CONTINUUM MECHANICS – Simple Constitutive Models for Solids and Fluids – Manuel Doblare, Estefania Pena and Jose F.

Rodriguez

SIMPLE CONSTITUTIVE MODELS FOR SOLIDS AND FLUIDS

Manuel Doblaré, Estefanía Peña, and Jose F. Rodríguez
Group of Structural Mechanics and Materials Modelling. Aragón Institute of
Engineering Research (I3A). Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain

Keywords: Constitutive laws, solids, fluids, finite deformation, elasticity,

hyperelasticity, elastoplasticity, viscoplasticity, viscoelasticity, continuum damage.

Contents

1. Basic Results in Continuum Mechanics

1.1. Kinematics
1.2. Stress Tensors and Balance of Momenta
1.3. Energy Balance Principle and Entropy Inequality

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1.4. Fundamental Principles of Constitutive Models

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2. Elastic and Hyperelastic Materials
2.1. Isotropic Hyperelastic Materials
2.2. Constitutive Models for Fiber-Reinforced Hyperelastic Materials
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2.3. Examples of Numerical Applications
3. Elastoplasticity and Viscoplasticity
3.1. Classical Rate-Independent Infinitesimal Strain Plasticity
3.2. Phenomenological Plasticity in Large Deformation Problems
3.3. Viscoplasticity
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4. Viscous fluids And Solids

4.1. Uniaxial Models
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4.2. General 3D Viscoelastic Constitutive Models

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4.3. Examples of Numerical Application

5. Continuum Damage Models
5.1. Principles of Continuum Damage Mechanics
5.2. Constitutive Models For Continuum Damage Mechanics of Hyperelastic Materials
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5.3. Examples of Numerical Application

Glossary
Bibliography
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Biographical Sketches

Summary

In this chapter we review the fundamentals and the formulation of some simple material
constitutive models both for fluids and solids. First, a short review of the main concepts
and definitions of Continuum Mechanics is presented, including kinematics and balance
principles, in order to make this chapter auto-comprehensive and to fix the terminology
and notation. Next, we include the fundamental principles of constitutive models, from
a general perspective and without entering in details that have been presented elsewhere
in this book, but sufficient to recall the concepts needed in the following sections. Then,
we enter in the core of the chapter, discussing the fundamentals of elastic and
hyperelastic materials, with especial emphasis in those with fibered microstructure, as
well as plastic and viscoplastic solids, viscoelastic liquids and solids and, finally, of

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CONTINUUM MECHANICS – Simple Constitutive Models for Solids and Fluids – Manuel Doblare, Estefania Pena and Jose F.
Rodriguez

damage-based constitutive models. For a better understanding, in some cases, we have

added some illustrating examples and the computational aspects related.

As it is easy to understand, this cannot be a book on rheology, that would need a much
longer space, but only an introduction to the main families of constitutive models for
engineering materials. In any case, we have tried to be not too restrictive, so fully non-
linear kinematics has been assumed in all cases. A much more detailed presentation may
be found in the many references included in the chapter.

1. Basic Results in Continuum Mechanics

Below we summarize some basic results of nonlinear continuum mechanics relevant to

our subsequent developments. For further details we refer to [11] [31] [32] or [25].

1.1. Kinematics

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R
Let B ⊂ \3 denote the reference configuration of a continuum body defined as a set of

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points located by their respective co-ordinates with respect to a fixed but otherwise
arbitrary reference frame {X} at time t = 0 , and with its particles labeled as X ∈ B . For
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our purposes, it suffices to regard B as an open bounded set in \ 3 . A smooth
deformation is a continuously differentiable one to one mapping (as well as its inverse):

χ : B → S ⊂ \3 (1)
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H

which puts into correspondence B ⊂ \ 3 with some region S ⊂ \ 3 , the deformed

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configuration, in the Euclidean space (see Figure 1). A motion is a one-parameter

family of deformations, χ t , parameterized by time, such as, for a fixed time t , (1)
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represents a deformation mapping between the undeformed and deformed bodies. On

the contrary, for a fixed particle X , (1) gives the trajectory of this particle as a function
of time.
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Figure 1. Motion of a deformable body.

