Chapter 2

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
Through computers, society has instant access to information from around the
globe. Each component of a computer system has a vital role in order to process a data
to be information. However, many people believe that computer literacy is also vital to
success. Computer literacy, also known as digital literacy, involves having a current
knowledge and understanding of computers and their uses. Because the requirements
that determine computer literacy change as technology changes, you must keep up with
these changes to remain computer literate (Shelly et al., 2011). In this chapter, many of
terms and concepts to be introduced are just an overview that can help you to widen
your understanding on what is the importance of each component on a computer and its
impact in our daily activities.

Learning Objectives:

To identify the components of a computer;

To describe what is CPU and kinds of memory;
To explain the network and internet;
To define Multimedia;
To identify the categories of software;
To describe the categories of computers:
To identify various computer applications in society

From the previous chapter, you already know that a computer is an electronic
device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory, that can
accept data, process the data according to specified rules, produce results, and store
the results for future use. But what are those components that are responsible for
inputting, processing, outputting, storing and communicating the produce results?

THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

According to Shelly et al. (2011), a computer contains many electric, electronic,
and mechanical components known as hardware. These components include input
devices, output devices, a system unit, storage devices, and communications devices.
Figure 2.1 shows the Input-Process-Output Cycle of a computer.

Figure 2.1 Input-Process-Output Cycle of a Computer

Accepting the raw data. The first task to be performed by a computer is to accept the
data from the user, with the help of an input device, such as mouse and keyboard.
Mouse is used to enter the data through point-and-click operation while keyboard is
used to enter the character data by typing the various keys. We need to enter the data
into the computer so as to obtain the required result as output.

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Processing the data. The data is processed with the help of specific instructions
known as programs after taking the input from the user. The manipulation of data is
handled by the CPU of the computer. CPU is considered as the brain of the computer
because it controls the execution of various instructions. The raw data entered by the
user through input devices is processed by the CPU to generate meaningful
information.

Storing the data. The data is stored in the main memory of a computer in its processed
form. The various external storage devices—such as hard disk and magnetic disk—can
also be used for storing the processed data so that it can again be fetched later.

Delivering the output. The processed data is delivered as useful information to the
user with the help of output devices, such as printer and monitor.

Moreover Balagurusamy ( 2009), says that a Computer System, small or big, in

order to carry out its functions successfully, must essentially include the following four
sub-systems:
● Hardware
● Software
● Data
● People

HARDWARE
The physical devices that make up the computer are called Hardware. The
hardware units are responsible for entering, storing and processing the given data and
then displaying the output to the users. The basic hardware units of a general purpose
computer are keyboard, mouse, memory, CPU, monitor and printer. Among these
hardware units, keyboard and mouse are used to input data into the computer, memory
is used to store the entered data, CPU is used to process the entered data and monitor
and printer are used to display the processed data to the users (Balagurusamy, 2009).

INPUT DEVICE
An input device is any hardware component that allows you to enter data and
instructions into a computer. Five widely used input devices are the keyboard, mouse,
microphone, scanner, and Web cam (Figure 2.2).

A computer keyboard contains keys you press to enter data into the computer. A
mouse is a small handheld device. With the mouse, you control movement of a small
symbol on the screen, called the pointer, and you make selections from the screen.

A microphone allows a user to speak into the computer. A scanner converts

printed material (such as text and pictures) into a form the computer can use.

A Web cam is a digital video camera that allows users to create movies or take
pictures and store them on the computer instead of on tape or film.

OUTPUT DEVICES
An output device is any hardware compo nent that conveys information to one or
more people. Three commonly used output devices are a printer, a monitor, and
speakers (Figure 2.2).

A printer produces text and graphics on a physical medium such as paper. A

monitor displays text, graphics, and videos on a screen. Speakers allow you to hear
music, voice, and other audio (sounds).
 Figure 2.2 Common Computer Hardware Components

System Unit
The system unit is a box-like case that contains electronic components of the
computer that are used to process data (Figure 2.2). The circuitry of the system unit
usually is part of or is connected to a circuit board called the motherboard.

Two main components on the motherboard are the processor and memory. The
processor, also called the CPU (central processing unit), is the electronic component
that interprets and carries out the basic instructions that operate the computer (Shelly et
al, 2011).

While Balagurusamy (2009), says that CPU is the main component inside the
computer that is responsible for performing various operations and also for managing
the input and output devices. It includes two components for its functioning, Arithmetic
Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU). ALU is used to perform the arithmetic
operations, such as addition, subtraction, etc. and logic operations, such as AND, OR,
etc. on the data obtained from the memory. CU is used to control the activities related to
the input and output devices. It obtains the instructions from the memory, decodes them
and then, executes them, so as to deliver output to the users.

