern computer devices such as: silicone chips, processor, robotics, virtual
reality, intelligent systems and programs which translate languages
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New Era Computer
After the fifth generation computer, the technology of computer has become more
advanced, modern and sophisticated. The latest inventions in the era of computers
are: Super Computers, Mainframe Computers, Mini Computers, Personal
Computers and Mobile Computers. In the new era of computers, expert system
such as teleconferencing and speech-recognition system have been invented as part
of modern world communication tools.

Classification of Computers
Computers are classified according to the storage capacity, speed and the purpose
for which they are developed. These can be classified into three types:
1. Analog Computes
2. Digital Computers
3. Hybrid Computers

1. Analog computers:
They operate by measuring instead of; counting. The name denotes that the
computer functions by establishing similarities between the two quantities. They
are powerful tools for solving differential equations.

2. Digital Computers:
These computers operate by counting. All quantities are expressed as discrete
digits or numbers and are useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and
manipulations of data.

3. Hybrid Computers:
Computers which combine the features of analog and digital computers are known
as Hybrid computers. A majority of the computers that are in use are digital. These
computers were essentially developed for computations. Later, the developments in
the computers led to the use of digital computers in variety of applications.
Depending on the use of applications, the digital computers are classified into;
1) Special Purpose Computers;
2) General Purpose Computers.

1. Special Purpose Computers:

These are developed with a specific purpose. Some of the areas where these
computers are being used are – soil testing, drip irrigation, medical scanning,
traffic signals, spacecraft, rocket technology etc.
2. General Purpose Computers:
These are developed to meet the requirements of several areas such as simulation,
solving mathematical equations, payroll and personnel database. These computers

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are available in different sizes and capabilities and are further classified (based on
memory, speed, storage) as follows:
a) Super Computers
b) Mainframe Computers
c) Mini Computers
d) Micro Computers

a) Super Computers:
These have extremely large storage capacities and computing speeds which are at
least 10 times faster than other computers. These are used for large scale numerical
problems in scientific and engineering disciplines such as electronics, weather
forecasting etc. The first super computer was developed in U.S.A. by CRAY
computers. In India the indigenous super computer was developed under the name
Param.

b) Mainframe Computers:
They also have large storage and high computing speed (but relatively lower than
the super computers). They are used in applications like weather forecasting, space
applications etc., they support a large number of terminals for use by a variety of
users simultaneously, but are expensive.

c) Mini Computers:
It is a medium sized computer with moderate cost, available indigenously and used
for large volume applications. It can serve multi-users simultaneously.

d) Micro Computers:
A microcomputer is the smallest general purpose processing system. Micro
computers are also referred as ―personal computers (PC). These are self contained
units and usually developed for use by one person at a time but can be linked to
very large systems. They are cheap, easy to use even at homes and can be read for
variety of applications from small to medium range.

Advantages of computers:
1. High speed :
Computers have the ability to perform routine tasks at a greater speed than human
beings. They can perform millions of calculations in seconds.
2. Accuracy :
Computers are used to perform tasks in a way that ensures accuracy.

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3. Storage:
Computers can store large amount of information. Any item of data or any
instruction stored in the memory can be retrieved by the computer at lightning
speeds.
4. Automation :
Computers can be instructed to perform complex tasks automatically (which
increases the productivity).
5. Diligence:
Computers can perform the same task repeatedly & with the same accuracy
without getting tired.
6. Versatility :
Computers are flexible to perform both simple and complex tasks.
7. Cost effectiveness :
Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort, thereby reducing
costs.

Limitations of computers
1. Computers need clear & complete instructions to perform a task accurately. If
the instructions are not clear & complete, the computer will not produce the
required result.
2. Computers cannot think.
3. Computers cannot learn by experience.

ANATOMY OF COMPUTERS
The computer system consists of three units:
1). Input device
2). Central Processing Unit (CPU)
3). Output device.
Figure: Block diagram of a Computer

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COMPUTER BASICS
Computer Basics introduces general computer use and terminology. It describes
the basic hardware components of a PC and introduces basic skills
for using software programs in a windows
environment. This course will address hardware and
peripheral components of the computer and how to
use them correctly. A computer is an
electronic device that has the ability to store,
retrieve, and process data, and can be
programmed with instructions that it remembers. The
physical parts that make up a computer (the central processing unit,
input, output, and memory) are called hardware.

Programs that tell a computer what to do are called software. A set of instructions
that perform a particular task is called a program, software program, or
software. Peripherals are any hardware device connected to a computer, any part
of the computer outside the CPU and working memory. Some examples of
peripherals are keyboards, the mouse, monitors, printers, scanners, disk and tape
drives, microphones, speakers, joysticks, plotters, and cameras.

A. MONITOR
The computer monitor is an output device that displays input on a screen and is
very similar to a television monitor. When the computer wants to display
something, it calculates how it needs to change the color and brightness of the
different pixels, and changes the values in the video memory.
▪ Controls for the monitor are located on the monitor itself. The monitor
has an ON/OFF Button/Switch (which powers only the monitor) and an
indicator light (green or amber).
▪ A green indicator light denotes that the monitor is on.
▪ An amber light indicates that the computer is in “sleep” mode. Software
in newer computers automatically shuts the monitor down when the
computer is shut down--the monitor is put in a “sleep” mode and the
indicator light turns amber. When the monitor light is amber, if the
computer is booted up, the monitor will automatically come on when you
move the mouse or press any key on the keyboard.

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 ▪ No indicator light indicates that the monitor is off. If you turn your
monitor off with the switch, there will be no indicator light. When you
boot up your computer, you will have to turn the monitor on by pressing
the ON/OFF switch.
Monitor Resolution refers to the number of dots on the screen or pixels. It is
expressed as a pair of numbers that give the number of dots on a line (horizontal)
and the number of lines (vertical). Four resolutions commonly used today:
▪ 640 x 480 PIXELS (VGA) (SVGA) -- images are larger for visually
impaired students.
▪ 800 x 600 PIXELS (SVGA) – most web sites are designed to be
viewed at this setting.
▪ 1024 x 768 PIXELS (SVGA)
▪ 1280 x 1024 PIXELS (SVGA)-- images are smaller, but more
information can be displayed.

2. COMPUTER
The computer is a machine that processes data according to a set of instructions
that are stored internally either temporarily or permanently. The computer has
either external or internal peripherals attached to it.

6 FLOPPY DISK
DRIVE
7 CD ROM
DRIVE
5
DISKETTE
DRIVE
1 2 3 4 ACCESS
POWER POWER RESET HARD DISK INDICATOR
SWITCH INDICATOR BUTTON DRIVE ACCESS
INDICATOR

The picture below displays two internal devices—the floppy disk drive and CD
ROM drive.
1. POWER SWITCH -- Turns the computer on and off. Whenever the
computer is turned off, always wait at least 60 seconds before turning it
back on again.
2. POWER INDICATOR -- Located in the center of the power switch. A
green light indicates the computer is on.

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 3. RESET BUTTON -- Allows you to reboot (restart) your system without
having to power down the entire computer. Rebooting the system in this
manner reduces stress on the system components. This button is used
ONLY when the computer has “frozen” and will not accept any
commands.
4. HARD DISK DRIVE ACCESS INDICATOR -- Turns green when the
computer is accessing your hard drive, either retrieving or storing
information.
5. DISKETTE DRIVE INDICATOR -- Turns green when the computer is
accessing your floppy disk drive, either retrieving or storing information.
If this light is green, you should NEVER attempt to eject the floppy disk.
6. FLOPPY DISK DRIVE -- Storage device that holds, reads and writes to
floppy disks, usually called Drive A.
7. CD-DRIVE -- Player or reader that reads data from a CD ROM disk.

C. INTERNAL COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

Motherboard
Sometimes called the system board or main board, the motherboard is the
main circuit board of a PC. The
motherboard is the central nervous
system and circulatory system, plus
much more, all rolled into one. The
motherboard typically contains the
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 processor (or CPU), BIOS (basic input/output system), memory, mass
storage interfaces, serial and parallel ports, expansion slots, and all the
controllers required to communicate with standard peripheral devices, such
as the display screen, mouse, keyboard and disk drive. Collectively, some of
the chips which reside on the motherboard are known as the motherboard's
chipset.

Chipset
The chipset controls the system and its capabilities. All components
communicate with the processor through the chipset - it is the hub of all data
transfer. The chipset uses the DMA controller and the bus controller to
organize the steady flow of data that it controls. The chipset is a series of
chips attached directly to the motherboard, and is usually second in size only
to the processor. Chipsets are integrated (soldered onto the motherboard) and
are not upgradable without a new motherboard.

BIOS (Basic Input Output System)

An integral part of the PC, the BIOS is the program a microprocessor uses to
get the computer started after you turn it on. It also manages the data flow
between the computer's operating system and attached peripheral devices.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

The CPU is the computer's control center. Think of it as the
brain that does all the thinking (computation). It reads
instructions from your software and tells your computer
what to do. The actual CPU is about 1.5 inches square,
yet it is the most critical part of the computer. The
speed at which the CPU processes information
internally is measured in MegaHertz (MHz) and GigaHertz (GHz).
1 GHz is equal to 1,000 MHz. Generally, processors with higher MHz or
GHz enhance your ability to run creative, entertainment, communication,
and productivity applications. MegaHertz -- One million cycles per second
— used to measure the speed of a CPU chip.
ROM (Read Only Memory)
A type of memory chip that does not lose information, even when the power
is turned off. Once data is programmed into the ROM chip, its contents
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 cannot be altered. For example, ROM BIOS chips are used to store
information for starting up your computer.

RAM (Random Access Memory)

Available for storing data and programs currently being processed. RAM is
erased automatically when the power is turned off. Can be accessed without
touching preceding bytes.
▪ DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module), a device that adds memory to a
computer
▪ RDRAM (Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory)
Developed by Rambus Corporation, the narrow, high-performance
channel also offers performance and capacity scalability through the use
of multiple channels in parallel. Capable of providing up to 1.6 GB/sec
bandwidth per channel. RDRAM is able to load a new stream of data
before the previous stream has completed, resulting in less waiting time
and therefore faster access speeds.
▪ SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory).
SDRAM synchronizes itself with the processors bus and is capable of
running at 133 MHz. SDRAM enables a system to run applications and
temporarily store documents that are being worked on.
▪ SIMM (Single In-Line Memory Module)
A narrow circuit board that contains RAM (also called DRAM) memory
chips. The more RAM chips you add to the computer, the faster it
operates and the more programs you can run at the same time.
Depending on the computer, SIMMs may need to be installed in
multiples of two or four.
Byte -- Bytes are used to measure both computer memory (RAM) and the
storage capacity of floppy disks, CD-ROM drives, and hard drives.
BYTE One character. A character can be a number, letter or symbol.
Note: A byte consists of 8 bits.
▪ KILOBYTE (K) Approximately one thousand characters, or one page of double
spaced text.
▪ MEGABYTE (MB) Approximately one million characters, or one novel.
▪ GIGABYTE (GB) Approximately one billion characters, or one thousand
novels.

