2 Ecology, Populations and

Species
STRUCTURE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Understanding Ecology, the
Discipline
2.4 Levels of Organization in Nature
2.5 Species
2.6 Population
2.7 Recapitulation
2.8 Conclusion
2.9 Unit End Exercises
2.10 Teacher section

10 BASICS OF ECOLOGY & LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS

2.1
In the last unit, we explored the conditions that make life possible on earth.
We also learnt that life has existed on our planet for about 1.4 billion years
now, and that Earth is a planet teeming with vitality and is home to billions of
plants and animals. How and why did we get here? What processes had to
take place for this to happen? And where do we go from here? While the fact
is that no one has been able to come close to knowing exactly what led to
the origins of life, scientists have made significant progress in understanding
what processes and interactions take place in the living world. Such scientific
studies enable us understand the totality and pattern of relations between
organisms and their environment. Through this Unit, we will try to explore this
study, called ‘Ecology’.

2.2
On completion of this unit, you should be able to:
J Define ecology
J Appreciate the variety of interconnections in nature and state their
significance
J Enlist and define the various levels of organization in nature
J Describe key characteristics of organisms, species and populations

2.3 UNDERSTANDING ECOLOGY, THE DISCIPLINE

In Unit 1 of this module, we looked at what makes our planet the ‘living
planet’. In the units to come, we will try to explore this ‘living world’ that
exists on the earth. The subject of ecology will help us do this. Let us first
understand as to what this term ‘ecology’ means? The word ‘ecology’ is
derived from the Greek words oikos, meaning household, and logos, meaning
study. Literally then, ecology is the study of ‘life at home’. In other words,
ecology is the study of the interconnections and interdependences of plants,
animals and their environment.

BASICS OF ECOLOGY & LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS 11

 ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
Many a time, we tend to use the terms ‘ecology’ and
‘environment’ as synonyms. But we must understand
that there is a difference between these two terms—
while ecology limits itself to connections, processes
and phenomena occurring in the natural word,
environment means ‘me and my surroundings’ and
hence not only includes the natural part of the
surroundings, but also all those elements that have
been created by Humans.

The essence of ecology lies in the study of the togetherness of everything—

plants, animals, microorganisms and their environment.
Ponder over the following:
1. Does grass have anything to do with a tiger?
2. How do humans affect the populations of insects on this earth?
3. How can DDT sprayed on a lake endanger the local bird population?
The above listed connections, on the first instance, seem far-fetched. But
they are not. It is so because, in nature, everything is connected. There are
intricate connections between the various components of nature. For instance,
green plants take nutrients and water from the soil. Their leaves, fruits and
other parts may then be eaten by a bird, or a deer, and when these die, a part
of their dead remains are broken down by microorganisms, eventually the
broken down matter goes back to the soil, thus connecting them all.
A large number of such connections exist in nature. You can observe many of
these in your own surroundings. A number of elements found in nature are
listed below; can you connect these to each other, in as many ways as
possible, giving an interaction/ link between them? Say, a squirrel is linked to
air as it requires air to breathe; the air is linked to earthworm as the earthworm
helps in aerating the soil, etc.
Innumerable such connections exist in nature. However, such links are often
not very well understood as many of these are not very obvious and it takes
time to even identify them.
These links are the foundation of the balance in the natural world. These links
also explain the two laws of ecology—‘we can never do any one thing in
nature’ (because a single human disturbance in nature could lead to a cascade
of impacts) and that ‘in nature everything is connected with everything else’.