MAIN MEMORY
Shelly et al, (2011), say that memory consists of electronic components that
store instructions waiting to be executed and data needed by those instructions. Most
memory keeps data and instructions temporarily, which means its contents are erased
when the computer is shut off

The main memory is referred to as the internal memory or primary memory of the
computer. It is also known as Random Access Memory (RAM). It is a temporary storage
medium that holds the data only for a short period of time. Once the computer is
switched off, the data stored in the RAM gets erased. The memory space of RAM is
limited and therefore all the fi les and instructions cannot be stored in it. These files and
instructions are normally stored in a different location known as secondary storage and
are copied from there to the RAM before execution. This technique is referred as
swapping. The memory space available in RAM also affects the speed of a computer
system. If the memory space is more, more number of instructions can be copied and
executed at the same time. As a result, the computer system need not read the data
from the secondary storage again and again, thus making the processing faster. The
main memory is also responsible for holding intermediate data transferred between
CPU and the I/O devices (Balagurusamy, 2009).

CACHE MEMORY
Cache memory is a small, fast and expensive memory that stores the copies of
data that needs to be accessed frequently from the main memory. The processor,
before reading data from or writing data to the main memory, checks for the same data
in the cache memory. If it finds the data in the cache memory the processor reads the
data from or writes the data to the cache itself because its access time is much faster
than the main memory (Balagurusamy, 2009). The cache memory is always placed
between CPU and the main memory of the computer system, as shown in Fig. 2.3.

Figure 2.3 The Cache Memory

Figure 2.3 shows that the transfer of data between the processor and the cache
memory is bidirectional. The availability of data in the cache is known as cache hit. The
capability of a cache memory is measured on the basis of cache hit.

There are usually two types of cache memory found in the computer system:

1. Primary cache. It is also known as Level 1 (L1) cache or internal cache. The
primary cache is located inside the CPU. It is smaller but fastest type of cache
that provides a quick access to the frequently accessed data by the
microprocessor.

2. Secondary cache. It is also known as Level 2 (L2) cache or external cache. The
secondary cache is located outside the CPU. It is normally positioned on the
motherboard of a computer. The secondary cache is larger but slower than the
primary cache.

STORAGE DEVICE
Storage holds data, instructions, and information for future use. For example,
computers can store hundreds or millions of customer names and addresses. Storage
holds these items permanently (Shelly et al., 2011).

A computer keeps data, instructions, and information on storage media.

Examples of storage media are USB flash drives, hard disks, optical discs, and memory
cards. A storage device records (writes) and/or retrieves (reads) items to and from
storage media. Storage devices often function as a source of input because they
transfer items from storage to memory.

A USB flash drive is a portable storage device that is small and lightweight
enough to be transported on a keychain or in a pocket (Figure 2.2). The average USB
flash drive can hold about 4 billion characters.

A hard disk provides much greater storage capacity than a USB flash drive. The
average hard disk can hold more than 320 billion characters. Hard disks are enclosed in
an airtight, sealed case. Although some are portable, most are housed inside the
system unit (Figure 2.4). Portable hard disks are either external or removable. An
external hard disk is a separate, freestanding unit, whereas you insert and remove a
removable hard disk from the computer or a device connected to the computer.

Figure 2.4 Hard Disks are housed inside the system unit

An optical disc is a flat, round, portable metal disc with a plastic coating. CDs,
DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs are three types of optical discs. A CD can hold from 650
million to 1 billion characters. Some DVDs can store two full-length movies or 17 billion
characters (Figure 2.5). Blu-ray Discs can store about 46 hours of standard video, or
100 billion characters.

Figure 2.5 Optical or Compact Disk

 Some mobile devices, such as digital cameras, use memory cards as the storage
media. You can use a card reader/writer (Figure 2.2) to transfer stored items, such as
digital photos, from the memory card to a computer or printer.

COMMUNICATION DEVICES
A communications device is a hardware component that enables a computer to
send (transmit) and receive data, instructions, and information to and from one or more
com puters or mobile devices. A widely used communications device is a modem
(Figure 2.2).

Communications occur over cables, telephone lines, cellular radio networks,

satellites, and other transmission media. Some transmission media, such as satellites
and cellular radio networks, are wireless, which means they have no physical lines or
wires (Shelly et al., 2011).

NETWORKS AND INTERNET

A network is a collection of computers and devices connected together, often
wirelessly, via communications devices and transmission media. When a computer
connects to a network, it is online. Networks allow computers to share resources, such
as hardware, software, data, and information. Sharing resources saves time and
money.

The Internet is a worldwide collection of networks that connects millions of

businesses, government agencies, educational institutions, and individuals (Figure 2.6).
More than one billion people around the world use the Internet daily for a variety of
reasons, including the following: to communicate with and meet other people; to
conduct research and access a wealth of information and news; to shop for goods and
services; to bank and invest; to participate in online training; to engage in entertaining
activities, such as planning vacations, playing online games, listening to music,
watching or editing videos, and books and magazines; to share information, photos, and
videos; to download music and videos; and to access and interact with Web
applications.

Figure 2.6 The Internet

People connect to the Internet to exchange information with others around the
world. E-mail allows you to send and receive messages to and from other users. With
instant messaging, you can have a live conversation with another connected user. In a
chat room, you can communicate with multiple users at the same time — much like a
group discussion. You also can use the Internet to make a telephone call.

Businesses, called access providers, offer access to the Internet free or for a fee.
By subscribing to an access provider, you can use your computer and a modem to
connect to the many services of the Internet.

