Introduction to Logic

Table of Contents
Statement
Truth value and truth table
Negation
Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols
Alternative Method for Truth Table
Conditional Statement
STRUCTURES OF MATHEM ATICS
Basic Concepts on Sets
Set
Elements
PATTERNS IN NATURE
Methods of Defining Set
Symmetry Types of Set Theory Symbol
a) Bilateral Symmetry
Venn Diagrams Set Operation
b) Radial Symmetry
Properties of the Union Operation
Shapes Properties of the Intersect Operation
Fractals Symbols to Word Expressions
Parallel Lines
Fibonacci Spiral

FIBONACCI SEQUENCE AND THE

Fibonacci Spiral G O L D E N R A T I O
Golden Ratio
Golden Rectangles
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Counterexamples
MATHEMATICS FOR OUR DAILY LIFE
Mathematics for Organization DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Mathematics for Prediction
TREE DIAGRAM “LISTING METHOD”
Mathematics for Control
POLYA’S PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY

LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS
STATISTICS

Convention Letters
CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
Mathematical Symbols
Qualitative Data
TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH TO
Quantitative Data
M AVersus
Expression T H ESentences
MATICAL STATEME NTS Types of Quantitative Variable
Differentiation of Mathematical Expression and Equation/Sentence Types of Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
STRUCTURES OF MΑΤΗΕΜΑΤΙCS
Inferential Statistics
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
Basic Concepts on Sets
Nominal Data
Set
Ordinal Data
Elements
Interval Data
Methods of Defining Set
Ratio Data
Types of Set Theory Symbol (THIS IS OPTIONAL)
Venn Diagrams Set Operation
Properties of the Union Operation MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY, AND VARIANCE OR
Properties of the Intersect Operation DISPERSION
Measure of Central Tendency
Symbols to Word Expressions (THIS IS OPTIONAL) Mean
LOGIC Median
Mode Types of Frieze Patterns
Measure of Variance or Dispersion 1. Hop Pattern
Range 2. Jump
Variance 3. Step
4. Sidle
Standard Deviation
5. Spin hop
Definition of symbols and Variables
6. Spin sidle
Formula of Measures for Ungrouped an Grouped Data 7. Spin jump
CORRELATION & REGRESSION ANALYSYS WALLPAPER PATTERN

Correlation Analysis TESSELLATION

Interpretation: When the value of “r” is
Pearson’s Product Moment
Regression Method
Least Square Regression Equation
Regression Method Formula:
Correlation Between Ordinal Variable
Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient
KINDS OF DATA DISTRIBUTION BASIC CONCEPTS OF GRAPHS
Symmetrical or Normal Distribution Terminologies Of Concepts Of Graphs
Positively Skewed Distribution Complete Graph
Negatively Skewed Distribution Equivalent Graphs

HYPOTHESIS TESTING EULER CIRCUITS

Eulerian Graph Theorem
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Parametric tests EULER PATH
t-test for Dependent Samples (paired)
t-test for Independent Samples (unpaired) Euler Path Theorem
z-test
F-test HAMILTONIAN GRAPHS
Non-parametric tests
Dirac’s Theorem
Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis (Ho)
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) WEIGHTED GRAPH
The Greedy Algorithm
The Edge-Picking Algorithm
Applications of Weighted Graphs

GRAPH COLORING
Four-Color Theorem
EUCLIDEAN TRANSFORMATION 2-Colorable Graph Theorem

1. Translation
TYPES OF ISOMETRY
Mathematical
2.
3.
Reflections
Rotations Systems
4. Glide Reflections
MODULO N
SYMMETRIC PATTERNS
Arithmetic Operations Modulo n
Examples: Arithmetic Operations Modulo n
TYPES OF SYMMETRIC PATTERNS Examples: Arithmetic Operations Modulo n
Examples: Arithmetic Operations Modulo n
Rosette patterns (finite designs) Solving Congruence Equations
1. Cyclic Symmetry Problems: Solving Congruence Equation
2. Dihedral Symmetry Additive and Multiplicative Inverses
Frieze patterns
 th e Natu reo f Shapes
o Geometry is the branch of mathematics that

Mathematics describes Shapes (e.g. rectangle, triangles,

circle, diamond, etc.)

H I S T O R Y O F M A T H E M A T I C S
Fractals
o same patterns/shapes but different sizes
o is sometimes called “Science of Pattern”

o there are specific pattern rules and it can be Parallel Lines

applied to different things o lines that do not intersect or touch at all but
runs at the same direction/course
o Math has been studied ancient times and some
formulas are still used today. (e.g. Pythagorean
Theorem) Fibonacci Spiral
o “The Laws of Nature are but the o A series of squares with lengths equal to the
Mathematical thoughts of God” –Euclid Fibonacci numbers would end up creating a
spiral by following the edges
o It is anywhere and everywhere. We rarely
notice its existence; we don’t always see math
in everything but it’s simply there from the FIBONACCI SEQUENCE AND THE GOLDEN RATIO
tiniest human cell to the power of the sun, there
o Leonardo Fibonacci discovered the sequence
is math.
o Sequence begin with 0 and 1
o It begs the question, “Was Math discovered or
was invented?” o Each Subsequent number is the sum of the
two-proceeding number.
o No matter what the answer is, Math has been a
fundamental part of our history, It has a special
o 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, …
link, even with nature as everything can be
governed or at least related to a mathematical o tool to create the Fibonacci spiral
concept. And man is trying to understand or go

Golden Ratio
with its rhythm, its very pattern.

