Chemistry Topic 15

KNOWLEDGE Using our resources (triple only) ORGANISER

Section 1: Key Terms Section 2: Rusting

Breakdown of materials due to chemical reactions. For iron to rust, both air and oxygen are needed. Providing a barrier
Corrosion
It is a form of erosion. between iron either air (oxygen) and water protects the iron from rusting.
Rusting The corrosion of iron. Iron + oxygen + water  hydrated iron(III)oxide

Rust Rust is hydrated Iron(III)oxide.

An effective way to prevent rusting whereby a metal
Sacrificial
more reactive than iron is attached to or coated on
protection
an object.
Iron or steel objects that have been protected from
Galvanised
rusting by a thin layer of zinc metal at their surface.
Oxidation Loss of electrons.
Tube A tests to see if air alone makes iron rust. Tube B tests to see if water
Reduction Gain of electrons. alone will make iron rust. Tube 3 tests to see if air and water will make iron
rust. Rusting is only observed in tube 3 illustrating that both air and
Tend to get oxidised themselves (and hence reduce
Reducing agent water are needed for iron to rust.
other species).
A mixture of two or more elements, at least one of
Sacrificial protection provides protection against rusting. The iron
Alloy which is a metal. For e.g. Steel is an alloy of Iron and
needs to be attached to a more reactive metal (galvanising it) for e.g.
carbon.
Zinc, magnesium or aluminium. The zinc is a stronger reducing agent
Bronze Alloy of copper and tin. than iron, so it has a stronger tendency to form positive ions by giving
Brass Alloy of copper and zinc. away electrons. As the zinc atoms lose electrons they become oxidised.
Therefore any water or oxygen reacts with the zinc instead of the iron
Alloys of iron containing specific amounts of carbon
Steels (protecting the iron from oxidation).
and/or other metals.
Section 3: Useful alloys
Hydrated A substance that contains water in its crystals.
Alloys are harder than pure metals because the regular layers are
A substance made from very large molecules, polymers distorted by differently sized atoms and hence cannot slide.
Polymers
are made up of many repeating units. Pure iron is too soft for it be useful in its pure form. Steel is an alloy of
Thermosoftening Soften and melt when they are heated. Can be iron which contains carefully controlled quantities of carbon so that it’s
polymers remoulded. hardness is controlled.
Thermosetting Do not melt when they are heated. Cannot be Steels Properties Uses
polymers remoulded. High carbon steel Very hard but brittle Cutting tools (chisels)
Two materials combined to make a material with useful Low carbon steel Softer but easily shaped Bodies of cars
Composites
properties. Chromium-nickel steels
Materials made by heating clay to high temperatures Stainless steel resistant to corrosion
Cooking utensils, cutlery
Ceramics
making hard materials which are excellent insulators.
Nickel steel alloys Resistant to stretching Bridges, bicycle chains
 Chemistry Topic 15
KNOWLEDGE Using our resources (triple only) ORGANISER

Section 4: The properties of polymers Section 5: Glass, ceramic and composites

The properties of polymers depends on what monomers The most common form of glass is Soda Glass which is made by heating
they are made from the conditions under which they are Glass a mixture of sand (SiO2), limestone (CaCO3) and sodium carbonate
made. (soda) at 1500°C. As it cools down the glass turns into a solid.
Different types of glass exist depending on amounts of each of the
Soften or melt easily
reactants; borosilicate glass involves an extra compound- B2O3.
when heated
• Atoms arranged irregularly
Thermosoftening because their
• Transparent, brittle, high melting point, keeps its shape (not flexible)
polymers intermolecular
forces between the Wet clay is moulded into a desired shape, then heated in a furnace to
chains are weak. 1000oC
• Used in bricks, tiles, crockery, bathroom furniture
Contain crosslinks Ceramics
• Atoms are held together in a giant covalent lattice, generally in a
(strong covalent
regular pattern
Thermosetting bonds) between
• Hard but brittle, electrical insulators
polymers chains so they do
not soften or melt Materials made from two or more different materials, with one material
easily. acting as a binder for the other material, reinforcing it.
Usually fibres or fragments of one material are held in a ‘matrix’ (network
Made using very
of atoms) by the other.
high pressures and Composites
• Glass-ceramic composites are very hard and tough (not brittle)
trace of oxygen.
• Fibreglass (polymer-ceramic) is a low density, tough, flexible material-
Polymer chains are
High density e.g. used in kayaks
randomly
polyethene • Plywood, carbon fibres and cement are other examples
branched, can’t branched
pack closely Section 6: The Haber process
together resulting in The Haber process is used to manufacture ammonia, which can be used to produce
a low density. nitrogen-based fertilisers. The raw materials are nitrogen (from the air) and
Made using a hydrogen (from natural gas, mainly methane).
catalyst at 50°C and Straight chain The nitrogen and hydrogen are purified then passed over an iron catalyst at a high
a slightly raised temperature of 450°C and a high pressure (200 atmospheres) to make ammonia NH3.
pressure. Made of
Low density
straight chain N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
polyethene
molecules which are
closely packed, The reaction is reversible so ammonia can break down again into nitrogen and hydrogen.
stronger and more The ammonia is removed by cooling the gases so that the ammonia liquefies. It can then
dense. be separated from the unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen gas.