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Cache
Cache (pronounced cash) is a block of high speed memory where data is copied
when it is retrieved from the RAM. This storage of key instructions enables a
performance improvement in the processor. Intel processors incorporate level 1
(L1) and level 2 (L2) caches. There are two groups of extremely fast memory chips
that allow the computer to operate faster:
(1) Internal cache (L1) is built into the CPU, and
(2) External cache (L2) resides on the motherboard. The L2 cache is an area of
high-speed memory that improves performance by reducing the average
memory access time. L2 cache is also called SRAM.
Both L1 and L2 store data recently used by the CPU. When the CPU needs data, it
first checks the fastest source — L1. If the data is not there, the CPU checks the
next-fastest source — L2. If the data still cannot be found, a time-consuming
search of the slower RAM is required.

D. BACK PANEL AND CABLES

The ports that connect the peripherals to the computer are located on the back
panel of the computer.
Newer computers have ports
that are color- coded with
their appropriate cables.
Speaker cables plug into
headphone jacks on the back
panel and are also color-coded.
The back panel may have
small icons on the ports
showing the correct cables (example --monitor for monitor cable). It is important
that all cables are inserted completely and securely in their port (pins screwed in all
the way) or the peripheral will not function properly. Once all peripherals have
been connected to the computer, it may be useful to label each cable and it's
appropriate port. When the computer is stored for the summer it will be very easy
to reconnect cables in the fall. Two successful methods used to code cables and
ports include colored dots using nail polish (red mouse cable, red dot on mouse
port, pink printer cable, pink dot on printer port, etc.) and numbering cables and
ports (1 & 1, 2 & 2, etc.). When attaching or removing cables from the computer it
is important to be very careful. The cables are connected with "pins" that can
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easily be bent or broken. Don't try to remove cables by "wiggling" from side to
side. Pull cables directly out to avoid damaging the pins.
The following figure is a diagram of the ports on the back of the computer.
Included are pictures of the cable connectors for different peripherals attached to
the computer.
3. Parallel Port

1. Mouse Port

2. Keyboard 6. Video Port

4. USB 5. Serial Port

Mouse Cable & Ports Keyboard Cable & Ports Printer Cable

SCSI (Small Computer System Interface). A processor-independent standard for

system-level interfacing between a computer and intelligent devices including
hard-drives, floppy disks, CD-ROM, printer, scanners and many more.

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USB (Universal Serial Bus) is a new technology theoretically capable of
connecting a very large number of external devices on a computer. USB give the
PC user a no-hassle way to connect a new digital joystick, a scanner, a set of
digital speakers, a digital camera, or a PC telephone to their computer.

▪ Adds the feature of "hot-swapping" so that you don't need to shut down and
restart your PC to attach or remove a peripheral. Just plug it in and go!
▪ To remove a USB device, single click the hardware button in the system
tray, the “Remove Hardware” window opens. Select
the device you wish to disconnect, click the “Stop” button then remove the
device.

E. STORAGE DEVICES
When working on the computer, all work is entered into the
computer's memory. In order to store your work for future
retrieval, you must “save” your work to a storage device before
turning the computer off. When your work is saved it creates a
computer “file”. The most common storage devices are hard disks
and floppy disks. If you only save your work on the hard disk, you run the risk of
losing your data, either through viruses, which attack the hard disk, or to hard disk
failure or crashes. It’s very important to back up your important files onto other
media, such as floppy disks.

1. Floppy Disk -- A removable disk that stores information magnetically, also

called a diskette. You can use a floppy disk to exchange information

between computers, or to make a backup of your files. Floppy disks are 3.5
inches in diameter and they are enclosed in a rigid plastic shell. A “double-
density” (DD) diskette has a storage capacity of 740 KB while a “high-
density” (HD) diskette has a storage capacity of 1.44 MB. To protect your
floppy disks, keep them away from heat, drinks, and magnets. Use a felt tip
pen to label a disk and write on the label before you attach it to the disk.
Every disk must be formatted with the operating system used by the

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computer in order to allow storage of files. The operating system is the
“language” of the program—the disk must be in the same language as the
computer in order to communicate. Examples of operating systems are
DOS, Windows, Macintosh OS, and Windows NT. When you purchase
disks, be sure to purchase them for the operating system you are using
(IBM/PC Compatible or Apple/Macintosh). Today, most floppy disks come
already formatted. However, it is a good idea to run scandisk on a disk
before using as a means of checking the disk for bad sectors. See Section M.
for instructions on how to run scandisk on a floppy. Disks can be reused as
long as there are no bad sectors on the disk. Disks are inserted into the disk
drive with the metal part first,
Not Write label up.
Protected Every disk comes with a write-protect
Write Protected
tab. The tab provides protection against
erasing or replacing information on a
floppy disk. You can write-protect a 3.5
inch floppy disk by moving the plastic
tab up to the write-protected position (open hole). No information can be
altered on the disk when it is write-protected.

2. Hard drive-- The primary

device that a computer
uses to store information.
Most computers come with
one or two hard drives,
called drive C and drive D,
located inside the
computer case. The terms
hard drive and hard disk
are used interchangeably.
Today's hard disks provide fast retrieval and can hold several gigabytes of
information as compared to megabytes on floppy disks. The Read/Write
Heads are energy converters: they transform electrical signals to magnetic
signals, and magnetic signals back to electrical ones again. They are in
essence tiny electromagnets that perform this conversion from electrical

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 information to magnetic and back again. There is normally one head for
each surface used on the drive.

If the heads contact the surface of the disk while it is at operational speed,
the result can be loss of data, damage to the heads, damage to the surface of
the disk, or all three. This is usually called a head crash, two of the most
frightening words to any computer user. :^) The most common causes of
head crashes are contamination getting stuck in the thin gap between the
head and the disk, and shock applied to the hard disk while it is in operation.
3. Zip disks -- Zip disks store 100 - 250 MB of data (depending on the type of
drive purchased) and cost about $11 to $19 each. A special 3.5" removable
disk drive is needed to retrieve the information from the computer and write
to the zip disk. An external zip drive can be moved from one computer to
another. Due to the large storage capability of zip disks and mobility of the
drives, they are gaining popularity as storage and backup mediums.

4. CD-ROMS—Compact disks can store approximately 650-800 MB of data

or 74-80 minutes of music. Most software programs today are shipped on
CD-ROMs instead of floppy disks. All computers today come with CD-
ROM drives that are part of the computer’s multimedia configuration. They
are connected to a sound card, which provides the computer with stereo
speaker capabilities, allowing for musical CD-ROMs to also be played on
your computer. These drives are read only and cannot be used for
recording data.
◙ Only retrieve data that’s pre-recorded by the manufacturer. Like a
musical CD-ROM, the information is pressed on one side (the side
opposite the label).
◙ CD-ROM’s are inserted into the CD-ROM drive with the label side up.
◙ Pressing the button opens and closes the drive.
◙ Handling and storage of CD-ROM’s are the same as CD-ROM’s and
floppy disks.
◙ Avoid putting fingers on the information side. Hold the CD-ROM by the
edges when handling. Protect CD-ROM’s by making sure the data side
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 does not get scratched and by providing proper storage (store them in the
case they came in).

CD/DVD-ROM
Open/Close button

CD-Writer (internal)
Open/Close button
Zip 100mb Drive

Headphon Power
e Jack
5. Read/Write CD-ROMS—CD-ROM drives that write, rewrite and record
data. Two types of CD-ROM disks are used in these drives: CD-
Recordable (CD-R) and CD-Read/Write (CD-R/W). CD-R/W’s can only be
“read” by CD Read/Write drives, while CD-R disks can be read by most
CD-ROM drives.

6. Cartridge tapes—These are magnetic tapes similar to cassette

tapes used as a storage and backup device. Backup and retrieval of
stored information is slower with tapes because the information is
stored sequentially. The computer must search in sequential order
to find the desired information, rather than by sectors. The
advantage of tape cassettes is that they can be purchased with large storage
capacities (1 – 4 GB’s) allowing the entire contents of the hard drive to
easily fit on one tape.

7. USB/Flash Drive (Jump/Thumb Drive) - is a plug-and-play portable

storage device that uses flash memory and is lightweight enough to attach to
a key chain. A keychain drive can be used in place of a floppy disk, Zip
drive disk, or CD. When the user plugs the device into their USB port, the
computer's operating system recognizes the device as a removable drive.
Unlike most removable drives, a keychain drive does not require rebooting
after it's attached, does not require batteries or an external power supply, and
is not platform dependent. Several keychain drive manufacturers offer
additional features such as password protection, and downloadable drivers
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 that allow the keychain drive to be compatible with older systems that do not
have USB ports. Keychain drives are available in capacities ranging from 8
MB to 2 gigabytes, depending on manufacturer, in a corresponding range of
prices.

F. INPUT DEVICES
1. Mouse – The mouse is a pointing device attached to the computer that
controls the movement of the cursor on the screen. It allows the user to
execute commands using point & click and click & drag techniques. As the
user moves the mouse across the pad, the cursor moves across the screen.
The mouse should always be used with a mouse pad to provide a smooth
surface for mouse movement and to help keep the mouse from damage. If
you "run out of room" on the pad, simply pick up the mouse and move it to
the opposite edge and continue movement. The PC mouse has two buttons
(left and right) and newer mice have a scroll wheel between the two. Mouse
commands are executed by "clicking". The term “click” refers to the left
mouse button. The phrase to "click" means to select (a screen object) by
moving the mouse pointer to the object's position and clicking a mouse
button by pressing it down once, and them immediately releasing it.
▪ Executing commands (i.e. opening a folder, opening a file, opening a
program) requires a double click, meaning that you must click the left
mouse button twice in rapid succession. There is a timed rhythm to
double clicking and the mouse must NOT move between clicks.
▪ Shift Click refers to clicking the mouse button while holding the Shift
key down.
▪ Click and Drag is also used more generally to refer to any operation in
which the left mouse button is held down while the mouse is moved.
Placing the mouse arrow on an object and holding down the left mouse
button while moving it, the object can by moved to a new location by
“dragging”.
▪ Some newer mice also include a scroll wheel for scrolling through long
documents.
▪ Right Click refers to clicking the right mouse button which reveals a
context menu, because it changes based on the status of the item you
clicked -- the type of file, for example. The context menu may display
actions such as Open, New, Print, Copy, Paste, Delete, Send To, Create

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 Shortcut and Properties (to see an item's settings, and so on) all
dependent upon where you right click, on a file or on a blank space in a
window.