P A T T E R N S I N N A T U R E o a special number found by dividing a line into

2 parts so that the longer part divided by the
Symmetry smaller part is also equal to the whole length
divided by the longer part
o two sides that are mirror images of one another
o symbolized using “phi”
o there is special line called the “line of
symmetry” that separates the two objects o used in mathematics and arts
equally
o the ratio between the sum of those quantities
B
B II LL A
ATTE
ERRA
A LL SSY
YMMM
MEET
TRRY
Y and the larger one is the same as the ratio
between the larger one and the smaller.
o an object has two sides that are mirror images
of one other aa ++ bb aa
=
= = =φ
φ
R
BA DET
IL I ARLYS Y M M E T R Y aa bb
o there is a center point and numerous lines that
can be branched out o constant approximation of Golden Ratio =
1.6180339887….
o unlimited number of lines, so long as they are
o Golden Ratio can be derived from the
of the same size and shape and connected to
Fibonacci numbers when you divide a number
the center point as reference
from the sequence from a number before that
number (ex: 377/233)
Golden Rectangles Mathematics for our Daily Life
o Ratio of the length is longer and the width is o expresses itself everywhere, in almost every
shorter facet of life

o A rectangle that can be cut up into a square o it is considered as the language of science and
and a rectangle similar to the original one. engineering

+b
T hae longer si ad e = φ
Mathematics for Organization
sh or = =φ o used as a tool to help us make sound analysis
a ter si dbe and better decision

o you can probably think of different situations

with mathematical tools being used

o it also develop strategies of problem-solving

Mathematics for Prediction

o prediction through the analysis and
interpretation of existing data

o probability and patterns

o usually predictions is used in weather

forecasting, and also as a basis for predicting
patterns based on your observation

Mathematics for Control

o Influence the behavior of a system and has the
control in order to achieve a desired goal

o Money – mathematics of manipulation

o Man is able to exert control over himself and

effects of nature through math

o Human Behavioral pattern can change the

society and the natural world
 Mathematical Symbols
Mathematical
Language nd Symbols
an
SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME
MEANING/
DEFINITION
= equals sign equality

L A N G U A N G E O F M A T H E M A T I C S ≠ not equal sign inequality

similar/
o facilitates communication and clarifies approximately approximation
≈
meaning for many things equal
o system of communication which consists of sets > strictly inequality greater than
of sounds and written symbols which are used
< strictly inequality less than
by the people.
greater than
o allows people to express themselves and ≥ inequality
or equal to
maintain their identity
≤ inequality less than or equal to
o it consists of words, letters, and symbols that
are known as natural language. Non-verbal
signs or images that can be used to TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH TO MATHEMATICAL STATEMENTS
communicate can be called as mathematical
langauge
Nouns, Verbs, Sentences
o Math is a universal language o Nouns could be your integers, numbers, or
expressions

o the principles and foundations of math
Ex. 5, 2(5-1/2)
are the same everywhere around the
world o Verb may be your equals sign “=”, or an
inequality (>,<)
o improves our mental ability as it
teaches us logical ways of thinking o Pronouns are your variables x and y

Ex. 5x-2, xy
o make it easier to express their thoughts
because it is: o Sentence would be formed 

Ex. 3x + 7 = 22
▪
Expression vs. Sentences
Precise – able to make very fine
distinctions

▪ Concise – able to say things

briefly ENGLISH MATHEMATICS

▪ Powerful – able to express Noun

complex thoughts with relative name given (person,
Expression
ease to an object place, thing)
Ex: 5, 2+3, 1/2
of interest Ex. Carol,

Convention Letters Idaho

Sentence
o not rules, but often used that way a complete Ex: The capital Sentence
o some letters have special uses thought of Idaho is Ex: 3+4=7
Boise.
EXAMPLES WHAT THEY USUALLY MEAN

a, b, c, … constants (fixed values)

positive integers
i, j, k, l,m, n
(for counting)

… x, y, z variables (unknown)
 Differentiation of Mathematical Expression & Equation S T R U C T U R E S O F M A T H E M A T I C S

BASIS FOR
COMPARISON
EXPRESSION EQUATION
Basic Concepts on Sets
Expression is a SE
SE TT
mathematical
An equation is a o a well-defined collection of objects (elements)
phrase which
mathematical similar/related or dissimilar/non-related in
combines
statement wherein some ways.
Meaning numbers,
two expressions are
variables and o Set theory – created by Georg Ferdinand
set equal to each
operators to Ludwig Philip cantor
other.
show the value
of something. o elements are enclosed in braces “{ }”
A sentence
fragment, that A sentence that E
E LL E
EMME
ENNT
T SS
stands for a shows equality
What is it?
single between two
numerical expressions. o objects/ random symbols/numbers/names that
value. belong to a set, denoted by “U”

Result Simplification Solution o elements in a set do not repeat. I repeat, they

DO NOT repeat.
No relation
Relation symbol Yes, equal sign (=)
symbol o order of elements in a set is not important, but
used for organizing purposes
Two sided, left and
Sides One sided
Methods of Defining Set
right
Numerical
value or Assertion, i.e. true
Answer
simplified or false. R O SE
TLEE
RMMEE
NTTH
SOD
expression
o A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Example 7x - 2(3x + 14) 7x - 5 = 19
o defined by enumerating the elements of the
Five increased by ten 15 set.

Twenty subtracted from twelve -8 R UE

LLE EM
MEETNHTO
SD

Two more than the sum of six and four 12 o A = {x|x is a counting number less than 6}
Thirty decreased by eight 22 o Is by using descriptive phrases in the form of
The quotient of twenty- four by three, plus 18 x”such that x”
ten
8 times the sum of 5 and 3 64
Types of Set Theory Symbol
Note: Some examples tend to change the elements in
1/2 the difference of 20 and 8 6 Set A or/and B to illustrate how the symbol functions
3 less than the product of 4 and 6 21 in a statement properly.

