Pre Cal

McGraw-Hill Ryerson
Pre-Calculus
12
Contents
A Tour of Your Textbook ..................... vii Unit 2 Trigonometry ........................ 162
Unit 1 Transformations and Chapter 4 Trigonometry and the

Functions .............................................. 2 Unit Circle ....................................................................164
4.1 Angles and Angle Measure ........................... 166
Chapter 1 Function Transformations .................... 4
4.2 The Unit Circle .................................................... 180
1.1 Horizontal and Vertical Translations ...............6
4.3 Trigonometric Ratios ....................................... 191
1.2 Reflections and Stretches ................................ 16
4.4 Introduction to Trigonometric
1.3 Combining Transformations ............................. 32 Equations .............................................................. 206
1.4 Inverse of a Relation .......................................... 44 Chapter 4 Review ......................................................... 215
Chapter 1 Review ............................................................ 56 Chapter 4 Practice Test ............................................. 218
Chapter 1 Practice Test ................................................ 58
Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions and
Graphs ..........................................................................220
Chapter 2 Radical Functions ................................. 60 5.1 Graphing Sine and Cosine Functions ........ 222
2.1 Radical Functions and Transformations ..... 62
5.2 Transformations of Sinusoidal
2.2 Square Root of a Function ..................................78 Functions .............................................................. 238
2.3 Solving Radical Equations Graphically ........ 90 5.3 The Tangent Function..................................... 256
Chapter 2 Review ............................................................ 99 5.4 Equations and Graphs of Trigonometric
Chapter 2 Practice Test ............................................. 102 Functions .............................................................. 266
Chapter 5 Review ......................................................... 282
Chapter 3 Polynomial Functions ........................104 Chapter 5 Practice Test ............................................. 286
3.1 Characteristics of Polynomial
Functions .............................................................. 106 Chapter 6 Trigonometric Identities...................288
6.1 Reciprocal, Quotient, and Pythagorean
3.2 The Remainder Theorem ............................... 118
Identities............................................................... 290
3.3 The Factor Theorem ........................................ 126
6.2 Sum, Difference, and Double-Angle
3.4 Equations and Graphs of Polynomial Identities............................................................... 299
Functions .............................................................. 136
6.3 Proving Identities.............................................. 309
Chapter 3 Review ......................................................... 153
6.4 Solving Trigonometric Equations
Chapter 3 Practice Test ............................................. 155 Using Identities.................................................. 316
Chapter 6 Review ......................................................... 322
Unit 1 Project Wrap-Up .................... 157
Chapter 6 Practice Test ............................................. 324
Cumulative Review, Chapters 1–3 .. 158
Unit 1 Test ........................................ 160
Unit 2 Test ........................................ 328
iv MHR • Contents
Unit 3 Exponential and Unit 4 Equations and Functions ..... 426
Logarithmic Functions ..................... 330
Chapter 9 Rational Functions .............................428
Chapter 7 Exponential Functions ......................332 9.1 Exploring Rational Functions Using
7.1 Characteristics of Exponential Transformations................................................. 430
Functions .............................................................. 334 9.2 Analysing Rational Functions ...................... 446
7.2 Transformations of Exponential 9.3 Connecting Graphs and Rational
Functions .............................................................. 346 Equations .............................................................. 457
7.3 Solving Exponential Equations ................... 358 Chapter 9 Review ......................................................... 468
Chapter 7 Review ......................................................... 366 Chapter 9 Practice Test ............................................. 470
Chapter 10 Function Operations .......................472
Chapter 8 Logarithmic Functions ......................370 10.1 Sums and Differences of Functions .......... 474
8.1 Understanding Logarithms ........................... 372 10.2 Products and Quotients of Functions ...... 488
8.2 Transformations of 10.3 Composite Functions ....................................... 499
Logarithmic Functions .................................... 383
Chapter 10 Review ...................................................... 510
8.3 Laws of Logarithms ......................................... 392
Chapter 10 Practice Test........................................... 512
8.4 Logarithmic and Exponential
Equations .............................................................. 404 Chapter 11 Permutations, Combinations,
Chapter 8 Review ......................................................... 416 and the Binomial Theorem ...................................514
11.1 Permutations ...................................................... 516
11.2 Combinations ...................................................... 528
Unit 3 Project Wrap-Up .................... 421 11.3 Binomial Theorem ............................................. 537
Cumulative Review, Chapters 7–8 .. 422 Chapter 11 Review ...................................................... 546

Chapter 11 Practice Test........................................... 548
Unit 3 Test ........................................ 424
Unit 4 Test ........................................ 552
Answers............................................. 554
Glossary ............................................. 638
Index .................................................. 643
Credits ............................................... 646
Contents • MHR v
CHAPTER
1 Function
Transformations
Mathematical shapes are found in architecture,
bridges, containers, jewellery, games, decorations,
art, and nature. Designs that are repeated, reflected,
stretched, or transformed in some way are pleasing
to the eye and capture our imagination.
In this chapter, you will explore the mathematical

relationship between a function and its
transformed graph. Throughout the chapter, you
will explore how functions are transformed and
develop strategies for relating complex functions
to simpler functions.
Did Yo u Know ?
Albert Einstein (1879—1955) is often regarded as the father of

modern physics. He won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921 for
“his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery
of the law of the photoelectric effect.” The Lorentz transformations
are an important part of Einstein’s theory of relativity.
Key Terms
transformation invariant point
mapping stretch
translation inverse of a function
image point horizontal line test
reflection
4 MHR • Chapter 1
1.1
Horizontal and
Vertical Translations
Focus on . . .
• determining the effects of h and k in y - k = f(x - h)
on the graph of y = f(x)
• sketching the graph of y - k = f(x - h) for given values
of h and k, given the graph of y = f(x)
• writing the equation of a function whose graph is a
vertical and/or horizontal translation of the graph of
y = f(x)
A linear frieze pattern is a decorative pattern

in which a section of the pattern repeats
along a straight line. These patterns often
occur in border decorations and textiles.
Frieze patterns are also used by artists,
craftspeople, musicians, choreographers,
and mathematicians. Can you think of
places where you have seen a frieze pattern?
Lantern Festival in China
Investigate Vertical and Horizontal Translations
Materials A: Compare the Graphs of y = f(x) and y - k = f(x)

• grid paper 1. Consider the function f(x) = |x|.
a) Use a table of values to compare the output values for y = f(x),
y = f(x) + 3, and y = f (x) - 3 given input values of -3, -2, -1, 0,
1, 2, and 3.
b) Graph the functions on the same set of coordinate axes.
2. a) Describe how the graphs of y = f(x) + 3 and y = f(x) - 3 compare
to the graph of y = f (x).
b) Relative to the graph of y = f(x), what information about the graph
of y = f(x) + k does k provide?
3. Would the relationship between the graphs of y = f(x) and
y = f(x) + k change if f(x) = x or f (x) = x2? Explain.
6 MHR • Chapter 1
B: Compare the Graphs of y = f (x) and y = f(x - h)
4. Consider the function f(x) = |x|.
a) Use a table of values to compare the output values for y = f(x),
y = f(x + 3), and y = f(x - 3) given input values of -9, -6, -3, 0,
3, 6, and 9.
b) Graph the functions on the same set of coordinate axes.
5. a) Describe how the graphs of y = f(x + 3) and y = f(x - 3) compare
to the graph of y = f(x).
b) Relative to the graph of y = f(x), what information about the graph
of y = f(x - h) does h provide?
6. Would the relationship between the graphs of y = f(x) and
y = f(x - h) change if f(x) = x or f (x) = x2? Explain.
Reflect and Respond

7. How is the graph of a function y = f (x) related to the graph of
y = f (x) + k when k > 0? when k < 0?
8. How is the graph of a function y = f(x) related to the graph of
y = f(x - h) when h > 0? when h < 0?
9. Describe how the parameters h and k affect the properties of the
graph of a function. Consider such things as shape, orientation,
x-intercepts and y-intercept, domain, and range.
Link the Ideas
A transformation of a function alters the equation and any transformation

combination of the location, shape, and orientation of the graph. • a change made to a
figure or a relation such
Points on the original graph correspond to points on the transformed, that the figure or the
or image, graph. The relationship between these sets of points can be graph of the relation is
called a mapping. shifted or changed in
shape
Mapping notation can be used to show a relationship between
the coordinates of a set of points, (x, y), and the coordinates mapping
of a corresponding set of points, (x, y + 3), for example, as • the relating of one set
of points to another set
(x, y) → (x, y + 3). of points so that each
point in the original set
D id Yo u K n ow? corresponds to exactly
one point in the image
Mapping notation is an alternate notation for function notation. For example, set
f(x) = 3x + 4 can be written as f: x → 3x + 4. This is read as “f is a function
that maps x to 3x + 4.”
1.1 Horizontal and Vertical Translations • MHR 7

One type of transformation is a translation. A translation can move the
translation graph of a function up, down, left, or right. A translation occurs when
• a slide transformation the location of a graph changes but not its shape or orientation.
that results in a shift
of a graph without
changing its shape or Example 1
orientation
• vertical and horizontal Graph Translations of the Form y - k = f(x) and y = f (x - h)
translations are types
of transformations with a) Graph the functions y = x2, y - 2 = x2, and y = (x - 5)2 on the same
equations of the forms set of coordinate axes.
y - k = f(x) and b) Describe how the graphs of y - 2 = x2 and y = (x - 5)2 compare to the
y = f(x - h), respectively
graph of y = x2.
• a translated graph
is congruent to the Solution
original graph
a) The notation y - k = f(x) is often used instead of y = f(x) + k to
emphasize that this is a transformation on y. In this case, the base
function is f(x) = x2 and the value of k is 2.
The notation y = f (x - h) shows that this is a transformation on x. In
this case, the base function is f (x) = x2 and the value of h is 5.
Rearrange equations as needed and use tables of values to help you
graph the functions.
x y = x2 x y = x2 + 2 x y = (x - 5)2
-3 9 -3 11 2 9
-2 4 -2 6 3 4
-1 1 -1 3 4 1
0 0 0 2 5 0
1 1 1 3 6 1
2 4 2 6 7 4
3 9 3 11 8 9
y
For y = x2 + 2, the input values are the
y = x2 + 2
10 same but the output values change.
Each point (x, y) on the graph of y = x 2
8 is transformed to (x, y + 2).
6 For y = (x - 5)2, to maintain

the same output values as the
4
y = (x - 5)2 base function table, the input
values are different. Every point
2
y = x2 (x, y) on the graph of y = x 2 is
transformed to (x + 5, y). How do
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x the input changes relate to the
translation direction?
b) The transformed graphs are congruent to the graph of y = x2.
Each point (x, y) on the graph of y = x2 is transformed to become the

point (x, y + 2) on the graph of y - 2 = x2. Using mapping notation,
(x, y) → (x, y + 2).
8 MHR • Chapter 1
Therefore, the graph of y - 2 = x2 is the graph of y = x2 translated
vertically 2 units up.
Each point (x, y) on the graph of y = x2 is transformed to become the
point (x + 5, y) on the graph of y = (x - 5)2. In mapping notation,
(x, y) → (x + 5, y).
Therefore, the graph of y = (x - 5)2 is the graph of y = x2 translated
horizontally 5 units to the right.
Your Turn
How do the graphs of y + 1 = x2 and y = (x + 3)2 compare to the graph
of y = x2? Justify your reasoning.
Example 2
Horizontal and Vertical Translations
Sketch the graph of y = |x - 4| + 3.
Solution
For y = |x - 4| + 3, h = 4 and k = -3. y
• Start with a sketch of the graph of the 6 D i d You K n ow?
base function y = |x|, using key points. y = |x - 4| y = |x|
4 Key points are
• Apply the horizontal translation of points on a graph
4 units to the right to obtain the graph of 2 that give important
y = |x - 4|. information, such
as the x-intercepts,
To ensure an accurate sketch of a -2 0 2 4 6 x the y-intercept, the
transformed function, translate key maximum, and the
points on the base function first. minimum.
• Apply the vertical translation of 3 units y

8
up to y = |x - 4| to obtain the graph
of y = |x - 4| + 3. 6 y = |x - 4| + 3
4
Would the graph be in the correct y = |x - 4|
location if the order of the 2
translations were reversed?
-2 0 2 4 6 x
The point (0, 0) on the function y = |x| is transformed to become

the point (4, 3). In general, the transformation can be described as
(x, y) → (x + 4, y + 3).
Your Turn
Sketch the graph of y = (x + 5)2 - 2.

Example 3
Determine the Equation of a Translated Function
Describe the translation that has been applied to the graph of f(x)
to obtain the graph of g(x). Determine the equation of the translated
function in the form y - k = f (x - h).
a) y
f(x) = x2
6
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
g(x)
-6
b) y
4
f(x) B C
It is a common
A D E
2 convention to use a
prime () next to each
letter representing an
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
image point.
-2
-4
B C
g(x)
-6
D E
A
Solution
a) The base function is f (x) = x2. Choose key points on the graph of
image point f(x) = x2 and locate the corresponding image points on the graph
• the point that is of g(x).
the result of a
transformation of a f(x) g(x)
point on the original (0, 0) → (-4, -5)
For a horizontal translation and
graph (-1, 1) → (-5, -4) a vertical translation where
(1, 1) → (-3, -4) every point (x, y) on the graph
(-2, 4) → (-6, -1) of y = f(x) is transformed to
(x + h, y + k), the equation of the
(2, 4) → (-2, -1)
transformed graph is of the form
(x, y) → (x - 4, y - 5) y - k = f(x - h).
10 MHR • Chapter 1
To obtain the graph of g(x), the graph of f(x) = x2 has been translated D i d You K n ow?
4 units to the left and 5 units down. So, h = -4 and k = -5.
In Pre-Calculus 11,
To write the equation in the form y - k = f(x - h), substitute -4 you graphed quadratic
functions of the form
for h and -5 for k. y = (x - p)2 + q
by considering
y + 5 = f(x + 4) transformations from
the graph of y = x2.
b) Begin with key points on the graph of f(x). Locate the corresponding In y = (x - p)2 + q,
image points. the parameter p
f(x) g(x) determines the
horizontal translation
A(-5, 2) → A(-1, -7) and the parameter
B(-4, 4) → B(0, -5) q determines the
C(-1, 4) → C(3, -5) vertical translation
of the graph. In this
D(1, 3) → D(5, -6) unit, the parameters
E(3, 3) → E(7, -6) for horizontal and
(x, y) → (x + 4, y - 9) vertical translations
are represented by h
To obtain the graph of g(x), the graph of f(x) has been translated and k, respectively.
4 units to the right and 9 units down. Substitute h = 4 and k = -9

into the equation of the form y - k = f(x - h):
y + 9 = f(x - 4)
Your Turn
Describe the translation that has been applied to the graph of f(x)
to obtain the graph of g(x). Determine the equation of the translated
function in the form y - k = f(x - h).
a) y
10
g(x)
8
4
f(x) = |x|
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
b) A y
C 6
g(x)
4
D A
B f(x) C
2
D
-6 -4 -2 0 2 B4 6 x

Key Ideas
Translations are transformations that shift all points on the graph of a function
up, down, left, and right without changing the shape or orientation of the graph.
The table summarizes translations of the function y = f (x).
Transformation
Function from y = f(x) Mapping Example
y - k = f(x) or A vertical translation (x, y) → (x, y + k)
y = f(x) + k If k > 0, the
translation is up. y - k = f(x), k > 0 y = f(x)
If k < 0, the
translation is down.
0
y - k = f(x), k < 0
y = f(x - h) A horizontal translation (x, y) → (x + h, y)

If h > 0, the
translation is to the y = f(x - h), h > 0
y = f(x)
right.
If h < 0, the
translation is to the
left. 0 y = f(x - h), h < 0
A sketch of the graph of y - k = f(x - h), or y = f(x - h) + k, can be created by

translating key points on the graph of the base function y = f (x).
Check Your Understanding
Practise 2. Given the graph of y = f(x) and each of the

1. For each function, state the values of following transformations,
h and k, the parameters that represent • state the coordinates of the image points
the horizontal and vertical translations A, B, C, D and E
applied to y = f(x). • sketch the graph of the transformed
a) y - 5 = f(x)
function
a) g(x) = f (x) + 3 b) h(x) = f(x - 2)
b) y = f(x) - 4
c) s(x) = f(x + 4) d) t(x) = f(x) - 2
c) y = f(x + 1)
y
d) y + 3 = f(x - 7) y = f(x)
2
e) y = f (x + 2) + 4 B C
-4 -2 0 2 x
D E
-2
A
3. Describe, using mapping notation, how the 8. Copy and complete the table.
graphs of the following functions can be
Transformed Transformation of
obtained from the graph of y = f(x). Translation Function Points
a) y = f(x + 10) vertical y = f(x) + 5 (x, y) → (x, y + 5)
b) y + 6 = f(x) y = f(x + 7) (x, y) → (x - 7, y)
c) y = f(x - 7) + 4 y = f(x - 3)
d) y - 3 = f(x - 1) y = f(x) - 6
horizontal
4. Given the graph of y = f(x), sketch the y + 9 = f(x + 4)
and vertical
graph of the transformed function. Describe
horizontal
the transformation that can be applied to (x, y) → (x + 4, y - 6)
and vertical
the graph of f(x) to obtain the graph of
(x, y) → (x - 2, y + 3)
the transformed function. Then, write the
horizontal
transformation using mapping notation. y = f(x - h) + k
and vertical
a) r(x) = f(x + 4) - 3
9. The graph of the function y = x2 is
b) s(x) = f(x - 2) - 4 translated 4 units to the left and 5 units up
c) t(x) = f(x - 2) + 5 to form the transformed function y = g(x).
d) v(x) = f(x + 3) + 2 a) Determine the equation of the function
y
y = g(x).
A
D E b) What are the domain and range of the
2
y = f(x) image function?
B C
-6 -4 -2 0 2 x c) How could you use the description of
-2 the translation of the function y = x2 to
determine the domain and range of the
image function?
Apply 10. The graph of f(x) = |x| is transformed to

5. For each transformation, identify the the graph of g(x) = f(x - 9) + 5.
values of h and k. Then, write the a) Determine the equation of the
equation of the transformed function function g(x).
in the form y - k = f(x - h). b) Compare the graph of g(x) to the graph
1
a) f(x) = _ of the base function f(x).
x , translated 5 units to the left
and 4 units up c) Determine three points on the graph of
f(x). Write the coordinates of the image
b) f(x) = x2, translated 8 units to the right
points if you perform the horizontal
and 6 units up
translation first and then the vertical
c) f(x) = |x|, translated 10 units to the translation.
right and 8 units down
d) Using the same original points from
d) y = f(x), translated 7 units to the left part c), write the coordinates of the
and 12 units down image points if you perform the vertical
6. What vertical translation is applied to translation first and then the horizontal
y = x2 if the transformed graph passes translation.
through the point (4, 19)? e) What do you notice about the
7. What horizontal translation is applied to coordinates of the image points from
y = x2 if the translation image graph passes parts c) and d)? Is the order of the
through the point (5, 16)? translations important?

11. The graph of the function drawn in red 13. Architects and designers often use
is a translation of the original function translations in their designs. The image
drawn in blue. Write the equation of shown is from an Italian roadway.
the translated function in the form y
y - k = f(x - h).
4
a) y
2
4
2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x
-2 0 2 4 6 x
a) Use the coordinate plane overlay with
-2 the base semicircle shown to describe
f(x) = 1
_
x the approximate transformations of
-4
the semicircles.
b) If the semicircle at the bottom left of
b) y
the image is defined by the function
4
y = f(x), state the approximate
y = f(x) equations of three other semicircles.
2
14. This Pow Wow belt shows a frieze
-2 0 2 4 6 x pattern where a particular image has
-2 been translated throughout the length
of the belt.
-4
12. Janine is an avid cyclist. After cycling

to a lake and back home, she graphs her
distance versus time (graph A).
a) If she left her house at 12 noon,
briefly describe a possible scenario for
Janine’s trip. a) With or without technology, create a
design using a pattern that is a function.
b) Describe the differences it would make
Use a minimum of four horizontal
to Janine’s cycling trip if the graph of
translations of your function to create
the function were translated, as shown
your own frieze pattern.
in graph B.
b) Describe the translation of your design
c) The equation for graph A could be
in words and in an equation of the form
written as y = f(x). Write the equation
y = f(x - h).
for graph B.
y D i d You K n ow ?
Distance From
30 In First Nations communities today, Pow Wows have

Home (km)
A B
evolved into multi-tribal festivals. Traditional dances
20 are performed by men, women, and children. The
dancers wear traditional regalia specific to their
10 dance style and nation of origin.
0 2 4 6 8 10 x
Time (h)
15. Michele Lake and Coral Lake, located Extend
near the Columbia Ice Fields, are the only 17. The graph of the function y = x2 is
two lakes in Alberta in which rare golden translated to an image parabola with
trout live. zeros 7 and 1.
a) Determine the equation of the image
function.
b) Describe the translations on the graph
of y = x2.
c) Determine the y-intercept of the
translated function.
18. Use translations to describe how the
graph of y = _1
x compares to the graph
of each function.
Suppose the graph represents the number a) y - 4 = _
1 b) y = __
1
x x+2
of golden trout in Michelle Lake in the 1 1
years since 1970. c) y - 3 = __ d) y = __ - 4
x-5 x+3
f(t) 19. a) Predict the relationship between the
20
graph of y = x 3 - x2 and the graph of
y + 3 = (x - 2)3 - (x - 2)2.
Number of Trout
16
b) Graph each function to verify your
(hundreds)
12 prediction.
8 Create Connections
4 C1 The graph of the function y = f(x)
is transformed to the graph of
0 2 4 6 8 10 t y = f(x - h) + k.
Time Since 1970 (years)
a) Show that the order in which you apply
translations does not matter. Explain
Let the function f(t) represent the number why this is true.
of fish in Michelle Lake since 1970.
b) How are the domain and range affected
Describe an event or a situation for the by the parameters h and k?
fish population that would result in the
C2 Complete the square and explain how to
following transformations of the graph.
transform the graph of y = x2 to the graph
Then, use function notation to represent
of each function.
the transformation.
a) f(x) = x2 + 2x + 1
a) a vertical translation of 2 units up
b) g(x) = x2 - 4x + 3
b) a horizontal translation of 3 units to
the right C3 The roots of the quadratic equation
x2 - x - 12 = 0 are -3 and 4.
16. Paul is an interior house painter. He
Determine the roots of the equation
determines that the function n = f(A) gives
(x - 5)2 - (x - 5) - 12 = 0.
the number of gallons, n, of paint needed
to cover an area, A, in square metres. C4 The function f(x) = x + 4 could be a
Interpret n = f(A) + 10 and n = f(A + 10) vertical translation of 4 units up or a
in this context. horizontal translation of 4 units to the left.
Explain why.