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CONTINUUM MECHANICS – Simple Constitutive Models for Solids and Fluids – Manuel Doblare, Estefania Pena and Jose F.
Rodriguez

In a deformable body, those properties which change along with the deformation of the
body might be described either by the evolution of its value along the trajectory of a
given material point, material description (also known as Lagrangian description), or
by the change of its value at a fixed location in space occupied by (different for each
time instant) particles of the body, spatial (Eulerian) description.

The deformation gradient is the derivative of the deformation mapping χ . We use the
notation (From now on, all the newly defined functions that depend on the motion also
depend on time. However, the reference to t will be systematically dropped, except
when needed, making such dependence implicit for not complicating the notation.)

∂χ ( X ) 3
F ( X) = ∇Xχ = = ∑ FiI ei ⊗ E I . (2)
∂X i , I =1

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The deformation gradient transforms vectors in the reference configuration to vectors in
the current configuration, thus describing the change in the relative position of two

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material particles (or the vector that joins them), and is therefore a two-point tensor,

dx = FdX. (3)
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Similarly, by using the inverse of the deformation gradient, F −1 , material vectors can be
written in terms of the corresponding spatial vector as
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dX = F −1dx.
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(4)
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Expressions (3) and (4) are usually referred as push-forward and pull-back operations of
the corresponding vectors, and are expressed, respectively, as dx = χ D dX , and
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dX = χ −1 D dx .
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By using (3), the infinitesimal volume in the current configuration is given as

dv = dx1 ⋅ ( dx 2 × dx3 ) = JdV = JdX1 ⋅ ( dX 2 × dX3 ) , (5)

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with J = det F , the Jacobian of the deformation, such that the local condition of
impenetrability of matter requires that the local volume ratio

J ( X ) := det ⎡⎣F ( X ) ⎤⎦ > 0. (6)

This result allows expressing the conservation of mass as follows

dm = ρ dv = ρ JdV = ρ 0 dV ⇒ ρ 0 ( X ) = ρ ( X ) J ( X ) . (7)

with ρ the current density and ρ 0 the initial density.

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

CONTINUUM MECHANICS – Simple Constitutive Models for Solids and Fluids – Manuel Doblare, Estefania Pena and Jose F.
Rodriguez

Let us consider now an area element in the material configuration, dS = dSN , and an
arbitrary material vector L not orthogonal to N . After deformation, these elements
become ds = dsn , and l = FL . Therefore we can write

dv = ds ⋅ l = ds ⋅ FL = F T ds ⋅ L, (8)

dV = dS ⋅ L . (9)

Using (5) we finally get

ds = JF − T dS , (10)

known as Nanson’s formula.

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Let us now consider the change in the inner product of two material vectors dX1 and

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dX 2 as they deform through the motion. Using (3), we have

dx1 ⋅ dx 2 = dX1 ⋅ F T F ⋅ dX 2 = dX1 ⋅ C ⋅ dX 2 , (11)

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where C = F T F is the right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor (Note that C only
operates on material quantities, and is therefore a material tensor.). Similarly, the inner
product of two material vectors can be expressed as
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dX1 ⋅ dX 2 = dx1 ⋅ F − T F −1 ⋅ dx 2 = dx1 ⋅ b −1 ⋅ dx 2 , (12)

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where b = FF T is the left Cauchy-Green or Finger tensor (In this case, b only operates
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on spatial quantities and consequently is a spatial tensor.).

