1 INTRODUCTION TO BASIC

METALLURGY

1.1. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Materials are probably more deep-seated in our culture than most of us realize.
Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation, and food production,
virtually every segment of our everyday lives is influenced to one degree or another
by materials. Historically, the development and advancement of societies have been
intimately tied to the members‘ ability to produce and manipulate materials to fill their
needs. In fact, early civilizations have been designated by the level of their materials
development (i.e., Stone Age, Bronze Age).

1.2. MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

The discipline of materials science involves investigating the relationships that exist
between the structures and properties of materials. In contrast, materials engineering
is, on the basis of these structure–property correlations, designing or engineering the
structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties.
‗‗Structure‘‘ is at this point a nebulous term that deserves some explanation. In brief,
the structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal
components. Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and
interactions with their nuclei. On an atomic level, structure encompasses the
organization of atoms or molecules relative to one another. The next larger structural
realm, which contains large groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated together,
is termed ‗‗microscopic,‘‘ meaning that which is subject to direct observation using
some type of microscope. Finally, structural elements that may be viewed with the
naked eye are termed ‗‗macroscopic.‘‘
The notation of ‗‗property‘‘ deserves elaboration. While in service use, all materials
are exposed to external stimuli that evoke some type of response. For example, a
specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation; or a polished metal surface
will reflect light. Property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of
response to a specific imposed stimulus. Generally, definitions of properties are made
independent of material shape and size.
Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different
categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative. For
each there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of provoking different
responses. Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force;
examples include elastic modulus and strength. For electrical properties, such as
electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the stimulus is an electric field. The
thermal behavior of solids can be represented in terms of heat capacity and thermal
conductivity. Magnetic properties demonstrate the response of a material to the

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 application of a magnetic field. For optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic
or light radiation; index of refraction and reflectivity are representative optical
properties. Finally, deteriorative characteristics indicate the chemical reactivity of
materials.
In addition to structure and properties, two other important components are involved
in the science and engineering of materials, viz. ‗‗processing‘‘ and ‗‗performance.‘‘
With regard to the relationships of these four components, the structure of a material
will depend on how it is processed. Furthermore, a material‘s performance will be a
function of its properties. Thus, the interrelationship between processing, structure,
properties, and performance is linear, as depicted in the schematic illustration shown
in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 The four components of the discipline of materials science and engineering
and their linear interrelationship.

1.3. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications:
metals, ceramics, and polymers. This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup
and atomic structure, and most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another,
although there are some intermediates. In addition, there are three other groups of
important engineering materials—composites, semiconductors, and biomaterials.

1.3.1. METALS
Metallic materials are normally combinations of metallic elements. They have large
numbers of free electrons that is these electrons are not bound to particular atoms.
Many properties of metals are directly attributable to these electrons. Metals are
extremely good conductors of electricity and heat and are not transparent to visible
light a polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance. Furthermore, metals are
quite strong yet deformable which accounts for their extensive use in structural
applications.

1.3.2. CERAMICS
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most
frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. The wide range of materials that falls
within this classification includes ceramics that are composed of clay minerals,
cement, and glass. These materials are typically insulative to the passage of
electricity and heat, and are more resistant to high temperatures and harsh
environments than metals and polymers. With regard to mechanical behavior,
ceramics are hard but very brittle.

1.3.3. POLYMERS
Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are organic
compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic
elements; furthermore, they have very large molecular structures. These materials
typically have low densities and may be extremely flexible.

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1.3.4. COMPOSITES
A number of composite materials have been engineered that consist of more than one
material type. Fiberglass is a familiar example, in which glass fibers are embedded
within a polymeric material. A composite is designed to display a combination of the
best characteristics of each of the component materials. Fiberglass acquires strength
from the glass and flexibility from the polymer. Many of the recent material
developments have involved composite materials.

1.3.5. SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between the
electrical conductors and insulators. Furthermore, the electrical characteristics of
these materials are extremely sensitive to the presence of minute concentrations of
impurity atoms, which concentrations may be controlled over very small spatial
regions. The semiconductors have made possible the advent of integrated circuitry
that has totally revolutionized the electronics and computer industries (not to
mention our lives) over the past two decades.

1.3.6. BIOMATERIALS
Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body for
replacement of diseased or damaged body parts. These materials must not produce
toxic substances and must be compatible with body tissues (i.e., must not cause
adverse biological reactions). All of the above materials, metals, ceramics, polymers,
composites, and semiconductors may be used as biomaterials.