12 BASICS OF ECOLOGY & LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS

 DODO AND THE CALVARIS: THE CONNECTIONS
A good example of interconnections in nature is the
‘ripple or domino effects’, which help us understand the
impact of removal of a species or an addition of species
on the larger natural system of which the species is a
part.
A good example for this is to understand the impact of
extinction of Dodo, a bird found in the island of Mauritius,
on other components of the island system. Dodo, a
gray colored bird with a large, hooked beak and white
feathers attached to its tail may have been a relative
of the pigeon family. This wingless bird had no enemies
on the island and was safe living on the ground. In
1581, when sailors brought in dogs and pigs onto the
island, things changed. Man introduced other species
on the island, including pigs, rats and cats. Further
humans started hunting the dodo bird, an easy prey.
Eventually, the dodo became extinct.
There seem to be many causes for the extinction of
Dodo, like the destruction of the forest (which cut off
the Dodo’s food supply), and the animals that the sailors
brought with them, which destroyed Dodo nests. But
the impacts of Dodo’s extinction are being seen only
now—Calvarias major, a local tree species, is now
becoming rare. It is so because the Dodo and the
Calvaris had a mutual dependence on one another. The
tree’s seeds are encased in a thick-walled protective
coat. Earlier, the dodo’s use to consume these seeds
and in this process, the bird’s gizzard (a second stomach
for grinding food) would weaken and crack the seed’s
coat, but not enough to damage the seed inside. When
eventually deposited by the dodo (in their excreta),
the seed would germinate. Today, without the grinding
of the dodo’s gizzard to weaken the thick protective
wall, the seeds remain trapped in their hard case. Thus
When the dodo became extinct just over 300 years
ago, Calvaria major’s seeds had no way of germinating.
So no new trees grew and only a few very old trees
survive now.

BASICS OF ECOLOGY & LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS 13

 Hence the essence of ecology lies in a holistic approach to the subject.
However, in order to understand the ‘whole’ and all the connections, let us try
to understand the ‘parts’ or the components. In the next section, we will
classify and categorize the natural system into smaller hierarchical units for
the convenience of our study about their ecological features and associated
processes.

2.3.1
Fill in the blanks
1) Ecology is the study of ‘______________________________________’
2) Your neighborhood is your ____________.
3) “We can never do only one thing” and “in nature everything is
connected to everything else” are ____________________________.

2.4 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN NATURE

As revealed in the previous section, ecology can, at times be very complex
due to the large number of interconnections in the natural world. And perhaps
one way to make the study of the natural world easier is to try to understand
it in smaller units.
So let us look at ecology from the point of view of ‘levels (hierarchy) of
organization’. These levels are: organisms (individuals), species,
Individual populations, communities, and ecosystems. Interaction with the physical
environment (energy and matter) at each level produces characteristic
functional systems. This hierarchical theory of levels of organization
provides a convenient framework for dealing with complex situations,
because each of these levels has some special features, and hence the
study of ecology, in parts, at these levels, becomes easier. Let us
understand these levels one by one.
Organisms: An organism is any form of life. A wide range of variety of
organisms is present on the earth—from singlecelled amoeba to huge sharks,
Population from microscopic bluegreen algae to massive banyan trees. An organism
can also be thought of as an individual member of a species.
Species: Groups of organisms that resemble one another in appearance,
behaviour, chemistry and genetic structure form a species. Organisms of the
Community same species can breed with one another and produce fertile offspring under
natural conditions. For instance, all human beings (Homo sapiens) resemble
one another in their body structure, body systems and they all have similar
genetic structure. They are thus grouped together under the species sapiens.
Population: A population is a group of individuals of the same species
occupying a given area at a given time. Can you find out the human population
Ecosystem
of your district?

14 BASICS OF ECOLOGY & LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS

Communities: Populations of various species occupying a particular area
and interacting with each other make up a community. Here by community
we mean an ‘ecological community’ (so do not confuse it with a social
community). For instance, when we say ‘the community of say the Gir Forest,
we refer to all the various populations, could be the teak tree population, the
lion/tiger/leopard population, the deer population, the cattle population, the
populations of a variety of grass spp., and populations of all kinds of (birds,
plants, animals, microorganisms) present there. Thus, a community
comprises several species interacting with each other.
Ecosystems: An ecosystem is a community of organisms involved in a
dynamic network of biological, chemical and physical interactions between
themselves and with the nonliving components. Such interactions sustain
the system and allow it to respond to changing conditions. Thus an ecosystem
includes the community, the nonliving components and their interactions.
The sum total of all the ecosystems on planet Earth is called the biosphere,
which includes all the earth’s living organisms interacting with the physical
environment as a whole to maintain a steady-state ecosystem.
Can you create such a hierarchical picture for a particular ecosystem
that you know of?