2. Keyboard -- The computer receives most of its input from the user
via the keyboard that is very similar to the typewriter keyboard. The
keyboard is connected by a cable to the keyboard port on the back of the
computer. There are extra keys on the computer's keyboard that are not
found on a normal typewriter. Following is an explanation of the function of
these keys. The exact manner in which the keys function depends on the
software program.
BACKSPACE KEY-- Deletes the character just to the left of the cursor (or
insertion point) and moves the cursor to that position.
DELETE KEY-- Sometimes labeled Del, deletes the character at the
current cursor position or to the right of the insertion point, or deletes the
selected object, but does not move the cursor.
ARROW KEYS -- four arrow keys for moving the cursor or insertion point
right, left, up, or down. Moving the arrow keys does not delete any
characters on the screen.
CAPS LOCK KEY -- A toggle key that, when activated, causes all
alphabetic characters to be uppercase.
HOME -- moves the cursor to the top left corner of the screen or to the
beginning of the file, but it can have other meanings depending on which
program is running.
END -- moves the cursor to the end of the line, the end of the page, or the
end of the file depending where the cursor is located on the page and on
which program is running.
ENTER -- Used to enter commands or to move the cursor to the beginning
of the next line. Sometimes labeled Return instead of Enter.
RETURN KEY -- Another name for the Enter key.
ESC -- Short for Escape, this key is used to send special codes to devices
and to exit (or escape) from programs and tasks.
FUNCTION KEYS -- Special keys labeled F1 to Fx, x being the number
of function keys on the keyboard. These keys have different meanings
depending on which program is running.

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 CTRL KEY -- Short for Control, this key is used in conjunction with other
keys to produce control characters. The meaning of each control character
depends on which program is running.
ALT KEY -- Short for Alternate, this key is like a second Control key
PAGE UP and PAGE DOWN -- moves the cursor up or down a set
number of lines usually one page or screen at a time. Often abbreviated
PgUp and PgDn.
NUMERIC KEYPAD -- A separate set of keys on some keyboards that
contain the numbers 0 through 9 and a decimal point arranged as on an
adding machine. Numeric keypads make it easier to enter large amounts of
numeric data. For the keypad to function as numbers, the NUM LOCK
must be on (Num Lock light is green).
INSERT -- Changes between insert mode and overstrike mode in word
processing programs. In insert mode, all characters typed are placed at the
cursor position (or to the right of the insertion point). With each new
insertion, characters to the right of the cursor are pushed to the right of the
insertion point to make room for the new characters. If insert mode is turned
off, typing then overwrites existing characters instead of inserting the new
ones before the old ones. This is often called overwrite mode. Most PC
keyboards have an Ins or Insert key that lets you switch back and forth
between insert and overwrite modes.

NOTE: If the keyboard freezes restarting by pressing the Reset button will
not correct the conflict; you MUST shut down. Use your mouse to save
work prior to shutting down then press the Power button on the
desktop/tower.

G. KEYSTROKES TO KNOW
1. Enter--pressing this key is the same as left clicking the mouse button.
2. Ctrl + Esc or Windows Logo Key--pressing these two keys, Ctrl + Esc,
simultaneously, or pressing the Windows Logo Key, will bring up the Start
menu. Use the arrow keys to navigate the Start menu, especially to shut down.
3. Shift + Alt + Spacebar--when a window is in the “Restore” mode, it may
sometimes shift on the screen so that you cannot locate the buttons on the title
bar to close, minimize or maximize the window. Pressing these three keys will

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 open a window, with a choice of “Maximize”. Arrow down and select
Maximize and the window will open to a full screen with the buttons showing.
4. Ctrl + Alt + Delete--whenever the computer “locks up” (freezes) and the
mouse or keyboard will not work, pressing these three keys simultaneously will
usually open the Close Program dialog box which contains a list box of
applications that are running:
Highlight the program that is “not responding” and may be causing the problem
and choose “End Task.” A second dialog box may open allowing you to
rethink this decision, click “End Task” to close the program—if you have not
saved all data entered since the last save will be lost.

NOTE: If pressing these keys, Ctrl + Alt

+ Delete, does not bring up the previous
window, then pressing them again will,
usually, shut the computer down.

5. F1—Displays Help information for

the active object or the window as a
whole.
6. F2—Rename a selected item. A
bold rectangle appears around the title creating a text box and the title is
highlighted. Type the new name and press Enter. Press ESC to cancel.
7. F3—Opens the Find All Files dialog box.
8. Alt + F4—Closes the active application window. Once all open windows
are closed, pressing these keys again will open the “Shut Down Windows”
dialog box.
9. Print Screen—Copies an image of the screen to the Windows Clipboard.
10. Alt + Print Screen—Copies an image of the active window to the Windows
Clipboard.
11. Windows Logo Key + M—Minimizes all open windows. The keyboard
focus goes to the least recently selected icon on the desktop.

H. OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices are computer devices that display or output information. The
monitor is a common example of an output device. Other output devices are:

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 ▪ Printers—take information from the CPU and transfer it to paper,
provides a hard copy. There are a number of different printer
technologies available: Dot Matrix, Ink Jet, Laser.
▪ Plotters—produces high-quality line drawing graphic output (used for
blueprints).
▪ Video projector, Scan Converter or LCD overhead projector—projects
the image onto a wall screen for greater view by large groups.
▪ Speaker(s)—provides output of sound or speech.

I. OVERALL COMPUTER CARE

Taking proper care of the computer is essential in keeping it working properly.
The following is a list of "dos" and "don'ts" for computer care.
 Cover the computer when not in use to keep dust away from it. An old sheet
is an excellent cover for your computers. Plastic dust covers are not
recommended as they retain heat and do not allow for the computer to cool
down properly, forming moisture. Moisture can damage the internal
components of the computer.
 Position the computers away from air-conditioner vents, heater vents and
chalkboards.
 Keep all food and drinks away from the computer.
 Never place foreign objects into the computer or its drives.
 Plug all computer components into a surge protector.
 Keep all magnets away from the computer or disks. Magnets will erase all
data!

J. CARE OF INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS

1. System Case –
The best way to clean the outside of the case is just to wipe it with a damp cloth
(don't spray liquids right on the case). The inside can be cleaned either by blasting
with compressed air or using a small vacuum with a PC cleaning attachment.
Check Positioning: Make sure the case hasn't over time been pushed into a place
where it shouldn't be. For example, some desktop machines tend in time to be
pushed back to the very back of the desk where they might cause the power supply
fan to be blocked by a wall. There should always be air space behind the computer
so the fan can cool the computer.

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 2. Power Supply Fan –
The power supply's chief enemy is overheating, and this is usually caused by
excessive dust and dirt coating the components and clogging the power supply fan.
The power supply fan should be inspected, approximately quarterly, to make sure
that it is providing good ventilation and that it is not gummed up with dirt. Either
using a vacuum cleaner with a small tip attachment can clean it or blowing it out
with an air duster (remove case cover and blow out otherwise simply spreading the
dust inside the case which can cause other problems).

3. Monitor –
The monitor screen should be cleaned weekly since dust accumulates more quickly
on the surface of a monitor than elsewhere because of the static charge generated
by many monitors. The best way to clean the screen is just to wipe it with a slightly
damp, soft cloth; companies will try to sell you fancy wipes but they are not
generally necessary (and some can leave annoying smudges). Once a year, it is a
good idea to clean the dust off the outside of the case. Doing this helps keep the
monitor looking good and improves cooling. Make sure that the monitor's cooling
vents are never blocked off. The monitor should always be turned off if it will not
be in use for one or two hours.

4. Keyboard -- Keep Food and Drink Away:

The number one enemy of keyboards is not dust, but in fact food and drink. Check
the Cable and Connector: Make sure that the keyboard cable is not caught on
anything or pinched between desk drawers, etc., to prevent damage. There should
be slack in the cable as well; if the keyboard cable is too tight this can damage the
cable, connector, or worst of all, the plug on the motherboard where the keyboard
connects to it.

5. Mouse -- Clean the Mouse Regularly:

It should be cleaned on a monthly basis. This includes cleaning the mouse ball, and
also the rollers on the inside of the unit. If the ball becomes dirty then it doesn't roll
properly, and the cursor won't move smoothly. Check the Cable and Connector:
Make sure that the mouse cable is not caught on anything on the workplace to
prevent damage. There should be slack in the cable as well.

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Booting of the Computer:
Booting imply ―activating the computer for working.
Thus, when the computer is switched on, the operating system residing in the
floppy or in the hard disk is transferred into the primary memory. After this, the
computer is ready to accept the commands at user terminal. If OS is not existing
either in floppy drive or in the hard disk drive, ― non-system or disk error is
flashed on the screen.

The booting of the computer is carried out with a software which resides on ROM
chip called BIOS (Basic Input Output System). Thus when a PC with system disk
either in Hard-Disk Drive or Floppy Drive is switched ―on, the screen finally
displays one of the following symbols with a blinking cursor at its end:
a) A:\> This imply that the computer is booted through Floppy drive
`A‘ and is ready to accept DOS commands. The symbol ―\> is
as DOS prompt from where DOS commands can be entered.
b) C:\> It imply that the PC is booted through the Hard-Disk Drive
`C‘. Booting is essential whenever the system is locked or switched off.

A Personal Computer can be booted through two ways:

a) Cold Booting
b) Warm Booting.

a) Cold Booting:
It is only switching OFF the system and after some time again switching ON.

b) Warm Booting:
It is carried out by pressing the following three keys simultaneously Ctrl + Alt +
Del. It is preferable to cold booting as it safeguards the system from sudden
power fluctuations resulting out of switching ON and OFF the system.

K. SHUTDOWN
To shut down your computer, click the Start button, click Shut Down, and then
click Shut Down The Computer (Shortcut: Press the Windows Logo Key, then
the U key and then the S key).
It is imperative that you shut down the computer properly. Failure to do so could
cause damage or loss of data. If the computer "freezes", it may be necessary to
restart (also known as "reboot") the computer using alternate means. Pressing the
"Control" "Alt" and "Delete" keys at the same time is an alternate way of rebooting
the computer. A window will appear (see #4 under Keystrokes to Know) showing
all programs currently open with the one currently in use highlighted. At the
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bottom of the window will be three tabs. Click on the one that says “End Task”. If
you are lucky, the program will close and you can continue as normal. However,
many times, even this will not work. If using "Control" "Alt" and "Delete" will not
restart your computer, you need to reboot your computer by pressing the reset
button in front of your computer.

M. RUNNING SCAN DISK (Win 98)

Before using, floppy disks should be checked to be sure they contain no bad
sectors. Bad sectors can result in data loss. Run scandisk to check a disk for
bad sectors.
1. Make sure the write protect tab on the right side of the disk is closed. Insert
the disk (metal side first) into the disk drive.
2. Place cursor on Start Button, go to Run. Type the word scandisk (all one

word) in the box and click the OK button. The following window will open:
3. Highlight the first icon [3 ½ Floppy (A:)]. Under the “Type of test” section
click the radio button next to “Thorough”. Make sure there is a check mark on
Automatically fix errors. Click Start button.
1. Insert the 3-1/2 floppy diskette into the drive.
2. Double-click “My Computer.”
3. Right click on the 3-1/2 Floppy (A:) drive icon, a pop-up menu appears. Click
on Properties.