1.3.7. ADVANCED MATERIALS

Materials that are utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are
sometimes termed advanced materials. By high technology we mean a device or
product that operates or functions using relatively intricate and sophisticated
principles; examples include electronic equipment (VCRs, CD players, etc.),
computers, fiber optic systems, spacecraft, aircraft, and military rocketry. These
advanced materials are typically either traditional material whose properties have
been enhanced or newly developed, high-performance materials. Furthermore, they
may be of all material types (e.g., metals, ceramics, polymers), and are normally
relatively expensive. In subsequent chapters are discussed the properties and
applications of a number of advanced materials—for example, materials that are
used for lasers, integrated circuits, magnetic information storage, liquid crystal
displays (LCDs), fiber optics, and the thermal protection system for the Space
Shuttle Orbiter.
1.4. STRUCTURE OF METALS

1.4.1. METALLIC BONDING

Metallic bonding is found in metals and their alloys. A relatively simple model has
been proposed that very nearly approximates the bonding scheme. Metallic materials
have one, two, or at most, three valence electrons. With this model, these valence
electrons are not bound to any particular atom in the solid and are more or less free
to drift throughout the entire metal. They may be thought of as belonging to the
metal as a whole, or forming a ‗‗sea of electrons‘‘ or an ‗‗electron cloud.‘‘ The
remaining non-valence electrons and atomic nuclei form what are called ion cores,

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 which possess a net positive charge equal in magnitude to the total valence electron
charge per atom. Figure 1.2 is a schematic illustration of metallic bonding.
The free electrons shield the positively charged ion cores from mutually repulsive
electrostatic forces, which they would otherwise exert upon one another;
consequently the metallic bond is non-directional in character. In addition, these free
electrons act as a ‗‗glue‘‘ to hold the ion cores together.

Figure 1.2 Schematic representation of metallic bonding

Some general behaviors of the various material types (i.e. metals, ceramics,
polymers) may be explained by bonding type. For example, metals are good
conductors of both electricity and heat, as a consequence of their free electrons (. By
way of contrast, ionically and covalently bonded materials are typically electrical
and thermal insulators, due to the absence of large numbers of free electrons.
At room temperature, most metals and their alloys fail in a ductile manner; that is,
fracture occurs after the materials have experienced significant degrees of permanent
deformation. This behavior is explained in terms of deformation mechanism, which
is implicitly related to the characteristics of the metallic bond. Conversely, at room
temperature ionically bonded materials are intrinsically brittle as a consequence of
the electrically charged nature of their component ions.

1.4.2. CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

Crystal structure is a unique arrangement of atoms or molecules in a crystalline
liquid or solid. A crystal structure is composed of a pattern, a set of atoms arranged
in a particular way, and a lattice exhibiting long-range order and symmetry. Patterns
are located upon the points of a lattice, which is an array of points repeating
periodically in three dimensions. The points can be thought of as forming identical
tiny boxes, called unit cells, that fill the space of the lattice. The lengths of the edges
of a unit cell and the angles between them are called the lattice parameters. In nature,
14 different types of crystal structures or lattices are found as shown in Figure 1.3.
Crystalline structure is important because it contributes to the properties of a
material. For example, it is easier for planes of atoms to slide by each other if those
planes are closely packed. Therefore, lattice structures with closely packed planes
allow more plastic deformation than those that are not closely packed. Additionally,

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cubic lattice structures allow slippage to occur more easily than non-cubic lattices.
This is because their symmetry provides closely packed planes in several directions.

Figure 1.3 Representing 14 different types of Bravice lattices crystal structures