2.4.1
1. Match the items in the left column to their level of organization in the
right.

1. Kingfishers a. Community
2. Animals and plants in Kanha Park b. Ecosystem
3. Your friend’s cat c. Species
4. An estuary d. Population
5. Langurs in your town/city e. Organism

2. In order to understand the repercussions of any small change in nature,

let us do a small exercise. Given below is a random listing of events that
actually happened in a real-life situation. In the context of ecology, can you
try to arrange these in the sequence of their actual occurrence and re-write
the actual complete story?
a. Rats increased
b. Lizards slowed down
c. Caterpillar numbers went up
d. ABC Health Services sent DDT to Gyanpur
e. Mosquitoes were wiped out

BASICS OF ECOLOGY & LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS 15

 DID YOU KNOW?
The grass family (Gramineae sp.) has about 10,000
different species. Grasses cover over one fourth of
the land surface of the Earth. Grasses are found almost
everywhere—in snow-covered Arctic areas, in dry
deserts, on high mountains, on coasts. Grasses cover
the whole range of sizes from tiny shoots under our
feet, to the giant bamboos. The grains of grass form
the staple food of people all over the world—rice,
wheat, maize.

f. Caterpillars ate grass roofs

g. Cats were parachuted in
h. Cats died
i. Cats caught lizards
j. Rats spread the plague
k. Lizards disappeared
l. Lizards ate mosquitoes and stored DDT

THE REAL STORY: CATS PARACHUTED

Some years ago, the ABC Health Services sent supplies
of DDT to Gyanpur to control mosquitoes that spread
malaria among the people. As the DDT was sprayed,
the mosquitoes were quickly wiped out. But there were
hundreds of lizards in the village that ate these
mosquitoes and, in turn, kept accumulating the DDT in
their bodies. Due to accumulation of so much DDT in
their bodies, the lizards became very inactive and slow.
This made it easier for cats to catch the lizards, one
of their favourite foods. About the same time, people
also found that hoards of caterpillars had moved in to
feed on the roofing materials of their homes. They
realized that the lizards, that previously kept the
caterpillar population under control, were now been
eaten by the cats. And now, all over Gyanpur, cats
that ate the lizards died from DDT poisoning. Then
rats moved in because there were no cats to control
their population. With rats came a new danger: plague.
Officials sent out emergency calls for cats. Cats were
sent in by airplane and dropped by parachute.

16 BASICS OF ECOLOGY & LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS

Remember, in the beginning of this unit, we said that there is a link between
spraying of DDT in a water body and the decline in the bird population. Didn’t
something similar happen in Gyanpur? Do you remember reading about any
other such incident? Would you like to analyze it? Try making a similar
seuence of ecological impacts for it.
So far in this unit, we have been trying to understand the significance of
interlinkages and interconnections between various elements in nature. Let
us now study some of these individual levels of the natural world in greater
detail.

2.5 SPECIES
As we have understood, a species is a group of organisms that resemble one
another in appearance, behaviour, chemistry and genetic structure. Organisms
of the same species can breed with one another and produce fertile offspring
under natural conditions.
Like organisms, species also have certain characteristics that help us
differentiate them from populations and communities. Some of these are:
Ecological niche: The physical space occupied by a species, along with its
functional role in the community and its position in environmental gradients of
temperature, moisture, pH, soil and other conditions of existence, are its
ecological niche. The ecological niche describes all the physical, chemical
and biological factors in an ecosystem that a species needs to survive and
reproduce. It also defines the role of the species in the ecosystem. Each
species has a defined and unique role in the ecosystem and hence no two
species in the same general territory can occupy the identically same
ecological niche for long. Each species has a particular niche resulting from
its interaction with its environment. Understanding niche requirements is
significant for species management.
Species evolution and species extinction: Extinction of existing
species and evolution of new ones is a natural phenomenon. New species
arise from preexisting ones through the process of evolution. The
processes of evolution and extinction are very slow and take place over
long periods of time. Under natural conditions, these two processes keep
pace with changes in the environment. However, in recent times, due to
human interference, the rate at which species are becoming extinct has
outpaced the rate at which new species evolve. This loss of species is
today a global concern and that is why phrases like ‘species at risk’ or
‘the lost world’ often make the headlines of newspapers, magazines and
journals. For example, the Pinkheaded duck became extinct due to
indiscriminate hunting for its flesh and for ornamental value.