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4. The “3-1/2 Floppy (A:) Properties” window opens. Click on the “Tools” tab.

5. Click the “Check Now…” button in the “Error-checking” section. You will see
the following window:

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6. Click the Start button. The following window opens when the scan is
completed. Click OK.

SUMMARY
Parts of a computer
Monitor:
This is what we call the screen. It is formally called a cathode-ray tube.
Keyboard:
This is the instrument we use in order to type text into the computer.
Mouse:
This attachment rolls on a small circular ball and has buttons which can be
clicked. This part of the system allows the user to work more easily with a
computer interface. As the user moves the mouse around on its pad, a screen
cursor moves correspondingly on screen. Some later models of the mouse no
longer use a ball but use optical light technology.
LCD:
This is an acronym for Liquid Crystal Display Projector. This device permits users
to project what appears on their computer screen to a larger classroom/conference
room screen.
CPU:
This is an acronym for the Central Processing Unit. It is the ‘nuts and bolts’ of the
computer and is where the computer’s memory and storage space exists.
Modem:
This is a component that resides inside your CPU. It allows the user to connect
with the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW).
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Desktop:
This comprises of what is plainly visible on the user’s computer screen or monitor.
Peripherals: Peripherals refer to technology that can be attached to the main
computer station, such as printers, scanners or digital cameras.
Printer:
This peripheral is a device that permits users to print files to paper.
Scanner:
This peripheral device permits the user to digitally upload images or text which
already exists non-electronically. These digital uploads can then be converted into
computer files which can be manipulated.
Digital Camera:
Digital Cameras can now be connected to computer stations. This is may be done
so that the video can be uploaded to the computer which can then be edited.
Computer
A Computer is an electronic device that can perform activities that involve
Mathematical, Logical and graphical manipulations. Generally, the term is used to
describe a collection of devices that function together as a system. It performs the
following three operations in sequence.
1. It receives data & instructions from the input device.
2. Processes the data as per instructions.
3. Provides the result (output) in a desired form.

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COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
The world of business has changed dramatically since the introduction of the first
modern multipurpose computer over 50 years ago. The ENIAC (Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Computer), designed by Drs. Mauchly and Eckert, two
American engineers, was set up at the University of Pennsylvania in 1946. This 30-
ton machine occupied a thirty-by-thirty room, contained 18,000 vacuum tubes
linked by 500 miles of wiring, and could perform 100,000 operations per second. It
consumed so much electricity that it dimmed the lights in the section of
Philadelphia where it was housed.

COMPUTER HARDWARE
TYPES OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be grouped into categories in numerous ways. Table 1 below
classifies the main types of computers according to their physical size, processing
speed, cost, and number of users. A microcomputer, or personal computer (PC),
might cost a few thousand dollars. It is a small computer that can fit on a desktop,
and is appropriate for a single user. The next larger computer is the minicomputer.
A minicomputer might cost tens of thousands of dollars. It is about the size of a
refrigerator and, when combined with various peripherals, might fill a small room.
Minicomputers often have several hundred users. Large businesses often have
mainframe computers. These machines are housed in large rooms or even entire
building floors. They cost up to several million dollars, and thousands of users can
access the computer simultaneously. In a networked environment, minicomputers
and mainframes are both frequently called servers. The largest and most expensive
computer, the supercomputer, is often used in research settings and other
environments that require a computer with extraordinary computing power. Some
supercomputers are capable of performing several billion instructions per second.

Table 1: Types of Computers

Type Physical Size Processing Speed* Cost Number of Users
Microcomputer or Fits in hand, on lap, or on Up to 400 MIPS $1,000 to One stand-alone or
Personal desktop $4,000 many may access it
Computer (PC) through a network
Minicomputer Small cabinet; may fill a small Up to 1000 MIPS $5,000 to Up to several hundred
room with accompanying $200,000
peripherals
Mainframe Computer requires a partial Up to several $250,000 to Hundreds to
room; may occupy several thousand MIPS $3,000,000 thousands
rooms with accompanying
peripherals
Supercomputer Entire room of equipment Up to 10,000 MIPS Several Hundreds to

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 million thousands
dollars and
up
*Processing speed is commonly measured in millions of instructions per
second (MIPS). One instruction is a “basic task,” e.g., adding two 10-digit
numbers or storing the result in specific location. For comparison, the human
brain is estimated to be capable of 100 million MIPS.

HARDWARE
The term hardware refers to the tangible parts of a computer system, that is, the
physical equipment of the computer. A keyboard, disk drive, and monitor are
examples of computer hardware. (Software is discussed later.) Understanding the
various physical components of a computer system will help you understand how
the system works as a whole. As described above, the general model of a computer
consists of an input system, storage system, process system, and output system.
Our discussion of computer hardware will, therefore, be organized around these
systems, along with communications as an additional function of which some
computers are capable.

INPUT SYSTEM
An input system comprises one or more devices that the user employs to enter data
or instructions into the memory of the computer so that the CPU can subsequently
process them. Data, as discussed above, are unorganized facts that can become
useful output by being transformed into information. Instructions may be input as
programs (instructions that direct the performance of the computer), commands
(instructions direct a program), and user responses (instructions from the user
created by replying to a question posed by the computer). Input devices come in
many forms. Some of the more common devices are described next.

1. Keyboard.
The keyboard is one of the most common input devices. In addition to keys that
represent letters, numbers, and special characters, keyboards often contain function
keys, to which the user can assign personalized commands, and special-purpose
keys, such as the enter key. Some keyboards contain a numeric keypad (a set of
keys in the form of a calculator keypad) that is used for entering numbers
conveniently and easily. Keyboards may also have Internet keys, CD/DVD
controls, and multimedia keys. While most keyboards are connected to the

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computer by a cable, there are wireless keyboards that transmit their input by
means of infrared signals.

2. Mouse.
Connected to many modern microcomputers is a hand-sized input device called a
mouse, or pointing device. A mechanical mouse contains a ball that rolls along a
flat surface, moving a cursor (pointer) on the computer screen. An optical mouse
uses light signals to detect the movement of the mouse and thereby move the
pointer on the screen. Through the use of one to four buttons on top of the mouse
(and a wheel on some versions of the mouse), the user can select and manipulate
objects represented on the screen as icons (symbols). The mouse is a convenient
and effective way to interact with the graphical user interfaces (GUIs) that
dominate the current computer environment.

3. Touchpad.
This input device is a small rectangular surface that operates by means of pressure
and motion, and allows the user to perform all of the functions of a mouse by
touch. Moving the fingertip across the touch pad moves the cursor across the
screen. Tapping the touch pad acts as clicks and double-clicks. Touchpad are most
commonly found on laptop computers.

4. Pointing Stick.
Like the touchpad, this pressure-sensitive input device fills the role of the mouse in
some laptops. It is shaped like a pencil eraser and fits between keys in the
keyboard. Moving the pointing stick moves the cursor. This device is mostly found
on laptop computers.

5. Trackball.
The trackball is basically an upside-down mouse. Instead of rolling the ball on a
surface as with the mouse, the user rotates the trackball with the hand directly to
position the cursor on the screen.

6. Touch Screen.
This input device is often used in public places, such as shopping centers, hotels,
and airports, where users may not have much experience working with computers.
The user simply touches the screen for the desired menu item.

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 7. Light Pen.
This light-sensitive device is used for entering data by writing on a computer
screen. Engineers, designers, and architects use light pens to draw and modify
shapes on the screen.

8. Graphics Tablet.
A graphics tablet is a flat rectangular board used to input drawings or other
graphical data. The user draws on the graphics tablet with an electronic pen or a
mouse-like device (called a puck). The drawing movements are converted into
digital signals that are sent to the computer as input. Architects and mapmakers
commonly use this input device.

9. Speech Recognition Devices.

These devices recognize the words spoken by users. Sample voice patterns are
analyzed, digitized, and stored in a database. Later, during operations, actual voice
inputs are compared with the stored voice pattern. Speech or voice recognition
technology is best suited to structured input applications in work environments
where the user’s hands are occupied. For example, a receiving clerk may enter data
about items received with the following phrases:
“Invoice 998810”
“Item 56213”
“Quantity 100”
“Condition Good”
From these inputs, the speech recognition system will create a record of items
received by a receiving clerk.

10. Audio Input Devices.

In addition to speech recognition devices, sound may be entered into computers
with audio input devices. These devices allow music, speech, and other sound
effects to be used as input. Sound may be entered through a microphone, electronic
piano keyboard, tape player, and CD player. For high quality sound recording, a
sound card needs to be installed in the computer. For some electronic input devices
a special serial port, called a musical instrument digital interface (MIDI), is
required.
11. Video Input Devices and Digital Cameras.
Video input devices and digital cameras allow optical and graphical images to be

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entered into the computer for storage and processing. Digital cameras allow the
user to store still-pictures as digital files (for example, .jpg’s and .gif’s) that can be
used by the computer like other graphic images. They may be edited, e-mailed,
printed, faxed, inserted into documents, and displayed on the monitor. Video input
devices enable the user to store and process full-motion images generated from
camcorders and VCRs.

12. Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs).

ATMs have revolutionized banking by extending “bankers’ hours” to 24 hours a
day. ATM users can borrow cash, transfer funds, and make deposits at their
convenience. Most ATM devices employ some sort of card input that contains
information about the user. The user inserts the card and is prompted to enter a
personal identification number (PIN) to authorize access. If the user fails to enter
the correct PIN after three attempts, the ATM will assume an unauthorized person
is attempting an illegal access. It will then implement a predetermined action. This
may be to lock the user out of the system or have the ATM destroy or confiscate
the access card. In any case, the user will need to appear in person at the bank and
reestablish access authority.

13. Point-of-Sale (POS) Devices.

POS terminals are found in many kinds of retail businesses; for example, grocery
stores. Most POS terminals use some type of optical scanning device, usually
involving laser beams, for reading the product code on an item. The product code,
sometimes called a bar code, is the primary key for retrieving the price and
description data from the database.

14. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) Devices.

MICR devices read characters printed in magnetized ink on documents. The
banking industry, in particular, has made extensive use of MICR for reading and
processing checks and deposit slips.

15. Optical Scanning Devices.

Optical scanning is the process of digitizing textual or graphic images. The scanner
is a light-sensing device that converts an image into an analog signal that in turn is
converted into a digital signal for computer storage and processing. The resulting
file is called a bitmap (.bmp files). Optical scanning is a popular technique for

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capturing photographs for computer usage but it may also be effectively used with
printed and handwritten text.

16. Optical Character Recognition (OCR) Devices.

OCR devices convert typed and, in some cases, handwritten data into electronic
input. This allows paper source documents to be converted to electronic form
without rekeying. Although OCR devices can recognize handwritten characters
and a variety of fonts and typefaces, this technology is not perfectly reliable. In
spite of high error rates, OCR is a cost-effective means of converting large
volumes of source documents that otherwise would need to be keyed manually.

