EAS Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology

Abbreviated Key Title: EAS J Pharm Pharmacol

ISSN: 2663-0990 (Print) & ISSN: 2663-6719 (Online)
Published By East African Scholars Publisher, Kenya
Volume-3 | Issue-1 | Jan-Feb: 2021 | DOI: 10.36349/easjpp.2021.v03i01.003

Review Article

Pharmacological Properties of ∆ (9) - Tetrahydrocannabinol: A Review

Ayu Mulia, Sri Oktavia*, Ifora Ifora
Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmaceutical Science Padang (STIFARM Padang), West Sumatera, Indonesia,
25147

Abstract: Background / Objective: ∆(9) - Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is identified as the

Article History major active component of marijuana, it can interact with several pharmacological targets
Received: 16.01.2021 by involving cannabinoid receptors. Up to this point, many studies have proven that THC
Accepted: 27.01.2021
has many benefits with different mechanisms of action. This review aims to examine
Published: 30.01.2021
pharmacological effects contained in the ∆(9) - Tetrahydrocannabinol compound that can
Journal homepage: be used by medical field for treatment. Methods: We summarized the studies on the
https://www.easpublisher.com pharmacological properties of THC compound published from 2010 to 2020 from database
such as PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. The search terms that were used are
Quick Response Code as follows: "∆(9) -Tetrahydrocannabinol OR Tetrahydrocannabinol" AND "Potential OR
Properties OR Pharmacological OR Effects". Results: The results of 15 studies were
included in this review based on our eligibility criteria with 6 animal studies, 4 human
studies, and 5 in vitro studies that showed THC compound has many pharmacological
effects, where the benefits of those effects are useful in the treatment. Conclusions: THC
has potential in its use as analgesics, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-nausea and
vomiting, anti-tumor, hepatoprotective, and an indication of immunosuppression. More
research is needed to evaluate the pharmaceutical potential of THC and the better
comprehension of its pharmacological mechanisms.
Keywords: Marijuana, Cannabinoid, Δ(9) - Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), Pharmacology.
Copyright © 2021 The Author(s): This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License (CC BY-NC 4.0) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial use provided the original
author and source are credited.

United Kingdom) [7]. Nabilone is also indicated in the

INTRODUCTION medication of various types of pain such as pain in
Δ(9) - Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is known cancer people, including even neuropathic pain, chronic
as the major active component of marijuana, and it can non-cancer pain, fibromyalgia, and seizures related with
interact with multiple pharmacological targets [1] multiple sclerosis [8].
involving certain cell cannabinoid receptors surface [2].
Marijuana consists of three different bioactive The therapeutic potential of cannabinoids in
molecules, namely terpenoids, flavonoids, and medication is of course not limited to the palliative
cannabinoids, whereas from various types of effects noted above. Until now, many studies have
cannabinoids, THC is the most studied cannabinoid [3]. provided evidence that THC has many benefits in
treatment with different mechanisms of action and
Cannabinoids are known to have research on this compound much has been done in the
pharmacological potential and are widely used in past, therefore this review aims to examine what
medical applications, such as for the medication of pharmacological effects are contained in the Δ(9) -
spasticity and chronic pain. In addition, cannabinoids Tetrahydrocannabinol compound that can be used by
have also been related with improvements in nausea and the medical field in the treatment based on the results of
vomiting caused by chemotherapy, sleep disorders, recent research (in the last 10 years).
weight gain in HIV, and Tourette's syndrome [4].
Cannabinoids may have anticancer activity in
preclinical in vivo and in vitro studies [5]. At present, DATA COLLECTION
THC capsules and their synthetic analog nabilone are Comprehensive searches were undertaken to
approved for this purpose. THC capsules are used for find evidence in the literature on pharmacological
the treatment of AIDS/ HIV-induced anorexia, and properties in either animal studies, human studies, or in
nausea and vomiting that are induced by chemotherapy vitro studies of ∆(9) - Tetrahydrocannabinol compound
[6], while nabilone is used in severe nausea and in three different online bibliographic databases:
vomiting therapy associated with chemotherapy in PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. The
many countries (Canada, Mexico, United States, and search terms used were "∆(9) - Tetrahydrocannabinol