Alternative definitions of strain can be found in terms of the difference in the scalar
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product of vectors dX1 and dX 2 in the spatial and material configurations,

1
( dx1 ⋅ dx2 − dX1 ⋅ dX2 ) = dX1 ⋅ E ⋅ dX2 ,
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(13)
2

where,

1
E= (C − I ) (14)
2

is the Lagrange strain tensor and I is the second order unit tensor in the initial
configuration such as IdX = dX . Alternatively, the Almansi strain tensor is obtained as

1
( dx1 ⋅ dx 2 − dX1 ⋅ dX2 ) = dx1 ⋅ e ⋅ dx 2 , (15)
2

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

CONTINUUM MECHANICS – Simple Constitutive Models for Solids and Fluids – Manuel Doblare, Estefania Pena and Jose F.
Rodriguez

with

e=
1
2
( 1 − b −1 ) . (16)

being 1 the second order unit tensor in the current configuration.

From (13) and (15) we get

dx1 ⋅ edx 2 = dX1 ⋅ EdX 2 , (17)

so that the push-forward and pull-back operations of these strain measures become:

e = F − T EF −1 = χ D E, (18)

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E = F TeF = χ −1 D e.

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(19)

When working with incompressible or nearly incompressible materials, it is sometimes

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useful to consider the multiplicative split of F into dilatational and distortional
(isochoric) parts. This decomposition reads

F = J 1 3F . (20)
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From this, it is now possible to define the isochoric counterparts C and b of the right
and left Cauchy-Green deformation tensors (Note that det ( F ) = 1 .)
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C = F T F = J 2 3C, C = FT F,
(21)
b = FF T = J 2 3b, b = FF T .
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According to the polar decomposition theorem [31][32], we recall that the deformation
gradient at any point X ∈ B can be decomposed as
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F ( X ) = R ( X ) U ( X ) = V ⎡⎣ χ ( X ) ⎤⎦ R ( X ) , (22)

where R ( X ) is a proper orthogonal tensor ( R T R = I ) , called the rotation tensor, and

U ( X ) , V ⎡⎣ χ ( X ) ⎤⎦ are symmetric positive-definite tensors called the right and left
stretch tensors, respectively, and defined as:

C = U T U, b = VV T , (23)

It is immediate to demonstrate that with the definitions (22)(23), R is an orthogonal

tensor.

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CONTINUUM MECHANICS – Simple Constitutive Models for Solids and Fluids – Manuel Doblare, Estefania Pena and Jose F.
Rodriguez

R T R = U − T F T FU −1 = U − TCU −1 = U − T ( U T U ) U −1 = I, (24)

and similarly for the left version of the stretch tensor.

Let now I A , ( A = 1, 2,3) be the principal invariants of C (or of b ), defined as

I1 ( C ) := tr [C] = C : 1,

I 2 ( C ) := trC−1 det C =
1
2
(
tr [C] − tr ⎡⎣C2 ⎤⎦ ,
2
) (25)

I 3 ( C ) := det C =
1
6
(
tr [C] − 3tr [C] tr ⎡⎣C2 ⎤⎦ + 2tr ⎡⎣C3 ⎤⎦ .
3
)
Since C is symmetric and positive-definite, by the spectral theorem [31], we can write

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3
C = ∑ λA2 N ( A) ⊗ N ( A) , N ( A) = 1, (26)
A=1
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where λ A2 > 0 are the eigenvalues of C , solutions of the characteristic polynomial
equation:

p ( λ 2 ) = λ 6 − I1λ 4 + I 2λ 2 − I 3 = 0,
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(27)
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and N ( A) are the associated principal directions fulfilling:

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CN ( A) = λA2 N ( A) , ( A = 1, 2,3) . (28)

In (28), λA , (A = 1, 2, 3), are the principal stretches along the principal directions N ( A) .
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The push-forward of the principal directions, N ( A) , is written as

χ D N ( A) = FN ( A) = λAn( A) , n( A) = 1.
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(29)

{ }
The vectors in the triad n(1) , n( 2) , n(3) are called the Eulerian principal directions at
x = χ ( X ) ∈ S , so that the spectral decomposition of F takes the form

3
F = ∑ λ An ( A ) ⊗ N ( A ) . (30)
A=1

From (23) and (28), the spectral decompositions of the right and left stretch tensors are
given by