17. Optical Mark Recognition.

This input device is able to read the hand-drawn marks and darkened in fields
placed on surveys, tests, and questionnaires. One notable aspect of input devices is
the degree to which a device eliminates the need for manual data entry. Manual
data entry is a common source of error. Some input devices require fully manual
data entry; e.g., keyboards. Others have done away with manual entry completely;
e.g., optical scanners.

STORAGE SYSTEM
Inputs are sent to either memory or storage, waiting subsequent processing by the
computer. With regards to computers, there is a commonly accepted distinction
between the terms memory (or primary memory) and storage (or secondary
storage). Memory refers to the instructions, information, and data waiting for
immediate processing. For this reason, memory is also referred to as working
memory. Memory is saved electronically on memory chips. Storage, information
and instructions are saved on magnetic or optical media. It is faster to access data
and instructions from primary memory than from secondary storage media, but the
information in memory is usually volatile; i.e., it disappears when the computer’s
power is turned off. (Actually, the situation is a bit more complicated because there
are also some types of memory that are nonvolatile. These will be discussed in the
"Central Processing System" section below.) The information saved in storage
media is nonvolatile and remains in the computer even when power is off. In
general, data and instructions are kept in secondary storage when not needed for
processing. When required for processing by the CPU, they are retrieved from

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storage, sent to memory, where kept until processed. Storage systems have two
components: the storage medium (e.g., a disk or a tape) that contains the saved
information and the storage device or drive that reads from and writes onto the
storage medium. Permanent, non-volatile storage media include floppy diskettes,
installed hard disks, compact disks (CDs), magnetic tape cartridges, removable
hard disks, and superfloppies. Storage and memory are usually measured in bytes,
which consist of 8 bits (binary digits of 0 or 1). A single byte is used to encode a
single character (letter or number). One thousand bytes are a kilobyte (KB). One
million bytes are a megabyte (MB). One billion bytes are a gigabyte (GB). One
trillion bytes are a terabyte (TB). For comparison, the average book contains about
1 MB of information and the storage capacity of human memory is about 10 TB
(or 1 million books).

1. Floppy diskettes
Floppy diskettes employ magnetic storage technology. The disks are 3.5-inches in
diameter and are easily portable. A single floppy can hold 1.44 MB.

2. Hard disks
Hard disks are also magnetic-based storage media. Both the hard drive and the
hard disks are usually installed inside the computer. Portable external hard drives
are connected to the computer by a cable. Current PC hard disks typically have a
capacity from 2 to 50 GB. Hard drives have a faster data access time than floppy
disks. Data access time is the time required to locate a piece of stored information
in storage and retrieve it into primary memory or the CPU.

3. Compact disks
Compact disks are optical storage media that employ laser technology. CDs are
4.75 inches in diameter and can hold up to 680 MB (the equivalent of 450
floppies). CDs are often read-only, although many PCs are now equipped with CD
drives that allow the user to record information on the CD. Some writable CDs can
be recorded on only once. These are designated as CD-R (compact disc-
recordable). Others CDs can be recorded on multiple times and are designate as
CD-RW (compact disc-rewritable). Video data can be stored on a specialize type
of CD called CD—DVDs (digital video discs). As with CDs, there is recordable
variation of DVDs (DVD-R) that allows the user to record video data from his or
her computer, provided that the computer is equipped with a DVD writer.

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 4. Magnetic tape cartridges
Magnetic tape cartridges use magnetically treated plastic ribbon to store
information. Tape cartridges can hold large amounts of information, up to 80 GB.
One disadvantage of tape storage is that information must be accessed sequentially.
For example, to retrieve information storage in the middle of the tape, the entire
first half of the tape must be run. Disks, on the other hand, allow for direct (or
random) access, which means that a piece of information may be located
immediately. Magnetic tape cartridges, of course, require magnetic tape drives.

5. Removable hard disks

Removable hard disks are magnetic-based hard disks that can be removed from the
hard disk drive and easily transported. The disk drive that reads from and writes
onto the removable hard disk is either installed in the computer or attached to the
computer by a port. The portable hard disk is encased in a plastic or medal
container for protection. The disks typically can store up to 2 GB. The Jaz disk
by Iomega is a popular example.

6. Super floppy diskettes

Super floppy diskettes are magnetic-based high-capacity floppy diskettes. The
disks are about the same size as the standard 3.5-inch disk, but require special disk
drives for reading from and writing to the disks. Disk drives may be permanently
built-in the computer or externally connected to the computer through a port. Three
popular superfloppies are the Iomega Zip disk, which can store up to 250 MB,
the Sony HiFD disk, with a capacity of 200 MB, and the Imitation SuperDisk,
which can hold 120 MB.

PROCESSING SYSTEM
The various parts of the computer system are connected through a printed circuit
board called the system board or motherboard. The system board contains the
primary memory, the CPU, the system clock, expansion slots, and expansion ports.
In a PC, the central processing system is housed a box-like case called the system
case or system unit. This task is handled by the hardware that makes up the central
processing system, which includes the primary memory, the central processing unit
(CPU), expansion cards, ports, buses, and connectors.

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MEMORY
As discussed above, instructions and data needed for immediate processing are
usually placed in memory. A computer has two types of memory: volatile and
nonvolatile. They are used for the long- and short-term retention of information,
respectively. RAM and cache are examples of volatile memory—the primary
memory. ROM and CMOS are examples of nonvolatile memory.

1. Random-access memory (RAM)

Random-access memory (RAM) temporarily holds data, the operating system
(instructions that control the computer’s operation), and application software
(instructions that manipulate data). The operating system resides in RAM only
while the computer is turned on. The application software remains in RAM only
while it is being used. Unless there is enough RAM to hold the application
software for more than one program at a time, when new application software is
retrieved from secondary storage, it is loaded into RAM, replacing the application
software that was previously residing there. Most current computers have enough
RAM to run several applications simultaneously, a process called multitasking.
Data and instructions about to be processed are in RAM, as are the output of the
processes. Recall that the data and instructions in working memory (i.e., RAM) are
electronically stored, as opposed to being magnetically or optically stored. Thus,
when the computer is shut down, all instructions and data in RAM are lost because
the flow of electricity ceases. In RAM, any address can be randomly accessed at
any time; hence the name random-access memory.

2. Cache memory
Cache memory is very fast RAM. It is used to store frequently used instructions.
Computers that have cache memory process data faster than computers without it
because data travels faster from cache to the CPU than from RAM to the CPU.
Some cache is built directly in the processor chip, while other cache is in a chip
external to the processor chip.

3. Read-only memory (ROM)

Read-only memory (ROM) contains instructions that the computer uses to operate
various aspects of the hardware. Unlike RAM, the information stored in the ROM
chip is not lost when the computer is turned off. However, this information is
written in the factory and cannot be altered by the user. ROM, for example,

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contains the instructions the computer follows to load the operating system when
first turned on.

4. Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS),

Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS), like ROM, is also
nonvolatile memory. Unlike ROM, the user can change CMOS. For example,
CMOS contains date and time information that the user can update.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU).

The CPU consists of two components—an arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) and a
control unit. The ALU performs arithmetic calculations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division), comparisons (greater than, less than, and equal to),
and logical operations (and, or, and not). All transformations of "meaningless" data
into "useful" information ultimately are the result of these three functions. The
control unit retrieves instructions and data from primary memory and determines
which instructions the ALU will carry out. The CPU also contains registers, which
are temporary holding areas where data resides before an instruction is executed.
Note the multiple layers of information retention required by the computer: storage
(where information is kept long-term), memory (where information is kept short-
term), and registers (where information is kept during processing). In a PC, the
CPU is usually contained in one chip, called the microprocessor or simply,
processor; e.g., the Intel Pentium III and the AMD Athlon. In larger computers,
several chips are required. The processing or transformation of data into
information is called the Processing or Machine cycle. The Machine cycle consists
of two subsidiary cycles called the Instruction cycle and the Execution cycle, each
performing two processes, for a total of four stages. The ALU, primary memory,
and the control unit are involved in these cycles. In the Instruction cycle, the
control unit first (1) fetches—the technical term—instructions from the registers,
where the data to be processed is also being kept. The control unit next (2) decodes
the instruction and sends it to the ALU, the thinking part of the processor. Now the
Execution cycle begins. The ALU (3) executes the instructions by performing an
arithmetic, comparison, or logical operation on the data in the registers. The result
is then (4) stored or written to the registers where it will eventually be displayed
and saved in memory or storage. The time to complete the both the Instruction
cycle and Execution cycle is called machine time. One measurement of the
capacity of a computer system is how much RAM can be addressed. This depends

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on the number of bits in an address. In the 1970s, microcomputers had a 16-bit
address, or 65,536 bytes of addressable memory. Today’s microcomputers have a
32-bit address, which is over four billion bytes of addressable memory. A RAM
address location stores either data or instructions. The size of the address—that is,
the number of bits at a specific address location—is called the word size. A
computer address can have a word size of 8, 16, 32, or 64 bits. The CPU chip is
considered to be an 8-, 16-, 32-, or 64-bit CPU, according to its capacity to receive
data from RAM. The larger the word size, the more data the control unit can fetch
from RAM.

1. SYSTEM CLOCK.
The system clock, a vibrating quartz crystal chip that emits pulses, synchronizes
the operations of the CPU. The frequency of these pulses is the CPU’s clock speed,
which is measured in megahertz (MHz). (One megahertz equals one million cycles
per second.) A CPU requires a fixed number of clock cycles to execute an
instruction. Thus, the faster the clock speed, the faster the computer can process
instructions. The newest Intel Pentium III and the AMD Athlon
microprocessors have clock speeds over 1000 MHz (or 1 GHz). Another way to
describe the CPU’s speed is by how many instructions it can process per second.
This measurement is given in millions of instructions per second (MIPS).
Megahertz is a better benchmark than MIPS because a computer’s system clock is
constant, whereas instructions vary in their difficulty and thus in the number of
cycles required for their completion. A computer performing simple instructions
would be faster in terms of MIPS than the same computer performing more
complex instructions. For such reasons, IBM no longer advertises the MIPS
capability of its computers.
In addition to increasing clock speed, processing may also be enhanced by
pipelining, coprocessing, and parallel processing. Traditionally, the entire
Machine cycle (fetch, decode, execute, and store) has to be completed before the
next one can start. Pipelining allows the CPU to begin a second Machine cycle
before the first cycle is complete. With full pipelining, up to four cycles may be
processed in a CPU simultaneously. Coprocessors increase computer performance
by the use of a specialized chip that handles specific tasks, thereby freeing up the
main processor to do other work. Common examples are graphics coprocessors for
displaying images on the monitor and floating-point coprocessors for handling
arithmetic calculations. Parallel processing enables a computer to use multiple

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processors to solve a single problem. Special software divides the problem in to
several parts, assigns the parts to different processors where those parts are solve
simultaneously, resembles the partial solutions, and completes any remaining
problem solving. Not all problems can be solved by this method and it is not
usually found in PCs.

