CEP313| STRUCTURAL THEORY 1 – LECTURE

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

MODULE 1
TYPES OF STRUCTURES AND LOADS & STRUCTURAL DESIGN
METHODS

This module provides a discussion of the different

types of structures and loads acted or to be
applied in the structures. Structural elements will be
discussed first, followed by basic descriptions of
types of structures, components and use. Types of
loads will be given at the last part of the module to
be considered in structural design methods.

Objectives
 To provide basic knowledge of different
types of structures and their use.
 To familiarize different types of loads.
 To review and practice structural design
methods to be used in structural analysis of
different structures.

1.1 Introduction
A structure is any arrangement of parts
connected to each other to serve different
purposes. In civil engineering, there are different
types of structures such as buildings, bridges,
houses, etc. while in other engineering fields, ships,
aircraft, tanks, electrical systems, etc. are being
designed.

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1.2 Structural Elements

In different fields of engineering, it is very
important to know and study the structural
elements or what we call structural members
before it will be connected with each other to
form a structure. Here, we will introduce these parts
which a structure composed of.

Tie Rods. These are structural elements commonly

used in trusses to withstand or resist tensile stresses. Figure 1.1 (Structural Analysis, 8th
These are usually slender made from different Edition by R.C. Hibbeler)
cross-sections such as rods, bars, angle bars, and
channels due to its loading capacity, as in Figure
1.1.

Beams. These are structural elements used to carry

vertical loads and made from different materials
such as concrete, steel, and wood. Beams are
usually horizontal elements that resist bending or
flexural stress coming from vertical loads.
When it comes to concrete design,
reinforcement steel bars are added on beams to
support tensile stress. While in steel design, a cross- Figure 1.2 (Structural Analysis, 8th
Edition by R.C. Hibbeler)
section or shapes are being selected that can
carry external reactions of the beam.
Beams are classified according to the types
of support (which will be discussed in Module 2)
the way it is being connected to other structural
elements, as in Figure 1.2.

Columns. These are vertical elements usually to

support axial load. Just like beams, columns have
different types of support and a material like steel
columns, as in Figure 1.3.
Shape, height, and type of loading to resist
are considered to determine what type of column
will be used in a structure.
Figure 1.3 (Structural Analysis, 8th
Edition by R.C. Hibbeler)

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1.3 Types of Structures

By connecting different types of structural
elements or members, a structure is being made
and serves its purpose.

Frames. Are combinations of columns and beams.

Depending on the type of material, frames are
considered concrete, timber, steel frames, or a
Figure 1.4 An example of steel frame
combination of concrete and steel. Frames are
structure. By Dwight Burdette (Own
often used in buildings and known as building work) via Wikimedia Commons
frames and an example is in Figure 1.4.
Frames are structures that support different
types of loads such as dead, live, earthquake, and
wind load.

Trusses. Structures used in roof system or bridges.

Roof trusses are used to transmit loads to other
structural members such as beams and columns
while bridge trusses are used to carry loads from
floor beams and stringers. Trusses composed of Figure 1.5 The Buntun Bridge in
slender elements and carry a tensile or a Tuguegarao City. By
compressive force. See an example of truss in Hariboneagle927 (Own work) via
Wikimedia Commons
Figure 1.5.

Cables and Arches. These two types of structures

are both used to support bridges but in different
manners. Cables are flexible and carry loads in
tension while arches are being used to support
loads in compressions. See in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6 An arch to support the

Bamban Bridge, in Bamban, Tarlac.
By Ramon FVelasquez (Own work)
via Wikimedia Commons

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1.4 Types of Loads

Loads are the ones to be carried by the
structures discussed in Section 1.3. These loads
create external reactions from the support of a
structures and internal reactions from the
connections of structural members.
These loads are externally acted upon the
structures and will produce internal forces or
loadings of the structural elements. These internal
forces are considered in designing these members
in terms of their shapes, dimensions and sizes. Figure 1.7 A picture of roof
subjected to live load.
Once the structure is planned by engineers,
https://www.eng-
plans (usually Architectural plans) are being tips.com/viewthread.cfm?qid=443
examined by structural designers. Designers then 407
apply the loads to the plans and design the
structure.
Basic types of loadings will be discussed
here, divided into two types: according to its
nature; and load as per application.

According to its nature

Dead Loads (DL). These are the weights of the
structure itself and superimposed loads that are Figure 1.8 A picture of roof
permanently joined in the structure. Examples of subjected to snow load.
https://www.gccroofers.com/blog
these loads are weights from beams, columns, /roof-snow-load/
slabs, and materials like floor tiles, hollow blocks
and other materials placed permanently in the
structure. Dead loads are sometimes called as
gravity loads and directed vertically downward.
Live Loads (LL). These are the weights of any object
placed in the structure temporarily or moving
objects just like vehicles, or natural forces.
Occupants (human and furniture) are best
examples of moving objects within buildings. Live
loads are added in designing a building so that a
building will serve its purpose for example, a

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commercial building, a school, and a residential

building. See Figure 1.7.