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CONTINUUM MECHANICS – Simple Constitutive Models for Solids and Fluids – Manuel Doblare, Estefania Pena and Jose F.
Rodriguez

3
U = ∑ λ A N ( A) ⊗ N ( A) , (31)
A=1

3
V = ∑ λ An ( A ) ⊗ n ( A ) , (32)
A =1

respectively, while the spectral decomposition of the rotation tensor takes the form

3
R = ∑ n ( A) ⊗ N ( A) . (33)
A=1

The material velocity, denoted by V ( X, t ) , is the time derivative of the motion (Do not
confuse the material velocity with the left stretch tensor; the context will make clear the

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particular object considered) :

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∂χ ( X, t )
V ( X, t ) = . (34)
∂t
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Similarly, the material acceleration is defined as the time derivative of the material
velocity:

∂V ( X, t ) ∂ 2 χ ( X, t )
E –

A( X, t ) = = . (35)
∂t ∂t 2
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The spatial or Eulerian description can be obtained from the material description by
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changing the independent variables from material to spatial coordinates of a particle.

Accordingly, at any time t ∈ [0, T ] , one defines the spatial velocity and acceleration
fields, denoted by v (x, t ) and a(x, t ) , respectively, by the change of variable formula
x = χ ( X, t ) :
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v (χ ( X, t ), t )) = V ( X, t ), a(χ ( X, t ), t )) = A( X, t ), (36)
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or, in compact form,

v = V D χ −1 , and a = A D χ −1 , (37)

V = v D χ and A = a D χ , (38)

where “ ο ” denotes composition (Observe that (38)/(37) are not the push-forward/pull-
back operations on the velocity and acceleration, but only the change of variable of
those functions associated to the motion)

The material time derivative of a spatial object, such as the spatial velocity, function of
the variables (x, t ) ∈ S ⊂ \ 3 × [0, T ] , is the time derivative holding the particle (not its

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

CONTINUUM MECHANICS – Simple Constitutive Models for Solids and Fluids – Manuel Doblare, Estefania Pena and Jose F.
Rodriguez

current position) fixed. For example, for the spatial velocity, we denote its material time
derivative by v (x, t ) . Then, by definition,

∂ ∂
v (x, t ) |x =χ ( X ,t ) :=
∂t
{ v [ χ ( X, t ), t ] |X =Fixed } = V ( X, t ) |X =Fixed = A( X, t ).
∂t
(39)

Therefore, by definition of spatial acceleration,

v (x, t ) = A( X, t ) |X = χ −1 ( x ) = a(x, t ), (40)

i.e., the material time derivative of the spatial velocity field is the spatial acceleration. In
general, if σ (x, t ) is a spatial tensor field, by definition, its material time derivative,
denoted by σ (x, t ) , is obtained by the formula

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⎡∂ ⎤ ∂σ
σ := ⎢ (σ D χ ) ⎥ D χ −1 = + v ⋅∇ xσ

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(41)
⎣ ∂t ⎦ ∂t

while Σ( X, t ) = ∂Σ
.
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∂t

Some additional important material derivatives are the following:

∂F ∂ ⎛ ∂χ ⎞
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F = = [∇ X χ ] = ∇ X ⎜ ⎟ = ∇ X V = L, (42)
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∂t ∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠
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where V is the material velocity field given by (34), and ∇ X V is called the material
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velocity gradient. By the chain rule,

∇ X V = ∇ X [ v D χ ] = ∇ x v∇ X χ = ∇ x vF = lF. (43)
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Combining (42) and (43), we arrive at the following expression for the spatial velocity
gradient l = ∇ x v :
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∂F −1  −1 .
l = ∇x v = F = LF −1 = FF (44)
∂t

The symmetric part of ∇ x v , denoted by d , is called the spatial rate of deformation

tensor, and its skew-symmetric part is called the spin or vorticity tensor, denoted by w .
Thus

1 1
d = [∇ x v + ∇ x v T ] = (l + l T ), (45)
2 2
1 1
w = ⎡⎣∇ x v − ∇ x v T ⎤⎦ = (l − l T ), (46)
2 2