The Web, short for World Wide Web, is one of the more popular services on the
Internet. The Web contains billions of documents called Web pages. A Web page can
contain text, graphics, animation, audio, and video (Figure 2.7)

Figure 2.7 Webpage

Web pages often have built-in connections, or links, to other documents,

graphics, other Web pages, or Web sites. A Web site is a collection of related Web
pages. Some Web sites allow users to access music and videos that can be
downloaded, or transferred to storage media in a computer or portable media player.
Once downloaded, you can listen to the music through speakers, headphones, or
earbuds, or view the videos on a display device.

Anyone can create a Web page and then make it available, or publish it, on the
Internet for others to see. Millions of people worldwide join online communities, each
called a social networking Web site or online social network, that encourage
members to share their interests, ideas, stories, photos, music, and videos with other
registered users. Hundreds of thousands of people today also use blogs to publish their
thoughts on the Web. A blog is an informal Web site consisting of time stamped articles
in a diary or journal format, usually listed in reverse chronological order. Podcasts are a
popular way people verbally share information on the Web. A microblog, such as
Twitter, allows users to publish short messages, usually between 100 and 200
characters, for others to read. A podcast is recorded audio stored on a Web site that
can be downloaded to a computer or a portable media player such as an iPod.

A Web application is a Web site that allows users to access and interact with
software from any computer or device that is connected to the Internet. Examples of
software available as Web applications include those that allow you to send and receive
e-mail messages, prepare your taxes, organize digital photos, create documents, and
play games.
 Web sites such as social networking Web sites, blogs, and Web applications are
categorized as Web 2.0 sites. The term Web 2.0 refers to Web sites that provide a
means for users to share personal information (such as social networking Web sites),
allow users to modify the Web site contents (such as some blogs), and/or have software
built into the site for users to access (such as Web applications) (Shelly et al., 2009).

MULTIMEDIA
Most Web pages include more than just formatted text and links. The more
exciting Web pages use multimedia. Multimedia refers to any application that combines
text with graphics, animation, audio, video, and/or virtual reality. Multimedia Web pages
often require specific hardware and software and take more time to download because
they contain large graphics files or video or audio clips. The sections that follow discuss
how the Web uses graphics, animation, audio, video, and virtual reality (Shelly et al.,
2011).

● Graphics
A graphic, or graphical image, is a digital representation of nontext information
such as a drawing, chart, or photo. Many Web pages use colorful graphical
designs and images to convey messages.

Of the graphics formats that exist on the Web, the two more common are JPEG
and GIF formats. JPEG (pronounced JAY-peg) is a format that compresses
graphics to reduce their file size, which means the file takes up less storage
space. The goal with JPEG graphics is to reach a balance between image quality
and file size. Digital photos often use the JPEG format. GIF (pronounced jiff)
graphics also use compression techniques to reduce file sizes. The GIF format
works best for images that have only a few distinct colors, such as company
logos.

Some Web sites use thumb nails on their pages because graphics can be time-
consuming to display. A thumbnail is a small version of a larger graphic. You
usually can click a thumbnail to display a larger image.

● Animation
Many Web pages use animation, which is the appearance of motion created by
displaying a series of still images in sequence. Animation can make Web pages
more visually interesting or draw attention to important information or links.

● Audio
On the Web, you can listen to audio clips and live audio. Audio includes music,
speech, or any other sound. Simple applications on the Web consist of individual
audio files available for download to a computer or device. Once downloaded,
you can play (listen to) the contents of these files. Audio files are compressed to
reduce their file sizes. For example, the MP3 format reduces an audio file to
about one-tenth its original size, while preserving much of the original quality of
the sound.

Some music publishers have Web sites that allow users to download sample
tracks free to persuade them to buy all the songs contained on the CD. Others
allow a user to purchase and download an entire CD. It is legal to download
copyrighted music only if the song’s copyright holder has granted permission for
users to download and play the song.
 To listen to an audio file on your computer, you need special software called a
player. Most current operating systems contain a player, for example, Windows
Media Player. Some audio files, however, might require you to download a
player. Players available for download include iTunes and RealPlayer.

Some applications on the Web use streaming audio. Streaming is the process of
transferring data in a continuous and even flow. Streaming allows users to
access and use a file while it is transmitting. For example, streaming audio
enables you to listen to music as it downloads to your computer.

Podcasting is another popular method of distributing audio. A podcast is

recorded audio, usually an MP3 file, stored on a Web site that can be
downloaded to a computer or a portable media player such as an iPod.
Examples of podcasts include music, radio shows, news stories, classroom
lectures, political messages, and television commentaries. Podcasters register
their podcasts with content aggregators. Subscribers select podcast feeds they
want to be downloaded automatically whenever they connect. Most smart phone
users who subscribe to a wireless Internet service provider can listen to
streaming audio and podcasts.

● Video
On the Web, you can view video clips or watch live video. Video consists of
images displayed in motion. Most video also has accompanying audio. You can
use the Internet to watch live and pre recorded coverage of your favorite
television programs or enjoy a live performance of your favorite vocalist. You can
upload, share, or view video clips at a video sharing Web site such as YouTube.
Educators, politicians, and businesses are using video blogs and video podcasts
to engage students, voters, and consumers.