*Corresponding Author: Sri Oktavia 13

Ayu Mulia et al; EAS J Pharm Pharmacol; Vol-3, Iss-1 (Jan-Feb, 2021): 13-20
OR Tetrahydrocannabinol" AND "Potential OR 1. Analgesic activity
Properties OR Pharmacological OR Effects". All THC has been known to produce analgesic
abstracts and full-text articles were collected, reviewed, effects on chronic pain in humans [9]. Besides, THC
and summarized. The most relevant articles were has also been shown to be synergistic in several
selected for screening and inclusion in this review. research results when combined with Cannabidiol
(CBD), including inhibition of glioblastoma cell
proliferation in vitro [10]. CBD could also potentiate
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION the psychoactive and physiological effects of THC in
The pharmacological activity of the ∆(9) - mice, most possibly by defering metabolism and
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) compound that has relieving THC via the CYP450 enzyme action that
potential in treatment has been demonstrated in the metabolizes both drugs [11]. This suggests that there is
animal studies, human studies, and in vitro studies. A analgesic potential of THC to be discussed in serious
total of 15 studies were included in this study based on discussion about therapy options and the development
our eligibility criteria. The study of the therapeutic of its preparation in the treatment of pain. The
potential of THC is summarized as follows: following are the results of several studies regarding the
analgesic effect of THC compound:

Tabel-1: Analgesic properties of ∆ (9)- Tetrahydrocannabinol

Pharmacological Methods used Subject/Animal Reported activity Region References
Effects /Study design or Cell/specimen
Analgesic Parallel-group Patients with pain Twice as many patients taking UK [12]
study associated with THC: CBD showed a
cancer reduction of more than 30%
from baseline pain Numerical
Rating Scale (NRS) score
when compared with placebo.
Analgesic Randomized, Cannabis-naive The data reveal a significant UK [13]
double-blind, men aged 24 to 34 positive correlation between
placebo- years volunteered the effect of THC on the
controlled for the study BOLD response of the right
amygdala and the analgesic
effect of THC. Where THC
can reduce the discomfort of
capsaicin-induced
hyperalgesia.
Analgesic A randomized, Diagnosed patient ∆ (9) Tetrahydrocannabinol Nijmegen [14]
single-dose, with CP (chronic (THC) in single dose was
double-blinded, pancreatitis) reported to be ineffective in
placebo- reducing chronic pain caused
controlled by chronic pancreatitis (CP)
but was well tolerated with
only mild or moderate AE.
Analgesic Experimental/ Adult female THC can reduce migraine-like USA [15]
In-vivo Sprague-Dawley pain when given in the right
rats bred dose (0.32 mg / kg) and
immediately after AITC. The
antimigraine effect of THC is
mediated by the CB1 receptor.
An effective method used to
assess migraine treatment is
running wheel.

Human studies of three groups, namely the THC: CBD extract group,
The study conducted by Johnson et al., [12] by the THC extract group, and the placebo group. The
using a parallel-group study method, in which patients results of this study reported that THC: CBD group was
enrolled in the study were randomly selected through superior in pain relief, with twice as many patients
screening from 192 patients for 25 months with experiencing a 30% reduction in pain from baseline
progression stage cancer and uncontrolled cancer pain pain NRS score when compared to placebo, while THC
despite long-term use of opioids. This study consisted performance was similar to the placebo group. So it can