2. EXPANSION SLOTS.
Peripheral devices, such as keyboards, disk drives, and monitors, are connected to
the computer through expansion circuit boards (also called expansion cards,
adapter cards, add-ins, add-ons, and interface cards) plugged into the expansion
slots provided on the motherboard. Types of expansion cards include:
 A disk controller card connecting a disk drive
 An accelerator card increasing CPU speed
 A video graphic card connecting a monitor
 A fax/modem card connecting a telephone line
 A memory card for adding memory
 A PC-TV card for connecting to a television
 A sound card connecting external speakers
 A game card connecting a joystick
 An interface card connecting peripherals such as mouse devices and
scanners
 A local area network card connecting other computers
Laptops and notebooks have a special type of expansion card called a PC card.
Unlike desktop-type expansion cards, you can add or change a PC card without
opening the system case of the computer. The PC card is simply plugged into the
appropriate opening in the laptop or notebook. PC cards can be used to add
memory, fax/modem, disk drives, and sound capabilities. Most PC cards follow
standards developed by the Personal Computer Memory Card International
Association (PCMCIA). Following the PCMCIA standards allow various PC cards
to be interchanged between laptops and notebooks produced by different
manufacturers.

3. BUSES.
Data in the form of electric on-off signals (bits) travel along pathways called buses
that connect the various parts of the computer. There are two types of buses:
system buses and expansion buses. The system bus connects the CPU to primary

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memory, allowing instructions and data to be exchanged. Expansion buses connect
the CPU to peripheral devices, allowing data to travel from the CPU to the
expansion slots and out through the expansion cards to the peripheral devices
attached to the computer. Buses consist of sets of parallel wires or lines. Each line
carries one bit. (Eight bits equal one byte.) Thus, a bus is measured by how many
bits it can carry simultaneously. The wider the bus, the more information it can
carry. Most current computers have either 32-bit or 64-bit bus width. Another
measure of buses is their clock speed, measured in MHz. Like the processor, the
bus clock speed determines how fast the bus functions. Bus speeds are typically
less than 200 MHz, much less than current processor clock speeds. Expansion
buses are usually slower at transferring information than system buses. The
expansion buses also determine the types of expansion cards that can be added to
the computer. Three of the most common expansion buses, listed in order of speed,
are:
 Industry Standard Architecture (ISA). This bus is the slowest and
most common expansion bus. It is used to connect mouse devices,
modems, sound cards, and some network cards.
 Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP). This expansion bus is faster than
the ISA, and is used to connect video cards and memory.
 Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI). A high-speed expansion
bus used to connect hard disks, video cards, and network cards.
The Universal Serial Bus (USB) uses a new approach to connecting
peripheral devices to the computer. It does away with the need to install new
expansion cards for each new device. Instead, USB-capable devices are connected
to each other in a daisy chain, and only one device is actually connected to the
computer through a cable attached to the USB port. The USB port feeds into the
USB, which in turn connects to the PCI, and then on to the motherboard.

4. BUFFERS AND CHANNELS.

Devices are very slow compared to the speed of the CPU. To keep the computer
running efficiently, data traveling to and from peripheral devices are placed in a
buffer. A buffer is a storage area where data reside before being processed.
Microcomputers have buffers in RAM and in peripheral devices such as printers.
The CPU coordinates data being transferred to and from peripheral devices by
using buffers. When the buffer is empty, the CPU is interrupted and a special
request is made to fill the buffer with more data. On mainframe computers,

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channels are used to send data to and from peripheral devices. Channels are small
computers that control the flow of data to and from peripheral devices. Buffers
hold the data while the channels coordinate the sending of the data. Together,
channels and buffers adjust for the differences in speed of peripheral devices. As a
result, they increase throughput, which is the time a computer system requires to
complete tasks.

5. PORTS
Peripheral devices, such as keyboards, monitors, printers, and mouse devices, must
be connected to the PC system case. This connection is made by attaching a cable
from the device to an interface point called a port. Most ports and cables have
connectors that either male, with exposed pins, or female, with matching holes for
the exposed pins. The number of holes and pins ranges from 5 to 36. There are
three main types of ports. Serial ports transmit and receive data one bit at a time.
One wire in the cable is used to send a single bit stream of data, while another wire
receives a single bit stream of data. Serial ports are the slowest of the three types of
ports for data transmission. Parallel ports are capable of transmitting and receiving
more than one bit at a time. Most parallel ports are able to send and receive streams
of 8 bits (1 byte) data simultaneously. These ports achieve this higher transfer rate
by having 8 wires dedicated for sending data and 8 wires dedicated for receiving
data. Parallel ports are much faster than serial ports. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
ports can connect up to 127 different external devices at a once with a single
connector by means of a daisy chaining the devices together. There are also several
types of special purpose ports. Three of the most popular are:
 Musical instrument digital interface (MIDI) ports for connecting musical
instruments, such as an electronic keyboard
 Small computer system interface (SCSI) ports for connecting peripheral
devices that require high-speed data transfer; e.g., printers and disk drives.
SCSI-equipped devices can also be daisy chained together, similar to USB-
capable devices.
 Infrared Data Association (IrDA) ports for connecting external devices
without cables by means of infrared transmission of data

6. OUTPUT SYSTEM
Like the input system, the output system provides an interface through which
computers and humans can interact with one another. However, now the human is
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on the receiving end of the process. Output devices are used to display input data
that has been processed by the computer into useful output information. Through
its output system, the computer presents the data it contains in a form that the user
can understand. The presentation is typically in one of four forms: graphics (e.g.,
charts and photographs), text (e.g., words and numbers), video (e.g., photographic
images in motion), or audio (e.g., music and speech). Probably the most common
output devices are monitors for producing temporary displays (soft copies) and
printers for producing paper copies of documents (hard copies).

7. MONITORS.
A monitor, or screen, can display graphics, text, and video output. To display
video in the monitor, the computer needs a video card (or graphics card) for
converting the digital signal (i.e., data in the form of 0s and 1s) from the processor
to an analog signal (i.e., data in the form of a continuous electrical wave) that the
monitor can interpret. Monitors are described in two ways. The first is by the
number of colors that the screen can display. This can range from 4 to 65,536. The
second is by the quality, or resolution, of the screen, which is measured in picture
elements (pixels). Pixels are tiny dots of light that combine to form images on the
screen. Typical screens have 320 × 220 pixels, 640 × 480 pixels, or 1,024 × 768
pixels. The more pixels a screen has, the greater its resolution. Both color and
resolution are important for determining the performance and quality of a computer
monitor. The IBM-compatible color/graphic monitors have evolved from the Color
Graphic Adapter (CGA) technology, which featured 4 colors and a resolution of
320 × 220, through the Enhanced Graphic Adapter (EGA) and the Video Graphics
Array (VGA) technologies. The current state-of-the-art for the personal computer
is the Super Video Graphics Array (SVGA); for these monitors, the number of
colors varies from 256 to 65,536, and the resolution varies from 800 × 600 to 1,600
× 1,200. Monitors come in three main varieties: cathode-ray tubes (CRT), flat-
screen liquid-crystal displays (LCD), and gas-plasma displays. All of these are now
capable of either monochrome (black-and-white) or color displays. Desktop PCs
usually come with CRTs, although flat-screen LCDs are becoming more common.
Flat-screen LCDs are generally used in notebooks and laptops. The common
desktop CRT sizes range from 15 to 21 inches. Laptop LCDs sizes are commonly
14.1 to 15.1 inches. Gas-plasma displays are capable of larger displays with good
resolution and can be in excess of 42 inches.

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 8. PRINTERS.
It was once thought that as computers became more common in business and in the
home, we would move toward a “paperless society.” That is, all data would be
circulated and used in electronic form, eliminating the need for printed material.
This vision has yet to be realized. In businesses, homes, and most settings where
computers are found, users still produce hard copy (information in printed form).
For most applications, soft copy (information in electronic form) is not adequate.
To produce hard copy, a computer must be connected to a printer. This is typically
done through a parallel port, which enables the computer to communicate with the
printer one byte at a time. Microcomputers may have one or more parallel ports.
When microcomputers first invaded the workplace, the most popular type of
printer was the dot-matrix printer, which can still be found in service today. These
inexpensive printers are appropriate for tasks that do not require high-quality
images. As its name implies, the dot-matrix printer produces a series of dots in a
matrix to form both characters and images. A print head containing 9, 18, or 24
tiny pins strikes an inked ribbon to create the dots that make up the image on
paper. The number of pins determines the quality of the output; the greater the
number, the smoother the output. In the 1980s, business people who wanted better-
quality output than a dot-matrix printer could provide began to use daisy-wheel
printers. The printing element of this type of printer is a round plastic disk that
resembles a daisy, with petals protruding from the center. The “petals” each
contain a letter, number, or other character. When printing, the daisy wheel rotates
to bring the desired character into position, and a “hammer” strikes the wheel,
forcing the character to press against an inked ribbon and mark the paper. Daisy-
wheel printers do not produce graphic images. Thanks to its decreasing cost and
very high image quality, the laser printer has become the printer of choice for most
microcomputer applications. The laser printer can produce both characters of any
size and high-quality graphic images. A laser beam draws the desired image on the
printer’s metal drum. The drum attracts toner (powdered ink) where the light
strikes it, and the image is transferred from the drum to the paper using heat. A
fourth type of printer used with microcomputers is the ink-jet printer, which
produces letter-quality images by spraying droplets of ink onto the surface of the
paper. It has many of the advantages of the laser printer, including high-quality
output and the ability to produce both characters and graphic images. In addition,
ink-jet printers are often less expensive than laser printers and can produce color
images of very good quality.

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The resolution quality of both laser printers and ink-jet printers is measured in the
number of dots per inch (dpi) the printer is able to produce when generating
characters: the higher the dpi, the greater the resolution of the characters. The
average PC printer today provides 300 to 600 dpi. High-quality laser printers go up
to 1200 dpi, while high-quality ink-jet printers range up to 1440 dpi.

Chain printers are often used with mainframe computers. Chain printers are
extremely fast, producing up to 3,000 lines per minute. A chain with characters on
it revolves in front of the paper; when the desired character passes by, the hammer
in that position presses the paper and inked ribbon against the chain.

9. OUTPUT DEVICES.
Plotters are used in some settings to produce architectural drawings, bar charts, and
high-quality graphic images. They often use paper that is larger than most printers
can handle. There are three types of plotters. Pen plotters use colored pens
positioned so that a mechanical arm can access them. The mechanical arm draws
the graphic image with one colored pen, then selects another, repeating the process
until the image is complete. Pen plotters are widely used and produce very high
quality images. Electrostatic plotters use electrostatic charges to create images on
specially treated paper. This paper must then be developed like a photograph to
produce high-resolution images. Direct-image plotters, also called thermal plotters,
create images on heat sensitive paper. This process is limited to two-color output.
Speakers and headsets are the two most common devices used for audio
output. A voice output device produces voice commands by imitating phonic
sounds. These prerecorded phonic sounds produce synthetic-sounding words.
Some telephone companies use voice output to automate directory assistance, and
some automobiles contain voice output devices that remind drivers to fasten their
seat belts. Projectors are used to display graphics, text, video output from a
computer. In the case of projectors, the output is displayed onto a screen for an
audience to view instead of into a monitor for a single user's viewing. Like
monitors, projectors are attached to the computer through a parallel port. Projector
technology varies widely, but the two most common types are LCDs projectors and
digital light processing (DLP) projectors.