Video files often are compressed because they are quite large in size. These
clips also are quite short in length, usually less than 10 minutes, because they
can take a long time to download. The Moving Pictures Experts Group (MPEG)
defines a popular video compression standard, a widely used one called MPEG-
4 or MP4. Another popular video format is Adobe Flash. As with streaming audio,
streaming video allows you to view longer or live video images as they download
to your computer.

● Virtual Reality
Virtual reality (VR) is the use of computers to simulate a real or imagined
environment that appears as a three-dimensional (3-D) space. VR involves the
display of 3-D images that users explore and manipulate interactively. A VR Web
site, for example, might show a house for sale. Potential buyers walk through
rooms in the VR house by moving an input device forward, backward, or to the
side.

SOFTWARE
According to Balagurusamy (2009), the term software refers to a set of programs
and instructions that help the computers in carrying out their processing. Software is
very necessary for the proper functioning of a computer.

On the other hand, Software, also called a program, is a series of related

instructions, organized for a common purpose, that tells the computer what task(s) to
perform and how to perform them. You interact with a program through its user
interface. Software today often has a graphical user interface. With a graphical user
interface (GUI pronounced gooey), you interact with the software using text, graphics,
and visual images such as icons. An icon is a miniature image that represents a
program, an instruction, or some other object. You can use the mouse to select icons
that perform operations such as starting a program (Shelly et al., 2011).

Figure 2.8 Graphical User Interface (GUI)

The two categories of software are the following:

1. System software
It consists of the programs that control or maintain the operations of the
computer and its devices. System software serves as the interface between the
user, the application software, and the computer’s hardware. Two types of
system software are the operating system and utility programs.

● Operating System. An operating system is a set of programs that coordinates

all the activities among computer hardware devices. It provides a means for
users to communicate with the computer and other software. Many of today’s
computers use Microsoft’s Windows, the latest version of which is shown in
Figure 2.9, or Mac OS, Apple’s operating system. When a user starts a
computer, portions of the operating system are copied into memory from the
computer’s hard disk. These parts of the operating system remain in memory
while the computer is on.

● Utility Program. A utility program allows a user to perform main tenance-type

tasks usually related to managing a computer, its devices, or its programs. For
example, you can use a utility program to transfer digital photos to an optical
disc. Most operating systems include several utility programs for managing disk
drives, printers, and other devices and media. You also can buy utility programs
that allow you to perform additional computer management functions.

2. Application Software
It consists of programs designed to make users more productive and/or assist
them with personal tasks. A widely used type of application software related to
communications is a Web browser, which allows users with an Internet
connection to access and view Web pages or access programs. Other popular
application software includes word processing software, spreadsheet software,
database software, and presentation software.

Many other types of application software exist that enable users to perform a
variety of tasks. These include personal information management, note taking,
project management, accounting, document management, computer-aided
 design, desktop publishing, paint/image editing, audio and video editing,
multimedia authoring, Web page authoring, personal finance, legal, tax
preparation, home design/landscaping, travel and mapping, education, reference,
and entertainment (e.g., games or simulations). Software is available at stores
that sell computer products and also online at many Web sites.

Figure 2.9 Today’s system software and application software usually have a graphical user
interface.

● Word Processing Software

Word processing software, sometimes called a word processor, allows users to
create and manipulate documents containing mostly text and sometimes
graphics.Millions of people use word processing software every day to develop
documents such as letters, memos, reports, mailing labels, newsletters, and Web
pages. A major advantage of using word processing software is that users easily
can change what they have written. Word processing software also has many
features to make documents look professional and visually appealing. For
example, you can change the shape, size, and color of characters; apply special
effects such as three-dimensional shadows; and organize text in newspaper-style
columns.

Most word processing software allows users to incorporate graphical images,

such as digital photos and clip art, in documents. Clip art is a collection of
drawings, photos, and other images. With word processing software, you easily
can modify the appearance of an image after inserting it in the document.

You can use word processing software to define the size of the paper on which
to print and specify the margins. A feature, called wordwrap, allows users to type
words in a paragraph continually without pressing the enter key at the end of
each line. As you type more lines of text than can be displayed on the screen, the
top portion of the document moves upward, or scrolls, off the screen.

Word processing software typically includes a spelling checker, which reviews

the spelling of individual words, sections of a document, or the entire document.
The spelling checker compares the words in the document with an electronic
dictionary that is part of the word processing software. Some word processing
programs also check for contextual spelling errors, such as a misuse of
 homophones (words pronounced the same but have different spellings or
meanings, such as one and won) (Shelly et al., 2011).

● Spreadsheet Organization
A spreadsheet file is similar to a notebook that can contain more than1,000
related individual worksheets. Data is organized vertically in columns and
horizontally in rows on each worksheet. Each worksheet usually can have more
than 16,000 columns and 1 million rows. One or more letters identify each
column, and a number identifies each row. Only a small fraction of these columns
and rows are visible on the screen at one time. Scrolling through the worksheet
displays different parts of it on the screen. A cell is the intersection of a column
and row. The spreadsheet software identifies cells by the column and row in
which they are located.