1.2
Reflections and Stretches
Focus on . . .
• developing an understanding of the effects of reflections on the
graphs of functions and their related equations
• developing an understanding of the effects of vertical and horizontal
stretches on the graphs of functions and their related equations
Reflections, symmetry, as well as horizontal and

vertical stretches, appear in architecture, textiles,
science, and works of art. When something is
symmetrical or stretched in the geometric sense,
its parts have a one-to-one correspondence. How
does this relate to the study of functions?
Ndebele artist, South Africa
Investigate Reflections and Stretches of Functions
Materials A: Graph Reflections in the x-Axis and the y-Axis

• grid paper 1. a) Draw a set of coordinate axes on grid paper. In quadrant I, plot a
• graphing technology point A. Label point A with its coordinates.
b) Use the x-axis as a mirror line, or line of reflection, and plot point
A, the mirror image of point A in the x-axis.
c) How are the coordinates of points A and A related?
d) If point A is initially located in any of the other quadrants, does
the relationship in part c) still hold true?
2. Consider the graph of the function y = f (x).
y
6
y = f(x)
4
-2 0 2 4 6 x
a) Explain how you could graph the mirror image of the function in
the x-axis.
b) Make a conjecture about how the equation of f(x) changes to graph
the mirror image.
3. Use graphing technology to graph the function y = x2 + 2x,
-5 ≤ x ≤ 5, and its mirror image in the x-axis. What equation
did you enter to graph the mirror image?
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 for a mirror image in the y-axis.
Reflect and Respond

5. Copy and complete the table to record your observations. Write
concluding statements summarizing the effects of reflections in
the axes.
Equation of
Reflection Verbal Transformed
in Description Mapping Function
x-axis (x, y) → ( , )
Function
y = f(x) y-axis (x, y) → ( , )
B: Graph Vertical and Horizontal Stretches

6. a) Plot a point A on a coordinate grid and label it with its
coordinates.
b) Plot and label a point A with the same x-coordinate as point A,
but with the y-coordinate equal to 2 times the y-coordinate of
point A.
c) Plot and label a point A with the same x-coordinate as point A,
but with the y-coordinate equal to _ 1 the y-coordinate of point A.
2
d) Compare the location of points A and A to the Has the distance
location of the original point A. Describe how to the x-axis or the
y-axis changed?
multiplying the y-coordinate by a factor of 2 or
1 affects the position of the image point.
a factor of _
2
7. Consider the graph of the function y = f (x) in step 2. Sketch the
graph of the function when the y-values have been
a) multiplied by 2
1
b) multiplied by _
2
8. What are the equations of the transformed functions in step 7 in the
form y = af(x)?
9. For step 7a), the graph has been vertically stretched about the x-axis
by a factor of 2. Explain the statement. How would you describe the
graph in step 7b)?
10. Consider the graph of the function y = f (x) in step 2.
1
a) If the x-values were multiplied by 2 or multiplied by _ , describe
2
what would happen to the graph of the function y = f(x).
b) Determine the equations of the transformed functions in part a) in
the form y = f(bx).
1.2 Reflections and Stretches • MHR 17

Reflect and Respond
11. Copy and complete the table to record your observations. Write
concluding statements summarizing the effects of stretches about
the axes.
Equation of
Stretch Verbal Transformed
About Description Mapping Function
x-axis (x, y) → ( , )
Function
y = f(x) y-axis (x, y) → ( , )
Link the Ideas
reflection A reflection of a graph creates a mirror image in a line called the line
• a transformation where of reflection. Reflections, like translations, do not change the shape of
each point of the the graph. However, unlike translations, reflections may change the
original graph has an orientation of the graph.
image point resulting
from a reflection in • When the output of a function y = f (x) is multiplied by -1, the result,
a line
y = -f(x), is a reflection of the graph in the x-axis.
• may result in a change
of orientation of a • When the input of a function y = f(x) is multiplied by -1, the result,
graph while preserving y = f(-x), is a reflection of the graph in the y-axis.
its shape
Example 1
Compare the Graphs of y = f (x), y = -f (x), and y = f (-x)
a) Given the graph of y = f (x), graph the functions y = -f(x) and
y = f(-x).
b) How are the graphs of y = -f(x) and y = f(-x) related to the
graph of y = f(x)?
y
D
4
-4 -2 0 x
C 2 4
-2
A
y = f(x) B
-4
E
Solution
a) Use key points on the graph of y = f(x) to create tables of values.
• The image points on the graph of y = -f (x) have The negative sign
the same x-coordinates but different can be interpreted
as a change in
y-coordinates. Multiply the y-coordinates of sign of one of
points on the graph of y = f(x) by -1. the coordinates.
x y = f(x) x y = -f(x)
A -4 -3 A -4 -1(-3) = 3
B -2 -3 B -2 -1(-3) = 3
C 1 0 C 1 -1(0) = 0
D 3 4 D 3 -1(4) = -4
E 5 -4 E 5 -1(-4) = 4
y
D E
y = -f(x) 4 Each image point is the same
A B distance from the line of
2 reflection as the corresponding
C key point. A line drawn
-4 -2 0 x perpendicular to the line of
C 2 4
reflection contains both the key
-2
A point and its image point.
y = f(x) B
-4
D E
• The image points on the graph of y = f(-x) have the same

y-coordinates but different x-coordinates. Multiply the x-coordinates
of points on the graph of y = f(x) by -1.
x y = f(x) x y = f(-x)
A -4 -3 A -1(-4) = 4 -3
B -2 -3 B -1(-2) = 2 -3
C 1 0 C -1(1) = -1 0
D 3 4 D -1(3) = -3 4
E 5 -4 E -1(5) = -5 -4
y = f(-x) y
D D
4
2
C
-4 -2 0 C 2 4 x
-2
A
B B A
y = f(x) -4
E E

b) The transformed graphs are congruent to the graph of y = f (x).
The points on the graph of y = f (x) relate to the points on the

graph of y = -f(x) by the mapping (x, y) → (x, -y). The graph
of y = -f(x) is a reflection of the graph of y = f(x) in the x-axis.
Notice that the point C(1, 0) maps to itself, C(1, 0). What is another
This point is an invariant point. invariant point?
invariant point
• a point on a graph that The points on the graph of y = f(x) relate to the points on the
remains unchanged
after a transformation graph of y = f(-x) by the mapping (x, y) → (-x, y). The graph
is applied to it of y = f(-x) is a reflection of the graph of y = f(x) in the y-axis.
• any point on a curve
that lies on the line The point (0, -1) is an invariant point.
of reflection is an
invariant point
Your Turn
a) Given the graph of y = f (x), graph the functions y = -f(x) and
y = f(-x).
b) Show the mapping of key points on the graph of y = f(x) to image
points on the graphs of y = -f(x) and y = f (-x).
c) Describe how the graphs of y = -f (x) and y = f(-x) are related to
the graph of y = f (x). State any invariant points.
y
4
y = f(x)
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4
Vertical and Horizontal Stretches

stretch A stretch, unlike a translation or a reflection, changes the shape of the
• a transformation in graph. However, like translations, stretches do not change the orientation
which the distance of the graph.
of each x-coordinate
or y-coordinate from • When the output of a function y = f (x) is multiplied by a non-zero
the line of reflection y
is multiplied by some constant a, the result, y = af(x) or _
a = f(x), is a vertical stretch of the
scale factor graph about the x-axis by a factor of |a|. If a < 0, then the graph is also
• scale factors between reflected in the x-axis.
0 and 1 result in the
point moving closer to • When the input of a function y = f(x) is multiplied by a non-zero
the line of reflection; constant b, the result, y = f(bx), is a horizontal stretch of the graph
scale factors greater 1 . If b < 0, then the graph is also
than 1 result in the about the y-axis by a factor of _
|b|
point moving farther
reflected in the y-axis.
away from the line of
reflection
Example 2
Graph y = af (x)
Given the graph of y = f(x), y
• transform the graph of f(x) to 6
sketch the graph of g(x) y = f(x)
• describe the transformation 4
• state any invariant points
2
• state the domain and range
of the functions x
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
a) g(x) = 2f(x)
1
b) g(x) = _ f(x)
2
Solution
a) Use key points on the graph of y = f(x) to create a table of values.
The image points on the graph of g(x) = 2f(x) have the same
x-coordinates but different y-coordinates. Multiply the y-coordinates
of points on the graph of y = f(x) by 2.
x y = f(x) y = g(x) = 2f(x) y
-6 4 8 y = g(x) 8
-2 0 0
6
0 2 4
4
2 0 0
y = f(x)
6 4 8 2
The vertical distances of the transformed

graph have been changed by a factor of a, -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
where |a| > 1. The points on the graph of
y = af(x) are farther away from the x-axis
than the corresponding points of the graph
of y = f(x).
Since a = 2, the points on the graph of y = g(x) relate to the points

on the graph of y = f(x) by the mapping (x, y) → (x, 2y). Therefore,
each point on the graph of g(x) is twice as far from the x-axis as the
corresponding point on the graph of f (x). The graph of g(x) = 2f (x) is
a vertical stretch of the graph of y = f (x) about the x-axis by a factor
of 2.
What is unique about
The invariant points are (-2, 0) and (2, 0). the invariant points?
D i d You K n ow?
For f(x), the domain is How can you determine the There are several
{x | -6 ≤ x ≤ 6, x ∈ R}, or [-6, 6], range of the new function, ways to express the
g(x), using the range of f(x) domain and range of a
and the range is function. For example,
and the parameter a?
{y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 4, y ∈ R}, or [0, 4]. you can use words,
a number line, set
For g(x), the domain is {x | -6 ≤ x ≤ 6, x ∈ R}, or [-6, 6], notation, or interval
and the range is {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 8, y ∈ R}, or [0, 8]. notation.

1
b) The image points on the graph of g(x) = _ f(x) have the same
2
x-coordinates but different y-coordinates. Multiply the y-coordinates
1.
of points on the graph of y = f(x) by _
2
1
x y = f(x) y = g(x) = _ f(x)
2
-6 4 2
-2 0 0
0 2 1
2 0 0
6 4 2
Did Yo u Know ? y
y = f(x)
4 The vertical distances of the transformed
Translations and
reflections are called graph have been changed by a factor
2 a, where 0 < |a| < 1. The points on the
rigid transformations
because the shape of y = g(x) graph of y = af(x) are closer to the x-axis
the graph does not x than the corresponding points of the
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
change. Stretches graph of y = f(x).
are called non-rigid
because the shape of 1 , the points on the graph of y = g(x) relate to the points
the graph can change. Since a = _
2
1 y . Therefore,
on the graph of y = f (x) by the mapping (x, y) → x, _
2 ( )
each point on the graph of g(x) is one half as far from the x-axis as the
corresponding point on the graph of f (x). The graph of g(x) = _ 1 f(x)
2
is a vertical stretch of the graph of y = f(x) about the x-axis by a factor
1.
of _
2
The invariant points are (-2, 0) and (2, 0). What conclusion can you
make about the invariant
For f(x), the domain is points after a vertical stretch?
{x | -6 ≤ x ≤ 6, x ∈ R}, or [-6, 6],
and the range is
{y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 4, y ∈ R}, or [0, 4].
For g(x), the domain is {x | -6 ≤ x ≤ 6, x ∈ R}, or [-6, 6],
and the range is {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 2, y ∈ R}, or [0, 2].
Your Turn
Given the function f(x) = x2,
• transform the graph of f(x) to sketch the graph of g(x)
• describe the transformation
• state the domain and range of the functions
a) g(x) = 4f(x)
1
b) g(x) = _ f(x)
3
Example 3
Graph y = f (bx)
Given the graph of y = f(x), y
y = f(x)
• transform the graph of f(x) to sketch 4
the graph of g(x)
• describe the transformation 2

-4 -2 0 2 4 x
• state the domain and range of the
functions
a) g(x) = f(2x)
1
(2 )
b) g(x) = f _ x
Solution
a) Use key points on the graph of y = f(x) to create a table of values.
The image points on the graph of g(x) = f(2x) have the same
1.
of points on the graph of y = f(x) by _
2
x y = f(x) x y = g(x) = f(2x)
-4 4 -2 4
-2 0 -1 0
0 2 0 2
2 0 1 0
4 4 2 4
y
y = g(x) y = f(x) The horizontal distances of the
4
transformed graph have been changed by
1
2 a factor of _ , where |b| > 1. The points
b
on the graph of y = f(bx) are closer to the
-4 -2 0 2 4 x y-axis than the corresponding points of
the graph of y = f(x).
Since b = 2, the points on the graph of y = g(x) relate to the points

1 x, y . Therefore,
on the graph of y = f(x) by the mapping (x, y) → _
2 ( )
each point on the graph of g(x) is one half as far from the y-axis as the
corresponding point on the graph of f (x). The graph of g(x) = f(2x) is a
1 of the graph of f (x).
horizontal stretch about the y-axis by a factor of _
2
The invariant point is (0, 2).
For f(x), the domain is {x | -4 ≤ x ≤ 4, x ∈ R}, How can you determine
or [-4, 4], and the range is {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 4, y ∈ R}, the domain of the new
function, g(x), using the
or [0, 4]. domain of f(x) and the
For g(x), the domain is {x | -2 ≤ x ≤ 2, x ∈ R}, parameter b?
or [-2, 2], and the range is {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 4, y ∈ R},

or [0, 4].

1
b) The image points on the graph of g(x) = f _ x have the same (2 )
of points on the graph of y = f(x) by 2.
x y = f(x) x
1
y = g(x) = f _ x
2 ( )
-4 4 -8 4
-2 0 -4 0
0 2 0 2
2 0 4 0
4 4 8 4
y The horizontal distances of the

y = g(x) y = f(x) transformed graph have been
4
1
changed by a factor _ , where
b
2 0 < |b| < 1. The points on the
graph of y = f(bx) are farther
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x away from the y-axis than the
corresponding points of the
graph of y = f(x).
Since b = _1 , the points on the graph of y = g(x) relate to the points

2
on the graph of y = f (x) by the mapping (x, y) → (2x, y). Therefore,
each point on the graph of g(x) is twice as far from the y-axis as the
1x
corresponding point on the graph of f (x). The graph of g(x) = f _
2 ( )
is a horizontal stretch about the y-axis by a factor of 2 of the graph
of f(x).
The invariant point is (0, 2). How do you know which points will be
invariant points after a horizontal stretch?
For f(x), the domain is {x | -4 ≤ x ≤ 4, x ∈ R}, or [-4, 4],

For g(x), the domain is {x | -8 ≤ x ≤ 8, x ∈ R}, or [-8, 8],
Your Turn
Given the function f(x) = x2,
• transform the graph of f(x) to sketch the graph of g(x)
• describe the transformation
• state the domain and range of the functions
a) g(x) = f(3x)
1
( )
b) g(x) = f _ x
4
Example 4
Write the Equation of a Transformed Function
The graph of the function y = f(x) has been transformed by either a
stretch or a reflection. Write the equation of the transformed graph, g(x).
a) y b) y
20 4
16 f(x) = |x|
g(x) 2
12
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
8 -2
g(x)
f(x) = |x|
4 -4
-8 -4 0 4 8 x
Solution
a) Notice that the V-shape has changed, so the graph has been
transformed by a stretch.
Since the original function is f (x) = |x|, a stretch can be Why is this
described in two ways. the case?
Choose key points on the graph of y = f (x) and determine their

image points on the graph of the transformed function, g(x).
Case 1
Check for a pattern in the y-coordinates.
x y = f(x) y = g(x) y
-6 6 18 20
g(x)
-4 4 12 16
f(x) = |x|
-2 2 6
12
0 0 0
2 2 6 8
4 4 12 4
6 6 18
-12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12x
A vertical stretch results when the vertical
distances of the transformed graph are a
constant multiple of those of the original
graph with respect to the x-axis.
The transformation can be described by the mapping (x, y) → (x, 3y).

This is of the form y = af(x), indicating that there is a vertical stretch
about the x-axis by a factor of 3. The equation of the transformed
function is g(x) = 3f(x) or g(x) = 3|x|.

Case 2
Check for a pattern in the x-coordinates.
x y = f(x) x y = g(x)
-12 12 -4 12
-6 6 -2 6
0 0 0 0
6 6 2 6
12 12 4 12
20
g(x)
16 A horizontal stretch results when
the horizontal distances of the
12
transformed graph are a constant
multiple of those of the original
8
f(x) = |x| graph with respect to the y-axis.
4
-12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 x
1 x, y .
The transformation can be described by the mapping (x, y) → _
3 ( )
This is of the form y = f (bx), indicating that there is a horizontal
stretch about the y-axis by a factor of _1 . The equation of the
3
transformed function is g(x) = f (3x) or g(x) = |3x|.
b) Notice that the shape of the graph has not changed, so the graph has
been transformed by a reflection.
Choose key points on the graph of f (x) = |x| and determine their
image points on the graph of the transformed function, g(x).
x y = f(x) y = g(x)
-4 4 -4
-2 2 -2
0 0 0
2 2 -2
4 4 -4
The transformation can be described by the mapping (x, y) → (x, -y).

This is of the form y = -f(x), indicating a reflection in the x-axis. The
equation of the transformed function is g(x) = -|x|.
Your Turn
y
The graph of the function y = f(x) has
16
been transformed. Write the equation g(x)
of the transformed graph, g(x). f(x) = x 2
12
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
Key Ideas
Any point on a line of reflection is an invariant point.
Transformation from
Function y = f(x) Mapping Example
y = -f(x) A reflection in the x-axis (x, y) → (x, -y) y
y = f(x)
0 x
y = -f(x)
y = f(-x) A reflection in the y-axis (x, y) → (-x, y) y
y = f(x)
0 x
y = f(-x)
y = af(x) A vertical stretch about the (x, y) → (x, ay) y

x-axis by a factor of |a|;
if a < 0, then the graph is y = af(x), a > 1
also reflected in the x-axis
y = f(x)
0 x
y = f(bx) A horizontal stretch about x y

1
( )
(x, y) → _ , y
b
the y-axis by a factor of _ ; y = f(bx), b > 0
|b|
if b < 0, then the graph is y = f(x)
also reflected in the y-axis
0 x

Practise 3. Consider each graph of a function.

1. a) Copy and complete the table of values • Copy the graph of the function and
for the given functions. sketch its reflection in the x-axis on
x f(x) = 2x + 1 g(x) = -f(x) h(x) = f(-x) the same set of axes.
-4 • State the equation of the reflected
-2
function in simplified form.
0 • State the domain and range of each
function.
2
a) y
4
2
b) Sketch the graphs of f(x), g(x), and h(x) f(x) = 3x
on the same set of coordinate axes. -2 0 2 x

c) Explain how the points on the -2
graphs of g(x) and h(x) relate to
the transformation of the function
b) y
f(x) = 2x + 1. List any invariant points.
d) How is each function related to the 4
graph of f (x) = 2x + 1? 2
2. a) Copy and complete the table of values g(x) = x2 + 1
for the given functions. -2 0 2 x
1
x f(x) = x2 g(x) = 3f(x) h(x) = _ f(x) c) y
3
-6 4
-3 h(x) = 1
_
2 x
0
3 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
6 -2
b) Sketch the graphs of f(x), g(x), and h(x) -4

on the same set of coordinate axes.
c) Explain how the points on the 4. Consider each function in #3.
graphs of g(x) and h(x) relate to the
• Copy the graph of the function and
transformation of the function f(x) = x2.
sketch its reflection in the y-axis on the
List any invariant points.
same set of axes.
d) How is each function related to the
• State the equation of the reflected
graph of f (x) = x2?
function.
• State the domain and range for each
function.
5. Use words and mapping notation to b) y
describe how the graph of each function 4
can be found from the graph of the f(x)
function y = f(x). 2
a) y = 4f(x)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
b) y = f(3x)
-2
g(x)
c) y = -f(x)
-4
d) y = f(-x)
6. The graph of the function y = f(x) is
vertically stretched about the x-axis by c) y
g(x) f(x)
a factor of 2. 4
y
2
4
y = f(x)
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
2
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x d) y
-2 4
-4 2
g(x) f(x)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
a) Determine the domain and range of
-2
the transformed function.
b) Explain the effect that a vertical -4
stretch has on the domain and
range of a function.
7. Describe the transformation that Apply
must be applied to the graph of f (x) 8. A weaver sets up a pattern on a computer
to obtain the graph of g(x). Then, using the graph shown. A new line of
determine the equation of g(x) in the merchandise calls for the design to be
form y = af(bx). altered to y = f(0.5x). Sketch the graph of
a) y the new design.
8 y
6
6
g(x)
4
4
2
2 f(x)
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4

9. Describe what happens to the graph of 12. Explain the differences that occur in
a function y = f(x) after the following transforming the graph of the function
changes are made to its equation. y = f(x) to the graph of the function
a) Replace x with 4x. y = f(bx) as compared to transforming
1 y = f(x) to y = af (x).
b) Replace x with _ x.
4 13. The speed of a vehicle the moment the
c) Replace y with 2y. brakes are applied can be determined by
1 its skid marks. The length, D, in feet, of
d) Replace y with _ y.
4 the skid mark is related to the speed, S,
e) Replace x with -3x. in miles per hour, of the vehicle before
1 braking by the function D = _ 1 S2, where
f) Replace y with - _ y.
3 30fn
10. Thomas and Sharyn discuss the order f is the drag factor of the road surface and
of the transformations of the graph of n is the braking efficiency as a decimal.
y = -3|x| compared to the graph of y = |x|. Suppose the braking efficiency is 100%
Thomas states that the reflection must or 1.
be applied first. Sharyn claims that the
a) Sketch the graph of the length of the
vertical stretch should be applied first.
skid mark as a function of speed for a
a) Sketch the graph of y = -3|x| by 1 S2.
drag factor of 1, or D = _
applying the reflection first. 30
b) The drag factor for asphalt is 0.9, for
b) Sketch the graph of y = -3|x| by
gravel is 0.8, for snow is 0.55, and for
applying the stretch first.
ice is 0.25. Compare the graphs of the
c) Explain your conclusions. Who is functions for these drag factors to the
correct? graph in part a).
11. An object falling in a vacuum is affected
only by the gravitational force. An D i d You K n ow ?
equation that can model a free-falling A technical accident investigator or reconstructionist
object on Earth is d = -4.9t 2, where d is is a specially trained police officer who investigates
serious traffic accidents. These officers use
the distance travelled, in metres, and t is
photography, measurements of skid patterns, and
the time, in seconds. An object free falling other information to determine the cause of the
on the moon can be modelled by the collision and if any charges should be laid.
equation d = -1.6t 2.
a) Sketch the graph of each function.
b) Compare each function equation to the
base function d = t 2.
D id Yo u Know ?
The actual strength of Earth’ss

gravity varies depending
on location.
On March 17, 2009,
the European Space
Agency launched a
gravity-mapping satellite
called Gravity and Ocean
Circulation Explorer (GOCE). The data transmitted
from GOCE are being used to build a model of Earth’s
shape and a gravity map of the planet.
Extend C3 A point on the function f (x) is mapped
14. Consider the function f(x) = (x + 4)(x - 3). onto the image point on the function g(x).
Without graphing, determine the zeros of Copy and complete the table by describing
the function after each transformation. a possible transformation of f(x) to obtain
a) y = 4f(x)
g(x) for each mapping.
b) y = f(-x) f(x) g(x) Transformation

1
( )
c) y = f _ x
2
(5, 6)
(4, 8)
(5, -6)
(-4, 8)
d) y = f(2x)
(2, 3) (2, 12)
15. The graph of a function y = f(x) is
(4, -12) (2, -6)
contained completely in the fourth
quadrant. Copy and complete each C4 Sound is a form of energy produced and
statement. transmitted by vibrating matter that travels
a) If y = f(x) is transformed to y = -f(x), in waves. Pitch is the measure of how high
it will be in quadrant . or how low a sound is. The graph of f(x)
demonstrates a normal pitch. Copy the
b) If y = f(x) is transformed to y = f(-x),
graph, then sketch the graphs of y = f (3x),
it will be in quadrant .
1x ,
c) If y = f(x) is transformed to y = 4f(x),
indicating a higher pitch, and y = f _
2 ( )
it will be in quadrant . for a lower pitch.
1
(4 )
d) If y = f(x) is transformed to y = f _ x , y
Normal Pitch
it will be in quadrant . 1
y = f(x)
16. Sketch the graph of f(x) = |x| reflected in
each line. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x
-1
a) x = 3
b) y = -2
D i d You K n ow ?
Create Connections
The pitch of a sound wave is directly related to
C1 Explain why the graph of g(x) = f(bx) is its frequency. A high-pitched sound has a high
a horizontal stretch about the y-axis by a frequency (a mosquito). A low-pitched sound has a
1 , for b > 0, rather than a factor
factor of _
low frequency (a fog-horn).
b A healthy human ear can hear frequencies in the
of b. range of 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.
C2 Describe a transformation that results in
each situation. Is there more than one C5 a) Write the equation for the general term
possibility? of the sequence -10, -6, -2, 2, 6,….
a) The x-intercepts are invariant points. b) Write the equation for the general term
b) The y-intercepts are invariant points. of the sequence 10, 6, 2, -2, -6,….
c) How are the graphs of the two
sequences related?