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COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
It is sometimes helpful to link two or more computers together so that they can
communicate with one another directly without a human intermediary. To
accomplish this task, a computer draws on its communication system.
Communications is, thus, the third main function of which computers are capable,
the other two being data storage and data processing. In order for two or more
computers to communicate, specialized hardware is required. First, the multiple
computers must be connected together through transmission media over which the
data are transmitted. Second, there must be communication processors that put the
data in a form that can be transmitted through the transmission media and convert
the received signals into a form the computers can use.

Transmission media
Transmission media can either be physical or wireless. The three most common
types of physical transmission media are discussed next.
 Twisted-pair cable is the type of wiring used in telephone systems, and
transmits data as electric signals. This is the least expensive media but is the
most prone to interference that can distort the signal.
 Coaxial cable, the type used in cable TV systems, is less likely to distort the
signal being transmitted, but is more expensive. Data is transmitted in
electric form.
 Fiber optic cable transmits a signal in the form of light. Fiber optic
technology is much faster, can transmit data at higher rates, and is less prone
to interference. However, it is not widely available and is more expensive.

The two most common types of wireless media are radio signals and microwave
signals. These signals differ in the frequency ranges they cover (referred to as
bandwidth), with microwaves going above 1 GHz and radio signals covering
below 1 GHz. Both types of signals are limited to being line-of-sight (LOS).
Because of the curvature of the earth, this limits signal transmission to a range of
approximately 30 miles. To overcome the LOS problem, repeaters are used to
retransmit a signal. Repeaters can either be towers or satellites. The transmission
media have a wide range of transmission speeds (or transfer rates). Table 2
provides the upper end speeds of the media discussed above. These high-end
transfer rates may not be achievable in practice because of the particular
technologies in use for transmitting, receiving, and processing signals.
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 Table 2: Transfer Rates of Selected Transmission Media
Transmission Medium Upper-end of Transfer Rate
Twisted-pair telephone lines 128 Mbps
Coaxial cable TV lines 200 Mbps
Fiber optics lines 2 Gbps
Radio waves 2 Mbps
Microwave 45 Mbps
Mbps (megabits per second) refers to a transfer rate of millions of bits per
second and Gbps (gigabits per second) refers to a transfer rate of billions
of bits per second.

Communications Processors
Communications processors for PCs are generally referred to as modems (from the
term modulator-demodulator). Most communication systems operate by having the
sending computer’s modem convert (or modulate) the computer’s digital
information into analog format (continuous wave), which is then sent over the
transmission medium. The receiving computer’s modem changes the analog signal
back into digital form (demodulation). Some more current modems do not translate
the digital information into analog form. Keeping the information digital
throughout the entire communications process can vastly increase the transmission
speed. For example, telephone modems use twisted-pair telephone lines and
operate by digital-to-analog modulation. They typically have a maximum
transmission speed of 56 Kbps (kilobits per second; i.e., thousands of bits per
second). Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) modems, which still use ordinary
telephone line, remain digital throughout the communications cycle and have a
typical transmission speed of 512 Kbps to 1.544 Mbps. On the other hand, cable
modems, using TV coaxial cable as the transmission medium and advanced digital-
to-analog technology, achieve typical transmission speed of 2.5 Mbps. Modems
can be either internal (built-in) or connected externally. An internal modem can be
installed on an expansion card in the computer. An external modem is connected to
the computer either through a serial port, or a communication port, through which
the computer communicates with the modem one bit at a time.

SOFTWARE
A computer system needs more than the hardware described above in order to
function. The hardware by itself, even when powered-up, is incapable of producing
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useful output. It must be instructed how to direct its operations in order to
transform input into output of value to the user. This is the role of software; i.e., to
provide the detailed instructions that control the operation of a computer system.
Just as hardware comprises the tangible side of the computer, so software is the
intangible side of the computer. If the CPU is the physical brain of the computer,
then software is its mind. Software instructions are programmed in a computer
language, translated into machine language, and executed by the computer.
Between the user and the hardware (specifically, the memory), generally stand two
layers of software: system software and application software.

A). SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software directly controls the computer’s hardware, whereas application
software is one level removed from hardware. System software manages the
computer’s resources, enables the various components of the computer to
communicate, runs application software, and makes the hardware respond to the
user’s needs. When the system software operates efficiently, the difficult
operations of controlling the hardware are transparent to the user. System software
includes four main types:
 The operating system provides an interface between the computer hardware
and the user or the application software. Because of its central importance,
the operating system will be discussed in more detail below.
 Language translators convert application programs and any other software
programs into the machine language (discussed below) that actually controls
the computer's operations.
 Network and communications software operates the communications
hardware in a computer so that it can transmit and receive information from
other computers. Network and communications software requires two types
of software: software for the PC operating system and software for the
network operating system. In some cases, the latter comes built-in the
former.
 Utility programs perform various specialized "housekeeping" tasks, such as
file management, virus protection, disk defragmentation, program
installation and uninstallation, file and disk back up, disk formatting, and
providing screen saver programs. This list is far from exhaustive. The user
directly controls most utility programs, although some utility programs can
be set to run automatically (e.g.; screen savers and anti-virus scanning).
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OPERATING SYSTEMS
The operating system has two primary functions. First, it manages the computer's
resources—the computer's hardware and any external devices. For example, the
operating system controls the CPU, accesses RAM, executes programs, receives
input from the keyboard or other input device, retrieves and saves data to and from
secondary storage devices, displays data on the monitor, and controls the printer.
Second, the operating system contains instructions for running application
software. The operating system contains two types of instructions. System-resident
commands are active in primary memory at all times to coordinate input/output
requests and execute programs. This core of the operating system, critical to the
functioning of the computer, is called the kernel and is the first set of instructions
to be loaded (booted) from secondary storage in the hard disk on to primary
memory in RAM when the computer is first turned-on. Disk-resident commands
reside in secondary storage until a request is made to execute special-purpose
programs, at which type they are loaded into working memory.

To make microcomputer systems easy to use, the interface (link) between the user
and the hardware has become simpler and more intuitive. Particularly important for
the development of “user-friendly” computers is the graphical user interface
(GUI). The GUI allows the user to interact with the computer through icons
(graphic symbols) on the screen. These icons can represent a variety of things,
including computer disks, folders, documents, and software programs. The user
instructs the computer to perform particular tasks by pointing to and manipulating
the appropriate icons with a mouse. Operating systems not GUI-capable, e.g.,
UNIX, require the user to input commands by typing in words or pressing specially
defined keys. This set-up is called a command-line interface.
The computer’s operating system defines the family of additional software—
primarily applications—that the computer can use. For this reason the operating
system software is frequently called the software platform. Most application
software is written for one particular operating system. For example, the user of an
IBM-compatible PC with a DOS operating system must select programs from the
available software written for that operating system. The user of an IBM-
compatible PC with an OS/2 operating system must select from a different set of
software. (DOS and OS/2 will be discussed below.) Some applications, however,
are capable of running on multiple operating systems and are referred to as cross-
platform applications.

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Application programs can be very large. They might take up many millions of
bytes on a secondary storage device. For this reason, the operating system does not
load all of a large application program into RAM at one time. Instead, it loads only
a portion of the application program; when the program requires other code, it
accesses that code from secondary storage. The operating system’s ability to divide
the computer program into variable-length portions and to store only a small
portion at a time in primary memory (RAM) is called virtual storage. Some
operating systems also have virtual memory, which enables a small portion of the
hard disk to function as additional RAM by storing the portions of the program not
being used in the RAM on the hard disk but in such a fashion that they can be very
quickly accessed (a process called paging).

In addition to managing memory and application programs, operating systems also

perform functions relating to the peripheral devices connected to the computer. For
example, the operating system handles the requests for print jobs sent to the
printer. When more print requests are sent to the printer than can be handled at
once, the operating system assigns them an order and places them in a buffer, an
area of memory, awaiting printing. This process is called spooling. Another
important function of the operating system is that of configuring the external
devices. Each device must communicate to the computer, a process requiring a
device to have its own program, referred to as the device driver. The operating
system coordinates the installation of this software and ensures its proper
functioning. These procedures are often done manually but in some cases the
process is automatically perform by the operating system (called Plug and Play).

Operating systems that allow only one user to run one program at a time are called
single user or single tasking operating systems. Most current operating systems
and computers have moved beyond this stage to multitasking. In multitasking, the
operating system allows more than one task or program to be executed at a time in
a single-user computer. Operating systems that address more memory can run
several tasks simultaneously. With the advent of networks, much focus has been
placed on the multiuser capabilities of operating systems, although the multiuser
environment has long been present in supercomputers, mainframes and
minicomputers. With a mainframe, for example, a thousand or more users may
need to access the computer simultaneously. In all of these architectures, the
operating system must coordinate system requests from many users. The operating

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system manages these requests by allocating to each user a portion of primary
memory where the programs reside and executing the programs when an input is
received or an output is requested. Because the processors in supercomputers,
mainframes and minicomputers are extremely fast compared to the speed of input
and output, the operating system can handle many programs in RAM
simultaneously. The processor handles a portion of each program in series,
coordinated by the operating system. This is called multiprogramming.

Another feature of the operating systems in supercomputers, mainframes and

minicomputers, called timesharing, assigns to each user a fraction of the
processor’s time. An efficient operating system controls the multiuser environment
in such a way that the user feels as though he or she is the only person using the
computer. Computers, especially mainframe and minicomputer systems, can also
employ multiprocessing. In this process, the operating system uses more than one
processor or CPU to execute the commands of a single program. The operating
system sends instructions to several processors in parallel, which results in the
faster processing of instructions. There are numerous operating systems as
discussed below:
 DOS (Disk Operating System) is for single-user IBM-compatible
computers. Microsoft Corporation sells this product under the name MS-
DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System) and licenses another version,
called PC-DOS, to IBM for use in its personal computers. DOS was written
for the microcomputer technology of the early 1980s. An enormous number
of microcomputers still run under DOS. Even though there have been
numerous improvements to the software since its introduction, limitations
still exist. It is not GUI-capable. Nor can it take full advantage of today's 32-
bit processors (e.g., Intel's Pentium series). That is, application programs
running on DOS computers have direct access to only 640,000 bytes of
primary memory.