Cells may contain three types of data: labels, values, and formulas. The text, or
label, entered in a cell identifies the worksheet data and helps organize the
worksheet (Shelly et al., 2011).

● Database Software
A database is a collection of data organized in a manner that allows access,
retrieval, and use of that data. In a manual database, you might record data on
paper and store it in a filing cabinet. With a computerized database, the computer
stores the data in an electronic format on a storage medium such as a hard disk.

Database software is application software that allows users to create, access,

and manage a database. Using database software, you can add, change, and
delete data in a database; sort and retrieve data from the database; and create
forms and reports using the data in the database. With most personal computer
database programs, a database consists of a collection of tables, organized in
rows and columns. Each row, called a record, contains data about a given
person, product, object, or event. Each column, called a field, contains a specific
category of data within a record. Users run queries to retrieve data. A query is a
request for specific data from the database (Shelly et al., 2011).

● Presentation Software
Presentation software is application software that allows users to create visual
aids for presentations to communicate ideas, messages, and other information to
a group. The presentations can be viewed as slides, sometimes called a slide
show, that are displayed on a large monitor or on a projection screen.
.
Presentation software typically provides a variety of predefined presentation
formats that define complementary colors for backgrounds, text, and graphical
accents on the slides. This software also provides a variety of layouts for each
individual slide such as a title slide, a two-column slide, and a slide with clip art, a
chart, a table, or a diagram. In addition, you can enhance any text, charts, and
graphical images on a slide with 3-D, animation, and other special effects such
as shading, shadows, and textures.

When building a presentation, users can set the slide timing so that the
presentation automatically displays the next slide after a preset delay.
Presentation software allows you to apply special effects to the transition
between slides. One slide, for example, might fade away as the next slide
appears.
 Presentation software typically includes a clip gallery that provides images,
photos, video clips, and audio clips to enhance multimedia presentations. Some
audio and video editing programs work with presentation software, providing
users with an easy means to record and insert video, music, and audio
commentary in a presentation.

You can view or print a finished presentation in a variety of formats, including an

outline of text from each slide and audience handouts that show completed
slides.

Presentation software incorporates features such as checking spelling,

formatting, research, and creating Web pages from existing slide shows (Shelly
et al., 2011).

DATA
Data refer to the raw facts and pieces of information that is usually entered into
the computer system by the user, so as to generate the desired output. The data are
presented in the form understandable by the computer system and the result is
delivered in the form understandable by the users. In a computer system, data are
manipulated by the program consisting of different instructions. Depending on the
requirement, data can be presented in two forms, viz. Quantitative and Qualitative
(Balagurusamy,2009).

● Qualitative data. The data, which are represented in words or text form, are
known as qualitative data. This type of data can also include images, videos and
audios used for the graphical presentation.

● Quantitative data. The data, which are represented in numerical form, are
known as quantitative data. This type of data include different numbers and
symbols used for representing a particular quantity. The data entered by a user
into the computer system can be in the form of numbers, text or images. The
data—stored in the memory of the computer system—is in the form of bits and
bytes. A bit is defined as the smallest unit of information used in the computer
system and a byte equals to a group of eight bits.

PEOPLE
According to Balagurusamy (2009), computer systems are designed by the
people, for the people. People, therefore, include the people who design and build
hardware and software (known as systems people) and the people who actually use
computer systems for their applications (known as users).

Systems people include hardware engineers, software engineers, programmers,

etc. Users might include a variety of people working in different areas of applications,
such as education, business, entertainment, training, etc. Users may use the available
standard software or develop their own software depending upon their requirements.

However, Shelly et al, (2011), give the five categories of users are as follows:

1. Home User
In an increasing number of homes, the computer is a basic necessity. Each
family member, or home user, spends time on the computer for different
reasons. These include personal financial management, Web access,
communications, and entertainment.
 On the Internet, home users access a huge amount of information, conduct
research, take college classes, pay bills, manage investments, shop, listen to the
radio, watch movies, read books, file taxes, book airline reservations, make
telephone calls, and play games. They also communicate with others around the
world through e-mail, blogs, instant messages, and chat rooms. Home users
share ideas, interests, photos, music, and videos on social networking Web sites.

2. Small Office/Home Office User

Computers assist small business and home office users in managing their
resources effectively. A small office/home office (SOHO) includes any
company with fewer than 50 employees, as well as the self-employed who work
from home. Small offices include local law practices, accounting firms, travel
agencies, and florists. SOHO users typically use a desktop computer. Many also
use smart phones.

SOHO users access the Internet — often wirelessly — to look up information

such as addresses, directions, postal codes, flights (Figure 1-27a), and package
shipping rates or to send and receive e-mail messages, or make telephone calls.
Many have entered the e-commerce arena and conduct business on the Web.
Their Web sites advertise products and services and may provide a means for
taking orders.

3. Mobile User
Today, businesses and schools are expanding to serve people across the
country and around the world. Thus, increasingly more employees and students
are mobile users, who work on a mobile computer or device while away from a
main office, home office, or school. Some examples of mobile users are sales
representatives, real estate agents, insurance agents, meter readers, package
delivery people, journalists, and students.