The body-centered cubic (BCC) unit cell has atoms at each of the eight corners of a
cube (like the cubic unit cell) plus one atom in the center of the cube as shown in the
middle image in Figure 1.4. Each of the corner atoms is the corner of another cube so
the corner atoms are shared among eight unit cells. It is said to have a coordination
number of 8. The bcc unit cell consists of a net total of two atoms; one in the center
and eight eighths from corners.
Some of the materials that have a BCC structure include lithium, sodium, potassium,
chromium, barium, vanadium, alpha-iron and tungsten. Metals which have a bcc
structure are usually harder and less malleable than close-packed metals such as
gold.
The face centered cubic structure (FCC) has atoms located at each of the corners
and the centers of all the cubic faces as shown in left image in figure 1.4. Each of the
corner atoms is the corner of another cube so the corner atoms are shared among
eight unit cells. Additionally, each of its six face centered atoms is shared with an
adjacent atom. Since 12 of its atoms are shared, it is said to have a coordination
number of 11. The FCC unit cell consists of a net total of four atoms; eight eighths
from corners atoms and six halves of the face atoms.
In the FCC structure (and the HCP structure) the atoms can pack closer together than
they can in the bcc structure. Some of the metals that have the FCC structure include
aluminum, copper, gold, iridium, lead, nickel, platinum and silver.
Another common close packed structure is the hexagonal close pack (HCP) as
shown in Figure 1.5 (A) and (B). The HCP structure has three layers of atoms. In
each the top and bottom layer, there are six atoms that arrange themselves in the
shape of a hexagon and a seventh atom that sits in the middle of the hexagon. The

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 middle layer has three atoms nestle in the triangular "grooves" of the top and bottom
plane. There are six atoms in the HCP unit cell. Each of the 12 atoms in the corners
of the top and bottom layers contribute 1/6 atom to the unit cell, the two atoms in the
center of the hexagon of both the top and bottom layers each contribute ½ atom and
each of the three atom in the middle layer contribute 1 atom. The coordination
number of the atoms in this structure is 12. There are six nearest neighbors in the
same close packed layer, three in the layer above and three in the layer below. The
HCP structure is very common for elemental metals and some examples include
beryllium, cadmium, magnesium, titanium, zinc and zirconium.

1.4.3. SOLIDIFICATION
The crystallization of a large amount of material from a single point of nucleation
results in a single crystal. In engineering materials, single crystals are produced only
under carefully controlled conditions. The expense of producing single crystal
materials is only justified for special applications, such as turbine engine blades,
solar cells, and piezoelectric materials. Normally when a material begins to solidify,
multiple crystals begin to grow in the liquid and a polycrystalline (more than one
crystal) solid form.
The moment a crystal begins to grow is known as nucleation and the point where it
occurs is the nucleation point. At the solidification temperature, atoms of a liquid,
such as melted metal, begin to bond together at the nucleation points and start to
form crystals. The final sizes of the individual crystals depend on the number of
nucleation points. The crystals increase in size by the progressive addition of atoms
and grow until they impinge upon adjacent growing crystal.

Figure 1.4 Figure representing Simple cube, BCC and FCC crystal structures
(A)

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 (B)

Figure 1.5 showing hexagonal closed packed structure

In engineering materials, a crystal is usually referred to as a grain. A grain is merely
a crystal without smooth faces because its growth was impeded by contact with
another grain or a boundary surface. The interface formed between grains is called a
grain boundary. The atoms between the grains (at the grain boundaries) have no
crystalline structure and are said to be disordered.

Figure 1.6 a) Nucleation of crystals, b) crystal growth, c) irregular grains form as crystals grow
together, d) grain boundaries as seen in a microscope.

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 Grains are sometimes large enough to be visible under an ordinary light microscope
or even to the unaided eye. The spangles that are seen on newly galvanized metals
are grains as shown in Figure 1.7. Rapid cooling generally results in more nucleation
points and smaller grains (a fine grain structure). Slow cooling generally results in
larger grains which will have lower strength, hardness and ductility.

Figure 1.7 Spangles after galvanization

1.4.4. STRUCTURE OF ALLOYS
An alloy is a solid solution composed of two or more metals, or of a metal(s) with
one or more nonmetals. Metals and alloys are virtually everywhere in our daily lives.
Alloys are used to make aircraft engines, automobiles, bridges, buildings and even
paper clips. The alloys bronze, brass, and pewter have been used for centuries.
Metals and alloys are virtually everywhere in our daily lives. Alloys are used to
make aircraft engines, automobiles, bridges, buildings and even paper clips. The
alloys bronze, brass, and pewter have been used for centuries. Certain metals are
appropriate for use in certain functions, while not suitable in others. Alloys may be
used either to replace or to conserve more expensive metals. Most alloys are created
to change the elemental metals' physical properties, such as conductivity, density,
ductility, hardness, luster, malleability, melting point, and tensile strength, and/or
chemical properties, such as resistance to corrosion. Alloys often exhibit increased
strength and hardness. Stainless steel, for example, is iron alloyed with chromium
and nickel. The strength of stainless steel makes it useful in tools. Alloys also have
lower electrical and thermal conductivity than pure metals. For example, nichrome
wire is made from an alloy of nickel, iron, and chromium, becomes red-hot when a
current is passed through it and can be used as the heating element of hair dryers,
toasters, and space heater.
1.4.5. PURE METAL
In pure metal there exists only one type of atoms i.e. no B atoms in A-crystal and A
atoms in B-crystal.
1.4.6. SOLID SOLUTION
A solid solution is a solid-state solution of one or more solutes in a solvent. Such
a mixture is considered a solution rather than a compound when the crystal
structure of the solvent remains unchanged by addition of the solutes, and when the
mixture remains in a single homogeneous phase. Solid solutions are of two types:
Substitutional solid solution and Interstitial solid solution.