7 more than the quotient of 16 by 8 9 SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME MEANING/DEFINITION EXAMPLE

3 increased by the sum of 7 and 13 23 A=

a collection of
{} set {3,7,9,14},

The sum of two consecutive integers is 15. 7 and 8 elements
B = {9,14,28}

A = {x | x∈
| such that so that
Five years ago, John’s age was half of the x-5=1/2(x R, x<0}
age he will be in 8 years. How old is he +8) objects that belong A⋂B=
A⋂B intersection
now? to set A and set B {9,14}

Six subtracted from thrice a number 3x-6 A⋃B union

objects that belong A⋃B=
to set A or set B {3,7,9,14,28}
Five taken from a number x-5

The sum of your crush and you NA

 A is a subset of B. cardinality of
{9,14,28} ⊆
A⊆B subset set A is included in aleph-one countable ordinal  
{9,14,28}
set B. numbers set

A is a subset of B, Ø empty set Ø = {} A=Ø

proper subset / {9,14} ⊂
A⊂B but A is not equal to
strict subset {9,14,28} set of all possible
B. u universal set  
values
set A is not a subset {9,66} ⊄
A⊄B not subset natural numbers /
of set B {9,14,28}
N0 whole numbers  N0= {0,1,2,3,4,...} 0 ∈ N0
A is a superset of B. {9,14,28} ⊇ set (with zero)
A⊇B superset
set A includes set B {9,14,28}
natural numbers /
A is a superset of B, n1 whole numbers  n1= {1,2,3,4,5,...} 6 ∈ n1
proper superset / {9,14,28} ⊃
A⊃B but B is not equal to set (without zero)
strict superset {9,14}
A.
integer numbers Z =
Z -6 ∈ Z
set A is not a {9,14,28} ⊅ set {...-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...}
A⊅B not superset
superset of set B {9,66}
rational numbers Q = {x | x=a/b, a,b∈
Q 2/6 ∈ Q
Number of subset in set Z and b≠0}
 # of subsets
2n power set a set; n= # of
in B = 8
elements 6.343434
R real numbers set R = {x | -∞ < x <∞} ∈ R
P(A) power set all subsets of A  
complex numbers C = {z | z=a+bi, -
A={3,9,14},
 C 6+2i ∈ C
both sets have the set ∞<a<∞,      -∞<b<∞}
A=B equality B={3,9,14},

same members
A=B
Ex:
all the objects that
Ac complement do not belong to set   P(B) = {Ø, {9}, {14}, {28}, {9,14}, {9,28}, {14,28},
A {9,14,28}}
all the objects that
A' complement do not belong to set  A’= {28} B = {9,14,28}
A
Ex
A = {3,9,14},

A = {1,2,3} B = {1,3,5}
relative objects that belong B = {1,2,3},

A\B A x B = {(1,1), (1,3), (1,5), (2,1), (2,3), (2,5), (3,1),
complement to A and not to B A\B=
{9,14} (3,3), (3,5)}
A = {3,9,14},

relative objects that belong B = {1,2,3},
 Formal definition of a Cartesian product:
A-B AxB = {(a,b) | a∈A and b ∈B}
complement to A and not to B A-B=
{9,14}

symmetric
objects that belong
A = {3,9,14},

B = {1,2,3},

Venn Diagrams Set Operation
A∆B to A or B but not to
difference A∆B=
their intersection
{1,2,9,14}

A = {3,9,14},

objects that belong
symmetric B = {1,2,3},

A⊖B to A or B but not to
difference A⊖B=
their intersection
{1,2,9,14}

element of,
 A={3,9,14},

a∈A set membership
belongs to 3∈A

A={3,9,14},
x∉A not element of no set membership
1∉A

collection of 2
(a,b) ordered pair  
elements

set of all ordered

A×B Cartesian product  Hindi kasya
pairs from A and B

|A| cardinality
the number of A={3,9,14}, o
elements of set A |A|=3
o
the number of A={3,9,14},
#A cardinality
elements of set A #A=3

infinite cardinality of
aleph-null  
natural numbers set
 L O G I C

Introduction to Logic
o Logic is the science of correct reasoning.
o Logic allows us to determine the validity of
arguments in and out of mathematics.
Symmetric Difference (extra) o Illustrates the importance of precision and
conciseness of the language of mathematics.

Properties of the Union Operation Statement

o a declarative sentence that is either true (T) or
AU∅=A Identity law
false (F) but NOT both.
AUU=U Domination law
SIMPL
EEL ESM
TAET
NETM
S ENT
AUA=A Idempotent law
o a statement that conveys a single
AUB=BUA Commutative law idea

A U (B U C) = (A U B) U C Associative law C O M P OEULNEDM SETNATTSE M E N T

o a statement that conveys two or

Properties of the Intersect Operation more ideas.
Use words/phrases such as “and”, “or”, “if-then”
and “if and only if” to create a compound
A∩U=A Identity law
statements.
A∩∅=∅ Domination law
Let A and B be simple statements
A∩A=A Idempotent law
Symbols Type Statement
A∩B=B∩A Commutative law
A Negation Not A
A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C Associative law
A‚B Conjunction A and B

Symbols to Word Expressions AƒB Disjunction A or B

ADB Condition If A, then B
A⋂B A and B
AGB Bicondition A if and only if B
A⋃B A or B
A-B