BASICS OF ECOLOGY & LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS 17

 2.5.1
State True or False
a) Organisms do not affect their environment. True/False
b) Organisms of the same species can breed with one
another and produce fertile offspring under
natural conditions. True/False
c) Niche of a species defines its place of living True/False
d) In nature, there is no process called species
extinction; it is a phenomenon for which
humans are solely responsible. True/False

2.6 POPULATION
Population is a term that most of us feel very comfortable with. Perhaps this
is because the issues of population and population control are often discussed
in the media in India. Can you think of some species whose population is
being sought to control in your area?
Ecologically, a population is a group of individuals of the same species,
occupying a given area at a given time. All populations are characterized by
the following features:
Population size: It is the number of individuals making up a population. For
example, the human population size of India is over 1 billion.
Population Growth: It refers to the increase in the number of individuals in
a population. The factors that affect growth in a population are birth,
immigration, death and emigration.
Population density: It is the number of individuals of a population per unit
area at a given time.
Population dispersion or distribution: It refers to the general pattern in
which the members of a population exist in their habitat. Population distribution
may be random, clumped, regular, or may show a gradient. For example, in
a cropland, the crop population is usually distributed in a regular pattern with
similar distance between two crop plants, whereas in a natural forest, the
same plant may be dispersed in clumps in those areas where there is no tree
shade and where sufficient sunlight is available for their growth. Thus population
dispersion depends on various factors like availability of food, shelter or
protection.
Age Structure: It is the proportion of individuals in each age group in a
population. Common age categories are pre reproductive, reproductive and
postreproductive. A larger percentage of individuals in prereproductive and
reproductive categories mean greater population growth.

18 BASICS OF ECOLOGY & LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS

Functions of a population: As we know, there could be many populations
present in a community/ecosystem. Each of these populations has a defined
function. This function depends on the position of the population vis-a-vis the
food production processes in that system. Hence populations of green plants
will be the ‘producers’ population’, that of deers will be ‘herbivore population’,
etc. We will learn more about producers, herbivores etc, in the next unit we
will try to understand ecosystem processes.
Growth of a population: In nature, most populations, when they start
colonizing an area, start out slowly (this is like an establishment phase).
Then, over a period of time, the numbers shoot up exponentially. This is
because, by now, a more congenial and suitable environment for the growth
of the species has been created (due to interaction between the biotic and
the abiotic components of the ecosystem). Once the population reaches the
carrying capacity of the system (characterized by optimum utilization of
resources, healthy competition and interference from other species) the
population stabilizes and may fluctuate slightly above and below the carrying
capacity mark. The stabilization of population could be attributed to a number
of environmental factors—could be limited food resource, competition with
other organisms, lack of resources such as water, etc. The sum total of all
the factors that limit the growth of a population is called environmental
resistance.

THE LAW OF MINIMUM

A population and its surrounding cannot be considered in
isolation, as the environment continuously affects the organism.
Many different environmental factors have the potential to
control the growth of a population. These factors include the
abundance of prey or nutrients that the population consumes
and also the activities of predators. Although a given population
may interact with many different species and abiotic factors,
not all of these interactions are of equal importance in
controlling that population’s growth. Experiments show that
only one or two species/factors dominate the feedback
structure of a population at any one time and place (Berryman
1993). The identity of these dominating factors may change
with time and location, but the number of factors that limits a
given population (i.e. actively controls its dynamics) is usually
only one or two.
This is what the Liebig’s Law of Minimum states. It says that
of all the biotic or abiotic factors that control a given
population, one has to be limiting (i.e. active, controlling the
dynamics). Thus Liebig’s Law stresses the importance of
limiting factors in ecology. “A factor is defined as limiting if a
change in the factor produces a change in average or
equilibrium density of a population.”