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

CONTINUUM MECHANICS – Simple Constitutive Models for Solids and Fluids – Manuel Doblare, Estefania Pena and Jose F.
Rodriguez

with

l = ∇ x v = d + w. (47)

The following relationship is also useful:

 = 1C
D=E  = 1 ⎡ F T F + F T F ⎤ = 1 F T [(∇ v)T + ∇ v]F = F TdF. (48)
2⎣ ⎦ 2 x x
2

Expression (48) justifies the name material rate of the deformation tensor given to D ,
since d = χ D D , D = χ −1 D d .

In addition, introducing (18) and (19) into (48) leads to

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⎛∂ ⎞
d = χ D ⎜ (χ −1 D e) ⎟ = Lχ [e]. (49)

R
⎝ ∂t

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⎠

Hence, the rate of deformation tensor is the push-forward of the time derivative of the
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pull-back of the Almansi tensor. This operation is known as the Lie derivative of a
tensor over the mapping χ and it will be used in the following sections, being
immediate that d is the Lie derivative of the Almansi tensor e .
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CONTINUUM MECHANICS – Simple Constitutive Models for Solids and Fluids – Manuel Doblare, Estefania Pena and Jose F.
Rodriguez

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CONTINUUM MECHANICS – Simple Constitutive Models for Solids and Fluids – Manuel Doblare, Estefania Pena and Jose F.
Rodriguez

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dimensional elasticity using modern differential geometry and functional analysis].
[33] Miehe, C. and Keck, J., (2000). Superimposed finite elastic-viscoelastic-plastoelastic stress response
with damage in filled rubbery polymers. Experiments, modelling and algorithmic Implementation.
Journal of Mechanics Physics Solids 48, 323-365. [A phenomenological material model for a
superimposed elastic–viscoelastic–plastoelastic stress response with damage at large strains is presented,
and considers details of its numerical implementation].

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

CONTINUUM MECHANICS – Simple Constitutive Models for Solids and Fluids – Manuel Doblare, Estefania Pena and Jose F.
Rodriguez

[34] Mooney, M., (1940). A theory of large elastic deformation. Journal of Applied Mechanics 11, 582-
592. [The paper introduces the well known strain energy function for rubbers].
[35] Morrey Jr, C.B., (1952). Quasi-convexity and the lower semicontinuity of multiple integrals. Pacific
Journal of Mathematics 2, 25-53. [The paper discusses necessary and sufficient conditions on a given
function of vector functions in order for its integral on a close domain to be lower semicontinuous].
[36] Mullins, L., (1947). Effect of Stretching on the Properties of Rubber. Journal of Rubber Research 16,
275-289. [This classic experimental work on the study of the effect of cyclic loading on rubbers. This is
the paper that first describes the work softening on rubbers subjected to cyclic loading].
[37] Noll, W., (1958). A mathematical theory of the mechanical of continuous media. Archives Rational
Mechanics Analisys 2, 199-226. [The paper gives the basis for the constitutive theory for continuum
materials (solid and fluids). It introduces a direct notation for developing the concepts in an elegant and
concise way. This work represents the basis for the Non-Linear Field Theories of Mechanics paper
written by Truesdell and Noll]
[38] Ogden, R.W., (1972). Large deformation isotropic elasticity I: On the correlation of theory and
experiment for incompresible rubberlike solids. Proceedings Royal Society of London A 326, 565-584.
[This paper introduces the classical Ogden strain energy function for rubbers (incompressible behavior)

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expressed as a function of the three principal stretches].

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[39] Ogden, R.W., (1972). Large deformation isotropic elasticity II: On the correlation of theory and
experiment for compresible rubberlike solid. Proceedings Royal Society of London A 328, 567-583. [A
strain energy function for compressible solids in terms of principal stertchs is introduced in this work. The
paper departs from the results obtained by the author for incompressible materials by augmenting the
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strain energy function with a term function of the density ratio].
[40] Ogden, R.W., (1996). Non-linear Elastic Deformations. Dover Publ., New York. [A classic text
book with a meticulous treatment of the theory of finite elasticity. It covers the application of the theory
to the solution of boundary-value problems, as well as the analysis of the mechanical properties of solid
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materials capable of large elastic deformations.]