Wind Loads (WL). Natural loads coming from the

flow of wind-blocking by the structure that puts
pressure on it. Velocity of wind is considered when
computing wind load. Wind load is a horizontal
loading.
Snow Loads (SL). Natural loads coming from the
weight of snow carried by the roof are transmitted
to the structure. Velocity of wind is considered in
computing wind load. Just like dead loads, snow Figure 1.9 Eva’s Hotel, in the
nearby city of Kidapawan,
loads are gravity load and directed vertically collapsed due to earthquake.
downward. But of course, we don’t consider snow https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/files/2
load here in the Philippines since we don’t have a 019/10/AP19304127091218.jpg
winter season. Instead of snow loads, rain loads are
considered sometimes. See Figure

Earthquake Loads (EL). Natural loads coming from

earthquakes and transmit its loads to the structure
through the ground motion and the structure resist
these loads laterally. Philippines is earthquake
prone since our country is near at Pacific Ring of
Fire so usually mid- and high-rise buildings are
analyzed through this type of load. An example of
a building collapsed due to earthquake in Figure
1.9.

Other Loads. There are some types of loads

depending on the location or country of the
structure to be built like soil lateral loads, flood
loads, etc.

According to load application

Point or Concentrated Loads. These type of loads
are just a single load located or concentrated only
on a single point. These are maybe dead or live
loads, directed vertically or horizontally. See in
Figure 1.10.

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Figure 1.10 Several concentrated

vertical loads acted upon the beam.
(Plotted from AutoCAD by Engr.
Bonjoebee R. Bello)

Distributed Loads. These type of loads distributed in

the span or height or a member. Weight of
structure, for example, in a slab, is distributed over
the entire area of the slab and then transmitted to
the beam creating a distributed load. Distributed
load has three types, Uniform, and Non-uniform.
Uniformly distributed loads are rectangular
loads and the magnitude of load is uniform for the
entire span or height, as in Figure 1.11.

Figure 1.11 A combination of

Triangular (Blue), Trapezoidal
(Yellow), and Rectangular Distributed
Load (Red). (Plotted from AutoCAD
by Engr. Bonjoebee R. Bello)

Non-uniformly distributed loads may be

triangular or trapezoidal, meaning the load varies
from zero (0) or some magnitude to bigger or
smaller load, as in Figure 1.11.
These types of loads represent the direction
and distribution of loads.

1.5 Structural Design Methods

Once these loads are determined and
applied in the structure, these loads will be used to
compute reactions, stresses, deflections,
deformations, etc. to design the dimensions, sizes,
and shapes of every member in the structure.

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These loads will be combined and factors

will be taken into account due to the uncertainties
of every load that may applied or occur in the
structures and also to the material of the members.
There are two methods used in design, the
Allowable-stress Design (ASD) and Load Resistance
Factor Design (LRFD). ASD and LRFD are the design
methods used in Steel Design. ASD is the Working-
stress Design (WSD) and LRFD is the Ultimate
Strength Design (USD) in Reinforced Concrete
Design.

ASD. Allowable-stress Design (ASD) method

includes only the working loads or the service loads  DL + LL + 0.60 (WL)
itself. In ASD, the required strength from the service  0.60 (DL) + 0.6 (WL)
loads must not exceed the allowable strength of  DL + LL + EL/1.4
the member, that is why it is called allowable-stress
design. Strength or capacity of the member will be
computed from the allowable stresses and will
compare to the computed nominal reactions or
strength from the combinations of loads.

𝑹𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 ≤ 𝑨𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉

LRFD. Load Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

method applies factors to the working or service  1.4 (DL)
loads due to the uncertainties of loads. These  1.20 (DL) + 1.60 (LL)
 1.20 (DL) + 1.0 (EL)
factors add 20% to 60% of the loads depending on
its nature. In LRFD, factored strength from the
factored loads must not exceed the design
strength. The design strength is a strength or
capacity of the member multiplied by resistance
factors (∅). Resistance factor varies depending on
the type of member.

𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 ≤ 𝑫𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉

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Load Combinations. Load combinations are the

combination of loads depending on their nature
and the certainties of action for example: dead
load and live will occur to the structure
simultaneously; or dead load, live load, and
snow/rain load will simultaneously occur in the
structure.

Examples of basic load combinations from

National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP)
2015 are being presented in the right side of ASD
and LRF description.

Assignment
 Make a research of at least 10 structures
here in the Philippines and determine what
type of structures and type of structural
members the structures composed of.
Include the structure’s history, name, and
location.
 Search different types of supports and
connections of structural members.

Format: Century Gothic, 11, No Spacing.

Reference/s
Structural Analysis. 8th Edition by R.C. Hibbeler

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