© East African Scholars Publisher, Kenya 14

Ayu Mulia et al; EAS J Pharm Pharmacol; Vol-3, Iss-1 (Jan-Feb, 2021): 13-20
be concluded that in humans the CBD-THC 1: 1 prevent pain such as migraine pain in rats as assessed
combination can produce better pain relief than THC by the running wheel method, and demonstrated that the
alone [12]. anti-migraine effect of THC was mediated by CB1
receptors. Giving THC as much as 0,32 mg / kg shortly
In addition, Lee et al., [13] also revealed that after the initial of headache induced by allyl
THC has an analgesic effect. This study was performed isothiocyanate (AITC) agonists can prevent depression
to examine the effect of capsaicin-induced THC on its due to the running wheel method. The injection of
role in providing analgesic effects. Capsaicin AITC can produce pain such as migraine pain as
sensitization can increase blood-oxygen-level- assessed by the decrease rotation of running wheel in
dependent (BOLD) activity during pain provocation in rats. There was no antimigraine effect if THC is given
the thalamus. The study found a significant positive 90 minutes after the AITC micro-injection, or the THC
correlation in the THC effect on the BOLD response of dose is lowered. The results of this study proved that
the right amygdala and the analgesic effect of THC, this THC has analgesic potential [15]. As for the
finding was interpreted as a reduction in the discomfort involvement of the CB1 receptor in providing analgesic
of capsaicin-induced hyperalgesia. The study also found effects in this study, it can be confirmed because a lot of
that THC has different analgesic effects depending on CB1 receptors are found in the brain area and it
the intensity and discomfort of ongoing pain [13]. modulates nociceptive processing, wherein its
distribution was similar with opioid receptors [16].
The results of research conducted by Vries et
al., [14] with two groups of patients receiving treatment Therefore THC does not have sufficient
doses, where the first group received a single dose of evidence to recommend first-line treatment of cancer-
∆(9) - Tetrahydrocannabinol and the other group related pain because the THC preparation used in every
received a single dose of diazepam. The analysis results research were different, however, the results showed the
showed no effect of ∆ (9) - Tetrahydrocannabinol advantages of an adjunct drug, so more clinical studies
treatment compared with diazepam on VAS (visual are needed to investigate the effects of THC [3].
analog scale) delta pain at rest. That means a single
dose of ∆(9) - Tetrahydrocannabinol is not effective in 2. Anti-inflammatory activity
decreasing chronic pain due to CP (chronic pancreatitis) It is known that THC induction can have anti-
but was well tolerated with only mild or moderate AEs inflammatory effects by involving the CB2 receptor
(Adverse events) [14]. [17]. These agents could be used in the treatment of
cancer that tends to develop inflammation for the
Animal study growth of cancer itself. The following are in vitro and
Research on the analgesic effects of THC in vivo studies showing the active pharmacological
compound that has been conducted by Kandasamy et profile of one of the cannabinoids (THC) which
al., [15] using experimental methods demonstrated that includes anti-inflammatory potential:
administration of THC at the right time and dose can

Tabel-2: Anti-inflammatory properties of ∆(9)- Tetrahydrocannabinol

Pharmacological Methods used Subject/Animal Reported activity Region References
Effects /Study design or Cell/specimen
Anti-inflammatory Experimental The human colon Cannabinoids (one of which USA [18]
adenocarcinoma was THC) inhibited the COX
cell line HT29 enzyme, but in a higher
concentration range
compared to anti-
inflammatory drugs (ie
indomethacin).
Anti-inflammatory Experimental MG-63 cell CB2 cannabinoid receptors Cina [19]
culture are involved in THC-induced
anti-inflammation in MG-63
cells exposed to LPS.
Anti-inflammatory Experimental Rat Giving THC orally 60 Canada [20]
minutes before carrageenan
can reduce inflammation in
the hind legs of rats.

In vitro studies inhibitory effect of the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme,

The results of this experimental study done by which is an enzyme that catalyzes prostaglandin
Ruhaak et al., [18] discussed the evaluation of the production from arachidonic acid. Evaluation in this

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Ayu Mulia et al; EAS J Pharm Pharmacol; Vol-3, Iss-1 (Jan-Feb, 2021): 13-20
study was carried out on six main cannabinoids isolated discussed, co-administration of THC (0.5, 5, and 50μM)
from Cannabis sativa, were one of the cannabinoids could relevantly reduce the release of IL-6 from cells
included in this test was ∆(9) - Tetrahydrocannabinol, stimulated by LPS, this is increasingly clear that THC
and plant material used in this study can modulate COX can induce anti-inflammation [19].
enzyme activity with IC50 (inhibition concentration 50)
values ranging from 1.7 · 10-3 to 2.0 · 104 M. This in Animal study
vitro study used the human colon adenocarcinoma cell An experimental study researched by Rock et
line HT29. In screening, it is observed that ∆(9) - al., [20] also revealed that giving THC through oral
Tetrahydrocannabinol can exhibit stimulation in gavage for 60 minutes before carrageenan
specific doses (between 3.18 · 104 and 3.18 · 105 M) in administration can reduce inflammation in the hind legs
the COX-1 and COX-2 inhibition test. From the results of mice and produce anti-hyperalgesic effects. This
of this study it can clearly be concluded that research was experimentally carried out on rats induced
cannabinoids can inhibit the cyclooxygenase enzyme in by carrageenan to produce hyperalgesia, and then the
a higher concentration range then anti-inflammatory animals were given 1000 μg / kg THC through oral
drugs (namely indomethacin) [18]. gavage. Post hoc LSD analysis showed that the mice
took significantly longer to lift inflamed legs in the
The involvement of THC in the study 1000 THCI group than in the VEH-I group, this
conducted by Yang et al., [19] using experimental suggests analgesic properties at a dose of 1000 μg / kg
methods revealed that THC has an anti-inflammatory of THC administered orally thereby reducing
effect, one of which is influenced by the activation of inflammation [20].
the cannabinoid CB2 receptor so that it can reduce
inflammation by increasing CB2 receptor expression, 3. Anti-cancer activity
inhibiting upregulation of NF-κ B (nuclear factor-kappa Several preclinical studies have shown THC
B) and cofilin-1 expression and decreased the release of has anti-cancer performance, as revealed by [21],
TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor), IL-1 β (interleukin-1 β), wherein in vitro THC has been shown to fight breast
IL-6 (interleukin-6), and IL-8 (interleukin-8) from MG- cancer, lung carcinoma, skin carcinoma, pancreatic
63 cells (osteoblasts) stimulated by LPS cancer, and prostate carcinoma [21]. The anti-cancer
(lipopolysaccharide). THC in doses can decrease the potential of THC compounds apart from the in vitro
release of IL-6 induced by LPS in MG-63 cells. IL-6 is studies mentioned above can also be proven in this
an index indicating the level of inflammation in MG-36 review through the following studies:
cells treated using LPS. As for the dosage being