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 Figure 1.8 Solid solutions (a) & (d) substitution solid solution (b) pure metal ( c ) interstitial solid
solution
1.4.6.1 Substitutional Solid Solution
For substitutional, solute or impurity atoms replace or substitute for the host atoms
(Figure 1.8). There are several features of the solute and solvent atoms that
determine the degree to which the former dissolves in the latter; these are as follows:
1. Atomic size factor. Appreciable quantities of a solute may be accommodated in
this type of solid solution only when the difference in atomic radii between the
two atom types is less than about _15%. Otherwise the solute atoms will create
substantial lattice distortions and a new phase will form.
2. Crystal structure. For appreciable solid solubility the crystal structures for metals
of both atom types must be the same.
3. Electronegativity. The more electropositive one element and the more
electronegative the other, the greater is the likelihood that they will form an
intermetallic compound instead of a substitutional solid solution.
4. Valences. Other factors being equal, a metal will have more of a tendency to
dissolve another metal of higher valency than one of a lower valency.
An example of a substitutional solid solution is found for copper and nickel.
These two elements are completely soluble in one another at all proportions. With
regard to the aforementioned rules that govern degree of solubility, the atomic
radii for copper and nickel are 0.128 and 0.125 nm, respectively, both have the
FCC crystal structure, and their electronegativities are 1.9 and 1.8 finally, the
most common valences are 1 for copper (although it sometimes can be 2) and 2
for nickel.
1.4.6.2 Interstitial Solid Solutions
For interstitial solid solutions, impurity atoms fill the voids or interstices among
the host atoms (Figure 1.8). For metallic materials that have relatively high
atomic packing factors, these interstitial positions are relatively small.
Consequently, the atomic diameter of an interstitial impurity must be substantially
smaller than that of the host atoms. Normally, the maximum allowable
concentration of interstitial impurity atoms is low (less than 10%). Even very
small impurity atoms are ordinarily larger than the interstitial sites, and as a
consequence they introduce some lattice strains on the adjacent host atoms.

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 Carbon forms an interstitial solid solution when added to iron; the maximum
concentration of carbon is about 2%. The atomic radius of the carbon atom is
much less than that for iron: 0.071 nm versus 0.124 nm.

Figure 1.9 Effect of solute(impurity) atoms in solid solutions

1.5. IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS

A perfect crystal, with every atom of the same type in the correct position, does not
exist. All crystals have some defects. Defects contribute to the mechanical properties
of metals. In fact, using the term ―defect‖ is sort of a misnomer since these features
are commonly intentionally used to manipulate the mechanical properties of a
material. Adding alloying elements to a metal is one way of introducing a crystal
defect. Nevertheless, the term ―defect‖ will be used, just keep in mind that crystalline
defects are not always bad. Classification of crystalline imperfections is frequently
made according to geometry or dimensionality of the defect. There are basic classes
of crystal defects:
 Point defects, which are places where an atom is missing or irregularly placed in
the lattice structure. Point defects include lattice vacancies, self-interstitial
atoms, substitution impurity atoms, and interstitial impurity atoms.
 Linear defects, which are groups of atoms in irregular positions. Linear defects
are commonly called dislocations.
 Planar defects, which are interfaces between homogeneous regions of the
material. Planar defects include grain boundaries, stacking faults and external
surfaces.
It is important to note at this point that plastic deformation in a material occurs due
to the movement of dislocations (linear defects). Millions of dislocations result for
plastic forming operations such as rolling and extruding. It is also important to note
that any defect in the regular lattice structure disrupts the motion of dislocation,
which makes slip or plastic deformation more difficult. These defects not only
include the point and planer defects mentioned above, and also other dislocations.
Dislocation movement produces additional dislocations, and when dislocations run
into each other it often impedes movement of the dislocations. This drives up the
force needed to move the dislocation or, in other words, strengthens the material.
1.5.1. POINT DEFECTS
Point defects are where an atom is missing or is in an irregular place in the lattice
structure as shown in figure 1.10. Point defects include self interstitial atoms,
interstitial impurity atoms, substitutional atoms and vacancies. A self interstitial
atom is an extra atom that has crowded its way into an interstitial void in the crystal
structure. Self interstitial atoms occur only in low concentrations in metals because
they distort and highly stress the tightly packed lattice structure.