 Macintosh Operating Systems (Mac OS) was introduced in the 1984 and
was the first commercial GUI platform. The latest version supports
multitasking, includes multiple Web browsers, and has built-in networking
capability. It also is able to open, edit, and save files created in DOS and
Windows platforms.
 Microsoft Windows 95 and 98 are GUI-capable, multitasking operating
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 systems. Unlike the earlier Windows 3.x series, Windows 95 and 98 are true
operating systems, and do not require DOS to run. Windows 95 and 98 have
broken the 640,000-byte barrier, providing direct access to millions of bytes
of memory. These operating systems take advantage of day to day’s more
powerful microprocessor chips, such as the Intel Pentium, which address
more memory and run faster than the older microprocessors. Windows 98 is
an upgraded version of Windows 95. Windows 98 is user-friendlier than
Windows 95 and has more Internet features; e.g., Windows 98 includes
Microsoft Internet Explorer.
 Microsoft Windows NT is designed for client-server networks. It provides
the user with the other features of Windows 98.
 Linux is an interesting operating system because it is not proprietary
software. Its code has been made publicly available (called open-source
software). This allows users to customize the software to meet their personal
needs and to share improvements made with others. Applications that run on
Linux are commercially available; for example, from Red Hat Software and
Corel Corporation.
 UNIX was developed by Bell Laboratories in the 1970's, and is one of the
few small-scale operating systems that is both multiuser and multiprocessing
capable. This allows computers running on UNIX to process a high volume
of inputs from multiple users by using multiple CPUs simultaneously.

B). APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software enables the user to direct the computer’s processing system in
the tasks of manipulating and transforming input data into useful output
information. Furthermore, it allows the user to alter the information generated by
the processing system; e.g., how the information is presented. This is the type of
software with which most users interact. It is the usual interface between user and
computer. Rarely do users directly manipulate systems software, especially the
operating systems software. Application software can be written for a specific
user’s application (custom software), or it can be mass-produced for general use
(commercial or packaged software). Naturally, custom software is usually far more
expensive than commercial software. An accounting package written for a specific
company might cost many thousands of dollars, whereas a commercial accounting
package might cost only a few hundred dollars at a retail store. The advantage of

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custom software is that it is tailored to the user’s specific needs and can be
seamlessly integrated into the user’s existing software. Not only is commercial
software less costly, it is also available immediately, and the package can be
evaluated before being purchased.

Application software comes in an incredible variety for business, personal,

educational, communication, and graphic design purposes—to name the more
usual categories. There is almost certainly a software package somewhere available
to suit any need. If not, there are programmers ready to be hired to build it. For our
purposes, we will limit our discussion to the four types of application software
most likely to be useful to accounting and business students: word processing,
spreadsheet, database, and presentation graphics. These four applications are
frequently sold together in a single software package. Three of the most popular
packages are Corel WordPerfect Suite, Microsoft Office 2000, and Lotus
SmartSuite. In addition to the four "standard" applications, these packages usually
include email, Internet, video processing, and desktop publishing applications.

1. Word processing
Word processing programs allow the user to quickly and easily create and revise
texts on the computer screen. By using word processing applications, the user can
format documents with ease, changing font size, margins, color, etc. Different
types of documents—e.g., letters, memos, and reports—are often preformatted in
the application. PC-based word processing software is so capable and inexpensive
that, in most businesses, it has become the usual tool for creating documents, even
when more powerful mainframes and minicomputers are available.

2. Spreadsheet
Spreadsheet programs are especially useful in business and accounting. The
electronic spreadsheet consists of rows and columns of data, which the user can
easily edit, copy, move, or print. Using numeric data entered in the spreadsheet, the
computer can perform numerous mathematical calculations automatically, many of
impressive sophistication (e.g., statistical, logical, and engineering functions). One
of the spreadsheet program’s most powerful features for business purposes is that it
enables the user to do “what-if” analyses on existing data and to input different
data for various scenarios. Non-numeric data (e.g., names and dates) may also be
entered in a spreadsheet. Spreadsheets can perform some non-mathematical

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operations (e.g., sorting and filtering) on this data, although this type of analysis is
not a spreadsheet's strength.

3. Database
Database software allows the user to enter, store, maintain, retrieve, and
manipulate data. In some ways, databases pickup where spreadsheets leave off,
although a fairer assessment is probably that the relationship between the two types
of software is reciprocal. Database software is certainly more efficient and
effective at handling non-numeric data than is spreadsheet software. Conversely,
numeric data is usually easier to manipulate in a spreadsheet. In most databases,
data is entered to tables of rows and columns, similar to spreadsheets. Unlike
spreadsheets, these tables can be connected into relationships that allow users
incredible versatility in what they can do with that data. For example, data—both
numeric and non-numeric—from several individual tables may be retrieved and
used together in calculations, with the results presented in a business-style report.

4. Presentation graphics
Presentation graphics software enable users to design professional-quality
presentations for business and educational purposes. The presentations usually
consist of formatted slides for projecting onto a screen from a computer projector
or overhead projector, or for display on a large monitor. These presentations may
also be used for online meetings and Web broadcasts. The slides can be designed
to include backgrounds, graphic images, charts, clipart, shading, animation, and
audio effects—and, of course, text, which can sometimes get lost in all of the
embellishments.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
Computer programmers use artificial languages, known as programming
languages, to write the instructions that tell computers what to do. Programming
languages have evolved over time to become more like the natural languages that
human beings speak. This section traces the evolution from machine language to
fifth-generation language.

1. MACHINE LANGUAGE.
Programs for the first computers were written in strings of binary digits ("bits,"
consisting of 0s and 1s). Thus, this first programming language is often referred to

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as the first-generation language (or 1GL). It is also called the machine language
because computers—past and present—require this type of instruction in order to
perform their operations as machines. Instructions (and data) are represented
ultimately as bits because these strings of 0s and 1s correspond to the actual binary
on-off flow of electrical current through the computer's circuitry. Because machine
language is so far removed from natural language, it has a number of inherent
problems as a programming language. It is time-consuming and tedious for
humans to work in machine language, and errors in machine-language programs
are difficult to find.

2. ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE.
Assembly language (also referred to as the second-generation language or 2GL)
was the next step in the evolution of programming languages. In assembly
language, commands are written with mnemonic codes rather than numerical
codes. These commands are translated from the source language (the
programmer’s code) into an object module (machine language). The translation
process can be done in two ways. Either an interpreter converts the program line by
line as it is being run, or a compiler converts the entire program at one time before
it is run. Interpreters are often used with beginning programmers who are learning
a language for the first time. Compilers are used in professional settings where
speed and security are important. Interpreters and compilers are operating system
programs that fall under the general category of language translators. Each
programming language requires a specific language translator to convert it to
machine language. Assembly languages are specific to a particular processor and
give the programmer control over the lower-level operations of the computer.

3. THIRD-GENERATION LANGUAGES.
The evolution of programming languages toward user-friendliness continued with
the development of third-generation languages (3GL). Third-generation languages,
such as FORTRAN, COBOL, Pascal, Java, PL/1, and C, are procedural languages.
Program instructions are executed in a precise sequence to accomplish a task.
These languages use recognizable statements like PRINT, INPUT, SORT, and IF,
which must be compiled into detailed machine language instructions. The linkage
editor inserts pre-written routines called library programs after compilation to
produce an executable program called the load module. Some of the most common
third-generation programming languages are described next.

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 BASIC (Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was designed
as a programming language for novices. The language uses an interpreter that
evaluates each line for syntax errors, which helps beginning programmers. The
language became very popular for microcomputer use in the late 1970s and early
1980s.

FORTRAN (Formula Translation) was developed in 1956 to provide

scientists, engineers, and mathematicians a programming language that is rich in
scientific and mathematical operations.

COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) was designed for such

business applications as inputting records from a data file and manipulating,
storing, and printing them. A tremendous number of programs have been written in
COBOL since its inception in the early 1960s. COBOL still maintains a significant
presence. Each business day, billions of lines of COBOL code are executed.

PL/1 (Programming Language 1) IBM developed in 1964. This language

combines the mathematical features found in FORTRAN with the record-
processing features found in COBOL.

Pascal was written to take advantage of the programming technique called

structured programming, in which programs are divided into modules that are
controlled by a main module. The language was very popular in the 1980s for
teaching structured programming and advanced programming techniques in
computer science courses.

C In the 1970s, AT&T Bell Labs developed a programming language called

C that could be run on various types of computers. Source code written for a
microcomputer could thus easily be converted into source code for a mainframe.

Java was developed in the mid 1990s by Sun Microsystems. It is based on a

new programming technique called object-oriented programming. Object-oriented
programming allows the programmer to define not only the characteristics of data
but also the data's associated procedures. This type of programming is beneficial in
a networked environment because it allows computers to quickly transmit
computations to each other, not just data requiring subsequent computation.

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 4. FOURTH-GENERATION LANGUAGES.
The development of applications written in third-generation languages takes a
considerable amount of time, often several months to several years. Increasingly
users need software that allows them to develop simple applications quickly.
Fourth-generation languages (4GL) were developed to meet this need. They are
declarative, not procedural, languages. With the earlier generations of procedural
languages, the user/programmer had to delineate the step-by-step procedures for
the computer to follow to achieve a certain result. With fourth-generation
language, however, the user simply tells the computer what end result is desired
and the computer to decides the steps needed to achieve that goal. Also, fourth
generation languages have been designed to be easy to learn and use. In addition,
they relieve professional programmers from increasing demands to develop new
programs and maintain existing ones. Fourth-generation languages are found in a
variety of applications, including statistical packages, data base management
systems, and graphical packages. Statistical packages perform a full range of
statistical analyses and enable the user to produce reports of the results.

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and Statistical Analysis System
(SAS) are examples of powerful statistical packages that are available on
mainframe computers, minicomputers, and microcomputers. Data base
management systems usually contain a 4GL query language that allows the user to
retrieve data from and store data to the database. Relational data base management
systems have been standardized on a query language called Structured Query
Language (SQL). By using either a menu-driven interface or simple commands, the
end user can develop advanced queries to the database without a programmer’s
assistance.

5. FIFTH-GENERATION LANGUAGES.
Fifth-generation languages (5GL) are attempting to make the task of programming
even user-friendlier than did the 4GLs. This is achieved by removing most of the
verbal aspects from programming. Instead, 5GLs use a visual or graphical
environment that allows the user to design the program with minimal use of
programming words. For example, visual programming allows the user to drag
icons together in a windows environment in order to assemble a program
component. The 5GL development interface then automatically creates the source
language that is typically compiled with a 3GL or 4GL language compiler.

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Enabling users to design something as complex as a computer program by means
of graphical symbols is a difficult undertaking. Not all attempts at developing a
workable 5GL have been successful. Currently, however, Microsoft, Borland and
IBM make 5GL visual programming products for developing Java applications that
appear successful. The amazing evolution of computer languages from strings of
0s and 1s to graphical icons says a lot about the ability of computers to inspire us
with creativity and genius.

End of tErm onE work

Cliff Orori Mosiori
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Rift Valley Institute of Science and Technology-RVIST
P.O.Box 8271-20100
Nakuru
Email: [email protected]

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