Tabel-3: Anti-cancer properties of ∆(9)- Tetrahydrocannabinol

Pharmacological Methods used Subject/Animal Reported activity Region References
Effects /Study design or Cell/specimen
Anti-cancer Experimental Patients Cannabinoid receptors are Cina [22]
undergoing strongly expressed in EC tissues.
surgical resection THC could inhibit the migration
for primary EC of human EC cells through the
regulation of EMT and MMP-9
pathways.
Anti-cancer Experimental Tumor samples Cannabinoids could reduce the Spain [23]
from patients in vitro migration of the lung
with NSCLC cancer cells lines used.
Anti-cancer Experimental Human breast Pure THC or CDP could Spain [24]
adenocarcinoma decrease the viability of T47D
cell lines and MCF7 cells in a
concentration-dependent manner.
This suggests that THC or CPD
can be used to manage breast
cancer.

Human study receptor expression correlated positively with VIM

Data in a study conducted by Zhang et al. [22] (vimentin). The results also indicated that THC in
with experimental methods in patients undergoing concentration could inhibit cell growth. THC results in
surgical resection for primary EC (endometrial cancer) a significant reduction in cell migration and has the
and on para-tumor endometrial tissue showed that CB1 ability to suppress proliferation and migration of HEC-
and CB2 receptors are more present in EC tissue than 1B (human endometrial cancer-1b) and An3ca (human
normal endometrium. Additionally, CB1 and CB2 endometrial carcinoma) cells. THC also plays an