Mobile users often have a mobile computer and/or mobile device. With these
computers and devices, the mobile user can connect to other computers on a
network or the Internet, often wirelessly accessing services such as e-mail and
the Web. Mobile users can transfer information between their mobile devices and
another computer. For entertainment, the mobile user plays video games on a
handheld game console and listens to music or watches movies on a portable
media player.

The mobile user works with basic business software such as word processing
and spreadsheet software. With presentation software, the mobile user can
create and deliver presentations to a large audience by connecting a mobile
computer or device to a video projector that displays the presentation on a full
screen.

4. Power User
Another category of user, called a power user, requires the capabilities of a
powerful desktop computer, called a work station. Examples of power users
include engineers, scientists, architects, desktop publishers, and graphic artists.
Power users typically work with multimedia, combining text, graphics, audio, and
video into one application. These users need computers with extremely fast
processors because of the nature of their work.

The power user’s workstation contains industry-specific software. For example,

engineers and architects use software to draft and design floor plans, mechanical
 assemblies, or vehicles. A desktop publisher uses software to prepare marketing
literature. A graphic artist uses software to create sophisticated drawings. This
software usually is expensive because of its specialized design.

Power users exist in all types of businesses. Some also work at home. Their
computers typically have network connections and Internet access.

5. Large Business User

An enterprise has hundreds or thousands of employees or customers that work
in or do business with offices across a region, the country, or the world. Each
employee or customer who uses a computer in the enterprise is an enterprise
user

Many large companies use the words, enterprise computing, to refer to the
huge network of computers that meets their diverse computing needs. The
network facilitates communications among employees at all locations. Users
access the network through desktop computers, mobile computers, and mobile
devices.

Enterprises use computers and the computer network to process high volumes of
transactions in a single day. Although they may differ in size and in the products
or services offered, all generally use computers for basic business activities. For
example, they bill millions of customers or prepare payroll for thousands of
employees. Some enterprises use blogs to open communications among
employees and/or customers.

Enterprises typically have e-commerce Web sites, allowing customers and

vendors to conduct business online. The Web site showcases products, services,
and other company information. Customers, vendors, and other interested
parties can access this information on the Web.

The marketing department in an enterprise uses desktop publishing software to

prepare marketing literature. The accounting department uses software for
accounts receivable, accounts payable, billing, general ledger, and payroll
activities.

Enterprise users work with word processing, spreadsheet, database, and

presentation software. They also may use calendar programs to post their
schedules on the network. And, they might use smart phones or other mobile
devices to maintain contact information. E-mail programs and Web browsers
enable communications among employees, vendors, and customers.

Many employees of enterprises today telecommute. Telecommuting is a work

arrangement in which employees work away from a company’s standard
workplace and often communicate with the office through the computer.
Employees who telecommute have flexible work schedules so that they can
combine work and personal responsibilities, such as child care .

CATEGORIES OF COMPUTERS
Industry experts typically classify computers in seven categories: personal
computers (desktop), mobile computers and mobile devices, game consoles, servers,
mainframes, supercomputers, and embedded computers. A computer’s size, speed,
processing power, and price determine the category it best fits. Due to rapidly changing
technology, however, the distinction among categories is not always clearcut. This trend
of computers and devices with technologies that overlap, called convergence, leads to
computer manufacturers continually releasing newer models that include similar
functionality and features. For example, newer cell phones often include media player,
camera, and Web browsing capabilities. As devices converge, users need fewer
devices for the functionality that they require. When consumers replace outdated
computers and devices, they should dispose of them properly (Shelly et al., 2011).

1. Personal Computer

A personal computer is a computer that can perform all of its input, processing,
output, and storage activities by itself. A personal computer contains a processor,
memory, and one or more input, output, and storage devices. Personal
computers also often contain a communications device.

Two popular architectures of personal computers are the PC (Figure 2.10) and
the Apple (Figure 2.11). The term, PC-compatible, refers to any personal
computer based on the original IBM personal computer design. Companies such
as Dell and Toshiba sell PC-compatible computers. PC and PC-compatible
computers usually use a Windows operating system. Apple computers usually
use a Macintosh operating system (Mac OS).

Figure 2.10 Figure 2.11

PC computers usually use Windows Apple computers, such as the
Operating system iMac, usually use a Macintosh operating system

Two types of personal computers are the desktop computer and notebook computer.

● Desktop Computer
A desktop computer is designed so that the system unit, input devices, output
devices, and any other devices fit entirely on or under a desk or table. In some
models, the monitor sits on top of the system unit, which is placed on the desk.
The more popular style of system unit is the tall and narrow tower, which can sit
on the floor vertically.

2. Mobile Computers and Mobile Devices

A mobile computer is a personal computer you can carry from place to
place. Similarly, a mobile device is a computing device small enough to hold in your
hand. The most popular type of mobile computer is the notebook computer.

● Notebook Computers
A notebook computer, also called a laptop computer, is a portable, personal
computer often designed to fit on your lap. Notebook computers are thin and
lightweight, yet can be as powerful as the average desktop computer. A
 netbook, which is a type of notebook computer, is smaller, lighter, and often not
as powerful as a traditional notebook computer. Most netbooks cost less than
traditional notebook computers, usually only a few hundred dollars. Some
notebook computers have touch screens, allowing you to interact with the device
by touching the screen, usually with the tip of a finger.