BASICS OF ECOLOGY & LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS 19

 Have you ever observed such a phenomenon around you? Why do you think,
a farmer adds fertilizers to the soil? Does this process of adding nutrient to
the soil as any link to the Law of Minimum?
In certain cases however, a particular population might temporarily overshoot
the carrying capacity. In such cases, population regulation would happen in
one of the two ways—migration (large number of individuals of the population
move to another area), or die-back (population suddenly crashes to a very
low level).

2.7 RECAPITULATION
J Ecology is the study of interrelationships of plants, animals and their
environment. Technically, Ecology and Environment are different.
J The laws of Ecology are: In nature: ‘Everything is connected to everything
else’ and ‘you can never do any one thing alone’. Hence,
interconnections are the essence of ecology.
J For making the study convenient, ecology can be studied at various
hierarchical levels, i.e. organism, species, population, community and
ecosystem.
J Each hierarchical level has a set of unique features defining/
qualifying it.

2.8 CONCLUSION
To make study easier, ecologist categorize the natural systems into a number
of hierarchical levels. Each of these levels has salient features that distinguish
them from one another. At the same time these levels, in nature, are intricately
and delicately linked with one another and seldom is it easy to draw lines
between them.

2.9
1. If ecology is the study of a natural system that is totally unaffected by
human actions or products, do you think that there is, technically
speaking, any ecological studies taking place in the world today?
2. It is sometimes said that humans don’t adapt to their environment,
instead they make their environment adapt to them. Can you think of
some examples of this?
3. Cities are not natural ecosystems, but many animals are still finding
an ecological niche in urban areas. How, for example, have monkeys
adapted to human environments? Comment.

20 BASICS OF ECOLOGY & LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS

 UNDERSTANDING CARRYING CAPACITY
Ecologically, carrying capacity is defined as the number
of individuals of a given species that can be sustained
indefinitely in a given space/area. It is something like
traffic authorities not allowing more that two adults
on a two wheeler, because the vehicle, by its make,
design and machine has 2 adults as its carrying capacity
and that having more number of riders on it may not
just damage the vehicle but may even lead to an
accident.
However in the ecological context, carrying capacity
is not a very static given number or quantity, rather in
nature, the carrying capacity of a system is affected
by many factors, such as seasonal fluctuations in the
physical environment, abundance or scarcity of food,
competition in and between species, migration of
species and its members, any catastrophic events—
natural or human-made, etc.
Humans are not exempt from the population overshoot
and crashing due to exceeding of natural systems
carrying capacities. Technological, social and other
changes seem to have extended the earth’s carrying
capacity for the human species, however it still remains
a question as to how long will we be able to carry on
with this extended carrying capacity of the planet—
planet of finite size and resources.

2.10
The Web of Life
Each ecosystem type is unique and has several fundamental characteristics
that it derives from the interactions of its components. In order to understand
these characteristics, the ecosystem including the interrelationships, must
be understood in its entirety. However, many of the connections within an
ecosystem are often not understood as they are not obvious. This also makes
it difficult for educators to explain these to students. For instance, it will be
difficult to communicate the link between a kingfisher and a farmland, unless
one traces the link between the topsoil from farm field which ends up in the
nearest water body, which is the feeding ground for kingfisher.
Interlinkages that exist in nature can be understood through this activity called
the ‘Web of Life’. This activity demonstrates one of the laws of ecology—we
can never do any one thing in nature and that everything is connected with
everything else.

BASICS OF ECOLOGY & LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS 21

 POPULATION CONTROL THE LEMMING WAY!
Lemming, the smallest of the high-arctic mouse-like
rodent is famous for its unique population cycles. Lemming
is a key species in Arctic ecosystems (a system with a
very sensitive and delicate balance) and is mainly eaten
by the Arctic fox. Usually, the two populations maintain
the prey-predator balance. However, periodically a
population explosion of lemmings occurs and the numbers
overshoots the carrying capacity of the Arctic ecosystem.
At such times even their predator population fails to
keep the numbers within limits. During this time, it has
been observed that the lemmings mass-migrate into the
sea. Lemmings are actually good swimmers but are not
capable of successfully crossing the huge sea barrier
and thousands die in the attempt. Some researchers call
this as mass suicide, some call it migratory behaviour.
But the fact remains that this behaviour of lemmings is
actually a mechanism that help this rodent stabilize its
population.