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[41] Peña, E., Calvo, B., Martínez, M. A. and Doblaré, M, (2006). A three-dimensional finite element
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analysis of the combined behavior of ligaments and menisci in the healthy human knee joint. Journal of
Biomechanics 39, 1686-1701. [Study the stress distribution in the menici and ligaments of a healthy
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human knee. Ligaments are model as quasi-incompressible anisotropic hyperelastic materials, where as
menisci are treated as incompressible isotropic].
[42] Peña, E., Calvo, B., Martínez, M. A. and Doblaré, M, (2006). An anisotropic visco-hyperelastic
model for ligaments at finite strains: Formulation and computational aspects. International Journal of
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Solids and Structures 44, 760-778. [Thermodynamical formulation and implementation of anisotropic
visco-hyperelastic materials. The results are applied to the knee ligament].
[43] Peña, E., Martínez, M. A., Calvo, B. and Doblaré, M, (2006). On the numerical treatment of initial
strains in biological soft tissues. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering 68(8), 836-
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860. [Initial stretching in soft tissue is incorporated in the numerical model of the ligament in a healthy
knee. Stress field obtained without considering initial stress are compared].
[44] Perzyna, P., (1966). Fundamental problems in viscoplasticity. Advances in Applied Mechanics 9,
243-377. [Comprehensive treatment of the viscoelastic and voscplastic behavior of solids. Establishes
governing and constitutive equations, applying the results to the solution of the dynamic and quasi-estatic
problem of elastic and viscoelastic solids].
[45] Pioletti, D.P., Rakotomanana, L.R. and Leyvraz, P.F., (1999). Strain rate effect on the mechanical
behavior of the anterior cruciate ligament-bone complex. Medical Engineering and Physics 25, 95-100.
[This paper comprises an experimental study of the mechanical properties of ligament tissue subjected to
different strain rates]
[46] Powell, M.J.D., (1969). A method of nonlinear constraints and minimization problems, in
Optimization, ed. R. Fletcher. Academic Press, London. [Classic work on constrained optimization
regarding the formalism of the augmented Lagrange method for constrained optimization originally
introduced by Hestenes].

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CONTINUUM MECHANICS – Simple Constitutive Models for Solids and Fluids – Manuel Doblare, Estefania Pena and Jose F.
Rodriguez

[47] Rodríguez, J.F.,Ruiz, C., Doblaré, M. and Holzapfel, G.A., (2008). Mechanical stresses in abdominal
aneurysms: influence of diameter, asymmetry and material anisotropy. ASME Journal of Biomechanical
Engineering 130, 021-023. [This paper study the effect of shape and material behavior on the stress
distribution of idealized abdominal aortic aneurysm. It also introduces a novel anisotropic strain energy
function for aneurysmal tissue].
[48] Simo, J. C., (1987). On a Fully Three-Dimensional Finite-Strain Viscoelastic Damage Model:
Formulation and Computational Aspects. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 60,.
153-173. [This paper describes the thermodynamical formulation, based on internal variables, and
numerical implementation for finite-strain viscoelastic solids. Consistent linearization of the problem is
fully described].
[49] Simo, J.C., Hughes, T.J.R., (1998). Computational Inelasticity. Springer Verlag, New York. [A
graduate level text book, well written and easy to follow. The book describes the theoretical foundations
of inelasticity, its numerical formulation and implementation. It constitutes a sample of state-of-the-art
methodology currently used in inelastic calculations].
[50] Simo, J.C., (1988). A framework for finite strain elastoplasticity based on maximum plastic
dissipation and the multiplicative decomposition: Part I. Continuum formulation. Computer Methods in