● Tablet PCs
Resembling a letter-sized slate, the Tablet PC is a special type of notebook
computer that allows you to write or draw on the screen using a digital pen. For
users who prefer typing instead of handwriting, you can attach a keyboard to
Tablet PCs that do not include one already. Most Tablet PCs have touch
screens. Tablet PCs are useful especially for taking notes in locations where the
standard notebook computer is not practical.

Mobile Devices
Mobile devices, which are small enough to carry in a pocket, usually store
programs and data permanently on memory inside the system unit or on small storage
media such as memory cards. You often can connect a mobile device to a personal
computer to exchange information. Some mobile devices are Internet-enabled,
meaning they can connect to the Internet wirelessly. Because of their reduced size, the
screens on handheld computers are small.

Five popular types of mobile devices are smart phones, PDAs, handheld computers,
portable media players, and digital cameras.

● Smartphones
Offering the convenience of one-handed operation, a smart phone (Figure 2.12)
is an Internet enabled phone that usually also provides PDA capabilities and
personal information management functions such as a calendar, an appointment
book, an address book, a calculator, and a notepad. In addition to basic phone
capabilities, a smart phone allows you to send and receive e-mail messages and
access the Web — usually for an additional fee. Many models also function as a
portable media player and include built-in digital cameras so that you can share
photos or videos. Many smart phones also offer a variety of application software
such as word processing, spreadsheet, and games.

Many smart phones have keypads that contain both numbers and letters so that
you can use the same keypad to dial phone numbers and enter messages.
Others have a built-in mini keyboard. Some have touch screens. Instead of
calling someone’s smart phone or cell phone, users often send messages to
others by pressing buttons on their phone’s keypad, keys on the mini keyboard,
or images on an on-screen keyboard. Types of messages users send with smart
phones include text messages, instant messages, picture messages, and video
messages.

⮚ A text message is a short note, typically fewer than 300 characters, sent
to or from a smart phone or other mobile device.
⮚ An instant message is a real-time Internet communication, where you
exchange messages with other connected users.
⮚ A picture message is a photo or other image, sometimes along with
sound and text, sent to or from a smart phone or other mobile device. A
phone that can send picture messages often is called a camera phone.
⮚ A video message is a short video clip, usually about 30 seconds, sent to
or from a smart phone or other mobile device. A phone that can send
 video messages often is called a video phone.

Figure 2.12 Some smart phones have touch screens; others have
mini keyboards.
● PDA
A PDA (personal digital assistant) provides personal information management
functions such as a calendar, an appointment book, an address book, a
calculator, and a notepad (Figure 2.13). Most PDAs also offer a variety of other
application software such as word processing, spreadsheet, personal finance,
and games. A common input device for a PDA is a stylus. Many PDAs are
Internet-enabled so that users can check e-mail and access the Web. Some also
provide camera and phone capabilities and can function as a portable media
player.

● Smartwatches
Figure 2.13 A PDA

A smart watch is an Internet-enabled watch that automatically adjusts to time

zone changes and stores personal information.

● Handheld Computers
Handheld Computers A handheld computer, sometimes referred to as an
Ultra-Mobile PC (UMPC), is a computer small enough to fit in one hand.
Industry-specific handheld computers serve mobile employees, such as parcel
delivery people, whose jobs require them to move from place to place.
● Portable Media Players
A portable media player is a mobile device on which you can store, organize,
and play digital media (Figure 2.14). For example, you can listen to music; watch
videos, movies, and television shows and view photos on the device’s screen.
With most, you download the digital media from a computer to the portable media
player or to media that you insert in the device.

Portable media players usually include a set of earbuds, which are small
speakers that rest inside each ear canal. Some portable media players have a
touch screen; others have a touch-sensitive pad that you operate with a thumb or
finger, to navigate through digital media, adjust volume, and customize settings.

Figure 2.14 The iPod, shown here, is a popular portable media player.

● Digital Cameras
A digital camera is a device that allows users to take pictures and store the
photographed images digitally, instead of on traditional film. Although digital
cameras usually have some amount of internal storage to hold images, most
users store images on small storage media such as memory cards. Digital
cameras typically allow users to review, and sometimes modify, images while
they are in the camera. Often users prefer to download images from the digital
camera to the computer. Or, you can remove the storage media such as a
memory card from the digital camera and insert it in a card reader in or attached
to the computer.

3. Game Consoles
A game console is a mobile computing device designed for single player
or multiplayer video games (Figure 2.15). Standard game consoles use a
handheld controller(s) as an input device(s); a television screen as an output
device; and hard disks, optical discs, and/or memory cards for storage. The
compact size and light weight of game consoles make them easy to use at home,
in the car, in a hotel, or any location that has an electrical outlet. Three popular
models are Microsoft’s Xbox 360, Nintendo’s Wii (pronounced wee), and Sony’s
PlayStation 3. Read Innovative Computing 1-1 for a look at how Nintendo Wii
applications are being used in the medical field.

