CONTENTS

About the Authors xix

Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxiii

1 Introduction to research 1
Introduction 1
Business research 2
The role of theory and information in research 3
Research and the manager 3
Types of business research: applied and basic 5
Applied research 6
Basic or fundamental research 7
Managers and research 8
Why managers need to know about research 8
The manager and the consultant–researcher 9
Internal versus external consultants/researchers 10
Internal consultants/researchers 10
Advantages of internal consultants/researchers 10
Disadvantages of internal consultants/researchers 11
External consultants/researchers 11
Advantages of external consultants/researchers 11
Disadvantages of external consultants/researchers 12
Knowledge about research and managerial effectiveness 12
Ethics and business research 13
Summary 13
Discussion questions 14
Case: The Laroche Candy Company 15

2 The scientific approach and alternative approaches to investigation 18

Introduction 18
The hallmarks of scientific research 19
Purposiveness 19
Rigor 19
Testability 20
Replicability 20
Precision and confidence 21

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Objectivity 21
Generalizability 22
Parsimony 22
The hypothetico-deductive method 23
The seven-step process in the hypothetico-deductive method 23
Identify a broad problem area 23
Define the problem statement 23
Develop hypotheses 23
Determine measures 24
Data collection 24
Data analysis 24
Interpretation of data 24
Review of the hypothetico-deductive method 26
Some obstacles to conducting scientific research in the management area 27
Alternative approaches to research 28
Positivism 28
Constructionism 28
Critical realism 29
Pragmatism 29
Conclusion 29
Summary 30
Discussion questions 31

3 Defining and refining the problem 33

Introduction 33
The broad problem area 33
Preliminary research 37
Nature of information to be gathered 37
Background information on the organization 37
Information on the topic or subject area 38
Defining the problem statement 39
What makes a good problem statement? 39
Basic types of questions: exploratory and descriptive 43
Exploratory research questions 43
Descriptive research questions 43
Causal research questions 44
The research proposal 45
Managerial implications 47
Ethical issues in the preliminary stages of investigation 47
Summary 48
Discussion questions 49
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4 The critical literature review 51

Introduction 51
How to approach the literature review 54
Data sources 54
Textbooks 54
Journals 54
Theses 55
Conference proceedings 55
Unpublished manuscripts 55
Reports 55
Newspapers 55
The Internet 55
Searching for literature 56
Evaluating the literature 56
Documenting the literature review 57
Ethical issues 59
Summary 60
Discussion questions 61
Practice project 62
Appendix 63
Some online resources useful for business research 63
Bibliographical databases 66
Apa format for referencing relevant articles 66
Referencing and quotation in the literature review section 69

5 Theoretical framework and hypothesis development 71

Introduction 71
The need for a theoretical framework 72
Variables 72
Dependent variable 73
Independent variable 74
Moderating variable 75
The distinction between an independent variable
and a moderating variable 77
Mediating variable 79
How theory is generated 81
The components of the theoretical framework 82
Hypothesis development 83
Definition of a hypothesis 84
Statement of hypotheses: formats 84
If–then statements 84
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Directional and nondirectional hypotheses 84

Null and alternate hypotheses 85
Managerial implications 90
Summary 91
Discussion questions 92
Practice project 94

6 Elements of research design 95

Introduction 95
The research design 95
Elements of research design 96
Research strategies 96
Experiments 97
Survey research 97
Ethnography 97
Case studies 98
Grounded theory 98
Action research 98
Extent of researcher interference with the study 99
Study setting: contrived and noncontrived 100
Unit of analysis: individuals, dyads, groups, organizations, cultures 102
Time horizon: cross-sectional versus longitudinal studies 104
Cross-sectional studies 104
Longitudinal studies 105
Mixed methods 106
Trade-offs and compromises 107
Managerial implications 108
Summary 108
Discussion questions 109

7 Interviews 111
Introduction 111
Primary data collection methods 111
Interviews 113
Unstructured and structured interviews 113
Unstructured interviews 113
Structured interviews 115
Review of unstructured and structured interviews 116
Training interviewers 116
Some tips to follow when interviewing 117
Establishing credibility and rapport, and motivating individuals to respond 117
The questioning technique 118
Review of tips to follow when interviewing 119
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Face-to-face and telephone interviews 119

Face-to-face interviews: advantages and disadvantages 120
Telephone interviews: advantages and disadvantages 120
Additional sources of bias in interview data 120
Computer-assisted interviewing 120
CATI and CAPI 121
Software packages 121
Group interviews 121
Focus groups 121
Expert panels 122
Advantages and disadvantages of interviews 123
Summary 123
Discussion questions 124