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Applied Mechanics and Engineering 66, 199-219. [Paper with the thermodynamic formulation of
elastoplastic finite strain problems. The work make use of the multiplicative decomposition of the

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deformation gradient in volumetric and deviatoric components].
[51] Simo, J.C., (1988). A framework for finite strain elastoplasticity based on maximum plastic
dissipation and the multiplicative decomposition: Part II. Computational aspects. Computer Methods in
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Applied Mechanics and Engineering 68, 1-31. [This paper discusses the numerical implementation and
computational aspects of the finite strain elastoplasticity problem. Consistent linearization of the
governing equations is fully discussed].
[52] Simo, J.C., (1992). Algorithms for static and dynamic multiplicative plasticity that preserve the
classical return mapping schemes of the infinitesimal theory. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics
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and Engineering 99, 61-112.

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[53] Spencer, A.J.M., (1980). Continuum Mechanics. Longman Scientific & Technical, Essex.
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[Undergraduate book, gives a concise view of continuum mechanics with analysis of deformation and
stress; conservation laws as well as the formulation of mechanical constitutive equations]
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[54] Taylor, G.I., (1938). Analysis of plastic strain in a cubic cristal, in Stephen Timoshenko 60th
Anniversary Volume, Ed. J.M. Lessels, Mcmillan, New York. [This paper studies the roll of dislocation
motion on the plastic strain of crystalline materials].
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[55] Temam, R., (1985). Mathematical Problems in Plasticity, Gauthier-Villars, Paris. [This book study,
from a mathematical standpoint, the problem of the equilibrium of a perfectly plastic body under certain
conditions. The book describes the solution of the two problems in the calculus of variations: the strain
problem and the stress problem].
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[56] Truesdell, C. and Noll, W., (1965). The Non-Linear Field Theories of Mechanics. Encyclopedia of
Physics, Ed. S. Flgge, Vol III/3. Springer-Verlag, New York.[A master piece in continuum mechanics. It
renders continuums mechanics as beautiful, simple and easy. The book used direct notation and abstract
linear algebra to render the exposition clear and simpler and more geometrically and physically
illuminating.]
[57] Truesdell, C. and Toupin, R.A., (1960). The Classical Field Theories. Encyclopedia of Physics, Ed. S.
Flgge, Vol III/1, Springer-Verlag, New York. [A treatise emphasized on the kinematic of deformation. It
employs an index notation scheme involving to point tensor field developed by Truesdell. The treatment
of constitutive equations is left superficial since it is treated in depth in the NFTM work by Truesdell and
Noll]
[58] Valanis, K.C. and Landel, R.F., (1967). The strain-energy function of a hyperelastic material in terms
of the extension ratios. Journal of Applied Physics 38, 2997-3002. [This paper proposes a strain energy
function for rubber based on principal stretch rather than strain invariants. In particular they proposed a
separable symmetric strain energy function for incompressible isotropic materials.]

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CONTINUUM MECHANICS – Simple Constitutive Models for Solids and Fluids – Manuel Doblare, Estefania Pena and Jose F.
Rodriguez

[59] Van de Geest, J.P., Sacks, M.S. and Vorp, D.A., (2006). The effects of aneurysm on the biaxial
mechanical behavior of human abdominal aorta. Journal of Biomechanics 39, 1324-1334. [Experimental
study of the mechanical behavior of aneurysmal and healthy aortic tissue under biaxial loading].
[60] Weiss, J.A, Bradley, N.M. and Govindjee, S., (1996). Finite element implementation of
incompressible, transversely isotropic hiperelasticity. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering 135, 107-128. [Thermodynamic formulation and finite element implementation of the finite-
strain quasi-incompressible anisotropic hyperelastic problem. The paper introduces a novel anisotropic
strain energy function for the ligament].
[61] Yeoh, O.H., (1993). Some Forms of the Strain Energy Function for Rubber. Rubber Chemistry and
Technology 66,. 754-771,. [The paper introduces a family of polynomial strain energy functions in terms
of the right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor for isotroic hyperelastic solids].
[62] Ziegler, H., (1959). A modification of Prager’s hardening rule. Quarterly of Applied Mathematics, 17,
55-65. [Basic modification to Prager’s hardening rule to account for kinematic hardening]