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 A substitutional impurity atom is an atom of a different type than the bulk atoms,
which has replaced one of the bulk atoms in the lattice. Substitutional impurity
atoms are usually close in size (within approximately 15%) to the bulk atom. An
example of substitutional impurity atoms is the zinc atoms in brass. In brass, zinc
atoms with a radius of 0.133 nm have replaced some of the copper atoms, which
have a radius of 0.128 nm. Interstitial impurity atoms are much smaller than the
atoms in the bulk matrix. Interstitial impurity atoms fit into the open space between
the bulk atoms of the lattice structure. An example of interstitial impurity atoms is
the carbon atoms that are added to iron to make steel. Carbon atoms, with a radius of
0.071 nm, fit nicely in the open spaces between the larger (0.124 nm) iron atoms.
Vacancies are empty spaces where an atom should be, but is missing. They are
common, especially at high temperatures when atoms are frequently and randomly
change their positions leaving behind empty lattice sites. In most cases diffusion
(mass transport by atomic motion) can only occur because of vacancies.
1.5.2. LINEAR DEFECTS - DISLOCATIONS
Dislocations are another type of defect in crystals. Dislocations are areas were the
atoms are out of position in the crystal structure. Dislocations are generated and
move when a stress is applied. The motion of dislocations allows slip – plastic
deformation to occur.
Before the discovery of the dislocation by Taylor, Orowan and Polyani in 1934, no
one could figure out how the plastic deformation properties of a metal could be
greatly changed by solely by forming (without changing the chemical composition).
This became even bigger mystery when in the early 1900‘s scientists estimated that
metals undergo plastic deformation at forces much smaller than the theoretical
strength of the forces that are holding the metal atoms together. Many metallurgists
remained skeptical of the dislocation theory until the development of the
transmission electron microscope in the late 1950‘s. The TEM allowed experimental
evidence to be collected that showed that the strength and ductility of metals are
controlled by dislocations.
There are two basic types of dislocations, the edge dislocation and the screw
dislocation.

Figure 1.10 Point defects in crystal structural

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1.5.2.1. Edge dislocation
The edge defect can be easily visualized as an extra half plane of atoms in a lattice.
The dislocation is called a line defect because the locus of defective points produced
in the lattice by the dislocation lie along a line. This line runs along the top of the
extra half-plane. The inter-atomic bonds are significantly distorted only in the
immediate vicinity of the dislocation line (figure 1.11).
1.5.2.2. Screw dislocations
There is a second basic type of dislocation, called screw dislocation. The screw
dislocation is slightly more difficult to visualize. The motion of a screw dislocation
is also a result of shear stress, but the defect line movement is perpendicular to
direction of the stress and the atom displacement, rather than parallel. To visualize a
screw dislocation, imagine a block of metal (figure 1.12) with a shear stress applied
across one end so that the metal begins to rip. This is shown in the upper right image.
The lower right image shows the plane of atoms just above the rip. The atoms
represented by the blue circles have not yet moved from their original position.
The atoms represented by the red circles have moved to their new position in the
lattice and have reestablished metallic bonds. The atoms represented by the green
circles are in the process of moving. It can be seen that only a portion of the bonds
are broke at any given time. As was the case with the edge dislocation, movement in
this manner requires a much smaller force than breaking all the bonds across the
middle plane simultaneously.
If the shear force is increased, the atoms will continue to slip to the right. A row of
the green atoms will find their way back into a proper spot in the lattice (and become
red) and a row of the blue atoms will slip out of position (and become green). In this
way, the screw dislocation will move upward in the image, which is perpendicular to
direction of the stress. Recall that the edge dislocation moves parallel to the direction
of stress. As shown in the figure 1.13, the net plastic deformation of both edge and
screw dislocations are the same.