∆ or ⊖
A only and not B

A or B, but not A and B

Truth Value & Truth Table
o The truth value of a simple
A’ Not A statement is either true (T) or false
(F).
A’ ⋃ B’ = (A ⋂ B)’ Not A and B
o The truth value of a compound
A’ ⋂ B’ = (A ⋃ B)’ Not A or B statement depends on the truth
A’ ⋃B Not A, or B values of its simple statements and
connectives.
A’ ⋂ B Not A, and B A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a
compound statement for all possible truth values of its
simple statements.
 by disjunctions from left to right,
Negation followed by conditionals from left to
right, and finally by biconditionals from
o Say P is a statement. left to right.
o The negation of P means not
𝑃 and is denoted by ~𝑷. Tautology – Statement that is always true
o If the statement is false, its
negation is true. Self – Contradiction – Statement that is always false
o If the statement is true, its

o
negation is false.
The negation of the negation
Conditional Statement
of a statement is the original
statement

Compound Statements & Grouping Symbols

C
COOM
MPPO
OUUN
NDD SSTTA
ATTEEM
MEEN
NTTSS &
&GGR
ROOUUPPIIN
NGG SSY
YMMB
BOOLLSS

➔ Given a compound statement in symbolic form,

parentheses are used to indicate which simple
statements are grouped together.
Ex:

P‚ (Q ƒ~R) (P‚~Q) ƒ R (P‚~Q)!(P ƒ Q)

➔ Given a compound statement written in English,

comma is used to indicate which simple
statements are grouped together.

Difference when using commas

P, and Q or R P‚(QƒR)
P and Q, or R (P‚Q)ƒR

Say P and Q be statements.

The conjuction denoted by 𝑷 ∧ 𝑸
is TRUE if and only if BOTH P and
Q are true.
The disjuction denoted by 𝑷 ∨ 𝑸 is
TRUE if and only if P is TRUE, Q is
TRUE, or BOTH P and Q are true.

Alternative Method for Table

• 2n = # of rows in a truth table; n = # of Statement
• Use the truth values for each simple
statement and their negations to enter
the truth values under each connective
within a pair of grouping symbols—
parentheses ( ), brackets [ ], braces { }.
• If some grouping symbols are nested
inside other grouping symbols, then
work from the inside out.
• In any situation in which grouping
symbols have not been used, then we
use the following order of precedence
agreement. First assign truth values to
negations from left to right, followed by
conjunctions from left to right, followed
 T R E E D I A G R A M “ L I S T I N G M E T H O D “
Problem
Solving Reasoning and
o a tool in the field of general mathematics,
probability, and statistics that helps calculate
the number of possible outcomes of an event
or problem, and to cite those potential

Problem Solving outcomes in an organized way.

P O L Y A ‘ S P R O B L E M - S O L V I N G S T R A G E T E G Y
o Problem - an inquiry starting from given
conditions to investigate or demonstrate a fact,
result or law. o George Polya was a mathematician in the 1940s

o Problem Solving is a fundamental means of o He devised a systematic process for solving

problems that is now referred to by his name:
developing mathematical knowledge at any
level. the Polya 4-Step Problem-Solving Process

Inductive Reasoning
o It is an approach to logical thinking that
involves making generalizations based on
specific details.

Conjecture
o a mathematical statement that has not yet been
rigorously proved.
o One counterexample means that the statement
is false.

Counterexamples
o An example that opposes or contradicts an
idea or theory.

Deductive Reasoning
o It is a type of logic where general statements,
or premises, are used to form a specific
conclusion.

o It moves from generalities to specific

conclusions.
 TY P T
E SY O
P FE Q
S UO
ANF TSI T
TAA TTI V
I E
S T
VAI R
C ISA B L E
Data
Management ➡ Descriptive Statistics
Collecting, organizing, presenting, and
analyzing numerical data
Focuses on quantitatively describing the
S T A T I S T I C S collection of data
Summary of the samples with corresponding
Branch of science that deals with the measures is stated
collection, presentation, organization, analysis, This is the organizing and summarizing data
and interpretation of data using numbers and graphs
➡ Inferential Statistics
๏ Population - collection of all elements
under consideration in a statistical Analyzing the organized data
inquiry Leading to prediction
Assume from the sample data of the
๏ Sample - subset of a population
population might probably be
๏ Variable - characteristics & attributes of
the elements in a collection that can Using sample Data to make an interference
assume different values for the different or conclusion of the population
elements ๏ Measurement – Process of determining the value
or label of the variable based on what has been
C L A S S I F I C A T I O N O F D A T A observed

Qualitative Data TL
YPE EVSEOLF SQO
UAF NM
T IET A
ATS IUV R E AMR E
E V I ANBTL E

Represents differences in quantity, character ➡ Nominal Data

or kind but not amount Labeling variables, without quantitative value
Measure of “types” and may be represented Nominal scales -"labels"
by names or symbols Cannot be arranged in an ordering scheme
Describes individuals or objects by their ➡ Ordinal Data
categories or groups Measures of non-numeric concepts
Descriptive data based on observations and Difference between the values of the data
usually involves 5 senses (see, feel, taste, cannot be determined
hear, smell) Interval is meaningless
The order of the values is important and
Quantitative Data significant
Numerical in nature and can be ordered/ ➡ Interval Data
ranked Quantitative measurements used to identify
Measure of “values” or “counts” and and rank
expressed in numbers Has negative values
Can’t compare two values
T
TYYP
PEE SS O
O FF Q
QUUA
ANNT
T IIT
TAAT
T IIV
VEEV
VAAR
R II A
ABB LL E
E Has no true zero point
➡ Ratio Data
➡ Discrete Quantitative Variable (Countable) Similar to interval scale but has a true zero
Ex: 8 cats (base in whole numbers and can be point
counted) No negative values
➡ Continuous Variable Quantitative Values Multiples are significant
(integers, rational, irrational values) MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIANCE/DISPERSION
Ex: 5.5m (anything can be measured such as
distance, speed, weight) MEANINGFUL MEASURABLE
TRUE ZERO
DATA LABELED ORDER DIFFERENCES
STARTING
POINT