Biographical Sketches

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Manuel Doblaré was born in Cordoba (Spain) in July, 1956. He got the degree of Mechanical and

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Electrical Engineering at the University of Seville (Spain) in 1978 and PhD degree at the Polytechnique
University in Madrid (Spain) in 1981. From 1978 to 1982 he was research assistant, when he got the
position of assistant professor of Structural Mechanics at the PUM. In 1984, he was appointed as full
professor at the Department of Mechanical Engineering of the University of Zaragoza (Spain) where he
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still teaches. He has occupied the positions of head of the Dept. of Mechanical Engineering (1985-87),
dean of the Faculty of Engineering (1993-96) and Director of the Aragon Institute for Engineering
Research (2002-07). Currently, he is head of the research group on Structural Mechanics and Materials
Modeling (GEMM), and Scientific Director of the National Networking Center on Bioengineering,
Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN). Prof. Doblaré has been elected as ordinary member of
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the Spanish Royal Academy of Engineering, the Royal Academy of Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and
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Natural Sciences of Zaragoza and the World Council of Biomechanics, and awarded with several
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distinctions including the Aragon Prize for excellence in research or the Doctorate ”Honoris Causa” at the
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca (Romania). He was visiting scholar at the Universities of
Southampton (Dept. of Civil Engineering-1981) and New York (Courant Institute of Mathematical
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Sciences-1983) and visiting professor at Stanford University (Division of Applied Mechanics-1990). He

is member of different national and international scientific associations and of the editorial boards of
several high impact journals where he has published more than 150 papers. He has given plenary,
semiplenary and invited lectures in many international congresses and research fori, being internationally
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recognized in the field of Biomechanics. Prof. Doblaré’s research interests are in computational solid
mechanics with applications in structural integrity, biomechanics and mechanobiology, with special
emphasis in hard and soft tissues modeling, interface behavior and interaction tissue-biomaterial,
mechanobiological processes like bone remodeling, bone and wound healing, bone osteointegration or
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morphogenesis and, finally, tissue engineering.

Estefanía Peña became Associate Professor of the Department of Mechanical Engineering of the
University of Zaragoza (Spain) in 2008. From 2001 to 2004 she was lecturer and from 2004 to 2008
Assistant Professor of Structural Mechanics at the UZ. She got the degree of Mechanical Engineering at
the University of Zaragoza (Spain) in 2000. She achieved his Ph.D. in Computational Mechanics at the
University of Zaragoza in 2004 and spent a post-doctoral stay at the Universities of Southampton in U.K.
in 2004 and Joseph Fourier of Grenoble in France in 2005. She is member of Group of Structural
Mechanics and Material Modeling of the I3A (Aragón Institute of Engineering Research). Her current
research is related to Biomechanics, mainly in the field of Mechanics of Soft Tissues –as blood vessels,
muscle, ligament and tendons– mechanical behaviour of biomaterials and prostheses for clinical
applications and experimental methods to characterize biological tissues.

José F Rodriguez received his undergraduate degree in Mechanical Engineering from the Universidad
Simón Bolívar in Venezuela and his PhD from the University of Notre Dame in 1999. He worked at the
Universidad Simón Bolívar from 1999 to 2003, in 2003 he moved to the Universidad de Zaragoza as a

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

CONTINUUM MECHANICS – Simple Constitutive Models for Solids and Fluids – Manuel Doblare, Estefania Pena and Jose F.
Rodriguez

Ramón y Cajal researcher. He is a an associate researcher since 2008. He has conducted research in
developing theoretical and computational models of complex nonlinear materials and systems with
applications to living tissues and rubber-like solids. Another are of his research is computer
electrophysiology and cell biophysics where he studies the electrical activity of the heart and the electro-
mechanical interaction in the heart muscle and cardiac cells.

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