A handheld game console is small enough to fit in one hand. With the
handheld game console, the controls, screen, and speakers are built into the
device. Some models use cartridges to store games; others use a memory card
or a miniature optical disc. Many handheld game consoles can communicate
 wirelessly with other similar consoles for multiplayer gaming. Two popular
models are Nintendo DS Lite and Sony’s PlayStation Portable (PSP).

In addition to gaming, many game console models allow users to listen to

music, watch movies, keep fit, and connect to the Internet.

Figure 2.15 Game consoles provide hours of video game entertainment

4. Servers
A server controls access to the hardware, software, and other resources on a
network and provides a centralized storage area for programs, data, and information
(Figure 2.16). Servers support from two to several thousand connected computers at
the same time. People use personal computers or terminals to access data,
information, and programs on a server. A terminal is a device with a monitor,
keyboard, and memory.

Figure 2.16 A server controls access to resources on a network

Types of Servers
● Mainframes
A mainframe is a large, expensive, powerful computer that can handle hundreds
or thousands of connected users simultaneously (Figure 2.17). Mainframes store
huge amounts of data, instructions, and information. Most major corporations use
mainframes for business activities. With mainframes, enterprises are able to bill
millions of customers, prepare payroll for thousands of employees, and manage
thousands of items in inventory. One study reported that mainframes process
more than 83 percent of transactions around the world. Servers and other
 mainframes can access data and information from a mainframe. People also can
access programs on the mainframe using terminals or personal computers.

● Supercomputers
Figure 2.17 Mainframe Computers

A supercomputer is the fastest, most powerful computer — and the most

expensive (Figure 2.18). The fastest supercomputers are capable of processing
more than one quadrillion instructions in a single second. Applications requiring
complex, sophisticated mathematical calculations use super computers. Large-
scale simulations and applications in medicine, aerospace, automotive design,
online banking, weather forecasting, nuclear energy research, and petroleum
exploration use a supercomputer.

Figure 2.18 The Supercomputer

Embedded Computers
An embedded computer is a special-purpose computer that functions as a
component in a larger product. A variety of everyday products contain embedded
computers:

• Consumer electronics
• Home automation devices
• Automobiles
• Process controllers and robotics
• Computer devices and office machines
 Because embedded computers are components in larger products, they usually
are small and have limited hardware. Embedded computers perform various functions,
depending on the requirements of the product in which they reside. Embedded
computers in printers, for example, monitor the amount of paper in the tray, check the
ink or toner level, signal if a paper jam has occurred, and so on. Figure 2.19 shows
some of the many embedded computers in cars.

Figure 2.19 Some of the embedded computers designed to improve your safety, security, and
performance in today’s automobiles.

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN SOCIETY

Today, computers are used in almost every sphere of life. The users from
different locations can easily and quickly communicate with each other with the help of
computers. The use of computers has reduced the paper work to a large extent. Thus,
computers have become a basic need to perform various tasks in our day-to-day life
(Balagurusamy, 2009). Some common applications of computers are discussed below.

Education. Computers are used in schools and colleges to teach students in a better
and easy way. The students can get more information about a specific topic or subject
using the Internet. Computers help in easy learning by creating presentations on a
specific topic. Today, students can fill their application forms and give their exams
online that facilitates distance education. Computer-based learning and web-based
learning are very popular amongst students.

Business. Computers are used in different types of business to store a large amount of
information in the form of databases. Using computers, business meetings can be held
between people sitting at remote locations through web conferencing. Buyers and
sellers can conduct business online through the use of computers and Internet.

Communication. Computers that are connected with each other can be used to
transfer data to and from other computers. In order to establish communication between
two users, Internet is one of the most common mediums. E-mail is a popular system
through which a user can send/receive text messages, graphic messages and fi le
attachments.

Science. Computers are used by various scientists for the purpose of research and
development. They generally make use of computer for research and analysis of new
theories. With the help of computers, scientists are moving towards the possibility of
predicting natural disasters, such as earthquake and tsunami.

Engineering. Computers are used by the engineers for the creation of complex
drawings and designs while working in different fields, like automobiles and
construction. Engineers use computers extensively for numerical computing.

Entertainment. Computers are used in the entertainment industry for creating graphics
and animations. There are various free as well as proprietary graphics softwares
available for creating graphics and animations.

Banking. Nowadays, computers are being increasingly used for online banking.
Through online banking, the users or customers can transfer and receive money by
using computers and Internet. Some banks also provide the facility of online bill
payment through their websites.

Health. Computers are used by doctors to diagnose various kinds of diseases and
ailments. Several analog and digital devices are connected with computers enabling the
doctors to monitor the condition of a patient and view the internal organs of the body.
Hospitals use computers to maintain and manage patient records and billing systems.
They also use the concept of ‘tele-medicine’ to serve the patients at remote locations.

Government. Computers play a crucial role in almost all government departments.

Revenue, industry, census, police, defense and many other departments use computers
extensively to serve the people better. The concept of ‘e-governance’ is becoming
popular among various government agencies.

References:

Balagurusamy, E. (2009). Fundamentals of Computers. Tata McGraw-Hill

Shelly, Vermaat, et.al. (2011). Discovering Computers Fundamentals Living in a Digital

World. Cengage Learning

End of Chapter 2