8 Data collection methods: Observation 126

Introduction 126
Definition and purpose of observation 127
Four key dimensions that characterize the
type of observation 127
Controlled versus uncontrolled observational studies 127
Participant versus nonparticipant observation 128
Structured versus unstructured observational studies 128
Concealed versus unconcealed observation 129
Two important approaches to observation 130
Participant observation: introduction 130
The participatory aspect of participant observation 130
The observation aspect of participant observation 131
What to observe 133
Structured observation: introduction 134
The use of coding schemes in structured observation 136
Advantages and disadvantages of observation 137
Summary 139
Discussion questions 140

9 Administering questionnaires 142

Introduction 142
Types of questionnaires 142
Personally administered questionnaires 143
Mail questionnaires 143
Electronic and online questionnaires 143
Guidelines for questionnaire design 145
Principles of wording 146
Content and purpose of the questions 146
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Language and wording of the questionnaire 146

Type and form of questions 146
Sequencing of questions 149
Classification data or personal information 149
Principles of measurement 150
General appearance or “getup” of the questionnaire 150
Review of questionnaire design 154
Pretesting of structured questions 155
Electronic questionnaire and survey design 155
International dimensions of surveys 155
Special issues in instrumentation for cross-cultural research 156
Issues in cross-cultural data collection 156
Review of the advantages and disadvantages of different
data collection methods and when to use each 157
Multimethods of data collection 158
Managerial implications 159
Ethics in data collection 159
Ethics and the researcher 159
Ethical behavior of respondents 160
Summary 160
Discussion questions 161

10 Experimental designs 165

Introduction 165
The lab experiment 167
Control 168
Manipulation 168
Controlling the contaminating exogenous or “nuisance” variables 170
Matching groups 170
Randomization 170
Internal validity of lab experiments 171
External validity or generalizability of lab experiments 171
The field experiment 172
External and internal validity in experiments 172
Trade-off between internal and external validity 172
Factors affecting the validity of experiments 173
History effects 173
Maturation effects 174
Testing effects 174
Selection bias effects 175
Mortality effects 175
Statistical regression effects 176
Instrumentation effects 176
Identifying threats to validity 177
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Review of factors affecting internal and external validity 178

Types of experimental design and validity 179
Quasi-experimental designs 179
Pretest and posttest experimental group design 179
Posttests only with experimental and control groups 179
Time series design 180
True experimental designs 181
Pretest and posttest experimental and control group design 181
Solomon four-group design 181
Double-blind studies 183
Ex post facto designs 184
Simulation 184
Ethical issues in experimental design research 185
Managerial implications 186
Summary 187
Discussion questions 189
Appendix: Further experimental designs 190
The completely randomized design 190
Randomized block design 191
Latin square design 191
Factorial design 192

11 Measurement of variables: Operational definition 193

Introduction 193
How variables are measured 193
Operational definition (operationalization) 195
Operationalization: dimensions and elements 196
Operationalizing the (multidimensional) concept of achievement motivation 197
Dimensions and elements of achievement motivation 198
What operationalization is not 202
Review of operationalization 203
International dimensions of operationalization 204
Summary 204
Discussion questions 205

12 Measurement: Scaling, reliability and validity 206

Introduction 206
Four types of scales 207
Nominal scale 207
Ordinal scale 208
Interval scale 209
Ratio scale 209
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Ordinal or interval? 210

Review of scales 212
Rating scales 213
Dichotomous scale 213
Category scale 214
Semantic differential scale 214
Numerical scale 214
Itemized rating scale 215
Likert scale 215
Fixed or constant sum scale 216
Stapel scale 216
Graphic rating scale 217
Consensus scale 218
Other scales 218
Ranking scales 218
Paired comparison 218
Forced choice 218
Comparative scale 219
International dimensions of scaling 219
Goodness of measures 220
Item analysis 220
Validity 220
Content validity 221
Criterion-related validity 221
Construct validity 222
Reliability 223
Stability of measures 224
Internal consistency of measures 224
Reflective versus formative measurement scales 225
What is a reflective scale? 225
What is a formative scale and why do the items of a formative scale not necessarily hang together? 225
Summary 226
Discussion questions 227
Appendix: Examples of some measures 229
Measures from behavioral finance research 229
Measures from management accounting research 230
Measures from management research 230
Measures from marketing research 232