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Ayu Mulia et al; EAS J Pharm Pharmacol; Vol-3, Iss-1 (Jan-Feb, 2021): 13-20
important role in EMT (epithelial-mesenchymal Animal studies
transition) tumors as well as in inhibiting the expression A study conducted by Limebeer et al., [25]
of MMP-9 (matrix metalloproteinase-9) in EC cells. with an experimental method examined the anti-nausea
MMP is functionally related to the network renovation effect of the CB1 agonist’s receptor using a gaping
process. This study also found that THC significantly nausea model conditioned on LiCl (lithium chloride)-
inhibited MMP-9 secretion in HEC-1B and An3ca cells. induced cleft formation in mice. There were several
This means that THC can regulate EC metastatic cells experiments conducted by researchers. In the first
mediated by EMT and MMP-9. The results in this study experimental results, it was stated that systemic THC
also showed that MMP-9 mediating THC reduces EMT administration can weaken the conditioned gaping
and cell mobility in endometrial cancer cell and has the reaction induced by LiCl and it does not interfere with
potential to reveal that the transfer of these THC signals the suppression of hedonic reactions or CTA
into cells via CB1 and CB2 receptors aims to develop (conditioned taste avoidance). The experimental results
anti-tumor capabilities [22]. also revealed that the mice pretreated with THC showed
significantly less gaping reactions that were conditioned
In vitro studies than the mice in the other pretreatment groups, which
The results of research conducted by Milian et were not different from each other (P <0.025) [25].
al., [23] used 157 tumor samples from patients with
NSCLC (non-small cell lung cancer) showed that THC / Research done by Rock et al., [20] with
CBD can inhibit the proliferation and expression of experimental methods proved that THCA
endothelial growth factor receptor (EGFR) in lung (tetrahydrocannabinolic acid) or it can be called the acid
cancer cells, and inhibit the EMT in lung cancer cells. derivative of THC could potentially reduce conditioned
Besides, the research results also stated that cleft in rats. This is evidenced by one-way ANOVA
cannabinoids can inhibit cell motility induced by which indicated a significant pretreatment effect. In
epidermal growth factor (EGF) in cancer cells. From addition, the comparison of post hoc LSD ( least
these results, it can be concluded, THC and CBD can significant difference) showed that THCA at doses of
suppress proliferation of cells and EMT. Besides, their 0.05 and 0.5 mg · kg - 1 could relatively reduce the
combination can minimize the unwanted effects of THC LiCl-induced gap in the controls previously treated with
[23]. VEH. Administration of THCA as much as 0.05 mg •
kg - 1 can interfere with the causes of nausea by LiCl
A research conducted by Blasco-Benito et al. (lithium chloride) and SR (strontium) in the cortex in a
[24] using an experimental method and human breast way without blocking this effect. In addition, the results
adenocarcinoma cell lines showed the results that breast showed that THCA reduced the emesis caused by LiCi
cancer treatment using pure THC or CDP (cannabis in shrews. This can be observed from the Bonferroni
preparation) in concentrations can reduce the viability post hoc test which showed that giving both doses of
of one of the breast cancer cells, T47D. Similar THCA to shrews given LiCl after pretreatment, the
experiments were carried out on MCF7 (Michigan vomiting experienced by these test animals is less than
cancer foundation-7) cells and found similar results. In the control group given the previous VEH. The emesis
addition, the results of this research also showed that effect appears to be suppressed by CB1 receptor
THC effect on T47D cells is generated by CB2 receptor mediation because mice in the THCA SR-0.05 pre-
activation and the formation of free radicals. In treatment group experienced more vomiting than the
addition, this study also analyzes what if cannabinoid- 0.05 THCA group. So the results of this study very
based therapy is given with cancer drugs, specifically, clearly confirm that THCA has the potential to reduce
the researchers combined THC or CDP with tamoxifen gaping conditions in mice and vomiting in S. murinus
and then applied them together in cell culture, finding [20]. Besides, THCA-A can also attenuate the induction
that the viability of T47D cells decreased by means of of nausea in rats and vomiting in shrews through a
additives, and when CDP was given in the same dose as mechanism that requires activation of CB1 reversible
THC it resulted in a marked reduction in tumor growth. receptors with CB1 antagonist receptor [26].
This study confirms that the THC and CPD preparations
have potential for their use in cancer treatment [24]. Apart from the research mentioned above,
other studies clearly proved that the cannabinoid and
4. Anti-nausea and vomiting activity endocannabinoid systems can regulate nausea [27]. The
Nausea and vomiting due to chemotherapy are endocannabinoid system itself can function to modulate
important concerns for patients receiving the expression of nausea and vomiting [28, 29].
chemotherapy. Therefore, the ability of THC compound
which has the potential as anti-nausea and vomiting is 5. Anti-tumor activity
useful in the development of drug preparations in the Cannabinoids is known as a suppressive agent
management of cancer patients in the future. The for the anti-tumor immune response; hence, THC has
following are the results of several studies about the recently been used in cancer research [21]. The
anti-nausea and vomiting effects of THC compound: mechanism of antitumor activity of THC is by causing
apoptosis and depending on the cannabinoid (CB)
© East African Scholars Publisher, Kenya 17
Ayu Mulia et al; EAS J Pharm Pharmacol; Vol-3, Iss-1 (Jan-Feb, 2021): 13-20
receptor [30]. However, the antitumor effect that is Animal study
mediated by the CB receptor is highly dependent on the A study conducted by Yang et al., [19] by
type of cancer present [31]. Here is study on the using experimental method reported that there is a
antitumor effect of THC compounds: strong indication of cell proliferation in mice caused by
Staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB). This experimental
In vitro study research was conducted using mice and female mouse
The results of a study by Gurley et al., [32] by cell isolation. In cells from Mice treated with THC
using experimental method and human GBM SEB, H3K36me3 and H3K4me3 were reduced,
(Glioblastoma Multiforme) cell line U87MG which demonstrating that the manifestation of Ifn was
were analyzed for the quantification of phospho- suppressed. IFN- is one of the most potent
proteins and apoptosis showed that by increasing the proinflammatory cytokines induced by SEB. The
concentration of KM-233 (0.3 to 100 lM) in U87MG researchers validated the mRNA expression of Ifn-, IL-
cells can reduce the value of EC50 (Effective 4, IL-5, and Tbx21 by real-time PCR. IL-2, which is
concentration 50) significantly. KM-233 is a synthetic involved in proliferation of T cells, was reported by the
cannabinoid drug, a structural analogue of THC. In results of the study has suppressive H3K27me3 in its
addition, the results also showed that administering promoter area in THC-treated cells, which correlates
KM-233 to U87MG cells could decrease membrane with decreased mRNA expression. Researchers used the
polarization, which was demonstrated by the incapacity ChIP-Seq method to ascertain whether THC uses its
of fluorescent staining to shape of red exciters in immunosuppressive function through modification of
mitochondria for three hours, and depolarization was genetics. Preliminary results showed that THC does not
almost complete at six hours. In addition, there was a change the whole activity of the histone-modifying
reduction in tumor area and 80% of tumor volume at enzyme, when the genes related with this histone
dose of 12 mg / kg. For assess the toxicity potential, a marker were changed by THC medication. However,
histopathological analysis was performed on several when farther investigations were carried out, it was
organs, and there was no definite evidence of the found that THC exposure during the immune response
toxicity of tissue injury with KM-233 administration. to antigens such as SEB in vivo can change histone
The results also showed that treatment using KM-233 modifications, especially H3K9me3, H3K36me3, and
significantly delayed tumor growth [32]. H3K9ac, so that it can affect global gene expression. In
this study, researchers also recovered that a large
Many research teams are interested in quantity of the genes have H3K27me3 and H3K4me3
conducting tests using cannabinoids for aggressive signals provide nearby their TSS (transcription
cancer. This is due to the direct activity and sensitivity termination site), implying that the genes may not be
of the tumor to first-line agents resulting from treatment activated or permanently pressed but are additional
with cannabinoids with a low toxicity profile. However, finely organized [17].
the response that results from such testing varies due to
the heterogeneity of the tumor; therefore cancer patient Recent research (the last 10 years) regarding
medication goal is to expand the tumor predictive sign the potential of THC in each of the areas discussed in
of which patient's tumor will react best to cannabinoids this review is still lacking. But it should not be ignored
or in combination with first-line therapy [15]. for the development of THC compounds in the world of
medicine, especially in the field of treatment.
6. Hepatoprotective activity