Slip
Plane

Figure 1.11 Schematic of the movement of edge dislocation through the crystal

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 Blue

Green

Red

Figure 1.12 Screw dislocations

Figure 1.13 The formation of a step on the surface of a crystal by the motion of (a) an edge
dislocation and (b) a screw dislocation. Note that for an edge, the dislocation line moves in the direction of
the applied shear stress for a screw, the dislocation line motion is perpendicular to the stress direction.
1.5.2.3. Slip
The process by which plastic deformation is produced by dislocation motion is
termed slip, the crystallographic plane along which the dislocation line traverses is
the slip plane, as indicated in Figure 1.14. Macroscopic plastic deformation simply
corresponds to permanent deformation that results from the movement of
dislocations, or slip, in response to an applied shear stress, as represented in Figure
1.14. Dislocation motion is analogous to the mode of locomotion employed by a
caterpillar Figure 1.14. The caterpillar forms a hump near its posterior end by pulling
in its last pair of legs a unit leg distance. The hump is propelled forward by repeated
lifting and shifting of leg pairs. When the hump reaches the anterior end, the entire
caterpillar has moved forward by the leg separation distance. The caterpillar hump

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 and its motion correspond to the extra half-plane of atoms in the dislocation model of
plastic deformation.

Figure 1.14 Representation of the analogy between caterpillar and dislocation motion.
1.5.2.4. Twin Boundaries
A twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across which there is specific
mirror lattice symmetry; that is, atoms on one side of the boundary are located in
mirror image positions of the atoms on the other side (Figure 1.15). The region of
material between these boundaries is appropriately termed a twin. Twins result from
atomic displacements that are produced from applied mechanical shear forces
(mechanical twins), and also during annealing heat treatments following deformation
(annealing twins). Twinning occurs on a definite crystallographic plane and in a
specific direction, both of which depend on the crystal structure. Annealing twins are
typically found in metals that have the FCC crystal structure, while mechanical twins
are observed in BCC and HCP metals. The twins correspond to those regions having
relatively straight and parallel sides and a different visual contrast than the
untwinned regions of the grains within which they reside.

Figure 1.15 Representation of twin boundaries

1.5.3. PLANAR DEFECTS
1.5.3.1. Stacking faults
A stacking fault is a one or two layer interruption in the stacking sequence of
the crystal structure. Stacking faults occur in a number of crystal structures, but it is
easiest to see how they occur in close packed structures. For example, it is know
from a previous discussion that face centered cubic (FCC) structures differ from
hexagonal close packed (HCP) structures only in their stacking order. If the HCP
structure is going along as ABABAB and suddenly switches to ABABABCABAB,
there is a stacking fault present. Alternately, in the FCC arrangement the pattern is
ABCABCABC. A stacking fault in an FCC structure would appear as one of the C

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 planes missing. In other words the pattern would become ABCABCAB_ABCABC
(figure 1.16).

(a)
(b)
Figure 1.16 Schematic representation of (a) Intrinsic and (b) Extrinsic Stacking faults

Grain Boundaries
Another type of planer defect is the grain boundary. Solids generally consist of a
number of crystallites or grains. Grains can range in size from nanometers to
millimeters across and their orientations are usually rotated with respect to
neighboring grains. Where one grain stops and another begins is known as a grain
boundary. Grain boundaries limit the lengths and motions of dislocations.

Figure 1.17 Showing grain boundaries along the grains

Therefore, having smaller grains (more grain boundary surface area) strengthens a
material. The size of the grains can be controlled by the cooling rate when the
material cast or heat treated. Generally, rapid cooling produces smaller grains
whereas slow cooling result in larger grains.
1.5.4. BULK OR VOLUMETRIC DEFECTS
Bulk defects occur on a much bigger scale than the rest of the crystal defects
discussed earlier. Bulk defects include voids, porosity, nonmetallic inclusions etc.
Voids are regions where there are a large number of atoms missing from the lattice.
Voids can occur for a number of reasons. When voids occur due to air bubbles
becoming trapped when a material solidifies, it is commonly called porosity. When a
void occurs due to the shrinkage of a material as it solidifies, it is called cavitations.

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