Nominal Yes

Ordinal Yes Yes

Interval Yes Yes Yes

Ratio Yes Yes Yes Yes

๏ Measure of Central Tendency – a typical value of
a set of data or observation where they tend to
cluster. Moreover, it depends on the values
Range
(mean, median, mode) of what the shape of the how varied the data set is
graph and skewness looks like. how spread out numbers in the data set really
are
Mean estimate the measure of spread of standard
deviation
Represents the sum of all values in a dataset a very crude measurement of the spread of
divided by the total number of the values. data because it is extremely sensitive to
outliers
doesn’t always locate the center of the data single data value can greatly affect the value
accurately
of the range
in a skewed distribution, the mean can miss the
mark.  Variance
a measurement of the spread between
Extreme values in an extended tail pull the numbers in a data set.
mean away from the center it measures how far each number in the set is
from the mean and therefore from every
best to use the mean as a measure of the central
other number in the set
tendency when you have a symmetric
distribution A large variance indicates that numbers in
the set are far from the mean and from each
Best used for Interval and Ratio Data other, while a small variance indicates the
opposite

Median Variance can be negative. A zero value

means that all of the values within a data set
are identical.
the middle value that splits the dataset in half.
Outliers and skewed data have a Standard Deviation
smaller effect on the median
Standard deviation looks at how spread out a
When you have a skewed distribution, the group of numbers is from the mean
median is a better measure of central tendency If the data points are further from the mean,
than the mean there is a higher deviation within the data set;
thus, the more spread out the data, the higher
Best used for Ordinal and Interval Data and ratio
the standard deviation

Mode
the value that occurs the most frequently in
your data set.
If the data have multiple values that are tied
for occurring the most frequently, you have a
multimodal distribution.
no value repeats, the data do not have a
mode.
Best used for Nominal Data

๏ Measure of Variance or Dispersion - Indicates the

degree or extent to which numerical values are
dispersed or spread out above the average value
in a distribution.
Definition of Symbols & Variables
➡ Weighted Mean
Xm Midpoint of each class
a +Σx
b −wa
f Frequency or Class Frequency = = =φ
Respective weight of the data
a Σw b
Number of population/ sum of class
n
frequency
Example: Grouped Data
Lower class boundary of median/modal
LCBme/ class CLASS f cf xm fxm f(x-x̄)2

mo Note: Values for modal and median class 1-10 10874.2

71 71 5.5 390.5
may not be the same 0

11-20 32 103 15.5 496 180.60

i Class size or Class width
21-30 50 153 25.5 1275 2906.50
fm Frequency of median class
31-40 20 173 35.5 710 6212.33
n/2 Location of median class
41-50 8 181 45.5 364 6104.82
f of modal class – f of the previous class
fm1
from modal class x̄= 17.88
f of modal class – f of the next class from
fm2 N = 181
modal class
ª f(x-x̄)2 = 6569.61
Formula of Measures for Ungrouped Data & Grouped Data
Median Class = (n/2)th = 90.5th Class 11 -20
Modal Class = Class 1-10
UNGROUPED DATA GROUPED DATA
cfb = 71
Mean fm = 32
Σx Σ f xm i = 10
x̄ = x̄ = LCBme = 11 - .5 = 10.5
n n LCBmo = 1 -.5 = .5
Median fm1 = 71 - 0 = 71
If “n” is odd fm2 = 71 – 32 = 39
~x = x n + 1
2 n
+ cf b
( )
If “n” is even ~x = LCB + i 2
me
fm
xn + x
( 2 )+1
n
2
~x =
2
Mode
^x = Most high est f r equ en c y valu e f m1
( f m1 + f m 2 )
If there are 2 equal modes – Bimodal ^x = LCBme + i
If 3 – Trimodal

Range

= UCBhci − UCBlci
= Hi gh est  va l ue − L owest va l ue High class interval +.5
Low class interval -.5

Variance

Σ(x − x̄)2 Σf(x − x̄)2

s2 = s2 =
n−1 n−1
Standard Deviation

s= s2 s= s2
 CORRELATION AND REGRESSION ANALYSIS 12(724) − 76(119)
r  ×  y =
[12(678) − (76) ][12(1561 ) − (119) ]
2
Correlation Analysis 2 2

a statistical method used to determine

whether a relationship between two
Note : m a d e a cor r ect ion on on e valu e;  
variables exists
"Σx 2" f r om 670 to 678 
r =   − 0.11
Therefore, there is a very low correlation between
the results of the scores obtained by the reading
comprehension and vocabulary test

Regression Method
TINTERPRETATION:
Y P E S O F Q U A NWHEN
T I T ATHE
T I VVALUE
E V A OF
R I “r”
A BIS
LE A linear regression is used to make
predictions about a single value.
VALUES ( r ) INTERPRETATION
T Y PLEAST
E S O SQUARE
F QUAN REGRESSION EQUATION
T IT AT IV E VARIABLE
0.0 no correlation
±1.00 perfect correlation Ya =
+ ba +a bX
= =φ
a b
±0.01-±0.25 very low
 WHERE:
±0.26-±0.50 moderately low
Y= DEPENDENT X= INDEPENDENT
±0.51-±0.75 high
±0.75-±0.99 very high a= Y-int (x=0) b= SLOPE

T Y P EPEARSON’S
S OF QUA PRODUCT
NTITAT MOMENT
I V E V A (RrI) A B L E T Y P E REGRESSION
S O F Q U A NMETHOD
T I T A T IFORMULA
VE VARIABLE