13 Sampling 235
Introduction 235
Population, element, sample, sampling unit, and subject 236
Population 236
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Element 237
Sample 237
Sampling unit 237
Subject 237
Sample data and population values 237
Parameters 238
Representativeness of Samples 238
Normality of Distributions 238
The sampling process 239
Defining the population 240
Determining the sample frame 240
Determining the sampling design 240
Determining the sample size 241
Executing the sampling process 241
Probability sampling 242
Unrestricted or simple random sampling 242
Restricted or complex probability sampling 243
Systematic sampling 243
Stratified random sampling 244
Cluster sampling 246
Double sampling 247
Review of probability sampling designs 247
Nonprobability sampling 247
Convenience sampling 247
Purposive sampling 248
Judgment sampling 248
Quota sampling 248
Review of nonprobability sampling designs 249
Intermezzo: examples of when certain sampling designs would be appropriate 252
Simple random sampling 252
Stratified random sampling 252
Systematic sampling 253
Cluster sampling 254
Area sampling 254
Double sampling 255
Convenience sampling 255
Judgment sampling: one type of purposive sampling 255
Quota sampling: a second type of purposive sampling 256
Issues of precision and confidence in determining sample size 257
Precision 257
Confidence 258
Sample data, precision, and confidence in estimation 258
Trade-off between confidence and precision 259
Sample data and hypothesis testing 260
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The sample size 261

Determining the sample size 262
Sample size and type II errors 264
Statistical and practical significance 264
Rules of thumb 264
Efficiency In Sampling 265
Sampling as related to qualitative studies 265
Managerial implications 266
Summary 266
Discussion questions 268

14 Quantitative data analysis 271

Introduction 271
Getting the data ready for analysis 273
Coding and data entry 273
Coding the responses 273
Data entry 275
Editing data 276
Data transformation 277
Getting a feel for the data 278
Frequencies 279
Bar charts and pie charts 280
Measures of central tendency and dispersion 282
Measures of central tendency 282
Measures of dispersion 283
Relationships between variables 285
Relationship between two nominal variables: χ2 test 285
Correlations 286
Excelsior enterprises: descriptive statistics part 1 287
Testing the goodness of measures 289
Reliability 289
Excelsior Enterprises: checking the reliability of the multi-item measures 290
Validity 292
Excelsior enterprises: descriptive statistics part 2 293
Summary 296
Discussion questions 297

15 Quantitative data analysis: Hypothesis testing 300

Introduction 300
Type I errors, type II errors, and statistical power 301
Choosing the appropriate statistical technique 302
Testing a hypothesis about a single mean 302
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Testing hypotheses about two related means 305

Testing hypotheses about two unrelated means 309
Testing hypotheses about several means 311
Regression analysis 312
Standardized regression coefficients 315
Regression with dummy variables 315
Multicollinearity 316
Testing moderation using regression analysis: interaction effects 316
Other multivariate tests and analyses 319
Discriminant analysis 319
Logistic regression 319
Conjoint analysis 320
Two-way ANOVA 322
MANOVA 322
Canonical correlation 322
Excelsior enterprises: hypothesis testing 323
Overall interpretation and recommendations to the president 325
Data warehousing, data mining, and operations research 326
Some software packages useful for data analysis 327
Summary 328
Discussion questions 329

16 Qualitative data analysis 332

Introduction 332
Three important steps in qualitative data analysis 332
Data reduction 334
Data display 347
Drawing conclusions 347
Reliability and validity in qualitative research 348
Some other methods of gathering and analyzing qualitative data 350
Content analysis 350
Narrative analysis 350
Analytic induction 350
Big data 351
Summary 351
Discussion questions 352

17 The research report 353

Introduction 353
The written report 354
The purpose of the written report 354
The audience for the written report 356
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Characteristics of a well-written report 356

Contents of the research report 357
The title and the title page 357
The executive summary or abstract 357
Table of contents 358
List of tables, figures, and other materials 359
Preface 359
The authorization letter 360
The introductory section 360
The body of the report 360
The final part of the report 361
References 361
Appendix 363
Oral presentation 363
Deciding on the content 364
Visual aids 364
The presenter 365
The presentation 365
Handling questions 365
Summary 366
Discussion questions 367
Appendix: Examples 368
Report 1: sample of a report involving a descriptive study 368
Report 2: sample of a report offering alternative solutions and explaining
the pros and cons of each alternative 371
Report 3: example of an abridged basic research report 373

A Final Note to Students 377

Statistical Tables 379
Glossary 389
Bibliography 399
Index 407