The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen gases are recycled back into the reaction mixture so
that they can react again on the surface of the iron catalyst.
 Chemistry Topic 15
KNOWLEDGE Using our resources (triple only) ORGANISER

Section 7: The Haber process key terrms Section 9: The Haber compromise (HT)
A reaction in which the products can also Lowering the temperature slows down
Reversible
form the reactants. Its symbol is ⇌ the rate of reaction, taking longer for
reaction
Shown as: A + B ⇌ C + D ammonia to be produced.
A reaction that transfers energy to the Increasing the pressure means stronger,
Exothermic more expensive equipment is needed.
surroundings
This increases the cost of producing
A reaction that takes in energy from the
Endothermic ammonia.
surroundings
Hence a compromise is reached
Equilibrium is reached when the forward and achieving an acceptable yield in a
backwards reactions occur at exactly the reasonable timeframe while keeping
Equilibrium
same rate. The amounts of reactants and costs down.
(HT)
products present remain constant. A pressure of 200 atmospheres and a
Requires a sealed container. temperature of 450°C.
Le When a change in conditions is introduced Section 10: Fertilisers
Chatelier’s to a system at equilibrium, the position of Compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are used as fertilisers to improve
Principle equilibrium shifts so as to cancel out the agricultural productivity.
(HT) change. NPK fertilisers contain compounds of all three elements.
Section 8: Changing conditions in the Haber Process Nitrogen for cell growth and making proteins in plants
NPK
Equation for the Haber process: N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) Phosphorus needed to make DNA
fertilisers
ΔH is negative (exothermic in forwards direction). Potassium needed to make enzymes involved in respiration and
The Haber process is an exothermic photosynthesis.
process (ΔH is negative). If the Fertilisers are made by reacting an acid and base together e.g.
Changing Ammonia + nitric acid  ammonium nitrate
temperature is decreased, the Synthesis
temperature Ammonia + phosphoric acid  ammonium phosphate
equilibrium moves to the exothermic
side and more NH3 is made. Ammonia + sulphuric acid  ammonium sulfate
Increasing the pressure results in Phosphates are obtained from phosphate rocks. Phosphate rocks all
Changing the the equilibrium moving to the right contains the phosphate ion PO43-. The rocks are insoluble so cant be
pressure hand side as there are less gas Obtaining used directly as fertilisers, but react with acids to make the soluble
molecules. raw phosphate compounds. Potassium chloride and potassium sulfate are
The iron catalyst speeds up the rate of materials obtained by mining and are soluble so can be directly used as fertilisers.
the forwards and backwards reaction Nitric acid is required to make nitrate fertilisers (ammonia from the Haber
Catalyst equally, hence it doesn’t affect the process is oxidised to make nitric acid).
yield of ammonia but does result in Phosphate Phosphate rock + nitric acid  phosphoric acid + calcium nitrate
ammonia being produced quicker. rock Phosphate rock + sulphuric acid  calcium phosphate + calcium sulfate
fertilisers Phosphate rock + phosphoric acid  calcium phosphate