Animal study
CONCLUSION
Research on the hepatoprotective effect of ∆ (9) - Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the
THC compound has been carried out by Hochhauser et main active component of cannabis. THC is found to
al. [33] by using experimental method with have many pharmacological potentials, including as
experimental animals: adult female rats, in-vivo results analgesics, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-nausea
showed that giving THC can cause hepatocyte cells to and vomiting, anti-tumor, hepatoprotective, and an
experience less apoptosis so that less liver injury was indication of immunosuppression. Those
detected in mice. 2 hours before inducting the liver pharmacological potentials have been proven in human
ischemia/reperfusion (I / R) injury, giving THC resulted studies, animal studies, and also in-vitro studies. THC
in less detectable liver I / R injury in mice treated with could reduce pain, such as migraine-like pain, cancer
THC and it was also found from morphological pain, and pain induced by capsaicin. THC has anti-
identification that hepatocyte cell apoptosis was less inflammatory activity by inhibiting the cyclooxygenase
than untreated mice. The results of this study proved enzyme, and decreasing the release of pro-inflammatory
that THC also has hepatoprotection potential [33]. factors. THC has anti-cancer activity by preventing the
migration of human EC cells, reducing the migration of
7. Indication of immunosuppression the lung cancer cells lines, and decreasing the viability
of T47D and MCF7 cells. THC could reduce the nausea
and vomiting induced by LiCi. The tumor area was

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significantly reduced using KM-233(a synthetic Neuroimmune Pharmacology, 10(2), 293–301.
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reduce apoptotic hepatocyte cells. In addition, THC also Limbad, C., Moore, D. H., Yount, G. L., Desprez,
has an indication of immunosuppression. P. Y., & McAllister, S. D. (2010). Cannabidiol
enhances the inhibitory effects of Δ9-
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pharmacological agent. However, at the same time, it proliferation and survival. Molecular Cancer
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Long, L. E., Huang, X. F., Liu, K., Arnold, J. C., &
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Cite This Article: Ayu Mulia et al (2021). Pharmacological Properties of ∆ (9) - Tetrahydrocannabinol: A Review. EAS
J Pharm Pharmacol, 3(1), 13-20.

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