Measure of the linear association between 2

(Σya)( ) −a (Σx)(Σxy)
variables that are measured on interval or ratio 2
+Σxb
scales.  a = = = φ2
It was developed by Karl Pearson that is why the
an Σx 2 −b (Σx)
correlation coefficient is sometimes called
"Pearson's r“. The formula is defined by:

N ΣX Y − N X ΣY n Σx y − (Σx)(Σy)
r = a+b a b = a + b = a = φ2
[N ΣX −a(ΣX ) ][
b N ΣY 2 − (ΣY ) ]
2 = 2 =φ 2 na Σx 2 −b(Σx)

From the previous example:

119(678) - 76(724)    12(724) - 76(119)   
a = = 10.87 b= = -0.15
12(678) - (76)² 12(678) - (76)²

Y = 10.87 − 0.15X
 Correlation Between Ordinal Variable KINDS OF DATA DISTRIBUTION

SPEARMAN RANK
TY P E S O F QORDER
U A N TCORRELATION:
I T A T I V E VCOEFFICIENT
ARIABLE Symmetrical/Normal Distribution
Used to calculate the correlation of ordinal data the mean, median, and mode all fall at the same point
w/c are classified according to order or rank. or equal

6(Σd )
2
rs =a 1+−b = a = φ
a n(nb2 − 1)

WHERE:

d = difference between ranks

n = number of paired observations

Positively Skewed Distribution
the extreme scores are larger, thus the mean is larger
than the median

6(Σd²) rs = 1 −
6(14.5)
= 0.83 
rs = 1 − Negatively Skewed Distribution
n(n 2 − 1) 8(82 − 1)
The order of the measures of central tendency would
CONCLUSION: be the opposite of the positively skewed distribution,
• The rs = 0.83  indicates that there is a very with the mean being smaller than the median, which
high positive correlation between the two is smaller than the mode
judges.
 t-test for Dependent Samples (paired)
HYPOTHESIS TESTING A parametric test applied to one group of samples
It can be used in evaluation of a certain program or treatment
Method of using simple data to decide between It is applied when the mean before and the mean after are being
two competing claims(hypothesis) about a compared
population characteristic.
Concerns itself with the decision-making rules
for choosing alternatives while controlling and
minimizing the risks of wrong decisions.
t-test for Independent Samples (unpaired)
Used when we compare the means of two independent groups
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS TESTING Used when the sample is less than 30

Parametric Test
The parametric tests are tests applied to data
that are normally distributed. Z-test
A statistical test, in which specific It is used to compare two means: the sample means and the
perceived population mean.
assumptions are made about the population
It is also used to compare the two sample means taken from the
parameter is known as parametric test. same population. When samples are equal to or greater than 30.
It is assumed that the measurement of It can be applied in two ways: the One-sample mean test and the
two sample mean test.
variables of interest is done on interval or
ratio level.
The measure of central tendency in the
parametric test is mean.
There is complete information about the F-test
population. It is another parametric test used to compare the means of two or

Non-Parametric Test
more independent groups.
It is also known as the analysis of variance (ANOVA)
Kinds of ANOVA: One-way, two-way, three-way
tests that do not require a normal distribution We used ANOVA to find out if there is a significant difference
between and among the means of two or more independent
groups.
a statistical test used in the case of non-metric
independent variables, is called non-
parametric test

the variable of interest is measured on

nominal or ordinal scale

the measure of central tendency in the

parametric test is median

there is no information about the population

 Example:
Hypothesis
claim/statement either about the value of a
single population characteristics or about the
values of several population characteristics

NULL
TY P E S O F Q U AHYPOTHESIS
N T I T A T I (Ho)
VE VARIABLE

a claim about a population characteristic that is

initially assumed to be true
researcher tries to reject or disprove

have the “equal sign”

The above figure shows a 99 % confidence interval,
the remaining 1 percent is the percentage of error
ALTERNATIVE
TY P E S O F Q U A N T HYPOTHESIS
I T A T I V E (Ha)
VARIABLE denoted by an alpha(a). Hence, the critical value is
± .005, the .01 (1%) is divided into two since it is a two
the competing claim tailed graph.

what we are attempting to demonstrate in an

indirect way

➡ One-Tailed Test
o Ha is directional (<,>) e.g. Ho:μ=21
Ha:μ>21

➡ Two-Tailed Test
o Ha is nondirectional (≠) e.g. Ho:μ=21
Ha:μ≠21

➡ Significance Level (α)-related to the degree of

certainty we require in order to reject ho in favor
of ha)

➡ Test Statistic
o a quantity calculated from the sample
data

o its value is used to decide whether or

n o t h o s h o u l d b e re j e c t e d i n a
hypothesis test (z-test, t-test, anova)

➡ Critical/Tabular Value - threshold to which the

value of the test statistic in a sample is
compared to determine whether or not ho is
rejected

➡ Critical/Rejection Region- set of values of the

test statistic for which Ho is rejected in a
hypothesis test (graph on the board)

➡ z-test & t-test - used to compare or study 2

groups of data through the value of their means

➡ z-test- used when s is known and n≥30

➡ t-test- used when s is known and n<30

 Reflection
Geometric Design o

o
A reflection flips a shape/figure/object over to create a
mirror image.
The mirror is a line called the axis of reflection.
The triangle on the right has
been reflected over the red
EUCLIDEAN TRANSFORMATION dotted line, thus, creating a
mirror image.
Isometry or isometric transformations is a type of transformation in
which the angles, size and side measurements of the figure remains the Whenever a figure is
same. reflected, each of its points
must be of the same distance
TYPES OF ISOMETRY from the line of reflection.

Translation Examples of reflection in patterns:

o A translation in the plane moves or slides a

shape/figure/object.