Group size: Entire Class

Duration: 45 minutes
Requirements: Chart paper (used visiting cards), colour pencils, scissors, a
ball of string, safety pins
Objective: To demonstrate the interconnectedness of various elements in
the environment.
Based on the list provided alongside, make a set of cards with the names of
the animal/bird/plant/resource, etc. The cards can be made using chart paper
and cutting out rectangular pieces of about 5X8 cm. The same can also be
made using the blank side of old visiting cards. A safety pin can be put
through the top of each card, or ‘U’ pins can also be used to pin up the card.
List of some components of the ecosystem:
Sun Air Water
Soil Tree Parrot
Algae Fish Eagle
Turtle Insect Frog
Mosquito Lizard Butterfly
Rat Butterfly Ant
Student Grass Dead Leaf
Earthworm Shrub Fungus
Dragonfly Monkey Spider
Snake Mongoose Kingfisher
Buffalo Honeybee Squirrel
Moss Grasshopper Dead wood

22 BASICS OF ECOLOGY & LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS

Ask the students to sit in a circle. Distribute one card each to all players.
Make sure to include and distribute cards depicting the four main elements
of nature, ‘Sun’, ‘Soil’, ‘Air’ and ‘Water’. Also distribute a ‘U’ pin to each.
Ask the players to pin their cards on their dresses so that everyone in the
group is able to see who they are. The players can take turns to tell the group
who they represent.
Now ask the players from whom the game should start. Suggestions may be
several. Prompt the players by asking them whose energy makes life possible
on earth. It is appropriate to begin with the Sun because it is the primary
source of all energy that makes life possible.
Take the ball of string and give it to the ‘Sun’. Ask the ‘Sun’ to wind one end
of the string around her/his finger. The task for ‘Sun’ is to throw ball of string
to any component of nature with whom sun has a relation. For example, the
sun gives energy to plant. So the ‘Sun’ can throw the ball to the player having
the ‘Tree’ card. But before giving the ball, the ‘Sun’ has to explain the relation
s/he has with the ‘Tree’.
The ‘Tree’ then winds the string firmly once or twice around her/his finger and
then passes it to another component s/he feels related to, e.g. ‘Soil’, explaining
that trees draw nutrients and water from the soil. In this way, the line of
relationships continues as the string unwinds and begins to form a pattern
which the students hold together. The ball of string is thus completely used up.
Ask the students to see the web-like effect of the string. Then ask them to
raise the web chest high. Let them hold it tightly so that if the web is pressed
down it does not sag and touch the ground.

DISCUSSION
After the game, the teacher may could initiate a discussion on the
interconnections in nature. Tell the players that the web they have made is
the ‘web of life’. It represents the relationships amongst different components
in an ecosystem. An ecosystem may be subject to a variety of pressures,
such as ‘floods’. To illustrate this pressure, press the web down with your
hand for a minute and release it. Ask the students to observe what happens.
Because the web is intact and firm, it bounces back. This signifies that a
healthy (undisturbed) ecosystem, with all its components viable, can come
back to equilibrium after a disturbance.
Now ask the students what would happen if some of these elements were
destroyed. Let the student representing these elements drop the string. Notice
the visual effect. More elements may be dropped to dramatize the effect.
Now press the web down. It would probably touch the ground because it is
loose and cannot bounce back. Conclude the game by emphasizing on the
interrelationships in nature and their importance.

BASICS OF ECOLOGY & LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS 23

 2.10.1 WEB OF LIFE: THE FEEDBACK
(credit points: 5)
a) How many rounds of the game did you play in your class?
b) How many children participated in each of those rounds?
c) How did you involve the remaining children of the class in this activity?
d) What kinds of interrelationships did the children come out with— food,
competition, breeding, protection, etc.
e) Did you have any problems during the activity? What were these?
f) Did you lead or follow the game with a theory session? If yes, please
describe.
g) Do you think the activity helped your students? How?

24 BASICS OF ECOLOGY & LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS