Application Report

SLAA466 – September 2010

A Numerical Protection Relay Solution

Kaustubh Gadgil ........................................................................................... High-Performance Analog

ABSTRACT
Numerical Protection Relays (NPRs) are critical elements in any power distribution network. Generally,
there are several different types of NPRs. Each type, however, shares a similar architecture, thus enabling
designers to build an entire system solution that is based on a relatively small number of flexible
components. This application note demonstrates how an NPR can be implemented using TI's extensive
portfolio of semiconductor devices.

Contents
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1
2 Speed Requirements ....................................................................................................... 2
3 Accuracy Requirements .................................................................................................... 3
4 Simultaneous Sampling Requirements .................................................................................. 4
5 Component Selection ....................................................................................................... 4
6 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 6
7 References ................................................................................................................... 6

List of Figures
1 Typical Substation in Electrical Energy Distribution Network ......................................................... 2
2 Example IDMTL Curve: Long-Time, Extremely Inverse Delay ........................................................ 3
3 Simultaneous Sampling Requirement of Two Input Signals in an NPR ............................................. 4
4 Typical Multi-Channel Overcurrent Protection Relay ................................................................... 4
5 Proposed NPR Solution .................................................................................................... 6

1 Introduction
Electrical energy generated by various electrical power stations is gathered by a central electrical grid and
then redistributed to various users based on real-time supply and demand characteristics. Have you ever
wondered what would happen when one or more of these power stations stopped producing electrical
energy, or when some of the loads suddenly demanded excessive power from the grid? As a result of the
high energy levels involved (powers measuring in MW), this imbalance generated by such sudden events
could lead to catastrophic failures.
Some of these situations are unavoidable and beyond human control. Consequently, the central electrical
grid must run a real-time algorithm to detect such fault conditions and react quickly in order to minimize
adverse impact. This monitoring function is typically managed by make-or-break contacts called
switch-gears or relays. These relays are, in turn, controlled by a smart controlling unit that continually
monitors the grid parameters (such as voltages, currents, temperature, and so forth) and switches the
appropriate relays in case fault conditions occur. Most of the data processing happens in the digital
domain; thus, these relays are often called Numerical Protection Relays, or NPRs.

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Speed Requirements www.ti.com

Let us first review where these NPRs are used and the specifications governing the design of these
components. Figure 1 shows a typical substation in an electrical distribution system.
400 kV/200 kV
Transmission Transmission Remote
Network Substations Control
110-kV Network

Power Plants

Remote Control
Interface

Protection
Relay
Distribution
Substation

Circuit Protection I/O

Breaker Relay

20-kV Overhead
20-kV Cable Power Line
Network Distribution
Secondary Substation Transformer
(Distribution Transformer) 230 V/400 V
230 V/400 V

Figure 1. Typical Substation in Electrical Energy Distribution Network

2 Speed Requirements
Based on the end application and respective user geography, there are various standards such as ANSI
C37.90, IEC255-4, IEC60255-3, IAC, etc. that govern the response time of the relay to the fault conditions
that may occur. These response characteristics are generally represented by performance graphs called
Inverse Definite Minimum Time Lag (IDMTL) curves. IDMTL is the measure of an NPR response time to
the amount of fault/error.
Figure 2 illustrates one example IDMTL curve. The associated formula is given in Equation 1.
A
+B
C
tRESPONSE = DMF ·
( IMeasured ( -1
ISet

Where:
• tRESPONSE = Response time
• DMF = Delay Multiplier Factor
• IMeasured = Measured current
• ISet = Set current
• A, B, C = IDMTL Parameters (1)

2 A Numerical Protection Relay Solution SLAA466 – September 2010

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www.ti.com Accuracy Requirements

Parameter
Delay Type
A B C
LTI Long-time inverse 0.086 0.185 0.02
LTVI Long-time very inverse 28.55 0.712 2
LTEI Long-time extremely inverse 64.07 0.250 2
MI Moderately inverse 0.0515 0.1140 0.02
VI Very inverse 19.61 0.491 2
EI Extremely inverse 28.2 0.1217 2
STI Short-time inverse 0.16758 0.11858 0.02
STEI Short-time extremely inverse 1.281 0.005 2

Figure 2. Example IDMTL Curve: Long-Time, Extremely Inverse Delay

From the equation given in Equation 1, it is clear that any NPR which can support a lower Delay
Multiplication Factor (DMF) for a given curve will have a faster response time to the fault signal, and thus
will achieve a higher product rating. In order to obtain this lower DMF and correlating faster response time,
all components in the control loop must be as fast as possible without compromising accuracy.

3 Accuracy Requirements
In an NPR, the dynamic range of the input signal is often very high. For example, a typical overcurrent
protection relay will be expected to monitor currents starting from few amperes (A) all the way up to its trip
point setting, which could be in kilo-amperes (kA). It is also expected that the relay maintain its
measurement accuracy across the entire input range. Depending on the critical nature of the application,
this accuracy requirement can be anywhere from 1% to 0.05%; generally, however, the higher the
accuracy, the better the relay. To achieve higher accuracy, then, the analog front end (AFE) of the system
should have high resolution (~10-bit for 1%, ~16-bit for 0.05%), high linearity, high stability, and low noise,
even at higher sampling speeds.
Successive-approximation register analog-to-digital converters (SAR ADCs) offer zero latency and higher
linearity at higher sampling rates, compared to delta-sigma (ΔΣ) ADCs, and are therefore preferred in this
type of application. Low-noise, low-drift op amps are used in the input stage to limit noise and drift-related
errors.

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Simultaneous Sampling Requirements www.ti.com

4 Simultaneous Sampling Requirements

In most NPRs, the phase relationship between the signals captured from different channels is as important
as the value of the signal. For example, if voltage and current from the same source are measured, and if
a user wishes to calculate parameters such as active power, reactive power, power factor, impedance, or
harmonics, then the phase relation between these two signals is required. This condition means that the
value of both the input signals at any particular instant of time must be known. Therefore, a simultaneous
sampling ADC is required in these applications. An example of such a system is shown in Figure 3.

Sample & Analog-to-

Antialiasing Hold Digital Windowing Preprocessing DFT
Harmonic Voltage

Internal
Voltage Signal Impedance Postprocessing Logic
Grid
V Tripping
z=
I & Display
Sample & Analog-to-
Antialiasing Hold Digital Windowing Preprocessing DFT

Harmonic Current
Current Signal

Figure 3. Simultaneous Sampling Requirement of Two Input Signals in an NPR

5 Component Selection
An NPR must be fast and accurate. From the perspective of electronics design, this requirement
translates to a very high-performance AFE backed up by fast, feature-rich, digital back-end processing. In
this section, we will try to determine the exact system requirements from the individual blocks.
Based on the respective responses to certain types of fault conditions, NPRs are generally classified as
Overcurrent Protection Relays, Overvoltage Protection Relays, Earth Fault Protection Relays, Feeder
Protection Relays, or Distant Protection Relays, as well as other types. It is important to understand that
these different types of relays actually have very similar hardware configurations. The differentiation
between the various types is based on the firmware programming. For illustration purposes, let us take an
example of an Overcurrent Protection Relay.
Figure 4 shows a block diagram of a typical Overcurrent Protection Relay.

Relay Drivers
Optional

CT

Instrumentation ADC Driver

I
Amplifier Amplifier

Multiple Multi-channel,
Channels High-resolution.
Controller/
Simultaneous
DSP
CT sampling
ADC
Instrumentation ADC Driver
I
Amplifier Amplifier

Power Supply

Interface
Reference Voltage
Devices

Figure 4. Typical Multi-Channel Overcurrent Protection Relay

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www.ti.com Component Selection

5.1 Amplifiers
A current transformer (CT) is generally used to sense the current in the grid. This sensed current is then
converted to a differential voltage signal using the load resistor. It is preferable to use the smallest
possible load resistor on the secondary side of the CT in order to reduce the reflected load seen on its
primary side. Consequently, the voltage signal on the secondary side will often be as low as a few
millivolts, but it can be riding on a much higher common-mode voltage. Therefore, the component used to
amplify this signal should be able to provide high gain, but should also support high common-mode
voltages with high CMRR. Texas Instruments’ INA128 is ideal for this application.
One INA128 will be required for every CT in the system.
Based on the ADC used in the application, an extra amplifier stage may be required between the output of
the instrumentation amplifier and the data converter in order to meet the settling time parameter of the
ADC. This amplifier should have sufficient bandwidth, low drift, and low-noise performance. In order to
maximize the usable range of the converter, this amplifier should be able to support the necessary output
voltage range. Texas Instruments' OPAx277 series is very well suited for this type of application.

5.2 ADCs
The various measurements discussed earlier with the desired accuracy and speed can be summarized in
this way:
• Multi-channel, simultaneous sampling ADCs are preferred in NPRs
• Faster ADCs will allow averaging of the output codes to improve overall noise performance
• A higher resolution ADC is preferred so that quantization errors are minimal. (Typically, 12- to 16-bit
ADCs are used in NPRs.)
• ADCs that support a high input range are preferred. This parameter helps to increase the dynamic
range of the input signal, thereby improving the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
Based on these requirements, Texas Instruments’ ADS8556/7/8 family is best suited for this application.

5.3 Reference
The noise performance of the data converter can be only as good as its input voltage and its reference
voltage. Thus, the reference voltage used by the ADC should be accurate and stable across temperature.
Texas Instruments’ ADS8556/7/8 ADCs have an on-chip reference voltage generator. The output of this
reference can be trimmed around the center value, according to the system requirements. Once set, the
reference voltage does not drift more than ±10ppm/°C across the complete temperature range. Generally,
this degree of drift is sufficient in most applications. If higher stability is desired, the ADC can be used in
external reference mode and Texas Instruments' REF50xx series of low-noise, very low-drift (3ppm/°C
max), precision voltage references should be used to provide this reference voltage. Note that no external
reference buffer is required while using the REF50xx.

5.4 Processor
As seen in the previous example (refer to Figure 3), in order to calculate various parameters such as
active power, impedance, harmonics, and so forth, an FFT calculation is required based on the captured
data. Consequently, a DSP engine is preferred in these types of applications. In particular, floating-point
DSPs have a distinct performance advantage over fixed-point DSPs in certain applications.
In addition to the required processing power, various timers and connectivity functions in the controller are
essential in order to actuate the relays and to communicate with other units.
Because this application calls for DSP-like processing and microcontroller-like peripherals, Texas
Instruments’ C2000 family of Digital Signal Controllers is ideal for these applications.

5.5 Interface and Isolation Circuits

NPRs use RS-232 and/or RS-485 and/or Ethernet protocol to communicate system status to the central
command unit. It is always desirable to isolate individual modules in the network to avoid simultaneous
failures. Therefore, isolation is required in both the power supply as well as communication channels. TI’s
isolation products such as the ISO7221 or ISO3082 are ideally suited for this application.

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Conclusion www.ti.com

6 Conclusion
Numerical Protection Relays are critical elements in any power distribution subsystem. In order to avoid
catastrophic failures, these relays should employ high-speed and high-accuracy electronics. A
comprehensive hardware solution has been proposed (as shown in Figure 5) by using Texas Instruments’
vast portfolio of analog solutions and embedded microcontrollers.

ULN2003
Optional

CT

I INA128 OPA277

Multiple
Channels ADS8556/
ADS8557/ TMS320F28335
CT ADS8558

I INA128 OPA277

Power Supply

ISO7221/
REF5025 ISO3082/
TRS232

Figure 5. Proposed NPR Solution

6.1 Recommended Devices

Table 1 lists the recommended devices used in this proposed solution. All documents are available for
download at www.ti.com.

Table 1. Recommended Devices

Device Literature Number
INA128 SBOS051
OPAx227 SBOS110
ADS8556/7/8 SBAS404
REF50xx SBOS502
TMS320F28335 SPRS439
ISO7221 SLLS755
ISO3082 SLOS581

7 References
1. Power System Testing Solutions: www.omicron.at

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