The figure has been

moved. The new figure is
Real-life examples of reflection:
now on the upper right.

o A translation is not allowed to turn, flip or change its

size. Each point is moved to the same exact distance Reflection of the mountains in Human body is a reflection
and the same direction. the water when split in half

The figure did not

change its size, only
Rotation
the position in which o A rotation turns a shape/figure/object.
where it stands. o You have to know the pivot point, called the center of the
rotation, as well as the angle of the rotation.
o In every rotation, the figure should always be the same size
Examples of translation in patterns: and shape.

Sometimes figures are

rotated just a few
degrees and other
times they may be
rotated in a very
obvious manner.

Real-life examples of translation:

The rotation
happened but the
figure remains the
same size and shape.

Design statues in a park G-clef note in a music sheet

 Real-life examples of glide rotation:

If a figure is rotated all

the way around back
to where it started, it is
a full rotation with an
angle of 360°.
Man’s footsteps
Leaves in branches

SYMMETRIC PATTERNS

If a figure is rotated A plane pattern has a symmetry if there is an isometry present in the
only half of the full plane.
rotation, it has an
angle of 180°. A transformation of a pattern is a symmetry of the pattern if the pattern
stays the same.
Examples of rotation in patterns:
TYPES OF SYMMETRIC PATTERNS

Rosette patterns (finite designs)

CYCLIC SYMMETRY:

Real-life examples of rotation:

o there is a rotation symmetry around a center point
but no mirror lines; it only goes continuously in
circles.
Examples of cyclic symmetry in patterns:

Ferris wheel Bicycle wheels

Glide Reflections Real-life examples of cyclic symmetry:

→ A glide reflection is a combination of a translation and a

reflection.
→ The axis of reflection must be parallel to the direction of the
translation.
→ You can reflect and then translate or vice versa. Dart board London eye (Ferris wheel)

DIHEDRAL SYMMETRY

o rotation symmetry around a center point with mirror lines

through the center point. You can distinguish the different equal
Examples of glide rotation in patterns: parts.

Example of dihedral symmetry in patterns:

 Real-life examples of dihedral symmetry:

Snowflake Starfish
SIDLE
- involves translations and vertical reflection lines with a
Frieze patterns 180° rotation.

• Frieze patterns are patterns that have translational symmetry in

one direction
• they go on to infinity directions, both left and right

SPIN HOP
Example of cyclic symmetry in patterns: - involves translations and a 180° rotation.

SPIN SIDLE
Types of Frieze Patterns rotation.
– translation then either vertical reflection or 180°

HOP PATTERN
- just a translation done in a repetitive manner

JUMP SPIN JUMP

- involves horizontal reflections followed by translations – horizontal and vertical reflections and
translations

STEP
- all are glide reflections
WALLPAPER PATTERN

Wallpaper pattern is a pattern with translation in two directions, done in

a repetitive manner.
It is an arrangement of frieze patterns stacked upon one another to fill
the entire plane.

A wallpaper pattern can be made up of a combination of rotation,

reflection, and glide reflection.

TESSELLATION
Covering any flat surface with a pattern of multiple shapes and styles
such that no part remains uncovered or overlaps
Terminologies Of Concepts Of Graphs ....................2
Complete Graph .............................................2
Equivalent Graphs ...........................................2
Eulerian Graph Theorem ...................................2
Euler Path Theorem .........................................2
The Greedy Algorithm ......................................3
The Edge-Picking Algorithm ................................3
Four-Color Theorem .........................................4
2-Colorable Graph Theorem ...............................4
 Mathematicsof Graphs
Basic Concepts of Graphs Euler Circuits
A graph is a diagram or a set of points and lines that • The definition of a Euler Circuit is a circuit
that uses every edge, but never uses the
are connected to each point.
same edge twice. So basically, when using a
Terminologies Of Concepts Of Graphs Euler circuit, the only thing you need to look
• In general, graphs can contain vertices that are forward to is that you start and end with the
not connected to any edges. same vertex. You could pass through the
• If two or more edges connect the same vertices, same points more than once, the most
they are called multiple edges. important thing is just end with the same
vertex. A graph than contains a Euler Circuit
• If an edge begins and ends at the same vertex, it
is a Eulerian Graph.
is called a loop.

• A graph is connected if any vertex can be

reached from any other vertex by tracing along
edges.

• A connected graph in which every possible edges

is drawn between vertices is called complete A graph that contains an Euler circuit is a Eulerian
graph. graph.
Complete Graph Eulerian Graph Theorem
• If each pair of the graph vertices is • A connected graph is Eulerian ( has an Eulerian
connected by an edge. circuit) if and only if each vertex of the graph is of
even degree.

• If there is almost all one edge between any two Euler Path
vertices in the graph but there is no loop it is • So basically, Euler Path is way different from a
called SIMPLE. Euler Circuit, where in Euler Path, it doesn’t allow
the passing through an edge more than once. It
also differ when it comes to the vertex, where it
ends up with a different vertex.

Euler Path Theorem

• A connected graph contains an Euler path if
Equivalent Graphs and only if the graph has two vertices of odd
• Two or more graphs are equivalent if they have degree with all other vertices of even
the same vertex and run or pass through the same degree.
edges.
• Furthermore, every Euler path must start at
one of the vertices of odd degree and end at
the other
 The Edge-Picking Algorithm
• Another method of finding a Hamiltonian circuit in

Hamiltonian Graphs a complete weighted graph is given by the

following edge-picking algorithm.

• Hamiltonian circuit is a circuit that visits • Mark the edge of smallest weight in the graph.
vertex once with no repeats. Being a
• Mark the edge of the next smallest weight in the
circuit, it must start and end at the same
graph, as long as it does not complete a circuit
vertex. and does not add a third marked edge to a single
• Hamiltonian path also visits every vertex vertex.
once with no repeats, but does not have to
start and end at the same vertex. • Continue the process until you can no longer mark
any edges. Then mark the final edge that
completes the Hamiltonian circuit.

Planarity and Graph Coloring

• A planar graph is a graph that can be drawn so

Weighted Graph that no edges intersect each other (except at
vertices).
• A weighted graph is a graph in which each edge
is associated with a value, called a weight.

The Greedy Algorithm

• greedy algorithm is basically choosing the
smallest value option at every chance we
get.

• it focuses on picking the vertex with the

minimum amount all throughout until it
travels along all the vertices.

• finding efficient Hamiltonian circuits in

complete weighted graphs

• choose a vertex as a starting point, and travel

along the edge that has the smallest weight.
Graph Coloring
• If the map is divided into regions in some manner,
what is the minimum number of colors required if
the neighboring regions are to be colored
differently?

• There is a connection between map coloring and

graph theory. Maps can be modeled by graphs
using the countries as the vertices and two
vertices (countries) are adjacent if they share a
common boundary.

• In graph coloring, each vertex of a graph will be

assigned one color in such away that no two
adjacent vertices have the same color. The
interesting idea here is to determine the minimum
number of (distinct) colors to be used so that we
can color each vertex of a graph with no two
adjacent vertices have the same color.

Four-Color Theorem
Every planar graph is 4-colorable.

The Chromatic Number of a Graph

The minimum number of colors needed to color a

graph so that no edge connects vertices of the same
color is called the chromatic number.

2-Colorable Graph Theorem

• A graph is 2-colourable if and only if it has no
circuits that consist of an odd number of vertices.
 The time can be determined by (5 – 71) 𝑚𝑜𝑑 12. Observe that (5 – 71)
𝑚𝑜𝑑 12 = (−66) 𝑚𝑜𝑑 12.

Mathematical Find a whole number x less than 12 such that −66 = 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑑 12 .

−66 = 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑑 12 ⇔
−66 − x
12
So that, −66 𝑚𝑜𝑑 12 = 6.

Therefore, if it’s 5 o’clock now, 71 hours ago is 6 o’clock.

Systems EXAMPLES: ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS MODULO N
3. In 2005, April 15 fell on a Friday. On what day of the week will April 15
fall in 2013?
MODULO N There are 8 years between two dates.
To say that two integers are considered as congruent modulo n, wherein n is
a natural number, if
𝑎−𝑏
is equivalent to an integer. Each year has 365 days (except for 2008 and 2012).
𝑛
So the total number of days in between two dates are 8(365) + 2 = 2,922.
we write it as: a ≡ b modulo n
Thus, we want 2,922 𝑚𝑜𝑑 7 But 2,922 ÷ 7 = 417 remainder 3.
Moreover, the integer value of modulo n is equal to the remainder left of the
We want a day that is same as the day 3 days after April 15, 2005.
number when it is divided by the n.
Therefore, April 15, 2013 is Monday.
The statement 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛 is called a congruence.

Modulo n example:
29 ≡ 8 mod 7 60 ≡ 0 mod 15 17 ≡ 2 mod 5
Solving Congruence Equations
It is defined as finding of all the values (which is a whole number
Arithmetic Operations Modulo n less than the modulus) of the variables for which the congruent is true. It
perform the indicated operations first, afterwards divide your is not your ordinary mathematical equation that needs certain solution to
answer by modulus. The number you will get is the remainder and should be be solved. It is only satisfied once the value of the variable is found. It does
a whole number and less than the modulus. not require any specific solution rather once a single solution was found
additional solutions can also be found by just repeatedly adding the
Note: The result of an arithmetic operation mod n is always a whole
modulus to the original equation. For instance, just like for common
number less than n.
problems, we look for solutions that would be best to solve our problems
Perform the modular arithmetic. without the need to base it to any mathematical formulas.

12+9 ≡ 1 mod 5 Remarks:

12+3 ≡ 0 mod 5 A congruence equation can have more than one solution among the whole
numbers less than the modulus.
EXAMPLES: ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS MODULO N
1. Disregarding AM or PM, if it is now 5 o’clock, what time will be 45 hours A congruence equation can have no solution.
from now?
PROBLEMS: SOLVING CONGRUENCE EQUATION
The time can be determined by (5 + 45) 𝑚𝑜𝑑 12. Find all whole number solutions of the congruence equation.

Observe that (5 + 45) 𝑚𝑜𝑑 12 = 50 𝑚𝑜𝑑 12 . 1. 𝑥 ≡ 7 𝑚𝑜𝑑 4

2. 2𝑥 ≡ 5 𝑚𝑜𝑑 9
But 50 𝑚𝑜𝑑 12 = 2.
3. 2𝑥 + 1≡ 6 𝑚𝑜𝑑 5
Therefore, if it’s 5 o’clock now, 45 hours from now is 2 o’clock. 4. 5𝑥 + 1≡ 3 𝑚𝑜𝑑 5
EXAMPLES: ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS MODULO N
2. Disregarding AM or PM, if it is now 5 o’clock, what time was it 71 hours
ago?
Additive and Multiplicative
Inverses
If the sum of two numbers is 0 (mod m), then the numbers are additive
inverses of each other (mod m).

If the product of two numbers is 1 (mod m), then the numbers are
multiplicative inverses of each other (mod m)

It is necessary to check only the whole numbers less than the modulus.

Examples: Find the additive inverse and the multiplicative inverse, if it

exists, of the given number.

5 in mod 7 arithmetic

7 in mod 12 arithmetic