1.3
Combining Transformations
s
Focus on . . .
• sketching the graph of a transformed function by applying
translations, reflections, and stretches
• writing the equation of a function that has been transformed from
the function y = f(x)
Architects, artists, and craftspeople use transformations

in their work. Towers that stretch the limits of
architectural technologies, paintings that create
futuristic landscapes from ordinary objects, and quilt
designs that transform a single shape to create a more
complex image are examples of these transformations.
In this section, you will apply a combination of
transformations to base functions to create more
complex functions.
National-Nederlanden Building in Prague, Czech Republic
Investigate the Order of Transformations
Materials New graphs can be created by vertical or horizontal translations, vertical

• grid paper or horizontal stretches, or reflections in an axis. When vertical and
horizontal translations are applied to the graph of a function, the order in
which they occur does not affect the position of the final image.
Explore whether order matters when other y
combinations of transformations are applied. 6
Consider the graph of y = f(x). y = f(x)
4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
A: Stretches
1. a) Copy the graph of y = f(x).
b) Sketch the transformed graph after the following two stretches
are performed in order. Write the resulting function equation
after each transformation.
• Stretch vertically about the x-axis by a factor of 2.
• Stretch horizontally about the y-axis by a factor of 3.
c) Sketch the transformed graph after the same two stretches are
performed in reverse order. Write the resulting function equation
after each transformation.
• Stretch horizontally about the y-axis by a factor of 3.
• Stretch vertically about the x-axis by a factor of 2.
2. Compare the final graphs and equations from step 1b) and c).
Did reversing the order of the stretches change the final result?
B: Combining Reflections and Translations
b) Sketch the transformed graph after the following two
transformations are performed in order. Write the resulting
function equation after each transformation.
• Reflect in the x-axis.
• Translate vertically 4 units up.
c) Sketch the transformed graph after the same two transformations
are performed in reverse order. Write the resulting function
equation after each transformation.
• Translate vertically 4 units up.
• Reflect in the x-axis.
4. Compare the final graphs and equations from step 3b) and c). Did
reversing the order of the transformations change the final result?
Explain.
b) Sketch the transformed graph after the following two
transformations are performed in order. Write the resulting
function equation after each transformation.
• Reflect in the y-axis.
• Translate horizontally 4 units to the right.
c) Sketch the transformed graph after the same two transformations
are performed in reverse order. Write the resulting function
equation after each transformation.
• Translate horizontally 4 units to the right.
• Reflect in the y-axis.
6. Compare the final graphs and equations from step 5b) and c). Did
reversing the order of the transformations change the final result?
Explain.
Reflect and Respond

7. a) What do you think would happen if the graph of a function were
transformed by a vertical stretch about the x-axis and a vertical
translation? Would the order of the transformations matter?
b) Use the graph of y = |x| to test your prediction.
8. In which order do you think transformations should be performed to
produce the correct graph? Explain.
1.3 Combining Transformations • MHR 33

Link the Ideas
Multiple transformations can be applied to a function using the general

transformation model y - k = af(b(x - h)) or y = af(b(x - h)) + k.
To accurately sketch the graph of a function of the form
y - k = af(b(x - h)), the stretches and reflections (values of a and b)
should occur before the translations (h-value and k-value). The diagram
shows one recommended sequence for the order of transformations.
Horizontal Vertical Horizontal

y = f (x) stretch about stretch about translation
the y-axis by a the x-axis by a of h units
1
__ factor of |a| and/or vertical
factor of |b| translation of
k units
y - k = af(b(x - h))
Reflection in Reflection in
the y-axis the x-axis
if b < 0 if a < 0 How does this compare to the
usual order of operations?
Example 1
Graph a Transformed Function
Describe the combination of transformations y (9, 3)
3
that must be applied to the function y = f (x)
y = f(x)
to obtain the transformed function. Sketch 2
(4, 2)
the graph, showing each step of the
1
transformation. (1, 1)
(0, 0)
a) y = 3f(2x) x
0 2 4 6 8
b) y = f(3x + 6)
Solution
a) Compare the function to y = af (b(x - h)) + k. For y = 3f (2x), a = 3,
b = 2, h = 0, and k = 0.
The graph of y = f(x) is horizontally stretched about the y-axis by a
1 and then vertically stretched about the x-axis by a factor
factor of _
2
of 3.
• Apply the horizontal stretch by a y
1 to obtain the graph y = f(2x) (4.5, 3) (9, 3)
factor of _ 3
2
(2, 2) y = f(x)
of y = f(2x). 2
(0.5, 1) (4, 2)
1
(1, 1)
(0, 0)
—2 0 2 4 6 8 x
• Apply the vertical stretch by a factor y
of 3 to y = f(2x) to obtain the graph 9
(4.5, 9)
of y = 3f(2x).
8
y = 3f(2x)
Would performing the 7

stretches in reverse order
change the final result? 6
(2, 6)
5
3
(0.5, 3) (4.5, 3)
2
(2, 2) y = f(2x)
1 (0.5, 1)
(0, 0)
0 2 4 6 8 x
b) First, rewrite y = f(3x + 6) in the form y = af(b(x - h)) + k. This

makes it easier to identify specific transformations.
y = f(3x + 6)
y = f(3(x + 2)) Factor out the coefficient of x.
For y = f(3(x + 2)), a = 1, b = 3, h = -2, and k = 0.
The graph of y = f(x) is horizontally stretched about the y-axis by a

1 and then horizontally translated 2 units to the left.
factor of _
3
• Apply the horizontal stretch y y = f(3x)
1
_ (3, 3) (9, 3)
by a factor of to obtain the 3
3
graph of y = f(3x).
4, 2
—
3 ( ) y = f(x)
2
(—13 , 1) (4, 2)
1
(1, 1)
(0, 0)
—2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
• Apply the horizontal translation y = f(3(x + 2)) y y = f(3x)

of 2 units to the left to y = f(3x) (1, 3)
3
(3, 3)
to obtain the graph of (-—23 , 2) 2
y = f(3(x + 2)). ( )
4, 2
—
(-—53 , 2) 1 3
—1, 1
3 ( )
(-2, 0) (0, 0)
—6 —4 —2 0 2 4 6 x
Your Turn
Describe the combination of transformations y (9, 3)
3
that must be applied to the function y = f(x)
y = f(x)
to obtain the transformed function. Sketch 2
(4, 2)
the graph, showing each step of the
1
transformation. (1, 1)
(0, 0)
1
a) y = 2f(x) - 3
2 (
b) y = f _ x - 2 ) 0 2 4 6 8 x

Example 2
Combination of Transformations
Show the combination of transformations that should be applied to
the graph of the function f(x) = x2 in order to obtain the graph of the
transformed function g(x) = - _1 f(2(x - 4)) + 1. Write the corresponding
2
equation for g(x).
Solution
1 f(2(x - 4)) + 1, a = - _
For g(x) = - _ 1 , b = 2, h = 4, and k = 1.
2 2
Description Mapping Graph
Horizontal stretch (-2, 4) → (-1, 4) y
about the y-axis by a (0, 0) → (0, 0)
1 4
factor of _ (2, 4) → (1, 4)
2 1 y = x2
y = (2x) 2
2 (
(x, y) → _ x, y ) 2
y = (2x)2
-2 0 2 4x
Vertical stretch about (-1, 4) → (-1, 2) y

1
the x-axis by a factor (0, 0) → (0, 0) y = _ (2x)2
1 4 2
of _ (1, 4) → (1, 2)
2 1 1 1 y = (2x)2
1
y = _ (2x)2
2
(_
2 ) (
x, y → _ x, _ y
2 2 ) 2
-2 0 2 4 x
Reflection in the x-axis (-1, 2) → (-1, -2) y

y = -_1 (2x)2 (0, 0) → (0, 0)
4 1
2 (1, 2) → (1, -2) y = _ (2x)2
2
2
( 12 x, 21 y) → ( 12 x, - 21 y)
_ _ _ _
-2 0 2 4 6x
-2
y = -1
_ (2x)2
-4 2
Translation of 4 units (-1, -2) → (3, -1) y

to the right and 1 unit (0, 0) → (4, 1) y = -1_ (2(x - 4))2 + 1
2 2
up (1, -2) → (5, -1)
y = -1
_ (2x)2
y = -_1 (2(x - 4))2 + 1 2
2 ( 12 x, - 21 y) → ( 12 x + 4, - 21 y + 1)
_ _ _ _
-2 0 2 4 6x
-2
-4
1 (2(x - 4))2 + 1.
The equation of the transformed function is g(x) = - _
2
Your Turn
Describe the combination of transformations that should be applied
to the function f(x) = x2 in order to obtain the transformed function
1 (x + 8) - 3. Write the corresponding equation and sketch
g(x) = -2f _(
2 )
the graph of g(x).
Example 3
Write the Equation of a Transformed Function Graph
The graph of the function y = g(x) y
10
represents a transformation of the
graph of y = f(x). Determine the 8
equation of g(x) in the form y = g(x)
6
y = af(b(x - h)) + k. Explain your
answer. 4
2
y = f(x)
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
Solution
Locate key points on the graph of f(x) and their image points on the
graph of g(x).
(-4, 4) → (-8, 10)
(0, 0) → (-7, 2)
(4, 4) → (-6, 10)
The point (0, 0) on the graph of f(x) is not affected by any stretch, either
horizontal or vertical, or any reflection so it can be used to determine the
vertical and horizontal translations. The graph of g(x) has been translated
7 units to the left and 2 units up.
h = -7 and k = 2
2 units y
There is no reflection.
10
Compare the distances between
key points. In the vertical 8
direction, 4 units becomes 8 units. y = g(x)
8 units 6
There is a vertical stretch by a 8 units
factor of 2. In the horizontal 4
direction, 8 units becomes 2 units.
There is also a horizontal stretch y = f(x) 2 4 units
by a factor of _1.
4 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
a = 2 and b = 4
Substitute the values of a, b, h,
and k into y = af(b(x - h)) + k. How could you use the mapping
1
The equation of the transformed
( )
(x, y) → _ x + h, ay + k to
b
verify this equation?
function is g(x) = 2f(4(x + 7)) + 2.

Your Turn y
The graph of the function y = g(x) 4
represents a transformation of the graph y = f(x)
2
of y = f(x). State the equation of the
transformed function. Explain your answer.
-2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
y = g(x)
-6
-8
Key Ideas
Write the function in the form y = af(b(x - h)) + k to better identify the
transformations.
Stretches and reflections may be performed in any order before translations.
The parameters a, b, h, and k in the function y = af (b(x - h)) + k correspond
to the following transformations:
a corresponds to a vertical stretch about the x-axis by a factor of |a|.
If a < 0, then the function is reflected in the x-axis.
b corresponds to a horizontal stretch about the y-axis by a factor of _1 .
|b|
If b < 0, then the function is reflected in the y-axis.
h corresponds to a horizontal translation.
k corresponds to a vertical translation.
Practise 2. The function y = f(x) is transformed to the

2
1. The function y = x has been transformed function g(x) = -3f(4x - 16) - 10. Copy
to y = af(bx). Determine the equation of and complete the following statements by
each transformed function. filling in the blanks.
a) Its graph is stretched horizontally about The function f(x) is transformed to the
the y-axis by a factor of 2 and then function g(x) by a horizontal stretch
reflected in the x-axis. about the by a factor of . It is
b) Its graph is stretched horizontally about vertically stretched about the by a
1 , reflected in factor of . It is reflected in the , and
the y-axis by a factor of _
4 then translated units to the right and
the y-axis, and then stretched vertically
units down.
about the x-axis by a factor of _ 1.
4
3. Copy and complete the table by describing 5. For each graph of y = f(x), sketch the
the transformations of the given functions, graph of the combined transformations.
compared to the function y = f(x). Show each transformation in the sequence.
a) y
Horizontal Stretch Factor

Vertical Stretch Factor
Horizontal Translation
4
y = f(x)
Vertical Translation
2
Reflections
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
• vertical stretch about the x-axis by

Function a factor of 2
y - 4 = f (x - 5) • horizontal stretch about the y-axis
y + 5 = 2f(3x) 1
by a factor of _
3
1
1f _
y=_
2 2
(
(x - 4) ) • translation of 5 units to the left and
3 units up
y + 2 = -3f (2(x + 2))
b) y
4. Using the graph of y = f(x), write the y = f(x)
4
equation of each transformed graph in
the form y = af(b(x - h)) + k. 2
y
-2 0 2 x
4
y = f(x)
2 • vertical stretch about the x-axis by
3
a factor of _
x
4
-6 -4 -2 0 2
• horizontal stretch about the y-axis
-2
by a factor of 3
• translation of 3 units to the right
a) y and 4 units down
y = k(x)
2 6. The key point (-12, 18) is on the graph
of y = f (x). What is its image point under
-4 -2 0 2 4 x each transformation of the graph of f (x)?
-2 a) y + 6 = f(x - 4)
-4 b) y = 4f(3x)
c) y = -2f(x - 6) + 4
2
b) y
3 (
d) y = -2f - _ x - 6 + 4 )
-4 -2 0 2 4 x 1
e) y + 3 = - _ f(2(x + 6))
3
y = m(x) -2
-4
-6

Apply 10. The graph of the function y = g(x)
7. Describe, using an appropriate order, represents a transformation of the graph of
how to obtain the graph of each function y = f(x). Determine the equation of g(x) in
from the graph of y = f(x). Then, give the the form y = af(b(x - h)) + k.
mapping for the transformation. a) y
10
a) y = 2f(x - 3) + 4
y = g(x)
8
b) y = -f(3x) - 2
1
c) y = - _ f(-(x + 2)) 6
4
y = f(x)
d) y - 3 = -f(4(x - 2)) 4
e) y = - _ f - _ x
2 3
3 4 ( ) 2
f) 3y - 6 = f(-2x + 12)
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12x
8. Given the function y = f(x), write the
-2
equation of the form y - k = af(b(x - h))
that would result from each combination b) y
of transformations. 4
y = f(x)
a) a vertical stretch about the x-axis by a
2
factor of 3, a reflection in the x-axis,
a horizontal translation of 4 units to
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x
the left, and a vertical translation of
5 units down -2
b) a horizontal stretch about the y-axis by -4

1 , a vertical stretch about
a factor of _ y = g(x)
3 -6
the x-axis by a factor of _ 3 , a reflection
4 -8
in both the x-axis and the y-axis, and
a translation of 6 units to the right and c) y
2 units up 10
9. The graph of y = f(x) is given. Sketch the 8

graph of each of the following functions.
6
y
y = g(x)
y = f(x) 4
4 y = f(x)
2
2
x -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8x
-6 -4 -2 0 2
-2
a) y + 2 = f(x - 3) -4
b) y = -f(-x)
-6
c) y = f(3(x - 2)) + 1
1 11. Given the function f(x), sketch the graph
d) y = 3f _ x (3 ) of the transformed function g(x).
e) y + 2 = -3f(x + 4)
a) f(x) = x2, g(x) = -2f(4(x + 2)) - 2
1 1
2 (
f) y = _ f - _ (x + 2) - 1
2 ) b) f(x) = |x|, g(x) = -2f(-3x + 6) + 4
1
c) f(x) = x, g(x) = - _ f(-2(x + 3)) - 2
3
12. Alison often sketches her quilt designs 14. Two parabolic arches are being built. The
on a coordinate grid. The coordinates for first arch can be modelled by the function
a section of one her designs are A(-4, 6), y = -x2 + 9, with a range of 0 ≤ y ≤ 9.
B(-2, -2), C(0, 0), D(1, -1), and E(3, 6). The second arch must span twice the
She wants to transform the original design distance and be translated 6 units to the
by a horizontal stretch about the y-axis by left and 3 units down.
a factor of 2, a reflection in the x-axis, and a) Sketch the graph of both arches.
a translation of 4 units up and 3 units to
b) Determine the equation of the second
the left.
arch.
a) Determine the coordinates of the image
points, A, B, C, D, and E. Extend
b) If the original design was defined by 15. If the x-intercept of the graph of y = f (x)
the function y = f(x), determine the is located at (a, 0) and the y-intercept is
equation of the design resulting from located at (0, b), determine the x-intercept
the transformations. and y-intercept after the following
13. Gil is asked to translate the graph of y = |x| transformations of the graph of y = f(x).
according to the equation y = |2x - 6| + 2. a) y = -f(-x)
He decides to do the horizontal translation 1
of 3 units to the right first, then the stretch (2 )
b) y = 2f _ x
about the y-axis by a factor of _ 1 , and c) y + 3 = f (x - 4)

2
1 1
lastly the translation of 2 units up. This (
d) y + 3 = _ f _ (x - 4)
2 4 )
gives him Graph 1. To check his work, he
16. A rectangle is inscribed between the x-axis
decides to apply the horizontal stretch
1 first, and and the parabola y = 9 - x2 with one side
about the y-axis by a factor of _ along the x-axis, as shown.
2
then the horizontal translation of 6 units y
to the right and the vertical translation of
8
2 units up. This results in Graph 2. y = 9 -x2
a) Explain why the two graphs are in 6

(x, y)
different locations.
4
b) How could Gil have rewritten the
equation so that the order in which he 2
did the transformations for Graph 2 (x, 0)

-4 -2 0 2 4 x
resulted in the same position as
Graph 1?
a) Write the equation for the area of the
y
Graph 1 rectangle as a function of x.
8
b) Suppose a horizontal stretch by a
6 factor of 4 is applied to the parabola.
What is the equation for the area of the
4
Graph 2 transformed rectangle?
y = |x|
2 c) Suppose the point (2, 5) is the vertex of
the rectangle on the original parabola.
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x Use this point to verify your equations
from parts a) and b).

17. The graph of the function y = 2x2 + x + 1 • Describe the transformations
is stretched vertically about the x-axis by necessary to create the image.
a factor of 2, stretched horizontally about • Write the equations necessary to
1 , and translated
the y-axis by a factor of _ transform the original function.
3
2 units to the right and 4 units down. Step 2 The graph shows the function f(x) = x2
Write the equation of the transformed and transformations 1, 2, 3, and 4.
function.
18. This section deals with transformations
in a specific order. Give one or more
examples of transformations in which
the order does not matter. Show how you
know that order does not matter.
Create Connections
C1 MINI LAB Many designs, Materials • Recreate the diagram on a graphing
such as this Moroccan carpet, • grid paper calculator. Use the window settings
are based on transformations. • graphing x: [-3, 3, 1] y: [-3, 3, 1].
calculator
• Describe the transformations
necessary to create the image.
• Write the equations necessary to
transform the original function.
C2 Kokitusiàki (Diana Passmore) and
Siksmissi (Kathy Anderson) make and sell
beaded bracelets such as the one shown
representing the bear and the wolf.
Work with a partner. Use transformations If they make b bracelets per week at
of functions to create designs on a graphing a cost of f(b), what do the following
calculator. expressions represent? How do they
Step 1 The graph shows the function relate to transformations?
f(x) = -x + 3 and transformations a) f(b + 12) b) f(b) + 12
1, 2, and 3.
c) 3f(b) d) f(2b)
D i d You K n ow ?
Sisters Diana Passmore and Kathy Anderson are

descendants of the Little Dog Clan of the Piegan
(Pikuni'l') Nation of the Blackfoot Confederacy.
C3 Express the function y = 2x2 - 12x + 19

in the form y = a(x - h)2 + k. Use that
form to describe how the graph of y = x2
• Recreate the diagram on a graphing
can be transformed to the graph of
calculator. Use the window settings
y = 2x2 - 12x + 19.
x: [-3, 3, 1] y: [-3, 3, 1].
C4 Musical notes can be repeated (translated b) H
horizontally), transposed (translated
vertically), inverted (horizontal mirror), in
retrograde (vertical mirror), or in retrograde
inversion (180° rotation). If the musical
pattern being transformed is the pattern in
red, describe a possible transformation to
arrive at the patterns H, J, and K.
a) H J K
c) H
J K
J K
Project Corner Transformations Around You
• What type(s) of function(s) do you see in the image?

• Describe how each base function has been transformed.
y
( 4
5 x -—
) +—
2
f(x) = -— 36
4 5 5
6
40 |
17 x -16 + 9
h(x) = -— — —
3 10|
6 x - 12
g(x) = —
5
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 x
-2

1.4
Inverse of a
Relation
Focus on . . .
• sketching the graph of the inverse of a
relation
• determining if a relation and its inverse
are functions
• determining the equation of an inverse
An inverse is often thought of as “undoing” or “reversing” a position, order, or

effect. Whenever you undo something that you or someone else did, you are
using an inverse, whether it is unwrapping a gift that someone else wrapped or
closing a door that has just been opened, or deciphering a secret code.
For example, when sending a secret message, a key is used to encode the
information. Then, the receiver uses the key to decode the information.
Let each letter in the alphabet be mapped to the numbers 0 to 25.
Plain Text I N V E R S E
Numeric Values, x 8 13 21 4 17 18 4
Cipher, x – 2 6 11 19 2 15 16 2
Cipher Text G L T C P Q C
Decrypting is the inverse of encrypting. What decryption function would you

use on GLTCPQC? What other examples of inverses can you think of?
Investigate the Inverse of a Function
1
1. Consider the function f(x) = _ x - 5.
Materials
4
• grid paper a) Copy the table. In the first column, enter the ordered pairs of five
points on the graph of f (x). To complete the second column of
the table, interchange the x-coordinates and y-coordinates of the
points in the first column.
Key Points on the Graph of f(x) Image Points on the Graph of g(x)
b) Plot the points for the function f(x) and draw a line through them.
c) Plot the points for the relation g(x) on the same set of axes and
draw a line through them.
2. a) Draw the graph of y = x on the same set of axes as in step 1.
b) How do the distances from the line y = x for key points and
corresponding image points compare?
c) What type of transformation occurs in order for f(x) to
become g(x)?
3. a) What observation can you make about the relationship of the
coordinates of your ordered pairs between the graphs of f(x)
and g(x)?
b) Determine the equation of g(x). How is this equation related to
1 x - 5?
f (x) = _
4
c) The relation g(x) is considered to be the inverse of f(x). Is the
inverse of f(x) a function? Explain.
Reflect and Respond

4. Describe a way to draw the graph of the inverse of a function inverse of a
using reflections. function
5. Do you think all inverses of functions are functions? What factors • if f is a function with
domain A and range B,
did you base your decision on?
the inverse function, if
6. a) State a hypothesis for writing the equation of the inverse of a it exists, is denoted by
linear function. f -1 and has domain B
and range A
b) Test your hypothesis. Write the equation of the inverse of • f -1 maps y to x if and
y = 3x + 2. Check by graphing. only if f maps x to y
7. Determine the equation of the inverse of y = mx + b, m ≠ 0.
a) Make a conjecture about the relationship between the slope of
the inverse function and the slope of the original function.
b) Make a conjecture about the relationship between the
x-intercepts and the y-intercept of the original function and
those of the inverse function.
8. Describe how you could determine if two relations are inverses
of each other.
1.4 Inverse of a Relation • MHR 45

Link the Ideas
The inverse of a relation is found by interchanging the x-coordinates

and y-coordinates of the ordered pairs of the relation. In other words, for
every ordered pair (x, y) of a relation, there is an ordered pair (y, x) on
the inverse of the relation. This means that the graphs of a relation and
its inverse are reflections of each other in the line y = x.
(x, y) → (y, x)
Did Yo u Know ? The inverse of a function y = f (x) may be written in the form x = f (y).
The inverse of a function is not necessarily a function. When the inverse
The –1 in f –1(x) does
not represent an of f is itself a function, it is denoted as f -1 and read as “f inverse.” When
exponent; that is the inverse of a function is not a function, it may be possible to restrict the
1 domain to obtain an inverse function for a portion of the original function.
f –1(x) ≠ _ .
f (x)
The inverse of a function reverses the processes represented by that
function. Functions f(x) and g(x) are inverses of each other if the
operations of f(x) reverse all the operations of g(x) in the opposite
order and the operations of g(x) reverse all the operations of f (x) in the
opposite order.
For example, f (x) = 2x + 1 multiplies the input value by 2 and then
adds 1. The inverse function subtracts 1 from the input value and then
x - 1.
divides by 2. The inverse function is f -1(x) = __
2
Example 1
Graph an Inverse
Consider the graph of the y
relation shown. 6
a) Sketch the graph of the inverse
4
relation.
b) State the domain and range of 2
the relation and its inverse.
c) Determine whether the relation -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
and its inverse are functions.
Solution
a) To graph the inverse relation, interchange the x-coordinates and
y-coordinates of key points on the graph of the relation.
Points on the Relation Points on the Inverse Relation
(-6, 4) (4, -6)
(-4, 6) (6, -4)
(0, 6) (6, 0)
(2, 2) (2, 2)
(4, 2) (2, 4)
(6, 0) (0, 6)
y
6
The graphs are reflections of each
4 other in the line y = x. The points
on the graph of the relation are
D i d You K n ow?
2 related to the points on the graph
of the inverse relation by the A one-to-one function
x mapping (x, y) → (y, x). is a function for which
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
What points are invariant after a every element in the
-2 range corresponds to
reflection in the line y = x?
exactly one element
-4 in the domain. The
y=x graph of a relation is
-6 a function if it passes
the vertical line
b) The domain of the relation becomes the range of the inverse test. If, in addition, it
passes the horizontal
relation and the range of the relation becomes the domain of the
line test, it is a
inverse relation. one-to-one function.
Domain Range
Relation {x | -6 ≤ x ≤ 6, x ∈ R} {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 6, y ∈ R}
Inverse Relation {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 6, x ∈ R} {y | -6 ≤ y ≤ 6, y ∈ R}
c) The relation is a function of x because there is only one value of y

in the range for each value of x in the domain. In other words, the
graph of the relation passes the vertical line test.
The inverse relation is not a function of x because it fails the
vertical line test. There is more than one value of y in the range
for at least one value of x in the domain. You can confirm this by
using the horizontal line test on the graph of the original relation. horizontal line test
y • a test used to
determine if the graph
6 of an inverse relation
will be a function
4 • if it is possible for
a horizontal line to
2 intersect the graph of
a relation more than
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x once, then the inverse
of the relation is not a
function
Your Turn
Consider the graph of the relation y
shown. 4
a) Determine whether the relation
and its inverse are functions. 2
b) Sketch the graph of the inverse

-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
relation.
c) State the domain, range, and
intercepts for the relation and the inverse relation.
d) State any invariant points.

Example 2
Restrict the Domain
Consider the function f(x) = x2 - 2.
a) Graph the function f (x). Is the inverse of f (x) a function?
b) Graph the inverse of f (x) on the same set of coordinate axes.
c) Describe how the domain of f(x) could be restricted so that the inverse
of f(x) is a function.
Solution
a) The graph of f (x) = x2 - 2 is a y f(x)
translation of the graph of y = x2 by 4
2 units down.
2
Since the graph of the function fails the
horizontal line test, the inverse of f (x) -4 -2 0 2 4 x
is not a function. -2
b) Use key points on the graph of y

f(x)
f(x) to help you sketch the graph 4
of the inverse of f(x).
2
Notice that the graph of the

-4 -2 0 2 4 x
inverse of f(x) does not pass the
vertical line test. The inverse of -2
f(x) is not a function.
Inverse of f(x)
-4
y=x
c) The inverse of f(x) is a function y

if the graph of f(x) passes the 4
horizontal line test.
2
One possibility is to restrict the Inverse of f(x)
domain of f (x) so that the resulting -4 -2 0 2 4 x

graph is only one half of the parabola.
-2
Since the equation of the axis of f(x), x ≥ 0
symmetry is x = 0, restrict the domain -4

to {x | x ≥ 0, x ∈ R}. y=x
How else could the domain of f(x)

be restricted?
Your Turn
Consider the function f(x) = (x + 2)2.
a) Graph the function f (x). Is the inverse of f (x) a function?
b) Graph the inverse of f (x) on the same set of coordinate axes.
c) Describe how the domain of f(x) could be restricted so that the inverse
of f(x) is a function.
Example 3
Determine the Equation of the Inverse
Algebraically determine the equation of the inverse of each function.
Verify graphically that the relations are inverses of each other.
a) f(x) = 3x + 6
b) f(x) = x2 - 4
Solution
a) Let y = f(x). To find the equation of the inverse, x = f(y), interchange
x and y, and then solve for y.
f(x) = 3x + 6
y = 3x + 6 Replace f(x) with y.
x = 3y + 6 Interchange x and y to determine the inverse.
x-6 = 3y Solve for y.
x-6
__ =y
3
x-6 Replace y with f -1(x), since the inverse of a linear
f -1(x) = __ function is also a function.
3
x - 6 on the same set of coordinate axes.
Graph y = 3x + 6 and y = __
3
y
y=x
6
4
y = 3x + 6
2
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
x-6
-2 y = _____
3
-4
-6
Notice that the x-intercept and y-intercept of y = 3x + 6 become the

y-intercept and x-intercept, respectively, of y = __
x - 6 . Since the
3
functions are reflections of each other in the line y = x, the functions
are inverses of each other.

b) The same method applies to quadratic functions.
f(x) = x2 - 4
y = x2 - 4 Replace f(x) with y.
x = y2 - 4 Interchange x and y to determine the inverse.
x + 4 = y2 Solve for y.
______
±√x + 4 = y ______
Why is this y not replaced with f -1(x)? What could be
y = ±√x + 4 done so that f -1(x) could be used?
______
Graph y = x2 - 4 and y = ±√x + 4 on the same set of coordinate axes.
______
x y = x2 - 4 x y = ± √x + 4
-3 5 5 ±3
-2 0 0 ±2
-1 -3 -3 ±1
0 -4 -4 0
1 -3
2 0
3 5
6
y = x2 - 4
4
2
How could you use the tables of
x values to verify that the relations
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
are inverses of each other?
-2
-4
y = ±√x + 4
y=x
-6
Notice that the x-intercepts and y-intercept of y = x2 - 4______

become
the y-intercepts and x-intercept, respectively, of y = ± √x + 4 . The
relations are reflections of each other in the______
line y = x. While the
relations are inverses of each other, y = ± √x + 4 is not a function.
Your Turn
x+8
Write the equation for the inverse of the function f(x) = __ .
3
Verify your answer graphically.
Key Ideas
You can find the inverse of a relation by interchanging the x-coordinates and
y-coordinates of the graph.
The graph of the inverse of a relation is the graph of the relation reflected in the
line y = x.
The domain and range of a relation become the range and domain, respectively,
of the inverse of the relation.
Use the horizontal line test to determine if an inverse will be a function.
You can create an inverse that is a function over a specified interval by restricting
the domain of a function.
When the inverse of a function f (x) is itself a function, it is denoted by f -1(x).
You can verify graphically whether two functions are inverses of each other.
Practise 2. Copy the graph of each relation and sketch

1. Copy each graph. Use the reflection line the graph of its inverse relation.
y = x to sketch the graph of x = f(y) on the a) y
same set of axes.
4
a) y
2
2
y = f(x)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2 0 2 x
-2
-2
-4
b) y -6
y = f(x)
4
2 b) y
6
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2 4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2

3. State whether or not the graph of the c) y
relation is a function. Then, use the 6
horizontal line test to determine whether
the inverse relation will be a function. 4
a) y
2
y = (x - 4)2 + 2
4
0 2 4 6 x
2
x d) y
-4 -2 0 2
y = -(x + 4)2 + 2
2
b) y
-6 -4 -2 0 x
4
-2
2
-4
-4 -2 0 2 x
-2 5. Algebraically determine the equation of the
inverse of each function.
-4
a) f(x) = 7x
c) y b) f(x) = -3x + 4
4 x+4
c) f(x) = __
3
2 d) f(x) = _
x -5
3
-4 -2 0 2 x e) f(x) = 5 - 2x
1
f) f(x) = _ (x + 6)
4. For each graph, identify a restricted
2
6. Match the function with its inverse.
domain for which the function has an
Function
inverse that is also a function.
a) y = 2x + 5
a) y
1
b) y = _ x - 4
4
2
2 c) y = 6 - 3x
y = x2 - 1
d) y = x2 - 12, x ≥ 0
-2 0 2 4 x 1
e) y = _ (x + 1)2, x ≤ -1
2
b) y Inverse
_______
4 A y = √x + 12
6-x
B y = __
2
y = (x + 2)2 3
C y = 2x + 8
-6 -4 -2 0 x ___
D y = -√2x - 1
x-5
E y = __
2
Apply c) y
7. For each table, plot the ordered pairs (x, y) 6
and the ordered pairs (y, x). State the
4
domain of the function and its inverse. y = f(x)
a) x y 2
-2 -2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-1 1
0 4
9. For each of the following functions,
1 7
• determine the equation for the
2 10
inverse, f -1(x)
b) x y • graph f(x) and f -1(x)
• determine the domain and range
-6 2
of f(x) and f -1(x)
-4 4
a) f(x) = 3x + 2
-1 5
b) f(x) = 4 - 2x
2 5
1
c) f(x) = _ x - 6
5 3
2
8. Copy each graph of y = f(x) and then d) f(x) = x2 + 2, x ≤ 0
sketch the graph of its inverse. Determine e) f(x) = 2 - x2, x ≥ 0
if the inverse is a function. Give a reason
10. For each function f(x),
for your answer.
i) determine the equation of the inverse of
a) y
f(x) by first rewriting the function in the
2 form y = a(x - h)2 + k
ii) graph f(x) and the inverse of f (x)
-2 0 2 4 6 x
a) f(x) = x2 + 8x + 12
-2
y = f(x) b) f(x) = x2 - 4x + 2
-4
11. Jocelyn and Gerry determine that the
-6 inverse of the function f(x) = x2 - 5, x ≥ 0,
______
is f -1(x) = √x + 5 . Does the graph verify
that these functions are inverses of each
b) y
other? Explain why.
8 y
y = f(x)
6 6
4 4
y = f (x)
-1
2 2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2 -2
y = f (x)
-4
-6

12. For each of the following functions, 16. The function for converting the
• determine the equation of the inverse temperature from degrees Fahrenheit, x, to
• graph f (x) and the inverse of f (x) 5 (x - 32).
degrees Celsius, y, is y = _
• restrict the domain of f(x) so that the 9
inverse of f(x) is a function a) Determine the equivalent temperature
• with the domain of f(x) restricted, sketch in degrees Celsius for 90 °F.
the graphs of f(x) and f -1(x) b) Determine the inverse of this function.
2
a) f(x) = x + 3 What does it represent? What do the
variables represent?
1
b) f(x) = _ x2
2 c) Determine the equivalent temperature
c) f(x) = -2x2 in degrees Fahrenheit for 32 °C.
d) f(x) = (x + 1)2 d) Graph both functions. What does
e) f(x) = -(x - 3)2 the invariant point represent in
this situation?
f) f(x) = (x - 1)2 - 2
17. A forensic specialist can estimate the
13. Determine graphically whether the
height of a person from the lengths of their
functions in each pair are inverses of
bones. One function relates the length, x,
each other.
of the femur to the height, y, of the person,
a) f(x) = x - 4 and g(x) = x + 4 both in centimetres.
x-5
b) f(x) = 3x + 5 and g(x) = __ For a male: y = 2.32x + 65.53
3
For a female: y = 2.47x + 54.13
c) f(x) = x - 7 and g(x) = 7 - x
x-2 a) Determine the height of a male and of a
d) f(x) = __ and g(x) = 2x + 2
2 female with a femur length of 45.47 cm.
e) f(x) = __8 and g(x) = __ 8 b) Use inverse functions to determine the
x-7 x+7
femur length of
14. For each function, state two ways to
restrict the domain so that the inverse is a i) a male whose height is 187.9 cm
function. ii) a female whose height is 175.26 cm
2
a) f(x) = x + 4 18. In Canada, ring sizes are specified using
b) f(x) = 2 - x 2 a numerical scale. The numerical ring
size, y, is approximately related to finger
c) f(x) = (x - 3)2
circumference, x, in millimetres, by
d) f(x) = (x + 2)2 - 4 x - 36.5 .
y = __
15. Given the function f(x) = 4x - 2, 2.55
determine each of the following. a) What whole-number ring size
corresponds to a finger circumference
a) f -1(4)
of 49.3 mm?
b) f -1(-2)
b) Determine an equation for the inverse
c) f -1(8) of the function. What do the variables
d) f -1(0) represent?
c) What finger circumferences correspond
to ring sizes of 6, 7, and 9?
Extend Create Connections
19. When a function is constantly increasing
C1 Describe the inverse sequence of
or decreasing, its inverse is a function. For operations for each of the following.
each graph of f(x),
a) f(x) = 6x + 12
i) choose an interval over which the
b) f(x) = (x + 3)2 - 1
function is increasing and sketch the
inverse of the function when it is C2 a) Sketch the graphs of the function
restricted to that domain f(x) = -x + 3 and its inverse, f -1(x).
ii) choose an interval over which the b) Explain why f(x) = f -1(x).
function is decreasing and sketch c) If a function and its inverse are the
the inverse of the function when it is same, how are they related to the line
restricted to that domain y = x?
a) y C3 Two students are arguing about whether
6
or not a given relation and its inverse are
f(x)
4 functions. Explain how the students could
verify who is correct.
2
x+5
C4 MINI LAB Two functions, f (x) = __ and
3
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6x
g(x) = 3x - 5, are inverses of each other.
-2
Step 1 Evaluate output values for f(x) for
-4 x = 1, x = 4, x = -8, and x = a. Use
the results as input values for g(x).
What do you notice about the output
b) y
values for g(x)? Explain why this
4 happens. State a hypothesis that could
f(x)
2 be used to verify whether or not two
functions are inverses of each other.
-12 -8 -4 0 4 8 x Step 2 Reverse the order in which you used
-2 the functions. Start with using the
input values for g(x), and then use the
-4 outputs in f(x). What conclusion can
you make about inverse functions?
20. Suppose a function f(x) has an inverse
function, f -1(x). Step 3 Test your conclusions and hypothesis
by selecting two functions of your own.
a) Determine f -1(5) if f (17) = 5.
__ Step 4 Explain how your results relate to the
b) Determine f(-2) if f -1(√3 ) = -2.
statement “if f(a) = b and f -1(b) = a,
c) Determine the value of a if f -1(a) = 1 then the two functions are inverses
and f(x) = 2x2 + 5x + 3, x ≥ -1.25. of each other.” Note that this must
21. If the point (10, 8) is on the graph of the also be true when the function roles
function y = f(x), what point must be on are switched.
the graph of each of the following?
a) y = f -1(x + 2)
b) y = 2f -1(x) + 3
c) y = -f -1(-x) + 1

Chapter 1 Review
1.1 Horizontal and Vertical Translations, 1.2 Reflections and Stretches, pages 16—31
pages 6—15 5. Name the line of reflection when the graph
1. Given the graph of the function y = f(x), of y = f (x) is transformed as indicated.
sketch the graph of each transformed Then, state the coordinates of the image
function. point of (3, 5) on the graph of each
y reflection.
2 a) y = -f(x)
C D
b) y = f(-x)
-2 0 2 4 x
6. Copy each graph of y = f(x). Then,
A B y = f(x)
-2 • sketch the reflection indicated
• state the domain and range of the
transformed function
a) y - 3 = f(x)
• list any invariant points
b) h(x) = f(x + 1)
a) y = f(-x) b) y = -f(x)
c) y + 1 = f(x - 2)
y y
2. Describe how to translate the graph y = f(x)
4 2
of y = |x| to obtain the graph of the
function shown. Write the equation of 2
0 2 4 x
the transformed function in the form
x -2
y - k = |x - h|. -4 -2 0 y = f(x)
y
7. a) Sketch the graphs of the functions
2
1x
f(x) = x2, g(x) = f(2x), and h(x) = f _
2 ( )
-6 -4 -2 0 2 x on the same set of coordinate axes.
-2 b) Describe how the value of the
-4 coefficient of x for g(x) and h(x) affects
the graph of the function f (x) = x2.
8. Consider the graphs of the functions f (x)
3. The range of the function y = f(x) is
and g(x).
{y | -2 ≤ y ≤ 5, y ∈ R}. What is the
range of the function y = f(x - 2) + 4? y
f(x) (2, 4) g(x)
4. James wants to explain vertical and 4
horizontal translations by describing 2 (2, 2)
the effect of the translation on the ( 2 , 2)
coordinates of a point on the graph of a -4 -2 0 x
2 4
function. He says, “If the point (a, b) is
on the graph of y = f(x), then the point a) Is the graph of g(x) a horizontal or a
(a - 5, b + 4) is the image point on the vertical stretch of the graph of f (x)?
graph of y + 4 = f(x - 5).” Do you agree Explain your reasoning.
with James? Explain your reasoning.
b) Write the equation that models the
graph of g(x) as a transformation of the
graph of f (x).
1.3 Combining Transformations, pages 32—43 1.4 Inverse of a Relation, pages 44—55
9. Given the graph of y = f(x), sketch the 13. a) Copy the graph of y = f (x) and sketch
graph of each transformed function. the graph of x = f(y).
y b) Name the line of reflection and list
2 any invariant points.
c) State the domain and range of the
-2 0 2 4 6 x two functions.
-2 y
y = f(x)
-4 4
2
1 1
a) y = 2f _ x (2 ) 2
b) y = _ f(3x)
-2 0 2 x
10. Explain how the transformations described -2
y = f(x)
by y = f(4(x + 1)) and y = f(4x + 1) are
similar and how they are different. -4
11. Write the equation for the graph of g(x) as

a transformation of the equation for the
14. Copy and complete the table.
graph of f (x).
y y = f (x) y = f -1(x)
g(x) x y x y
8
-3 7
6
4 2
4 10 -12
f(x)
2 15. Sketch the graph of the inverse relation for
each graph. State whether the relation and
-2 0 2 4 6 8 x its inverse are functions.
-2 a) y b) y
4 2
12. Consider the graph of y = f(x). Sketch the 2
-2 0 2 x
graph of each transformation.
y x -2
-4 -2 0
y = f(x)
8
16. Algebraically determine the equation of the
6
inverse of the function y = (x - 3)2 + 1.
4 Determine a restriction on the domain of
the function in order for its inverse to be a
2
function. Show your thinking.
x
17. Graphically determine if the functions are
0 2 4 6 8
inverses of each other.
1 x+5
a) y = _ f(-(x + 2)) a) f(x) = -6x + 5 and g(x) = __
2 6
x-3
b) f(x) = __ and g(x) = 8x + 3
b) y - 2 = -f(2(x - 3))
8
c) y - 1 = 3f(2x + 4)
Chapter 1 Review • MHR 57

Chapter 1 Practice Test
Multiple Choice 5. The effect on the graph of y = f (x) if it is
transformed to y = _1 f(3x) is
For #1 to #7, choose the best answer. 4
1
A a vertical stretch by a factor of _ and a
1. What is the effect on the graph of the 4
function y = x2 when the equation is horizontal stretch by a factor of 3
changed to y = (x + 1)2? 1
B a vertical stretch by a factor of _ and a
A The graph is stretched vertically.
4
1
horizontal stretch by a factor of _
B The graph is stretched horizontally. 3
C The graph is the same shape but C a vertical stretch by a factor of 4 and a
translated up. horizontal stretch by a factor of 3
D The graph is the same shape but D a vertical stretch by a factor of 4 and a
1
translated to the left.
3
2. The graph shows a transformation of the 6. Which of the following transformations of
graph of y = |x|. Which equation models f(x) produces a graph that has the same
the graph? y-intercept as f(x)? Assume that (0, 0) is
y not a point on f(x).
4 A -9f(x)
B f(x) - 9
-8 -4 0 4 x
C f (-9x)
-4
D f(x - 9)
-8
7. Given the graphs of y = f (x) and y = g(x),
what is the equation for g(x) in terms
A y + 4 = |x - 6| of f(x)?
B y - 6 = |x - 4| y
C y - 4 = |x + 6| 6
D y + 6 = |x + 4| 4
f(x)
3. If (a, b) is a point on the graph of y = f(x),
2
which of the following points is on the
graph of y = f(x + 2)? x
-4 -2 0 2 4 6
A (a + 2, b) -2
B (a - 2, b) g(x)
-4
C (a, b + 2)
-6
D (a, b - 2)
4. Which equation represents the image of
1
y = x2 + 2 after a reflection in the y-axis? (
A g(x) = f - _ x
2 )
A y = -x2 - 2 B g(x) = f(-2x)
B y = x2 + 2 C g(x) = -f(2x)
C y = -x2 + 2 1
D y=x -2 2
D g(x) = -f _ x (2 )
Short Answer Extended Response
8. The domain of the function y = f(x) 13. The graph of the function f (x) = |x|
is {x | -3 ≤ x ≤ 4, x ∈ R}. What is is transformed to the graph of
the domain of the function g(x) = f(x + 2) - 7.
y = f(x + 2) - 1? a) Describe the transformation.
9. Given the graph of y = f(x), sketch the b) Write the equation of the function g(x).
1 (x + 3) .
1f _
graph of y - 4 = - _
4 (2 ) c) Determine the minimum value of g(x).
y d) The domain of the function f (x) is the
6
set of real numbers. The domain of
the function g(x) is also the set of real
4 numbers. Does this imply that all of
y = f(x) the points are invariant? Explain your
2
answer.
-6 -4 -2 0 2 x 14. The function g(x) is a transformation of the
-2
function f(x).
y
-4 f(x)
4
g(x)
2
10. Consider the graph of the function y = f (x).
y x
-4 -2 0 2 4
2
a) Write the equation of the function f (x).
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
b) Write the equation of the function g(x)
-2
y = f(x) in the form g(x) = af(x), and describe
-4 the transformation.
c) Write the equation of the function g(x)
in the form g(x) = f (bx), and describe
a) Sketch the graph of the inverse.
the transformation.
b) Explain how the coordinates of key
d) Algebraically prove that the two
points are transformed.
equations from parts b) and c) are
c) State any invariant points. equivalent.
11. Write the equation of the inverse function 15. Consider the function h(x) = -(x + 3)2 - 5.
of y = 5x + 2. Verify graphically that the
a) Explain how you can determine
functions are inverses of each other.
whether or not the inverse of h(x) is
12. A transformation of the graph of y = f(x) a function.
results in a horizontal stretch about
b) Write the equation of the inverse
the y-axis by a factor of 2, a horizontal
relation in simplified form.
reflection in the y-axis, a vertical stretch
about the x-axis by a factor of 3, and c) What restrictions could be placed on
a horizontal translation of 2 units to the domain of the function so that the
the right. Write the equation for the inverse is also a function?
transformed function.
Chapter 1 Practice Test • MHR 59

CHAPTER
2 Radical
Functions
How far can you see from the top of a hill? What
range of vision does a submarine’s periscope have?
How much fertilizer is required for a particular
crop? How much of Earth’s surface can a satellite
“see”? You can model each of these situations
using a radical function. The functions can range
from simple square root functions to more complex
radical functions of higher orders.
In this chapter, you will explore a variety of square

root functions and work with radical functions
used by an aerospace engineer when relating the
distance to the horizon for a satellite above Earth.
Would you expect this to be a simple or a complex
radical function?
Did Yo u Know ?
Some satellites are put into polar orbits,

where they follow paths perpendicular Geostationary
to the equator. Other satellites are Satellite,
put into geostationary orbits that are approximate
parallel to the equator. altitude of
Polar orbiting satellites are 36 000-km
useful for taking high-resolution
photographs. Geostationary
satellites allow for weather
monitoring and communications
for a specific country or
continent.
Polar Orbiting Satellite,

approximate altitude of 800-km
Key Terms
radical function square root of a function
2.1
Radical Functions and
Transformations
Focus on . . .
__
• investigating the function y = √x using a table of values
and a graph
• graphing radical functions using transformations
• identifying the domain and range of radical functions
Does a feather fall more slowly than a rock?

Galileo Galilei, a mathematician and scientist,
pondered this question more than 400 years
ago. He theorized that the rate of falling objects
depends on air resistance, not on mass. It is
believed that he tested his idea by dropping
spheres of different masses but the same
diameter from the top of the Leaning Tower
of Pisa in what is now Italy. The result was
exactly as he predicted—they fell at the same
We b Link
rate.
For more information
inform
In 1971, during the Apollo 15 lunar landing, about Galileo or
Commander David Scott performed a similar the Apollo 15
mission, go to www.
demonstration on live television. Because the
mcgrawhill.ca/school/
surface of the moon is essentially a vacuum, a learningcentres and
hammer and a feather fell at the same rate. follow the links.
Investigate a Radical Function
Materials For objects falling near the surface of Earth, the function d = 5t 2
• grid paper approximately models the time, t, in seconds, for an object to fall a
• graphing technology distance, d, in metres, if the resistance caused by air can be ignored.
(optional)
1. a) Identify any restrictions on the domain of this function. Why are
these restrictions necessary? What is the range of the function?
b) Create a table of values and a graph showing the distance fallen as
a function of time.
2. Express time in terms of distance for the distance-time function from
step 1. Represent the new function graphically and using a table
of values.
3. For each representation, how is the equation of the new function
from step 2 related to the original function?
Reflect and Respond
4. a) The original function is a distance-time function. What would you
call the new function? Under what circumstances would you use
each function?
b) What is the shape of the graph of the original function? Describe
the shape of the graph of the new function.
Link the Ideas
The function that gives the predicted fall time for an object under the
influence of gravity is an example of a radical function. Radical functions radical function
have restricted domains if the index of the radical is an even number. Like • a function that involves
many types of functions, you can represent radical functions in a variety a radical with a variable
of ways, including tables, graphs, and equations. You can create graphs of in the radicand
___
radical functions using tables of values or technology, or by transforming • y = √3x and
______
3
__ y = 4 √5 + x are
the base radical function, y = √x . radical functions.
Example 1
Graph Radical Functions Using Tables of Values
Use a table of values to sketch the graph of each function.
Then, state the domain and range
______
of each function.
__ __
a) y = √x b) y = x - 2
√ c) y = √x - 3
Solution
__
a) For the function y = √x , the radicand x must be greater
than or equal to zero, x ≥ 0.
x y
0 0
1 1 How can you choose values
of x that allow you to
4 2
complete the table without
9 3 using a calculator?
16 4
25 5
2 y= x
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 x
The graph has an endpoint at (0, 0) and continues up and

to the right. The domain is {x | x ≥ 0, x ∈ R}. The range is
{y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}.
2.1 Radical Functions and Transformations • MHR 63

______
b) For the function y = √x - 2 , the value of the radicand must be greater
than or equal to zero.
x-2≥0
x≥2
x y
2 0 How is this table related to the table for
__
3 1 y = √x in part a)?
6 2
11 3 ______
18 4 How does the graph of y = √x - 2
__
compare to the graph of y = √x ?
27 5
4
y= x-2
2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 x
The domain is {x | x ≥ 2, x ∈ R}. The range is {y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}.

__
c) The radicand of y = √ x - 3 must be non-negative.
x≥0
x y
0 -3
1 -2
4 -1
9 0
__
16 1 How does the graph of y = √x - 3
__
compare to the graph of y = √x ?
25 2
2 y= x-3
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 x
-2
The domain is {x | x ≥ 0, x ∈ R} and the range is {y | y ≥ -3, y ∈ R}.
Your Turn
______
Sketch the graph of the function y = √x + 5 using a table of values. State
the domain and the range.
Graphing Radical Functions Using Transformations
________
You can graph a radical function of the form y = a √b(x - h) + k by
__
transforming the graph of y = √x based on the values of a, b, h, and k.
The effects of changing parameters in radical functions are the same as
the effects of changing parameters in other types of functions.
__
• Parameter a results in a vertical stretch of the graph of y = √x by a
__
factor of |a|. If a < 0, the graph of y = √x is reflected in the x-axis.
__
• Parameter b results in a horizontal stretch of the graph of y = √x by a
factor of _1 . If b < 0, the graph of y = √__
x is reflected in the y-axis.
|b|
• Parameter h determines the horizontal translation. If h > 0, the graph
__
of y = √x is translated to the right h units. If h < 0, the graph is
translated to the left |h| units.
• Parameter k determines the vertical translation. If k > 0, the graph of
__
y = √x is translated up k units. If k < 0, the graph is translated down
|k| units.
Example 2
Graph Radical Functions Using Transformations
Sketch the graph of each function using transformations. Compare the
__
domain and range to those of y = √x and identify any changes.
_________ ___
a) y = 3 √-(x - 1) b) y - 3 = - √2x
Solution
_________
a) The function y = 3 √-(x - 1) is expressed in the Why is it acceptable
________ to have a negative
form y = a √b(x - h) + k. Identify the value of sign under a square
each parameter and how it will transform the root sign?
__
graph of y = √x .
• a = 3 results in a vertical stretch by a factor of 3 (step 1).
• b = -1 results in a reflection in the y-axis (step 2).
• h = 1 results in a horizontal translation of 1 unit to the right
(step 3).
• k = 0, so the graph has no vertical translation.
Method 1: Transform the Graph Directly In what order do
__
Start with a sketch of y = √x and apply the transformations need
transformations one at a time. to be performed?
y step 3: horizontal y
step 1: vertical translation
8 8
stretch
6 6
step 2: horizontal
step 2: horizontal reflection
reflection 4 4
2 y = 3 -(x - 1) 2
y= x
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 x

Method 2: Map Individual Points
__
Choose key points on the graph of y = √x How can you use mapping
and map them for each transformation. notation to express each
transformation step?
__
Transformation of y = √x Mapping
Vertical stretch by a factor of 3 (0, 0) → (0, 0)
(1, 1) → (1, 3)
(4, 2) → (4, 6)
(9, 3) → (9, 9)
Horizontal reflection in the y-axis (0, 0) → (0, 0)
(1, 3) → (-1, 3)
(4, 6) → (-4, 6)
(9, 9) → (-9, 9)
Horizontal translation of 1 unit to the right (0, 0) → (1, 0)
(-1, 3) → (0, 3)
(-4, 6) → (-3, 6)
(-9, 9) → (-8, 9)
Plot the image points to create the transformed graph.

y
6
y = 3 -(x - 1)
4
2
y= x
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10x
__
The function y = √x is reflected horizontally, stretched vertically
by a factor of 3, and then translated 1 unit right. So, the graph of
_________
y = 3 √-(x - 1) extends to the left from x = 1 and its domain is
{x | x ≤ 1, x ∈ R}.
Since the function is_________
not reflected vertically or translated vertically,
the graph of y = 3 √-(x - 1) extends up from y = 0, similar to the
__
graph of y = √x . The range, {y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}, is unchanged by the
transformations.
___ ________
b) Express the function y - 3 = - √2x in the form y = a √b(x - h) + k to
identify the ___
value of each parameter.
y - 3 = - √___
2x
y = - √2x + 3
• b = 2 results in horizontal stretch by a factor of _1 (step 1).
2
• a = -1 results in a reflection in the x-axis (step 2).
• h = 0, so the graph is not translated horizontally.
• k = 3 results in a vertical translation of 3 units up (step 3).
__
Apply these transformations either directly to the graph of y = √ x or
to key points, and then sketch the transformed graph.
Method 1: Transform the Graph Directly
__
Use a sketch of y = √x and apply the transformations to the curve one
at a time.
y y
step 1: horizontal stretch
4 4
step 3: vertical translation
2 2
y= x y = - 2x + 3
0 2 4 6 8 10x 0 2 4 6 8 10x
-2 -2
-4 -4
step 2: vertical reflection step 2: vertical reflection
Method 2: Use Mapping Notation

Apply each transformation to the point (x, y) to determine a general
mapping notation for the transformed function.
__
Transformation of y = √x Mapping
1 1
Horizontal stretch by a factor of _
2 ( )
(x, y) → _ x, y
2
Reflection in the x-axis ( 12 x, y) → ( 12 x, -y)

_ _
Vertical translation of 3 units up ( 12 x, -y) → ( 12 x, -y + 3)

_ _
__
Choose key points on the graph of y = √x and use the general
1 x, -y + 3 to determine their image
mapping notation (x, y) → _
2 ___
( )
points on the function y - 3 = - √2x .
(0, 0) → (0, 3)
(1, 1) → (0.5, 2)
(4, 2) → (2, 1)
(9, 3) → (4.5, 0)
y
4
y= x
2
0 2 4 6 8 10x
-2 y = - 2x + 3
Since there are no horizontal reflections or translations, the graph

still extends to the right from x = 0. The domain, {x | x ≥ 0, x ∈ R},
__
is unchanged by the transformations as compared with y = √x .
The function is reflected vertically and then translated 3 units up, so
the graph extends down from y = 3. The range is {y | y ≤ 3, y ∈ R},
__
which has changed as compared to y = √x .

Your Turn
______
a) Sketch the graph of the function y = -2 √x + 3 - 1 by transforming
__
the graph of y = √ x.
__
b) Identify the domain and range of y = √ x and describe how they are
affected by the transformations.
Example 3
Determine a Radical Function From a Graph
Mayleen is designing a symmetrical pattern. She sketches the curve
shown and wants to determine its equation and the equation of
its reflection in each quadrant. The graph is a transformation of
__
the graph of y = √x . What are the equations of the four functions
Mayleen needs to work with?
y
0 2 4 6 x
Solution
__
The base function y = √x is not reflected or translated, but it is stretched.
A radical function that involves a stretch can be obtained from either a
vertical stretch or___
a horizontal stretch. Use an equation of the form
__
√
y = a x or y = bx to represent the image function for each type of stretch.
√
Method 1: Compare Vertical or Horizontal Distances

__
Superimpose the graph of y = √x and compare corresponding distances
to determine the factor by which the function has been stretched.
__ ___
View as a Vertical Stretch (y = a √x ) View as a Horizontal Stretch (y = √bx )
Each vertical distance is 2 times the 1
Each horizontal distance is _ the
__ 4
corresponding distance for y = √x . __
corresponding distance for y = √x .
y
y
4
4
4 1
2
2 2 2
1 4
0 2 4 6 x
0 2 4 6 x
This represents a vertical stretch by a factor

This represents a horizontal stretch by a
of 2, which means a = 2. The equation
__ 1
y = 2 √x represents the function. factor of _ , which means b = 4. The equation
___ 4
y = √4x represents the function.
__ ___
Express the equation of the function as either y = 2 √x or y = √4x .
Method 2: Substitute Coordinates of a Point
Use the coordinates of one point on the function, such as (1, 2), to
determine the stretch factor.
View as a Vertical Stretch View as a Horizontal Stretch

Substitute 1 for x and 2 for y in the Substitute the coordinates (1, 2) in the
__ ___
equation y = a √x . Then, solve for a. equation y = √bx and solve for b.
__ ___
y = a √x y = √bx
__ ____
2 = a √1 2 = √b(1)
__
2 = a(1) 2 = √b
__ 2
2=a 22 = (√b )
__
The equation of the function is y = 2 √x . 4=b
___
The equation can also be expressed as y = √4x .
__ ___
Represent the function in simplest form by y = 2 √x or by y = √4x .
__
Determine the equations of the reflected curves using y = 2 √x .
___
• A reflection in the y-axis results in the function y = 2 √-x ,
since b = -1.
__
• A reflection in the x-axis results in y = -2 √x , since a = -1.
Reflecting these graphs into the third quadrant Are the restrictions
___ on the domain in each
results in the function y = -2 √-x .
function consistent
__
Mayleen needs to use the equations y = 2 √x , with the quadrant in
___ __ ___ which the curve lies?
y = 2 √-x , y = -2 √x , and y = -2___
√-x . Similarly,
_____
she could
___
use the equations
_____
y = √4x , y = √-4x ,
y = - √4x , and y = - √-4x .
Your Turn
a) Determine two forms of the equation for the function shown.
__
The function is a transformation of the function y = √x .
b) Show algebraically that the two equations are equivalent.
c) What is the equation of the curve reflected in each quadrant?
y
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x

Example 4
Model the Speed of Sound
Justin’s physics textbook states that the speed, s, in metres per second, of
sound in dry air is related to the air temperature, T, in degrees Celsius,
___________
T .
√
by the function s = 331.3 1 + __
273.15
a) Determine the domain and range in this context.
b) On the Internet,
________ Justin finds another formula for the speed of sound,
s = 20 √T + 273 . Use algebra to show that the two functions are
approximately equivalent.
c) How is the graph of this function related to the graph of the base
square root function? Which transformation do you predict will
be the most noticeable on a graph?
___________
T
√
d) Graph the function s = 331.3 1 + __ using technology.
273.15
e) Determine the speed of sound, to the nearest metre per second,
at each of the following temperatures.
i) 20 °C (normal room temperature)
ii) 0 °C (freezing point of water)
iii) -63 °C (coldest temperature ever recorded in Canada)
iv) -89 °C (coldest temperature ever recorded on Earth)
Solution
a) Use the following inequality to determine the domain:
radicand ≥0
1 + __T ≥0
273.15
__T ≥ -1
273.15
T ≥ -273.15
The domain is {T | T ≥ -273.15, T ∈ R}. This means that the
temperature must be greater than or equal to -273.15 °C, which is
the lowest temperature possible and is referred to as absolute zero.
The range is {s | s ≥ 0, s ∈ R}, which means that the speed of sound is
a non-negative value.
b) Rewrite the function from the textbook in simplest form.
___________
T
√
s = 331.3 1 + __
273.15
_________________
273.15 + __ T
√
s = 331.3 __
273.15
___________273.15
273.15 + T
√
s = 331.3 ___
273.15
___________
√273.15 +T
s = 331.3 ___ _______
√273.15
________
How could you verify that these expressions
s ≈ 20 √T + 273
are approximately equivalent?
________
The function found on the Internet, s = 20 √T + 273 , is the
approximate simplest form of the function in the textbook.
c) Analyse the transformations and determine the order in which
they must be performed.
__
The graph of s = √T is stretched vertically by a Are these
factor of about 20 and then translated about transformations
consistent with the
273 units to the left. Translating 273 units to the left domain and range?
will be most noticeable on the graph of the function.
d)
Are your answers

to part c) confirmed
by the graph?
e) Temperature (°C) Approximate Speed of Sound (m/s)

i) 20 343
ii) 0 331
iii) -63 291
iv) -89 272
Your Turn
A company estimates its cost of production using the function
__
C(n) = 20 √n + 1000, where C represents the cost, in dollars, to
produce n items.
a) Describe the transformations represented by this function as
__
compared to C = √n .
b) Graph the function using technology. What does the shape of
the graph imply about the situation?
c) Interpret the domain and range in this context.
d) Use the graph to determine the expected cost to produce 12 000 items.
D id Yo u Kn ow?
Eureka, on Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, holds the North

h
American record for the lowest-ever average monthly
temperature, -47.9 °C in February 1979. For 18 days,s,
the temperature stayed below -45 °C.

Key Ideas
__
The base radical function is y = √x . Its y
graph has the following characteristics: 4
y= x
a left endpoint at (0, 0)
2
no right endpoint
the shape of half of a parabola 0 2 4 6 8 10x
a domain of {x | x ≥ 0, x ∈ R} and a range
of {y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}
________
You can graph radical functions of the form y = a √b(x - h) + k by How does each
__
transforming the base function y = √x . parameter affect the
__
graph of y = √x ?
You can analyse transformations to identify the domain and range of
________
a radical function of the form y = a √b(x - h) + k.
Practise 3. Match each function with its graph.

__
1. Graph each function using a table of a) y = √ x-2
values. Then, identify the domain and ___
b) y = √ -x + 2
range. ______
______ c) y = - √x + 2
a) y = √x - 1 _________
______ d) y = - √-(x - 2)
b) y = √x + 6
______ A y B y
c) y = √3 - x 4 2
________
d) y = √-2x - 5 2
0 2 4 x
2. Explain how to transform the graph -2
__ x
of y = √x to obtain the graph of each -4 -2 0
function. State the domain and range in
each case. C y D y
______
a) y = 7 √x - 9
-4 -2 0 2x -2 0 2 x
___
b) y = √-x + 8 -2
_____ -2
c) y = - √0.2x
1 ______
d) 4 + y = _ √x + 6
3
4. Write the equation of the radical function 8. For an observer at a height of h feet above
that results by applying each set of the surface of Earth, the approximate
__
transformations to the graph of y = x.
√ distance, d, in miles, to the horizon can
a) vertical stretch by a factor of 4, then be modelled
______ using the radical function
horizontal translation of 6 units left d = √1.50h .
1
b) horizontal stretch by a factor of _ , then
8
vertical translation of 5 units down
c) horizontal reflection in the y-axis, then
horizontal translation of 4 units right
and vertical translation of 11 units up
d) vertical stretch by a factor of 0.25,
vertical reflection in the x-axis, and
horizontal stretch by a factor of 10
5. Sketch the graph of each function using
transformations. State the domain and
range of each function.
___
a) f(x) = √ -x - 3
______
b) r(x) = 3 √x + 1
______
c) p(x) = - √x - 2
__________
d) y - 1 = - √-4(x - 2) a) Use the language of transformations to
___
describe how to obtain the graph from
e) m(x) = √_12 x + 4 the base square root graph.
_________
1
f) y + 1 = _ √-(x + 2) b) Determine an approximate equivalent
3 __
function of the form d = a √h for the
Apply function. Which form of the function do
1 ___ you prefer, and why?
6. Consider the function f(x) = _ √5x .
4
c) A lifeguard on a tower is looking out
a) Identify the transformations represented
__ over the water with binoculars. How
by f(x) as compared to y = x.
√
far can she see if her eyes are 20 ft
b) Write two functions equivalent to f (x): above the level of the water? Express
__
one of the form y ___
= a √x and the other your answer to the nearest tenth of
√
of the form y = bx a mile.
___
c) Identify the transformation(s) 9. The function 4 - y = √3x is translated
represented by each function you wrote 9 units up and reflected in the x-axis.
in part b). a) Without graphing, determine the
d) Use transformations to graph all three domain and range of the image
functions. How do the graphs compare? function.
7. a) Express the radius of a circle as a b) Compared to the base function,
__
function of its area. y = √x , by how many units and
b) Create a table of values and a graph in which direction has the given
to illustrate the relationship that this function been translated horizontally?
radical function represents. vertically?

10. For each graph, write the equation 12. Agronomists use radical functions to
of a radical function of the form
________ model and optimize corn production. One
y = a √b(x - h) + k. factor they analyse is how the amount
a) y of nitrogen fertilizer applied affects
the crop yield. Suppose the function
4 __
Y(n) = 760 √n + 2000 is used to predict
2 the yield, Y, in kilograms per hectare, of
corn as a function of the amount, n, in
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x kilograms per hectare, of nitrogen applied
to the crop.
b) y a) Use the language of transformations to
compare the graph of this function to
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x __
the graph of y = √n .
-2
b) Graph the function using
-4 transformations.
c) Identify the domain and range.
c) y d) What do the shape of the graph, the

domain, and the range tell you about
4
this situation? Are the domain and
2 range realistic in this context? Explain.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
d) y
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4
-6
-8
D i d You K n ow ?
Over 6300 years ago, the Indigenous people in

11. Write the equation of a radical function the area of what is now Mexico domesticated and
cultivated several varieties of corn. The cultivation
with each domain and range. of corn is now global.
a) {x | x ≥ 6, x ∈ R}, {y | y ≥ 1, y ∈ R}
b) {x | x ≥ -7, x ∈ R}, {y | y ≤ -9, y ∈ R}
c) {x | x ≤ 4, x ∈ R}, {y | y ≥ -3, y ∈ R}
d) {x | x ≤ -5, x ∈ R}, {y | y ≤ 8, y ∈ R}
13. A manufacturer wants to predict the 15. While meeting with a client, a
consumer interest in a new smart manufacturer of custom greenhouses
phone. The ____
company uses the function sketches a greenhouse in the
P(d) = -2 √-d + 20 to model the number, shape of the graph of a radical
P, in millions, of pre-orders for the phone function. What equation could the
as a function of the number, d, of days manufacturer use to represent the
before the phone’s release date. shape of the greenhouse roof?
a) What are the domain and range and
what do they mean in this situation?
b) Identify the transformations represented
__
by the function as compared to y = √d .
c) Graph the function and explain what
the shape of the graph indicates about
the situation. 4.8
d) Determine the number of pre-orders

the manufacturer can expect to have
5.4
30 days before the release date.
14. During election campaigns, campaign
D i d You K n ow ?
managers use surveys and polls to make
projections about the election results. One People living in the Arctic are starting to use
campaign manager uses a radical function greenhouses to grow some of their food. There
are greenhouse societies in both Iqaluit, Nunavut
to model the possible error in polling and Inuvik, Northwest Territories that grow
predictions as a function of the number beans, lettuce, carrots, tomatoes, and herbs.
of days until the election, as shown in
the graph.
We b Link
To learn
earn more a about greenhouse communities
in the Arctic, go to www.mcgrawhill.ca/school/
learningcentres and follow the links.
16. Determine the equation of a radical

function with
a) endpoint at (2, 5) and passing through
the point (6, 1)
b) endpoint at (3, -2) and an x-intercept
a) Explain what the graph shows about the
accuracy of polls before elections. with a value of -6
b) Determine an equation to represent the

function. Show how you developed
your answer.
c) Describe the transformations that the
function represents as compared to
__
y = √x .

17. The Penrose method is a system for giving 18. MINI LAB The period Materials
voting powers to members of assemblies of a pendulum is the • thread
or legislatures based on the square root of time for one complete • washer or other
the number of people that each member swing back and forth. suitable mass
represents, divided by 1000. Consider a As long as the initial • tape
parliament that represents the people of swing angle is kept • ruler
the world and how voting power might be relatively small, the • stopwatch or timer
given to different nations. The table shows period of a pendulum is
the estimated populations of Canada and related to its length by
the three most populous and the three least a radical function.
populous countries in the world.
Country Population
China 1 361 513 000 L = 30 cm
India 1 251 696 000

United States 325 540 000
Canada 35 100 000
Tuvalu 11 000
Nauru 10 000
Vatican City 1 000
Step 1 Tie a length of thread to a washer or
a) Share your answers to the following two other mass. Tape the thread to the
questions with a classmate and explain edge of a table or desk top so that the
your thinking: length between the pivot point and
• Which countries might feel that a the centre of the washer is 30 cm.
“one nation, one vote” system is an
Step 2 Pull the mass to one side and allow
unfair way to allocate voting power?
it to swing freely. Measure the total
• Which countries might feel that time for 10 complete swings back
a “one person, one vote” system and forth and then divide by 10 to
is unfair? determine the period for this length.
b) What percent of the voting power Record the length and period in
would each nation listed above have a table.
under a “one person, one vote” system, Step 3 Repeat steps 1 and 2 using lengths of
assuming a world population of 25 cm, 20 cm, 15 cm, 10 cm, 5 cm,
approximately 7.302 billion? and 3 cm (and shorter distances if
c) If x represents the population of a possible).
country and V(x) represents its voting Step 4 Create a scatter plot showing period
power, what function could be written as a function of length. Draw a
to represent the Penrose method? smooth curve through or near the
d) Under the Penrose method, the sum points. Does it appear to be a radical
of the world voting power using the function? Justify your answer.
given data is approximately 765. What Step 5 What approximate transformation(s)
percent of the voting power would this __
to the graph of y = √x would produce
system give each nation in the table? your result? Write a radical function
e) Why might the Penrose method be that approximates the graph, where T
viewed as a compromise for allocating represents the period and L represents
voting power? the length of the pendulum.
Extend Step 1 Create an isosceles right triangle with
__
19. The inverse of f(x) = √ x is legs that are each 1 cm long. Mark
f -1(x) = x2, x ≥ 0. one end of the hypotenuse as point C.
a) Graph both functions, and use them
What is the length of the hypotenuse,
to explain why the restriction is expressed as a radical?
necessary on the domain of the Step 2 Use the hypotenuse of the first triangle
inverse function. as one leg of a new right triangle.
b) Determine the equation, including
Draw a length of 1 cm as the other leg,
any restrictions, of the inverse of each opposite point C. What is the length of
of the following functions. the hypotenuse of this second triangle,
______ expressed as a radical?
i) g(x) = - √x - 5
___ Step 3 Continue to create right triangles,
ii) h(x) = -x + 3
√
_______ each time using the hypotenuse of the
iii) j(x) = √2x - 7
-6 previous triangle as a leg of the next
______
5 7 triangle, and a length of 1 cm as the
√
20. If f(x) = _ - _ x and
8 12
________ other leg (drawn so that the 1-cm leg is
2
_
g(x) = - √6(x + 3) - 4, what
5 opposite point C). Continue the spiral
transformations could you apply to until you would overlap the initial
the graph of f(x) to create the graph base.
of g(x)? 1 cm
1 cm
Create Connections
________
C1 Which parameters in y = a √b(x - h) + k 1 cm
__
affect the domain of y = √x ? Which
parameters affect the range? Explain, 1 cm
using examples. Step 4 Create a table to represent the length

C2 Sarah claims that any given radical of the hypotenuse as a function of the
function can be simplified so that there triangle number (first, second, third
is no value of b, only a value of a. Is she triangle in the pattern, etc.). Express
correct? Explain, using examples. lengths both in exact radical form and
C3 Compare and contrast the process in approximate decimal form.
of graphing a radical function using Step 5 Write an equation to represent this
transformations with graphing a quadratic function, where L represents the
function using transformations. hypotenuse length and n represents
C4 MINI LAB The Wheel Materials the triangle number. Does the equation
of Theodorus, or Square • ruler, drafting
involve any transformations on the
Root Spiral, is a geometric square, or other base square root function? Explain.
construction that contains object with a
right angle
line segments with length
• millimetre ruler
equal to the square root of
any whole number.

2.2
Square Root of a Function
Focus on . . .
____
• sketching the graph of y = √f (x) given the graph of y = f (x)
____
• explaining strategies for graphing y = √f (x) given the graph of y = f (x)
____
• comparing the domains and ranges of the functions y = f (x) and y = √f (x) , and explaining
any differences
The Pythagorean theorem is often applied by engineers. They use right We b Link
triangles in the design of large domes, bridges, and other structures because
For more information
inform
the triangle is a strong support unit. For example, a truss bridge consists of about how triangles
triangular units of steel beams connected together to support the bridge deck. are fundamental
to the design of
You are already familiar with the square root operation (and its effect domes, go to www.
on given values) in the Pythagorean theorem. How does the square root mcgrawhill.ca/school/
operation affect the graph of the function? If you are given the graph of a learningcentres and
follow the links.
function, what does the graph of the square root of that function look like?
Truss bridge over the Bow

River in Morley, Alberta
located on Chiniki First
Nation territory.
____
Investigate Related Functions: y = f (x) and y = √f (x)
Materials A: Right Triangles, Area, and Length 5 cm

A v
• grid paper and ruler, or 1. Draw several right triangles with a hypotenuse
graphing calculator
of 5 cm and legs of various lengths. For each h
• dynamic geometry
or graphing software
triangle, label the legs as v and h.
(optional)
2. a) Write an equation for the length of v as a function of h. Graph the
function using an appropriate domain for the situation.
b) Compare the measured values for side v in the triangles you drew
to the calculated values of v from your graph.
3. a) Draw a square on side v of each triangle. Let the area of this
square be A, and write an equation for A as a function of h.
b) Graph the area function.
Reflect and Respond

4. a) How are the equations of the two functions related?
b) How do the domains of the two functions compare?
c) What is the relationship between the ranges of the two functions?
B: Compare a Function and Its Square Root

_______
5. Consider the functions y = 2x + 4 and y = √2x + 4 .
a) Describe the relationship between the equations for these
two functions.
b) Graph the two functions, and note any connections between
the two graphs.
c) Compare the values of y for the same values of x. How are
they related?
6. a) Create at least two more pairs of functions that share the same
relationship as those in step 5.
b) Compare the tables and graphs of each pair of functions.
Reflect and Respond

7. Consider pairs of functions where one function is the square root of
the other function.
a) How do the domains compare? Explain why you think there
are differences.
b) How are the values of y related for pairs of functions like these?
c) What differences occur in the ranges, and why do you think
they occur?
8. How might you use the connections you have identified in this
____
investigation as a method of graphing y = √f(x) if you are given the
graph of y = f(x)?
2.2 Square Root of a Function • MHR 79

Link the Ideas
____
You can determine how two functions, y = f (x) and y = √f(x) , are
related by comparing how the values of y are calculated:
• For y = 2x + 1, multiply x by 2 and add 1.
_______
• For y = √2x + 1 , multiply x by 2, add 1, and take the square root.
The two functions start with the same two operations, but the function
_______
y = √2x + 1 has the additional step of taking the square root. For any
_______
value of x, the resulting value of y for y = 2x + 1 is the square root of
√
the value of y for y = 2x + 1, as shown in the table.
_______
x y = 2x + 1 y = √2x + 1
0 1 1
4 9 3
12 25 5
24 49 7

_______
square root The function y = √2x + 1 represents the square root of the function
of a function y = 2x + 1.
____
• the function y = √f (x)
is the square root of
the function y = f (x) Example 1
____
• y = √f (x) is only
defined for f (x) ≥ 0 Compare Graphs of a Linear Function and the Square Root of the
Function
____
a) Given f(x) = 3 - 2x, graph the functions y = f (x) and y = √f(x) .
b) Compare the two functions.
Solution
_______
a) Use a table of values to graph y = 3 - 2x and y = √3 - 2x .
______
x y = 3 – 2x y = √3 – 2x
__
–2 7 √7
__
–1 5 √5
__
0 3 √3
1 1 1
1.5 0 0
y
6
4
y = 3 - 2x
2
y = 3 - 2x
-2 -1 0 1 2 x
b) Compare the graphs.
y
7
Why is____
the graph of
y = √f (x) above the graph
6
of y = f (x) for values of y
Invariant points occur when between 0 and 1? Will this
5 f(x) = 0 or f(x) = 1,
y = f(x) always be true?
because at these values
4 f(x) = f(x) .
2
y = f(x)
1
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5x
For y = f(x),
____
the domain is {x | x ∈ R} and the range is {y | y ∈ R}.
For y = √f(x) , the domain is {x | x ≤ 1.5, x ∈ R} and the range
is {y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}. How does the domain
____ of the
graph of y = √f (x) relate to
Invariant points occur at (1, 1) and (1.5, 0). the restrictions on the variable
in the radicand? How could
you determine the domain
algebraically?
Your Turn
____
a) Given g(x) = 3x + 6, graph the functions y = g(x) and y = √g(x) .
b) Identify the domain and range of each function and any
invariant points.
____
Relative Locations of y = f(x) and y = √f(x)
____
The domain of y = √f(x) consists only of the values in the domain of f (x)
for which f (x) ≥ 0.
____
The range of y = √f(x) consists of the square roots of the values in the
____
range of y = f(x) for which √f(x) is defined.
____
The graph of y = √f(x) exists only where f(x) ≥ 0. You can predict the
____
location of y = √f(x) relative to y = f(x) using the values of f (x).
Value of f(x) f(x) < 0 f(x) = 0 0 < f (x) < 1 f (x) = 1 f (x) > 1
Relative The graph of The graphs The graph The graph The graph
____ ____ ____ ____ ____
Location of y = √f(x) is of y = √f(x) of y = √f (x) of y = √f (x) of y = √f (x)
Graph____
of undefined. and is above the intersects is below the
y = √f(x) y = f(x) graph of the graph of graph of
intersect on y = f (x). y = f (x). y = f (x).
the x-axis.

Example 2
____
Compare the Domains and Ranges of y = f(x) and y = √f(x)
Identify and compare the domains and ranges of the functions in
each pair.
_________
a) y = 2 - 0.5x2 and y =______
√2 - 0.5x2
b) y = x2 + 5 and y = √x2 + 5
Solution
a) Method 1: Analyse Graphically
y = 2 - 0.5x2 is a quadratic function, its
Since the function_________
root, y = √2 - 0.5x2 , cannot be expressed in the form
square ________
__
y = a √b(x - h) + k. It cannot be graphed by transforming y = √ x.
Both graphs can be created using technology. Use the maximum and
minimum or equivalent features to find the coordinates of points
necessary to determine the domain and range.
The graph of y = 2 - 0.5x2 extends from (0, 2) down and to the

left and right infinitely. Its domain is {x | x ∈ R}, and its range is
{y | y ≤ 2, y ∈ R}.
_________
The graph of y = √2 - 0.5x2 includes values
of x from -2 to 2 inclusive, so its domain is To determine the
exact value that
{x | -2 ≤ x ≤ 2, x ∈ R}. The graph covers values of
1.41 represents, you
y from 0 to approximately 1.41 inclusive, so its need to analyse the
approximate range is {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 1.41, y ∈ R}. function algebraically.
_________
The domain and range of y = √2 - 0.5x2 are subsets of the domain
and range of y = 2 - 0.5x2.
Method 2: Analyse Key Points

Use the locations of any intercepts and the maximum value or
minimum value to determine the domain and range of each function.
_________
Function y = 2 - 0.5x2 y = √2 - 0.5x2
x-Intercepts -2 and 2 -2 and 2
How can you justify
__
y-Intercept 2 √2 this information
__
algebraically?
Maximum Value 2 √2
Minimum Value none 0
Quadratic functions are defined for all real numbers. So, the domain
of y = 2 - 0.5x2 is {x | x ∈ R}. Since the maximum value is 2, the
range of y = 2 - 0.5x2 is {y | y ≤ 2, y ∈ R}.
_________
The locations of the x-intercepts of y = √2 - 0.5x2 mean that
the function is defined for -2 ≤ x ≤_________
2. So, the domain is
{x | -2 ≤ x ≤ 2, x ∈ R}. Since__y = √2 - 0.5x2 has a minimum__
value of
0 and a maximum value of √2 , the range is {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ √2 , y ∈ R}.
b) Method 1: Analyse Graphically ______

Graph the functions y = x2 + 5 and y = √x2 + 5 using technology.
Both functions extend infinitely to the left and the right, so the
domain of each function is {x | x ∈ R}.
The range of y = x2 + 5 is {y | y ≥ 5, y ∈ R}.
______
The range of y = √x2 + 5 is approximately {y | y ≥ 2.24, y ∈ R}.
Method 2: Analyse Key Points

Use the locations of any intercepts and the maximum value or
minimum value to determine the domain and range of each function.
______
Function y = x2 + 5 y = √x2 + 5
x-Intercepts none none
__
y-Intercept 5 √5
Maximum Value none none

__
Minimum Value 5 √5
Quadratic functions are defined for all real numbers. So, the domain
of y = x2 + 5 is {x | x ∈ R}. Since the minimum value is 5, the range
of y = x2 + 5 is {y | y ≥ 5, y ∈ R}.
______
Since y = √x2 + 5 has no x-intercepts, the function is defined for
______
all real numbers. So, the domain is {x | x ∈ R}. Since y = √x2 + 5
__
has a minimum
__
value of √5 and no maximum value, the range is
{y | y ≥ √5 , y ∈ R}.
Your Turn
Identify and compare the domains and ranges of the functions y = x2 - 1
______
and y = √x2 - 1 . Verify your answers.

Example 3
Graph the Square Root of a Function From the Graph of the Function
____
Using the graphs
____ of y = f(x) and y = g(x), sketch the graphs of y = √f(x)
and y = √g(x) .
y y
y = f(x)
4 6
y = g(x)
2 4
2
-6 -4 -2 0 2 x
-2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
Solution
Sketch each graph by locating key points, including invariant points,
and determining the image points on the graph of the square root of the
function.
Step 1: Locate invariant points on y = f(x) What is significant about
and y = g(x). When graphing the square root y = 0 and y = 1? Does this
apply to all graphs of functions
of a function, invariant points occur at y = 0 and their square roots? Why?
and y = 1.
Step 2: Draw the portion of each graph between the invariant points for
values of y = f(x) and y = g(x) that are positive but less than 1. Sketch a
smooth curve above those of y = f(x) and y = g(x) in these intervals.
y y
y = f(x)
4 6
y = g(x)
2 4
y = f(x)
2
-6 -4 -2 0 2 x
y = g(x)
-2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
Step 3: Locate other key points on y = f(x) and y = g(x) where the values
are greater than ____
1. Transform these
____
points to locate image points on the
graphs of y = √f(x) and y = √g(x) .
y y
y = f(x)
4 6
y = g(x)
2 4
y = f(x) How can a value of y be
2 mapped to a point on the
-6 -4 -2 0 2 x square root of the function?
y = g(x)
-2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
Step 4: Sketch smooth curves between the image points; they will be
below those of y = f(x)
____
and y = g(x)____
in the remaining intervals. Recall
that graphs of y = √f(x) and y = √g(x) do not exist in intervals where
y = f (x) and y = g(x) are negative (below the x-axis).
y y
y = f(x) Where is the square root of
4 6
a function above the original
y = g(x) function? Where is it below?
2 4
y = f(x) Where are they equal? Where
2 are the endpoints on a graph
-6 -4 -2 0 2 x of the square root of a
y = g(x)
-2 function? Why?
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
Your Turn
____
Using the graph of y = h(x), sketch the graph of y = √h(x) .
y
2
y = h(x)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
Key Ideas
____
You can use values of f(x)____
to predict values of √f(x) and to
sketch the graph of y = √f(x) .
The key values to consider are f (x) = 0 and f(x) = 1. What do you know ____
about
____ the graph of y = √f (x) at
The domain of y = √f(x) consists of all values in the domain f (x) = 0 and f(x) = 1? How
of f(x) for which f(x) ≥ 0. graphs of y = f (x) and
do the____
____ y = √f (x) compare on either
The range of y = √f(x) consists of the square roots of all side of these locations?
values in the range of f(x) for which f(x) is defined.
____
The y-coordinates of the points on the graph of y = √f(x ) are the square roots of the
y-coordinates of the corresponding points on the original function y = f(x).

Practise c) y
1. Copy and complete the table. 8
____
f (x) √f (x) 6
36
4
0.03 y = f(x)
1 2
-9
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
1.6
0 d) y
2. For each point on the graph of y = f(x),
8
does a____
corresponding point on the graph of y = f(x)
y = √f(x) exist? If so, state the coordinates 6

(rounded to two decimal places, if
4
necessary).
a) (4, 12) b) (-2, 0.4) 2
c) (10, -2) d) (0.09, 1)

-4 -2 0 2 4 x
e) (-5, 0) f) (m, n)
3. Match each graph of y = f(x) to the
____ A y
corresponding graph of y = √f(x) . y = f(x)
a) y 4
6 2
4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
y = f(x)
2
B y y = f(x)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
2
-2
-4 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
b) y C y
4 4
y = f(x)
y = f(x)
2 2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4 D y
y = f(x)
2
-6
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
4. a) Given f(x) = 4 - x,____
graph the functions c) y
y = f(x) and y = √f(x) . 6
b) Compare the two functions and explain y = f(x)
4
how their values are related.
c) Identify the domain and range of each 2
function, and explain any differences.

-4 -2 0 2 4 x
5. Determine the domains and ranges of the
functions in each pair graphically and
algebraically. Explain why the domains Apply
and ranges differ.
______ 9. a) Use technology to graph each function
a) y = x - 2, y = √x - 2 and identify the domain and range.
_______
b) y = 2x + 6, y = √2x + 6 i) f (x) = x2 + 4
_______
c) y = -x + 9, y = √-x + 9 ii) g(x) = x2 - 4
__________
d) y = -0.1x - 5, y = √-0.1x - 5 iii) h(x) = -x2 + 4
6. Identify and compare the domains and iv) j(x) = -x2 - 4
ranges of the functions in each pair.
______ b) Graph the square root of each function
a) y = x2 - 9 and y = √x2 - 9 in part a) using technology.
______
b) y = 2 - x2 and y = √2 - x2 c) What do____
you notice about the graph
______
c) y = x2 + 6 and y = √x2 + 6 of y = √j(x) ? Explain this observation
_________
d) y = 0.5x2 + 3 and y = √0.5x2 + 3 based on the graph of y = j(x). Then,
explain this observation algebraically.
7. For each function, identify and explain any
differences in the domains and ranges of d) In general, how are the domains of
____
the functions in part a) related to the
y = f(x) and y = √f(x) .
domains of the functions in part b)?
a) f(x) = x2 - 25
How are the ranges related?
b) f(x) = x2 + 3
10. a) Identify the domains ______
and ranges of
c) f(x) = 32 - 2x2 y = x2 - 4 and y = √x2 - 4 .
______
2
d) f(x) = 5x + 50 b) Why is y = √x2 - 4 undefined over
8. Using each graph of y = f(x), sketch the an interval? How does this affect the
____
graph of y = √f(x) . domain of the function?
a) y 11. The graph of y = f(x) is shown.
y
y = f(x) 4
6
2
4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x y = f(x)
2
b) y
y = f(x) -2 0 2 4 6 x
4
-2
2 ____
a) Sketch the graph of y = √f(x) , and
explain the strategy you used.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2 b) State the domain and range of each
function, and explain how the domains
and the ranges are related.

12. For relatively small heights above Earth, 14. The main portion of an iglu (Inuit spelling
a simple radical function can be used to of the English word igloo) is approximately
approximate the distance to the horizon. hemispherical in shape.
d
a) For an iglu with diameter 3.6 m, determine
a function that gives the vertical height,
v, in metres, in terms of the horizontal
h distance, h, in metres, from the centre.
b) What are the domain and range of this
function, and how are they related to
the situation?
c) What is the height of this iglu at a point
a) If Earth’s radius is assumed to be 1 m in from the bottom edge of the wall?
6378 km, determine the equation for
the distance, d, in kilometres, to the D i d You K n ow ?
horizon for an object that is at a height An iglu is actually built in a spiral from blocks cut
of h kilometres above Earth’s surface. from inside the iglu floor space. Half the floor space
is left as a bed platform in large iglus. This traps cold
b) Identify the domain and range of the air below the sleeping area.
function.
c) How can you use a graph of the
function to find the distance to the
horizon for a satellite that is 800 km
above Earth’s surface?
d) If the function from part a) were just an
arbitrary mathematical function rather
than in this context, would the domain
or range be any different? Explain.
13. a) When determining whether the graph
shown represents a function or the 15. MINI LAB Investigate how the constants
square root of the function, Chris in radical functions affect their graphs,
states, “it must be the function y = f(x) domains, and ranges.
_______
because the domain consists of negative Step 1 Graph the function y = √a2 - x2 for
values,____
and the square root of a function various values of a. If you use graphing
y = √f(x) is not defined for negative software, you may be able to create
values.” sliders that allow you to vary the value
Do you agree with Chris’s answer? Why? of a and dynamically see the resulting
y
changes in the graph.
Step 2 Describe how the value of a affects the
4
graph of the function and its domain
y = f(x)
2 and range.
Step 3 Choose one value of a and write an
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
equation for the reflection of this
-2 function in the x-axis. Graph both
functions and describe the graph.
b) Describe how you would determine Step 4 Repeat_______
steps 1 to 3 for the function
whether a graph shows the function or y = √a2 + x2 as well as another square
the square root of the function. root of a function involving x2.
Extend 19. Develop a formula for radius as a function
16. If (-24, 12) is a point on the graph of the of surface area for
function y = f(x), identify one point on the a) a cylinder with equal diameter and height
graph of each of the following functions. b) a cone with height three times its
_________
a) y = √4f(x + 3) diameter
_____
b) y = - √f(4x) + 12
_______________ Create Connections
c) y = -2 √f(-(x - 2)) - 4 + 6
C1 Write a summary of your strategy for
17. Given the graph of the function y = f (x), ____
sketch the graph of each function. graphing the function y = √f(x) if you are
given only the graph of y = f (x).
y
C2 Explain how the relationship between
6 the two equations y = 16 - 4x and
________
4
y = √16 - 4x is connected to the
relationship between their graphs.
y = f(x)
2
C3 Is it possible to completely graph the
function y = f(x) given only the graph of
____
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
y = √f(x) ? Discuss this with a classmate
-2 and share several examples that you create.
____ Write a summary of your conclusions.
a) y = 2 √f(x) - 3
_________ C4 a) Given f (x) = (x - 1)2 - 4, graph
____
the
b) y = - √2f(x - 3)
___________ functions y = f(x) and y = √f(x) .
c) y = √-f(2x) + 3
___________ b) Compare the two functions and explain
d) y = √2f(-x) - 3 how their values are related using
18. Explain your strategy for completing #17b). several points on each graph.
Project Corner Form Follows Function
• What radical functions are represented by the curves drawn on each image?
y
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 x
-2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 x
-2

2.3
Solving Radical Equations
Graphically
Focus on . . .
• relating the roots of radical equations and the x-intercepts of the graphs
of radical functions
• determining approximate solutions of radical equations graphically
Parachutes slow the speed of falling objects by greatly increasing

the drag force of the air. Manufacturers must make careful
calculations to ensure that their parachutes are large enough to D i d You K n ow ?
create enough drag force to allow parachutists to descend at a safe
French inventor Louis
speed, but not so large that they are impractical. Radical equations Sébastien-Lenormand
can be used to relate the area of a parachute to the descent speed introduced the first practical
and mass of the object it carries, allowing parachute designers to parachute in 1783.
ensure that their designs are reliable.
Investigate Solving Radical Equations Graphically
______
Materials The radical equation √x - 4 = 5 can be solved in several ways.
• graphing calculator or 1. a) Discuss with a classmate how you might solve the equation
graphing software
graphically. Could you use more than one graphical method?
b) Write step-by-step instructions that explain how to use your
method(s) to determine the solution to the radical equation.
c) Use your graphical method(s) to solve the equation.
2. a) Describe one method of solving the equation algebraically.
b) Use this method to determine the solution.
c) How might you verify your solution algebraically?
d) Share your method and solution with those of another pair
and discuss any similarities and differences.
Reflect and Respond

3. a) How does the solution you found graphically compare with the
one you found algebraically?
b) Will a graphical solution always match an algebraic solution?
Discuss your answer with a classmate and explain your thoughts.
4. Do you prefer an algebraic or a graphical method for solving a radical
equation like this one? Explain why.
Link the Ideas
You can solve many types of equations algebraically and graphically.

Algebraic solutions sometimes produce extraneous roots, whereas graphical
solutions do not produce extraneous roots. However, algebraic solutions are
generally exact while graphical solutions are often approximate. You can
solve equations, including radical equations, graphically by identifying the
x-intercepts of the graph of the corresponding function.
Example 1
Relate Roots and x-Intercepts
______
a) Determine the root(s) of √x + 5 - 3 = 0 algebraically.
b) Using ______
a graph, determine the x-intercept(s) of the graph of
y = √x + 5 - 3.
c) Describe the connection between the root(s) of the equation
and the x-intercept(s) of the graph of the function.
Solution
a) Identify any restrictions on the variable in the radical.
x+5≥0
x ≥ -5
To______
solve a radical equation algebraically, first isolate the radical.
√x + 5 - 3 = 0
______
√x + 5 = 3
______
( √x + 5 )2 = 32 Why do you need to square both sides?
x+5=9
Is this an extraneous root? Does it meet the
x=4 restrictions on the variable in the square root?
The value x = 4 is the root or solution to the equation.
b) To find the x-intercepts

______
of the
graph of y = √x + 5 - 3, graph the
function using technology
and determine the x-intercepts.
The function has a single
x-intercept at (4, 0).
c) The value x = 4 is the zero of the function because the value of the
function is 0 when x = 4. The roots to a radical equation are equal to
the x-intercepts of the graph of the corresponding radical function.
Your Turn
______
a) Use a graph to locate the x-intercept(s) of the graph of______
y = √x + 2 - 4.
b) Algebraically determine the root(s) of the equation √x + 2 - 4 = 0.
c) Describe the relationship between your findings in parts a) and b).
2.3 Solving Radical Equations Graphically • MHR 91

Example 2
Solve a Radical Equation Involving an Extraneous Solution
______
Solve the equation √x + 5 = x + 3 algebraically and graphically.
Solution
______
√x + 5
= x+3
______
( √x + 5 )2
= (x + 3)2
x+5= x2 + 6x + 9
0= x2 + 5x + 4
0= (x + 4)(x + 1)
x+4=0 or x + 1 = 0
x = -4 x = -1
Check:
Substitute x = -4 and x = -1 into the original equation to identify
any extraneous roots. Why do extraneous roots occur?
Left______
Side Right Side Left______
Side Right Side
√x + 5 x+3 √x + 5 x+3
_______ _______
-4 + 5
= √__ = -4 + 3 -1 + 5
= √__ = -1 + 3
= √1 = -1 = √4 =2
=1 =2
Left Side ≠ Right Side Left Side = Right Side
The solution is x = -1.
Solve the equation graphically using functions to represent the
two sides of the equation.
______
y1 = √x + 5
y2 = x + 3
y
4
(-1, 2)
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
The two functions intersect at the point (-1, 2). The value of x at this
point, x = -1, is the solution to the equation.
Your Turn
______
Solve the equation 4 - x = √6 - x graphically and algebraically.
Example 3
Approximate Solutions to Radical Equations
_______
a) Solve the equation √3x2 - 5 = x + 4 graphically. Express your
answer to the nearest tenth.
b) Verify your solution algebraically.
Solution
a) To determine the roots or solutions to an equation of the form
f(x) = g(x), identify the x-intercepts of the graph of the corresponding
function, y = f(x) - g(x).
Method 1: Use a Single Function

Rearrange the radical equation so that one side is equal to zero:
_______
√3x2 - 5 = x + 4
_______
√3x2 - 5 - x - 4 = 0
_______
Graph the corresponding function, y = √3x2 - 5 - x - 4, and
determine the x-intercepts of the graph.
The values of the x-intercepts of the graph are the same as the
solutions to the original equation. Therefore, the solution is
x ≈ -1.8 and x ≈ 5.8.
Method 2: Use a System of Two Functions

Express each side of the equation as a function:
_______
y1 = √3x2 - 5
y2 = x + 4
Graph these functions and determine the value of x at the point(s) of
intersection, i.e., where y1 = y2.
_______
The solution to the equation √3x2 - 5 = x + 4 is
x ≈ -1.8 and x ≈ 5.8.

b) Identify the values of x for which the radical is defined.
3x2 - 5 ≥ 0
3x2 ≥ 5
5
x2 ≥ _
3 __
5
|x| ≥ _√3
Case 1
__
If x ≥ 0, x ≥ √_53 .
Case 2
__
5.
If x < 0, x < - _ √ 3
Solve for x:
_______
√3x2 - 5 = x + 4
_______
( √3x2 - 5 )2 = (x + 4)2 Why do you need to square both sides?
3x2 - 5 = x2 + 8x + 16
2x2 - 8x - 21 = 0 _________________
Why does the quadratic
-(-8)
______ ± √(-8)2 - 4(2)(-21)
x= formula need to be
____ 2(2) used here?
8 ± √232
x = __
4 ___
8 ± 2 √58
__
x=
4 ___
4 ± √58
__
x=
___ 2 ___
4 + √58
__ 4 - √58
x= or x = __
2 2
x ≈ 5.8 x ≈ -1.8 Do these solutions meet the
restrictions on x? How can you
The algebraic method gives an exact determine whether either of the
solution. The approximate solution roots is extraneous?
obtained algebraically, x ≈ -1.8 and
x ≈ 5.8, is the same as the approximate
solution obtained graphically.
Your Turn
_________
Solve the equation x + 3 = √12 - 2x2 using two different methods.
Example 4
Solve a Problem Involving a Radical Equation
An engineer designs a roller D i d You K n ow?
coaster that involves a vertical drop
Top Thrill Dragster
section just below the top of the is a vertical
ride. She uses the equation
___________ drop-launched roller
v = √(v0)2 + 2ad to model the coaster in Cedar Point
amusement park, in
velocity, v, in feet per second, of Sandusky, Ohio. When
the ride’s cars after dropping a it opened in 2003, it
distance, d, in feet, with an initial set three new records
for roller coasters:
velocity, v0, in feet per second, at tallest, fastest top
the top of the drop, and constant speed, and steepest
acceleration, a, in feet per second drop. It stands almost
130 m tall, and on a
squared. The design specifies that
clear day riders at the
the speed of the ride’s cars be top can see Canada’s
120 ft/s at the bottom of the vertical Pelee Island across
drop section. If the initial velocity Lake Erie.
of the coaster at the top of the drop

is 10 ft/s and the only acceleration
is due to gravity, 32 ft/s², what
vertical drop distance should be
used, to the nearest foot?
Solution
Substitute the known values into the formula. Then, graph the functions We b Link
that correspond to both sides of the equation and determine the point
To see
ee a computer
comput
of intersection. animation of Top Thrill
___________
Dragster, go to www.
v = √(v0)2 + 2ad mcgrawhill.ca/school/
______________
(10)2 + 2(32)d
120 = √__________ What two functions do learningcentres and
you need to graph? follow the links.
120 = √100 + 64d
The intersection point indicates
that the drop distance should be
approximately 223 ft to result in a
velocity of 120 ft/s at the bottom of
the drop.
Your Turn
Determine the initial velocity required in a roller coaster design if
the velocity will be 26 m/s at the bottom of a vertical drop of 34 m.
(Acceleration due to gravity in SI units is 9.8 m/s2.)

Key Ideas
You can solve radical equations algebraically and graphically.

The solutions or roots of a radical equation are equivalent to the
x-intercepts of the graph of the corresponding radical function. You can use
either of the following methods to solve radical equations graphically:
Graph the corresponding function and identify the value(s) of the
x-intercept(s).
Graph the system of functions that corresponds to the expression on each
side of the equal sign, and then identify the value(s) of x at the point(s)
of intersection.
Practise 3. Determine the approximate solution to

1. Match each equation to the single function each equation graphically. Express your
that can be used to solve it graphically. For answers to three decimal places.
_______
all equations, x ≥ -4. a) √7x - 4 = 13
______ ________
a) 2 + √x + 4 = 4 b) 9 + √6 - 11x = 45
______ ______
b) x - 4 = √x + 4 c) √x2 + 2 - 5 = 0
______ _________
c) 2 = √x + 4 - 4 d) 45 - √10 - 2x2 = 25
______
d) √x + 4 + 2 = x +6 4. a) Solve the equation
______ _______ 5,
A y=x-4- √x + 4 2 √3x + 5 + 7 = 16, x ≥ - _
______ 3
B y = √x + 4 - 2 algebraically.
______
C y = √x + 4 - x - 4 b) Show how you can use the graph of the
______ _______
D y= √x + 4 -6 function y = 2 √3x + 5 - 9, x ≥ - _ 5,
3
2. a) Determine the root(s) of the
______ to find the solution to the equation in
equation √x + 7 - 4 = 0 algebraically. part a).
b) Determine the x-intercept(s)______
of the 5. Solve each equation graphically. Identify
graph of the function y = √x + 7 - 4 any restrictions on the variable.
graphically. _______
a) √2x - 9 = 11
c) Explain the connection between _______
b) 7 = √12 - x + 4
the root(s) of the equation and the ________
x-intercept(s) of the graph of the c) 5 + 2 √5x + 32 = 12
________
function. d) 5 = 13 - √25 - 2x
6. Solve each equation algebraically. What are 11. The period, T, in seconds, of a pendulum
the restrictions on the variables? depends on the distance, L, in metres,
_________
2
a) √5x + 11 = x + 5 between the pivot and the pendulum’s
_______ centre of mass. If the initial swing angle
b) x + 3 = √2x2 - 7
_________ is relatively small, the period__is given by
c) √13 - 4x2 = 2 - x L , where
_________
d) x + √-2x2 + 9 = 3
the radical function T = 2π _ g √
g represents acceleration due to gravity
7. Solve each equation algebraically and
(approximately 9.8 m/s² on Earth). Jeremy
graphically. Identify any restrictions on
is building a machine and needs it to have
the variables.
______ a pendulum that takes 1 s to swing from
a) √8 - x = x + 6 one side to the other. How long should the
______
b) 4 = x + 2 √x - 7 pendulum be, in centimetres?
_________
c) √3x2 - 11 = x + 1 12. Cables and ropes are made of several
_______
2
d) x = √2x - 8 + 2 strands that contain individual wires or
threads. The term “7 × 19 cable” refers
Apply to a cable with 7 strands, each containing
8. Determine, graphically, the approximate 19 wires.
value(s) of a in each formula if b = 6.2, Suppose
___
a manufacturer uses the function
c = 9.7, and d = -12.9. Express answers to b to relate the diameter, d, in
the nearest hundredth.
d= _ √30
_______ millimetres, of its 7 × 19 stainless steel
a) c = √ab - d
______ aircraft cable to the safe working load, b,
b) d + 7 √a + c = b in kilograms.
______
c) c = b - √a2 + d
_______
d) √2a2 + c + d = a - b
9. Naomi______
says that the equation
6 + √x + 4 = 2 has no solutions.
a) Show that Naomi is correct, using both
a graphical and an algebraic approach.
b) Is it possible to tell that this equation
a) Is a cable with a diameter of 6.4 mm
has no solutions just by examining the
large enough to support a mass of
equation? Explain.
1000 kg?
10. Two researchers, Greg and Yolanda, use the
_ b) What is the safe working load for a
function N(t) = 1.3 √t + 4.2 to model the
cable that is 10 mm in diameter?
number of people that might be affected
by a certain medical condition in a region D i d You K n ow ?
of 7.4 million people. In the function,
The safe working load for a cable or rope is related
N represents the number of people, in to its breaking strength, or minimum mass required
millions, affected after t years. Greg for it to break. To ensure safety, manufacturers rate
predicts that the entire population would a cable’s safe working load to be much less than its
actual breaking strength.
be affected after 6 years. Yolanda believes
that it would take only 1.5 years. Who is __
correct? Justify your answer. 13. Hazeem states that the equations √x2 = 9
__
and ( √x )2 = 9 have the same solution. Is
he correct? Justify your answer.

14. What real number is exactly one greater 17. Heron’s formula,
____________________
than its square root? A = √s(s - a)(s - b)(s - c) , relates
15. A parachute-manufacturing company uses the area, A, of a triangle to the lengths
___
m to model the of the three sides, a, b, and c, and its
the formula d = 3.69 _ √
v2 semi-perimeter (half its perimeter),
diameter, d, in metres, of its dome-shaped a+b+c
s = __ . A triangle has an area of
circular parachutes so that an object with 2
mass, m, in kilograms, has a descent 900 cm2 and one side that measures 60 cm.
velocity, v, in metres per second, under the The other two side lengths are unknown,
parachute. but one is twice the length of the other.
What are the lengths of the three sides of
a) What is the landing velocity for a 20-kg
the triangle?
object using a parachute that is 3.2 m in
diameter? Express your answer to the Create Connections
nearest metre per second.
C1 How can the graph of a function be used
b) A velocity of 2 m/s is considered
to find the solutions to an equation? Create
safe for a parachutist to land. If the
an example to support your answer.
parachute has a diameter of 16 m,
what is the maximum mass of the C2 The speed, in metres per second, of a
parachutist, in kilograms? tsunami travelling across the ocean is
equal to the square root of the product of
the depth of the water, in metres, and the
acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 m/s2.
a) Write a function for the speed of a
tsunami. Define the variables you used.
b) Calculate the speed of a wave at a depth
of 2500 m, and use unit analysis to
show that the resulting speed has the
correct units.
c) What depth of water would produce a
speed of 200 m/s? Solve graphically and
algebraically.
d) Which method of solving do you prefer
in this case: algebraic or graphical? Do
you always prefer one method over the
other, or does it depend? Explain.
C3 Does every radical equation have at least
one solution? How can using a graphical
approach to solving equations help you
Extend __________ answer this question? Support your answer
16. If the function y = √-3(x + c) + c passes with at least two examples.
through the point (-1, 1), what is the value C4 Describe two methods of identifying
of c? Confirm your answer graphically, and extraneous roots in a solution to a radical
use the graph to create a similar question equation. Explain why extraneous roots
for the same function. may occur.
Chapter 2 Review
2.1 Radical Functions and Transformations, 6. The sales, S, in units, of a new product can
pages 62—77 be modelled as a function of the time, t, in
days, since it first appears in stores
_
using
1. Graph each function. Identify the domain
the function S(t) = 500 + 100 √t .
and range, and explain how they connect
to the values in a table of values and the a) Describe how to graph the function
_
by
shape of the graph. transforming the graph of y = √t .
__ b) Graph the function and explain what
a) y = √x
______ the shape of the graph indicates about
b) y = √3 - x
_______ the situation.
c) y = √2x + 7
c) What are the domain and range? What
2. What transformations can you apply do they mean in this situation?
__
to y = √x to obtain the graph of each
d) Predict the number of items sold after
function? State the domain and range
60 days.
in each case.
_______ 7. Write an equation of the form
a) y = 5 √x + 20 ________
_____ y = a √b(x - h) + k for each graph.
b) y = √-2x - 8
__________ a) y
1
√6
c) y = - _ (x - 11) 4
3. Write the equation and state the domain 2

and range of the radical function that
results from each set of transformations -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x
__
on the graph of y = √x .
a) a horizontal stretch by a factor of 10 b) y
and a vertical translation of 12 units up 4
b) a vertical stretch by a factor of 2.5, a
2
reflection in the x-axis, and a horizontal
translation of 9 units left
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
5
c) a horizontal stretch by a factor of _ , -2
2
a vertical stretch by a factor of _1 ,a
-4
20
reflection in the y-axis, and a translation
of 7 units right and 3 units down c) y
4. Sketch the graph of each function by 8
__
transforming the graph of y = √x . State
6
the domain and range of each.
______
a) y = - √x - 1 +2 4
___
b) y = 3 √-x - 4 2
________
c) y = √2(x + 3) + 1
5. How can you use transformations to -2 0 2 4 6 x
identify the domain and range of the -2
________
function y = -2 √3(x - 4) + 9?
-4

2.2 Square Root of a Function, pages 78—89 12. Using each graph of y = f(x), sketch the
____
8. Identify the domains and ranges of graph of y = √f(x) .
the functions in each pair and explain a) y
any differences. y = f(x)
4
______
a) y = x - 2 and y = √x - 2
_______ 2
b) y = 10 - x and y = √10 - x
________
c) y = 4x + 11 and y = √4x + 11 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
9. The graph of y = f(x) is shown. -2
y -4
16
12 b) y
y = f(x) 4
8
2
4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-8 -4 0 4 8 12x
-2
-4
____
a) Graph the function y = √f(x) and
describe your strategy. c) y
b) Explain how the graphs are related. 4
c) Identify the domain and range of each
y = f(x) 2
function and explain any differences.
10. Identify and compare the domains and -4 -2 0 2 4 x
ranges of the functions in each pair, and
-2
explain why they differ.
______
a) y = 4 - x2 and y = √4 - x2 -4
_________
b) y = 2x2 + 24 and y = √2x2 + 24
_______
c) y = x2 - 6x and y = √x2 - 6x
2.3 Solving Radical Equations Graphically,
11. A 25-ft-long ladder leans against a wall.
The height, h, in feet, of the top of the pages 90—98
ladder above the ground is related to 13. a) Determine the root(s) of the
______
its distance, d, in feet, from the base of equation √x + 3 - 7 = 0 algebraically.
the wall. b) Use a graph to locate the______
x-intercept(s)
a) Write an equation to represent h as a of the function f(x) = √x + 3 - 7.
function of d. c) Use your answers to describe the
b) Graph the function and identify the connection between the x-intercepts of
domain and range. the graph of a function and the roots of
c) Explain how the shape of the graph, the corresponding equation.
the domain, and the range relate to the
situation.

14. Determine the approximate solution to 17. Atid, Carly, and Jaime use different
each equation graphically. Express answers methods to solve the radical equation
______
to three decimal places. 3 + √x - 1 = x.
_______
a) √7x - 9 - 4 = 0 Their solutions are as follows:
________
b) 50 = 12 + √8 - 12x • Atid: x = 2
_______ • Carly: x = 5
c) √2x2 + 5 = 11
• Jaime: x = 2, 5
15. The speed, s, in metres per second, of
a) Who used an algebraic approach?
water flowing out of a hole near the bottom
Justify your answer.
of a tank relates to the height, h, in metres,
of the____
water above the hole by the formula b) Who used a graphical method? How
s = √2gh . In the formula, g represents do you know?
the acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 m/s2. c) Who made an error in solving the
At what height is the water flowing out a equation? Justify your answer.
speed of 9 m/s? 18. Assume that the shape of a tipi
approximates a cone. The surface area,
S, in square metres, of the walls of a
tipi can be _______
modelled by the function
h
S(r) = πr √36 + r 2 , where r represents
the radius of the base, in metres.
D id Yo u K n ow ?
The speed of fluid flowing out of a hole near the

bottom of a tank filled to a depth, h, is the same as
the speed an object acquires in falling freely from
the height h. This relationship was discovered by
Italian scientist Evangelista Torricelli in 1643 and is
referred to as Torricelli’s law.
16. Solve each equation graphically and

algebraically.
________ Blackfoot Crossing, Alberta
a) √5x + 14 = 9
______ a) If a tipi has a radius of 5.2 m, what
b) 7 + √8 - x = 12
________ is the minimum area of canvas
c) 23 - 4 √2x - 10 = 12 required for the walls, to the nearest
_________
d) x + 3 = √18 - 2x2 square metre?
b) If you use 160 m2 of canvas to make
the walls for this tipi, what radius will
you use?

Multiple Choice 6. How do the domains and ranges compare
___
__
for the functions y = √ x and y = √5x + 8?
For #1 to #6, choose the best answer.
A Only the domains differ.
1. If f(x) = ____
x + 1, which point is on the graph
B Only the ranges differ.
of y = √f(x) ?
C Both the domains and ranges differ.
A (0, 0) B (0, 1)
D Neither the domains nor the ranges
C (1, 0) D (1, 1) differ.
2. Which intercepts will help you find the
_______
roots of the equation √2x - 5 = 4? Short Answer
A x-intercepts of the graph of the function ________
_______ 7. Solve the equation 5 + √9 - 13x = 20
y= √2x -5-4
graphically. Express your answer to the
B x-intercepts
_______
of the graph of the function nearest hundredth.
y= √2x -5+4
8. Determine two forms of the equation
C y-intercepts
_______
of the graph of the function that represents the function shown in
y= √2x -5-4 the graph.
D y-intercepts
_______
of the graph of the function y
y= √2x -5+4
12
3. Which function has a domain of
{x | x ≥ 5, x ∈ R} and a range of 10
{y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}? 8
______
A f(x) = √x - 5
__ 6
B f(x) = √x-5
______ 4
C f(x) = √x + 5
__
D f(x) = √x+5 2
__
4. If y =√x is stretched horizontally by a
factor of 6, which function results? 0 2 4 6 8 10x

1 __
A y = _ √x
6 __
9. How are the domains and ranges of the
B y = 6 √x ______
___ functions y = 7 - x and y = √7 - x
1
C y = _x √
6
___
related? Explain why they differ.
D y = 6x√ 10. If f(x) = 8 - 2x2, what are the domains
____
5. Which equation represents the function and ranges of y = f(x) and y = √f(x) ?
_________
shown in the graph? 11. Solve the equation √12 - 3x2 = x + 2
y using two different graphical methods.
Show your graphs.
-6 -4 -2 0 2x ______
12. Solve the equation 4 + √x + 1 = x
-2
graphically and algebraically. Express
your answer to the nearest tenth.
__ __
A y - 2 = - √x B y + 2 = - √x
___ ___
C y-2= √ -x D y+2= √ -x

_____
13. The radical function S = √255d can be 16. Consider the roof of the mosque at the
used to estimate the speed, S, in kilometres Canadian Islamic Centre in Edmonton,
per hour, of a vehicle before it brakes from Alberta. The diameter of the base of the
the length, d, in metres, of the skid mark. roof is approximately 10 m, and the
The vehicle has all four wheels braking vertical distance from the centre of the
and skids to a complete stop on a dry road. roof to the base is approximately 5 m.
a) Use the language of transformations to
describe how to create a graph of this
function from a graph of the base square
root function.
b) Sketch the graph of the function and
use it to determine the approximate
length of skid mark expected from
a vehicle travelling at 100 km/h on
this road.
Extended Response
14. a) How can you use transformations
___
to
graph the function y = - √2x + 3?
Canadian Islamic Centre (Al-Rashid),
b) Sketch the graph.
Edmonton, Alberta
c) Identify the domain and range of the
a) Determine a function of the form
function. ________
y = a √b(x - h) + k, where y
d) Describe how the domain and range
represents the distance from the
connect to your answer to part a). base to the roof and x represents the
e) How can the graph
___
be used to solve the horizontal distance from the centre.
equation 5 + √2x = 8? b) What are the domain and range of
15. Using the graph of ____
y = f(x), sketch this function? How do they relate to
the graph of y = √f(x) and explain the situation?
your strategy. c) Use the function you wrote in part
y a) to determine, graphically, the
6 approximate height of the roof at
y = f(x)
a point 2 m horizontally from the
4 centre of the roof.
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
-2
-4

CHAPTER
3 Polynomial
Functions
Polynomial functions can be used to model
different real-world applications, from
business profit and demand to construction
and fabrication design. Many calculators use
polynomial approximations to compute function
key calculations. For example, the first four
terms of the Taylor polynomial approximation
for the square root function are
__ 1 1 1
√x ≈ 1 + _ (x - 1) - _ (x - 1)2 + _ (x - 1)3.
2 8 16
___
Try calculating √1.2 using this expression. How
close is your answer to the one the square root
key on a calculator gives you?
In this chapter, you will study polynomial

functions and use them to solve a variety
of problems.
Did Yo u Know ?
A Taylor polynomial is a partial

sum of the Taylor series. Developed by
British mathematician Brook Taylor
(1685—1731), the Taylor series
representation of a function has an
infinite number of terms. The more terms
included in the Taylor polynomial
computation, the more accurate
the answer.
Key Terms
polynomial function factor theorem
end behaviour integral zero theorem
synthetic division multiplicity (of a zero)
remainder theorem

3.1
Characteristics of
Polynomial Functions
Focus on . . .
• identifying polynomial functions
• analysing polynomial functions
A cross-section of a honeycomb
has a pattern with one hexagon surrounded
by six more hexagons. Surrounding these is
a third ring of 12 hexagons, and so on. The
quadratic function f (r) models the total
number of hexagons in a honeycomb, where r D i d You K n ow ?
is the number of rings. Then, you can use the
Falher, Alberta is known as the
graph of the function to solve questions about “Honey Capital of Canada.” The
the honeycomb pattern. Falher Honey Festival is an
annual event that celebrates
A quadratic function that models this pattern beekeeping and francophone
will be discussed later in this section. history in the region.
Investigate Graphs of Polynomial Functions
Materials 1. Graph each set of functions on a different set of coordinate axes

• graphing calculator using graphing technology. Sketch the results.
or computer with Type of
graphing software
Function Set A Set B Set C Set D
linear y=x y = -3x y=x+1
quadratic y = x2 y = -2x2 y = x2 - 3 y = x2 - x - 2
cubic y = x3 y = -4x 3 y = x3 - 4 y = x 3 + 4x2 + x - 6
quartic y = x4 y = -2x 4 y = x4 + 2 y = x 4 + 2x 3 - 7x2 - 8x + 12
quintic y = x5 y = -x5 y = x5 - 1 y = x5 + 3x 4 - 5x 3 - 15x2 + 4x + 12
2. Compare the graphs within each set from step 1. Describe their
similarities and differences in terms of
end behaviour • end behaviour
• the behaviour of the • degree of the function in one variable, x Recall that the degree
y-values of a function • constant term of a polynomial is the
as |x| becomes very greatest exponent of x.
• leading coefficient
large
• number of x-intercepts

3. Compare the sets of graphs from step 1 to each other. Describe their
similarities and differences as in step 2.
4. Consider the cubic, quartic, and quintic graphs from step 1. Which
graphs are similar to the graph of
• y = x?
• y = -x?
• y = x2?
• y = -x2?
Explain how they are similar.
Reflect and Respond

5. a) How are the graphs and equations of linear, cubic, and quintic
functions similar?
b) How are the graphs and equations of quadratic and quartic
functions similar?
c) Describe the relationship between the end behaviours of the
graphs and the degree of the corresponding function.
6. What is the relationship between the sign of the leading coefficient
of a function equation and the end behaviour of the graph of
the function?
7. What is the relationship between the constant term in a function
equation and the position of the graph of the function?
8. What is the relationship between the minimum and maximum
numbers of x-intercepts of the graph of a function with the degree
of the function?
Link the Ideas
The degree of a polynomial function in one variable, x, is n, the polynomial

exponent of the greatest power of the variable x. The coefficient of function
the greatest power of x is the leading coefficient, an, and the term • a function of the form
whose value is not affected by the variable is the constant term, a0. f (x) = anxn + an - 1xn - 1
+ an - 2xn - 2 + … + a2x2
What power of x is + a1x + a 0, where
In this chapter, the coefficients an to a1 and the
associated with a0? n is a whole number
constant a0 are restricted to integral values.
x is a variable
the coefficients a to
n
a 0 are real numbers
• examples are
f (x) = 2x - 1,
f (x) = x2 + x - 6, and
y = x3 + 2x2 - 5x - 6
3.1 Characteristics of Polynomial Functions • MHR 107

Example 1
Identify Polynomial Functions
Which functions are polynomials? Justify your answer. State the
degree, the leading coefficient, and the constant term of each
polynomial function.
__
a) g(x) = √x + 5
b) f(x) = 3x 4
c) y = |x|
d) y = 2x3 + 3x2 - 4x - 1
Solution
__
a) The function g(x) = x + 5 is a radical function, not a
√
__ 1
_
√x is the same as x 2 , which has an exponent that is not a whole
number.
b) The function f(x) = 3x 4 is a polynomial function of degree 4.

The leading coefficient is 3 and the constant term is 0.
c) The function y = |x| is an absolute value function, not a

|x| cannot be written directly as xn.
d) y = 2x3 + 3x2 - 4x - 1 is a polynomial of degree 3.

The leading coefficient is 2 and the constant term is -1.
Your Turn
Identify whether each function is a polynomial function. Justify your
answer. State the degree, the leading coefficient, and the constant
term of each polynomial function.
1
a) h(x) = _
x
b) y = 3x2 - 2x5 + 4
c) y = -4x 4 - 4x + 3
1
_
d) y = x 2 - 7
Characteristics of Polynomial Functions

Polynomial functions and their graphs can be analysed by identifying
the degree, end behaviour, domain and range, and the number of
x-intercepts.

The chart shows the characteristics of How would the characteristics of polynomial
polynomial functions with positive leading functions change if the leading coefficient
were negative?
coefficients up to degree 5.
Degree 0: Constant Function Degree 1: Linear Function Degree 2: Quadratic Function

Even degree Odd degree Even degree
Number of x-intercepts: 0 (for f(x) ≠ 0) Number of x-intercepts: 1 Number of x-intercepts: 0, 1, or 2
f(x) f(x) f(x)
6 4 4
f(x) = 2x + 1
4 f(x) = 3 2 2
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2 -2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x f(x) = 2x2 - 3
-2 -4 -4
Example: f(x) = 3 Example: f(x) = 2x + 1 Example: f(x) = 2x2 - 3

End behaviour: extends horizontally End behaviour: line extends down into End behaviour: curve extends up into
Domain: {x | x ∈ R} quadrant III and up into quadrant I quadrant II and up into quadrant I
Range: {3} Domain: {x | x ∈ R} Domain: {x | x ∈ R}
Number of x-intercepts: 0 Range: {y | y ∈ R} Range: {y | y ≥ -2, y ∈ R}
Number of x-intercepts: 1 Number of x-intercepts: 2
Degree 3: Cubic Function Degree 4: Quartic Function Degree 5: Quintic Function
Odd degree Even degree Odd degree
Number of x-intercepts: 1, 2, or 3 Number of x-intercepts: 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 Number of x-intercepts: 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5
f(x) f(x) f(x)
6 6 f(x) = x5 + 3x4 - 5x3 - 15x2 + 4x + 12

16
4 4
12
2 2
8
-4 -2 0 2 4 x -4 -2 0 2 4 x
4
-2 -2
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-4 -4
f(x) = x3 + 2x2 - x - 2 -4
-6 -6
-8
-8 -8
f(x) = x4 + 5x3 + 5x2 - 5x - 6 -12
Example: Example: Example:

f(x) = x 3 + 2x2 - x - 2 f(x) = x4 + 5x 3 + 5x2 - 5x - 6 f(x) = x5 + 3x4 - 5x3 - 15x2 + 4x + 12
End behaviour: curve extends down into End behaviour: curve extends up into End behaviour: curve extends down into
quadrant III and up into quadrant I quadrant II and up into quadrant I quadrant III and up into quadrant I
Domain: {x | x ∈ R} Domain: {x | x ∈ R} Domain: {x | x ∈ R}
Range: {y | y ∈ R} Range: {y | y ≥ -6.91, y ∈ R} Range: {y | y ∈ R}
Number of x-intercepts: 3 Number of x-intercepts: 4 Number of x-intercepts: 5

Example 2
Match a Polynomial Function With Its Graph
Identify the following characteristics of the graph of each
polynomial function:
• the type of function and whether it is of even or odd degree
• the end behaviour of the graph of the function
• the number of possible x-intercepts
• whether the graph will have a maximum or minimum value
• the y-intercept
Then, match each function to its corresponding graph.
a) g(x) = -x 4 + 10x2 + 5x - 4
b) f(x) = x3 + x2 - 5x + 3
c) p(x) = -2x5 + 5x3 - x
d) h(x) = x 4 + 4x3 - x2 - 16x - 12
A B
C D
Solution
a) The function g(x) = -x 4 + 10x2 + 5x - 4 is a quartic (degree 4),
which is an even-degree polynomial function. Its graph has a
maximum of four x-intercepts. Since the leading coefficient is
negative, the graph of the function opens downward, extending down
into quadrant III and down into quadrant IV (similar to y = -x2), and
has a maximum value. The graph has a y-intercept of a0 = -4. This
function corresponds to graph D.

b) The function f(x) = x3 + x2 - 5x + 3 is a cubic (degree 3), which is an
odd-degree polynomial function. Its graph has at least one x-intercept
and at most three x-intercepts. Since the leading coefficient is positive,
the graph of the function extends down into quadrant III and up into
quadrant I (similar to the line y = x). The graph has no maximum or
minimum values. The graph has a y-intercept of a0 = 3. This function
corresponds to graph A.
c) The function p(x) = -2x5 + 5x3 - x is a quintic (degree 5), which is an

odd-degree polynomial function. Its graph has at least one x-intercept
and at most five x-intercepts. Since the leading coefficient is negative,
the graph of the function extends up into quadrant II and down into
quadrant IV (similar to the line y = -x). The graph has no maximum or
minimum values. The graph has a y-intercept of a0 = 0. This function
corresponds to graph C.
d) The function h(x) = x 4 + 4x3 - x2 - 16x - 12 is a quartic (degree 4),

which is an even-degree polynomial function. Its graph has a maximum
of four x-intercepts. Since the leading coefficient is positive, the graph
of the function opens upward, extending up into quadrant II and up into
quadrant I (similar to y = x2), and has a minimum value. The graph has
a y-intercept of a0 = -12. This function corresponds to graph B.
Your Turn
a) Describe the end behaviour of the graph of the function
f(x) = -x3 - 3x2 + 2x + 1. State the possible number of
x-intercepts, the y-intercept, and whether the graph has a
maximum or minimum value.
b) Which of the following is the graph of the function?
A B
C D

Example 3
Application of a Polynomial Function
A bank vault is built in the shape of a rectangular prism. Its volume, V, is
related to the width, w, in metres, of the vault doorway by the function
V(w) = w 3 + 13w 2 + 54w + 72.
a) What is the volume, in cubic metres, of the vault if the door is 1 m wide?
b) What is the least volume of the vault? What is the width of the door
for this volume? Why is this situation not realistic?
Solution
a) Method 1: Graph the Polynomial Function
Use a graphing calculator or computer with graphing software
to graph the polynomial function. Then, use the trace feature to
determine the value of V that corresponds to w = 1.
The volume of the vault is 140 m3.

Method 2: Substitute Into the Polynomial Function
Substitute w = 1 into the function and evaluate the result.
V(w) = w 3 + 13w 2 + 54w + 72
V(1) = 13 + 13(1)2 + 54(1) + 72
V(1) = 1 + 13 + 54 + 72
V(1) = 140
The volume of the vault is 140 m3.
b) The least volume occurs when the width of the door What is the domain
is 0 m. This is the y-intercept of the graph of the of the function in
this situation?
function and is the constant term of the function, 72.
The least volume of the vault is 72 m3. This situation
is not realistic because the vault would not have a door.
Your Turn
A toaster oven is built in the shape of a rectangular prism. Its volume, V,
in cubic inches, is related to the height, h, in inches, of the oven door by
the function V(h) = h3 + 10h2 + 31h + 30.
a) What is the volume, in cubic inches, of the toaster oven if the oven
door height is 8 in.?
b) What is the height of the oven door for the least toaster oven volume?
Explain.

Key Ideas
A polynomial function has the form f(x) = anxn + an - 1xn - 1 + an - 2xn - 2 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0,
where an is the leading coefficient; a0 is the constant; and the degree of the polynomial, n,
is the exponent of the greatest power of the variable, x.
Graphs of odd-degree polynomial functions have the following characteristics:
a graph that extends down into a graph that extends up into quadrant
quadrant III and up into quadrant I II and down into quadrant IV (similar
(similar to the graph of y = x) when to the graph of y = -x) when the
the leading coefficient is positive leading coefficient is negative
y y
4 4
y = x3 + 2x2 - x - 2
y=x y = -x
2 2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2 -2
-4 -4
y = -x3 + 2x2 + 4x - 3
a y-intercept that corresponds to the constant term of the function
at least one x-intercept and up to a maximum of n x-intercepts,
where n is the degree of the function
a domain of {x | x ∈ R} and a range of {y | y ∈ R}
no maximum or minimum points
Graphs of even-degree polynomial functions have the following characteristics:
a graph that extends up into quadrant a graph that extends down into
II and up into quadrant I (similar to quadrant III and down into quadrant IV
the graph of y = x2) when the leading (similar to the graph of y = -x2) when
coefficient is positive the leading coefficient is negative
y y
4 4
y = x2 y = -x4 + 6x2 + x - 5
2 2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2 -2
-4 -4
-6 -6
y = -x2
-8 -8
y = x + 5x3 + 5x2 - 5x - 6
4
a y-intercept that corresponds to the constant term of the function

from zero to a maximum of n x-intercepts, where n is the degree of the function
a domain of {x | x ∈ R} and a range that depends on the maximum or
minimum value of the function

Practise b)
1. Identify whether each of the following is a
polynomial function. Justify your answers.
__
a) h(x) = 2 - √ x
b) y = 3x + 1
c) f(x) = 3x
d) g(x) = 3x 4 - 7
e) p(x) = x-3 + x2 + 3x
c)
f) y = -4x3 + 2x + 5
2. What are the degree, type, leading
coefficient, and constant term of each
polynomial function?
a) f(x) = -x + 3
b) y = 9x2
c) g(x) = 3x 4 + 3x2 - 2x + 1
d) k(x) = 4 - 3x3 d)
e) y = -2x5 - 2x3 + 9
f) h(x) = -6
3. For each of the following:
• determine whether the graph represents
an odd-degree or an even-degree
polynomial function
• determine whether the leading
coefficient of the corresponding function 4. Use the degree and the sign of the leading
is positive or negative coefficient of each function to describe the
• state the number of x-intercepts end behaviour of the corresponding graph.
• state the domain and range State the possible number of x-intercepts
and the value of the y-intercept.
a)
a) f(x) = x2 + 3x - 1
b) g(x) = -4x3 + 2x2 - x + 5
c) h(x) = -7x 4 + 2x3 - 3x2 + 6x + 4
d) q(x) = x5 - 3x2 + 9x
e) p(x) = 4 - 2x
f) v(x) = -x3 + 2x 4 - 4x2

Apply 7. A medical researcher establishes that
5. Jake claims that all graphs of polynomial a patient’s reaction time, r, in minutes,
functions of the form y = axn + x + b, to a dose of a particular drug is
where a, b, and n are even integers, r(d) = -3d3 + 3d2, where d is the amount
extend from quadrant II to quadrant I. Do of the drug, in millilitres, that is absorbed
you agree? Use examples to explain your into the patient’s blood.
answer. a) What type of polynomial function
6. A snowboard manufacturer determines that is r(d)?
its profit, P, in dollars, can be modelled b) What are the leading coefficient and
by the function P(x) = 1000x + x 4 - 3000, constant of this function?
where x represents the number, in c) Make a sketch of what you think the
hundreds, of snowboards sold. function will look like. Then, graph the
a) What is the degree of the function P(x)? function using technology. How does it
b) What are the leading coefficient and compare to your sketch?
constant of this function? What does the d) What are the restrictions on the domain
constant represent? of this function? Explain why you
c) Describe the end behaviour of the graph selected those restrictions.
of this function. 8. Refer to the honeycomb example at the
d) What are the restrictions on the domain beginning of this section (page 106).
of this function? Explain why you a) Show that the polynomial function
selected those restrictions. f(r) = 3r 2 - 3r + 1 gives the correct
e) What do the x-intercepts of the graph total number of hexagons when
represent for this situation? r = 1, 2, and 3.
f) What is the profit from the sale of b) Determine the total number of hexagons
1500 snowboards? in a honeycomb with 12 rings.
D i d You K n ow ?
Approximately 80% of Canadian honey production

is concentrated in the three prairie provinces of
Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba.

9. Populations in rural communities have b) Repeat part a) for each pair of
declined in Western Canada, while odd-degree functions.
populations in larger urban centres • y = (-x)3 and y = x3
have increased. This is partly due • y = (-x)5 and y = x5
to expanding agricultural operations • y = (-x)7 and y = x7
and fewer traditional family farms. A
c) Describe what you have learned about
demographer uses a polynomial function
functions of the form y = (-x)n, where
to predict the population, P, of a town
n is a whole number. Support your
t years from now. The function is
answer with examples.
P(t) = t4 - 20t3 - 20t2 + 1500t + 15 000.
Assume this model can be used for the 12. a) Describe the relationship between the
next 20 years. graphs of y = x2 and y = 3(x - 4)2 + 2.
a) What are the key features of the graph b) Predict the relationship between the
of this function? graphs of y = x 4 and y = 3(x - 4)4 + 2.
b) What is the current population of this c) Verify the accuracy of your prediction
town? in part b) by graphing using technology.
c) What will the population of the town be 13. If a polynomial equation of degree n
10 years from now? has exactly one real root, what can
you conclude about the form of the
d) When will the population of the town
corresponding polynomial function?
be approximately 24 000?
Explain.
D id Yo u Know ?
Create Connections
A demographer uses statistics to study human
populations. Demographers study the size, structure, C1 Prepare a brief summary of the relationship
and distribution of populations in response to birth, between the degree of a polynomial
migration, aging, and death. function and the following features of the
corresponding graph:
• the number of x-intercepts
Extend • the maximum or minimum point
10. The volume, V, in cubic centimetres, of • the domain and range
a collection of open-topped boxes can be C2 a) State a possible equation for a
modelled by V(x) = 4x3 - 220x2 + 2800x, polynomial function whose graph
where x is the height, in centimetres, of extends
each box. i) from quadrant III to quadrant I
a) Use technology to graph V(x). State the
ii) from quadrant II to quadrant I
restrictions.
iii) from quadrant II to quadrant IV
b) Fully factor V(x). State the relationship
iv) from quadrant III to quadrant IV
between the factored form of the
equation and the graph. b) Compare your answers to those of a
classmate. Discuss what is similar and
11. a) Graph each pair of even-degree
different between your answers.
functions. What do you notice? Provide
an algebraic explanation for what C3 Describe to another student the similarities
you observe. and differences between the line y = x
• y = (-x)2 and y = x2 and polynomial functions with odd degree
• y = (-x)4 and y = x 4 greater than one. Use graphs to support
• y = (-x)6 and y = x6 your answer.

C4 MINI LAB End
Step 1 Graph each of the functions using Function Degree Behaviour
technology. Copy and complete the y=x+2

table. y = -3x + 1
Step 2 For two functions with the same y = x2 - 4
degree, how does the sign of the y = -2x2 - 2x + 4
leading coefficient affect the end y = x 3 - 4x
behaviour of the graph?
y = -x 3 + 3x - 2
Step 3 How do the end behaviours of y = 2x 3 + 16
even-degree functions compare?
y = -x 3 - 4x
Step 4 How do the end behaviours of
y = x 4 - 4x2 + 5
odd-degree functions compare?
y = -x 4 + x 3 + 4x2 - 4x
y = x 4 + 2x2 + 1
y = x5 - 2x 4 - 3x 3 + 5x2 + 4x - 1
y = x5 - 1
y = -x5 + x 4 + 8x3 + 8x2 - 16x - 16
y = x(x + 1)2(x + 4)2
Project Corner Polynomials Abound
• Each image shows a portion of an object that can be

modelled by a polynomial function. Describe the
polynomial function that models each object.

3.2
The Remainder
Theorem
Focus on . . .
• describing the relationship between polynomial long division
and synthetic division
• dividing polynomials by binomials of the form x - a using long division or
synthetic division
D i d You K n ow ?
• explaining the relationship between the remainder when a polynomial is
divided by a binomial of the form x - a and the value of the polynomial at x = In Haida Gwaii, off
a the northwest coast
of British Columbia,
legends such as
Nested boxes or pots are featured in the teaching stories of “Raven Steals the
many nations in many lands. A manufacturer of gift boxes Light” are used to
teach mathematical
receives an order for different-sized boxes that can be nested problem solving. This
within each other. The box heights range from 6 cm to 16 legend is about the
cm. Based on cost calculations, the volume, V, in cubic trickster Raven who
steals the light from
centimetres, of each box can be modelled by the polynomial three nested boxes
V(x) = x3 + 7x2 + 14x + 8, where x is a positive integer such to create the sun and
that 5 ≤ x ≤ 15. The height, h, of each box, in centimetres, stars. It is used to
help students learn
is a linear function of x such that h(x) = x + 1. How can
about surface area,
the box manufacturer use this information to determine the perimeter, and volume.
dimensions of the boxes in terms of polynomials?
Investigate Polynomial Division
A: Polynomial Long Division

1. Examine the two long-division statements.
a) 27 b) x+4
12
327 x2
x + 3
+
7x
17
+
24 x2 + 3x
87 4x + 17
84 4x + 12
3 5
For statements a) and b), identify the value or expression
that corresponds to
• the divisor
• the dividend
• the quotient
• the remainder

Reflect and Respond
2. a) Describe the long-division process used to divide the numbers in D i d You K n ow?
part a) of step 1.
The ancient Greeks
b) Describe the long-division process used to divide the polynomial called the practical
by the binomial in part b) of step 1. use of computing
(adding, subtracting,
c) What similarities and differences do you observe in the two multiplying, and
processes? dividing numbers)
logistic. They
3. Describe how you would check that the result of each long-division considered arithmetic
statement is correct. to be the study of
abstract relationships
connecting numbers—
what we call number
B: Determine a Remainder
theory today.
4. Copy the table. Identify the value of a in each binomial divisor of
the form x - a. Then, substitute the value x = a into the polynomial
dividend and evaluate the result. Record these values in the last
column of the table.
Result of
Binomial Substituting
Polynomial Divisor Value x = a Into the
Dividend x-a of a Quotient Remainder Polynomial
x-3 x2 + 5x + 10 24
x-2 x + 4x + 3
2
0
x + 2x - 5x - 6
3 2
x-1 x + 3x - 2
2
-8
x+1 x +x-6
2
0
x+2 x2 - 5 4
5. Compare the values of each remainder from the long division to the
value from substituting x = a into the dividend. What do you notice?
Reflect and Respond

6. Make a conjecture about how to determine a remainder without
using division.
7. a) Use your conjecture to predict the remainder when the
polynomial 2x3 - 4x2 + 3x - 6 is divided by each binomial.
i) x + 1
ii) x + 3
iii) x - 2
b) Verify your predictions using long division.
8. Describe the relationship between the remainder when a polynomial
in x, P(x), is divided by a binomial x - a, and the value of P(a).
3.2 The Remainder Theorem • MHR 119

Link the Ideas
You can divide polynomials by other polynomials using the same long
division process that you use to divide numbers.
The result of the division of a polynomial in x, P(x), by a binomial

P(x) R
of the form x - a, a ∈ I, is _ _
x - a = Q(x) + x - a , where Q(x) is the
quotient and R is the remainder.
Check the division of a polynomial by multiplying the quotient, Q(x),

by the binomial divisor, x - a, and adding the remainder, R. The result
should be equivalent to the polynomial dividend, P(x):
P(x) = (x - a)Q(x) + R
Example 1
Divide a Polynomial by a Binomial of the Form x - a
a) Divide the polynomial P(x) = 5x3 + 10x - 13x2 - 9 by x - 2. Express
P(x) R
the result in the form _ _
x - a = Q(x) + x - a .
b) Identify any restrictions on the variable.
c) Write the corresponding statement that can be used to check the division.
d) Verify your answer.
Solution
a) Write the polynomial in order of descending powers:
5x3 - 13x2 + 10x - 9
5x2 - 3x + 4 Divide 5x 3 by x to get 5x2.
5x3 - 13x2 + 10x - 9
x - 2
Multiply x - 2 by 5x2 to get 5x 3 - 10x2.
Subtract. Bring down the next term, 10x.
5x3 - 10x2
Then, divide -3x2 by x to get -3x.
-3x2 + 10x
Multiply x - 2 by -3x to get -3x2 + 6x.
-3x2 + 6x Subtract. Bring down the next term, -9.
4x - 9 Then, divide 4x by x to get 4.
4x - 8 Multiply x - 2 by 4 to get 4x - 8.
-1 Subtract. The remainder is -1.
3 2
5x + 10x - 13x - 9 -1
____
x-2 (
= 5x2 - 3x + 4 + __
x-2 )
b) Since division by zero is not defined, the divisor cannot be zero:
x - 2 ≠ 0 or x ≠ 2.
c) The corresponding statement that can be used to check the division is

5x3 + 10x - 13x2 - 9 = (x - 2)(5x2 - 3x + 4) - 1.
d) To check, multiply the divisor by the quotient and add the remainder.
(x - 2)(5x2 - 3x + 4) - 1 = 5x3 - 3x2 + 4x - 10x2 + 6x - 8 - 1
= 5x3 - 13x2 + 10x - 9
= 5x3 + 10x - 13x2 - 9

Your Turn
a) Divide the polynomial P(x) = x 4 - 2x3 + x2 - 3x + 4 by x - 1.
P(x) R
Express the result in the form _ _
x - a = Q(x) + x - a .
b) Identify any restrictions on the variable.
c) Verify your answer.
Example 2
Apply Polynomial Long Division to Solve a Problem
The volume, V, of the nested boxes in the introduction to this section,
in cubic centimetres, is given by V(x) = x3 + 7x2 + 14x + 8. What are
the possible dimensions of the boxes in terms of x if the height, h, in
centimetres, is x + 1?
Solution
Divide the volume of the box by the
height to obtain an expression for the
area of the base of the box: h=x +1
V(x)
_ = lw, where lw is the area of
h
the base.
l
x2 + 6x + 8
w
x3 + 7x2 + 14x + 8
x + 1
x3 + x2
6x2 + 14x
6x2 + 6x
8x + 8
8x + 8
0
Since the remainder is zero, the volume x3 + 7x2 + 14x + 8 can be
expressed as (x + 1)(x2 + 6x + 8). The quotient x2 + 6x + 8 represents
the area of the base. This expression can be factored as (x + 2)(x + 4).
The factors represent the possible width and length of the base of the box.
Expressions for the possible dimensions, in centimetres, are x + 1, x + 2,
and x + 4.
Your Turn
The volume of a rectangular prism is given
by V(x) = x3 + 3x2 - 36x + 32. Determine h
possible measures for w and h in terms of x
if the length, l, is x - 4.
l=x -4
w

synthetic division Synthetic division is an alternate process for dividing a polynomial by
• a method of performing a binomial of the form x - a. It allows you to calculate without writing
polynomial long variables and requires fewer calculations.
division involving
a binomial divisor
that uses only the
coefficients of the Example 3
terms and fewer
calculations Divide a Polynomial Using Synthetic Division
a) Use synthetic division to divide 2x3 + 3x2 - 4x + 15 by x + 3.
b) Check the results using long division.
Did Yo u Know ? Solution

Paolo Ruffini, an a) Write the terms of the dividend in order of descending power.
Italian mathematician,
first described Use zero for the coefficient of any missing powers.
synthetic division in Write just the coefficients of the dividend. To the left, write the
1809. value of +3 from the factor x + 3. Below +3, place a “-” symbol to
represent subtraction. Use the “×” sign below the horizontal line to
indicate multiplication of the divisor and the terms of the quotient.
2x 3 3x 2 -4x 15
+3 2 3 -4 15
-
×
To perform the synthetic division, bring down the first coefficient, 2,

to the right of the × sign.
+3 2 3 -4 15 Multiply +3 (top left) by 2 (right of × sign) to get 6.
- 6 -9 15 Write 6 below 3 in the second column.
× 2 -3 5 0 Subtract 6 from 3 to get -3.
Multiply +3 by -3 to get -9. Continue with
remainder -4 - (-9) = 5, +3 × 5 = 15, and 15 - 15 = 0.
2, -3, and 5 are the coefficients of the quotient,
2x2 - 3x + 5.
(2x3 + 3x2 - 4x + 15) ÷ (x + 3) = 2x2 - 3x + 5

Restriction: x + 3 ≠ 0 or x ≠ -3
b) Long division check:

2x2 - 3x + 5
x + 3
2x3 + 3x2 - 4x + 15
2x3 + 6x2
-3x2 - 4x
-3x2 - 9x
5x + 15
5x + 15
0
The result of the long division is the same as that using synthetic division.
Your Turn
x3 + 7x2 - 3x + 4
Use synthetic division to determine ____ .
x-2

The remainder theorem states that when a polynomial in x, P(x), is remainder
divided by a binomial of the form x - a, the remainder is P(a). theorem
• when a polynomial in
x, P(x), is divided by
x - a, the remainder
Example 4 is P(a)
Apply the Remainder Theorem

a) Use the remainder theorem to determine the remainder when
P(x) = x3 - 10x + 6 is divided by x + 4.
b) Verify your answer using synthetic division.
Solution
a) Since the binomial is x + 4 = x - (-4), determine the remainder
by evaluating P(x) at x = -4, or P(-4).
P(x) = x3 - 10x + 6
P(-4) = (-4)3 - 10(-4) + 6
P(-4) = -64 + 40 + 6
P(-4) = -18
The remainder when x3 - 10x + 6 is divided by x + 4 is -18.
b) To use synthetic division, first rewrite P(x) Why is it important to

as P(x) = x3 + 0x2 - 10x + 6. rewrite the polynomial in
this way?
+4 1 0 -10 6
- 4 -16 24
× 1 -4 6 -18
remainder
The remainder when using synthetic division is -18.
Your Turn
What is the remainder when 11x - 4x 4 - 7 is divided by x - 3? Verify
your answer using either long or synthetic division.
Key Ideas
Use long division to divide a polynomial by a binomial.

Synthetic division is an alternate form of long division.
The result of the division of a polynomial in x, P(x), by a binomial of the form x -
P(x) R
a can be written as __ __
x - a = Q(x) + x - a or P(x) = (x - a)Q(x) + R, where Q(x) is
the quotient and R is the remainder.
To check the result of a division, multiply the quotient, Q(x), by the divisor, x - a,
and add the remainder, R, to the product. The result should be the dividend, P(x).
The remainder theorem states that when a polynomial in x, P(x), is divided by
a binomial, x - a, the remainder is P(a). A non-zero remainder means that the
binomial is not a factor of P(x).

Practise 5. Perform each division. Express the result

1. a) Use long division to divide P(x) R
in the form _ _
x - a = Q(x) + x - a . Identify
x2 + 10x - 24 by x - 2. Express the
any restrictions on the variable.
P(x) R
result in the form _ _
x - a = Q(x) + x - a . a) (x3 + 7x2 - 3x + 4) ÷ (x + 2)
4
b) Identify any restrictions on the variable. 11t - 4t - 7
b) ___
t-3
c) Write the corresponding statement that
c) (x + 3x2 - 2x + 5) ÷ (x + 1)
3
can be used to check the division.
d) (4n2 + 7n - 5) ÷ (n + 3)
d) Verify your answer.
3
4n - 15n + 2
2. a) Divide the polynomial e) ___
n-3
3x 4 - 4x3 - 6x2 + 17x - 8 by x + 1 f) (x3 + 6x2 - 4x + 1) ÷ (x + 2)
using long division. Express the result
P(x) 6. Use the remainder theorem to determine
in the form _ _ R
x - a = Q(x) + x - a . the remainder when each polynomial is
b) Identify any restrictions on the variable. divided by x + 2.
c) Write the corresponding statement that a) x3 + 3x2 - 5x + 2
can be used to check the division. b) 2x 4 - 2x3 + 5x
d) Verify your answer. c) x 4 + x3 - 5x2 + 2x - 7
3. Determine each quotient, Q, using long d) 8x3 + 4x2 - 19
division. e) 3x3 - 12x - 2
3 2
a) (x + 3x - 3x - 2) ÷ (x - 1) f) 2x3 + 3x2 - 5x + 2
3 2
x + 2x - 7x - 2
b) ____ 7. Determine the remainder resulting from
x-2
each division.
c) (2w + 3w 2 - 5w + 2) ÷ (w + 3)
3
a) (x3 + 2x2 - 3x + 9) ÷ (x + 3)
d) (9m3 - 6m2 + 3m + 2) ÷ (m - 1) 3 2
2t - 4t - 3t
b) ___
4 3 2
t + 6t - 3t - t + 8 t-2
e) ____
t+1 c) (x3 + 2x2 - 3x + 5) ÷ (x - 3)
f) (2y - 3y 2 + 1) ÷ (y - 3)
4 4 2
n - 3n - 5n + 2
d) ____
4. Determine each quotient, Q, using
n-2
synthetic division.
Apply
a) (x3 + x2 + 3) ÷ (x + 4) 8. For each dividend, determine the value of
m4 - 2m3 + m2 + 12m - 6 k if the remainder is 3.
b) _____
m-2
a) (x3 + 4x2 - x + k) ÷ (x - 1)
c) (2 - x + x2 - x3 - x 4) ÷ (x + 2)
b) (x3 + x2 + kx - 15) ÷ (x - 2)
d) (2s3 + 3s2 - 9s - 10) ÷ (s - 2)
3 2 c) (x3 + kx2 + x + 5) ÷ (x + 2)
h + 2h - 3h + 9
e) ____ d) (kx3 + 3x + 1) ÷ (x + 2)
h+3
f) (2x3 + 7x2 - x + 1) ÷ (x + 2) 9. For what value of c will the polynomial
P(x) = -2x3 + cx2 - 5x + 2 have the same
remainder when it is divided by x - 2 and
by x + 1?

10. When 3x2 + 6x - 10 is divided by x + k, 16. Explain how to determine the remainder
the remainder is 14. Determine the value(s) when 10x 4 - 11x3 - 8x2 + 7x + 9 is
of k. divided by 2x - 3 using synthetic division.
11. The area, A(x), of a rectangle is represented 17. Write a polynomial that satisfies each set
by the polynomial 2x2 - x - 6. of conditions.
a) If the height of the rectangle is x - 2, a) a quadratic polynomial that gives a
what is the width in terms of x? remainder of -4 when it is divided by
b) If the height of the rectangle were x-3
changed to x - 3, what would the b) a cubic polynomial that gives a
remainder of the quotient be? What remainder of 4 when it is divided by
does this remainder represent? x+2
12. The product, P(n), of two numbers c) a quartic polynomial that gives a
is represented by the expression remainder of 1 when it is divided by
2n2 - 4n + 3, where n is a real number. 2x - 1
a) If one of the numbers is represented by Create Connections
n - 3, what expression represents the
other number? C1 How are numerical long division and
polynomial long division similar, and
b) What are the two numbers if n = 1?
how are they different?
13. A design team determines that a
C2 When the polynomial bx2 + cx + d is
cost-efficient way of manufacturing
divided by x - a, the remainder is zero.
cylindrical containers for their
a) What can you conclude from this
products is to have the volume, V,
in cubic centimetres, modelled by result?
V(x) = 9πx3 + 51πx2 + 88πx + 48π, where b) Write an expression for the remainder
x is an integer such that 2 ≤ x ≤ 8. The in terms of a, b, c, and d.
height, h, in centimetres, of each cylinder C3 The support cable for a suspension
is a linear function given by h(x) = x + 3. bridge can be modelled by the function
V(x) h(d) = 0.0003d2 + 2, where h(d) is the
a) Determine the quotient _ and
h(x) height, in metres, of the cable above the
interpret this result.
road, and d is the horizontal distance, in
b) Use your answer in part a) to express metres, from the lowest point on the cable.
the volume of a container in the form h(d)
πr 2h.
c) What are the possible dimensions of the
containers for the given values of x? 0 d
Extend
a) What is the remainder when
14. When the polynomial mx3 - 3x2 + nx + 2
is divided by x + 3, the remainder is -1. 0.0003d2 + 2 is divided by d - 500?
When it is divided by x - 2, the remainder b) What is the remainder when
is -4. What are the values of m and n? 0.0003d2 + 2 is divided by d + 500?
15. When the polynomial 3x3 + ax2 + bx - 9 c) Compare your results from
is divided by x - 2, the remainder is -5. parts a) and b). Use the graph of the
When it is divided by x + 1, the remainder function h(d) = 0.0003d2 + 2 to explain
is -16. What are the values of a and b? your findings.

3.3
The Factor Theorem
Focus on . . .
• factoring polynomials
• explaining the relationship between the linear
factors of a polynomial expression and the zeros
of the corresponding function
• modelling and solving problems involving
polynomial functions
Port of Vancouver
Each year, more than 1 million intermodal containers
pass through the Port of Vancouver. The total volume of D i d You K n ow ?
these containers is over 2 million twenty-foot equivalent
An intermodal container is a standard-sized
units (TEU). Suppose the volume, in cubic feet, of a metal box that can be easily transferred
1-TEU container can be approximated by the polynomial between different modes of transportation,
function V(x) = x 3 + 7x2 - 28x + 20, where x is a positive such as ships, trains, and trucks. A TEU
represents the volume of a 20-ft intermodal
real number. What dimensions, in terms of x, could the container. Although container heights vary, the
container have? equivalent of 1 TEU is accepted as 1360 ft3.
Investigate Determining the Factors of a Polynomial
A: Remainder for a Factor of a Polynomial

1. a) Determine the remainder when x3 + 2x2 - 5x - 6 is divided
by x + 1.
3 2
x + 2x - 5x - 6
b) Determine the quotient ____ . Write the
x+1
corresponding statement that can be used to check the division.
c) Factor the quadratic portion of the statement written in part b).
d) Write x3 + 2x2 - 5x - 6 as the product of its three factors.
e) What do you notice about the remainder when you divide
x3 + 2x2 - 5x - 6 by any one of its three factors?
Reflect and Respond

2. What is the relationship between the remainder and the factors of
a polynomial?
B: Determine Factors
3. Which of the following are factors of P(x) = x3 - 7x + 6? Why would a
Justify your reasoning. factor such as
x – 5 not be
a) x + 1 b) x - 1 c) x + 2 considered as a
d) x - 2 e) x + 3 f) x - 3 possible factor?

Reflect and Respond
4. Write a statement that describes the condition when a divisor x - a
is a factor of a polynomial P(x).
5. What are the relationships between the factors of a polynomial
expression, the zeros of the corresponding polynomial function, the
x-intercepts of the graph of the corresponding polynomial function,
and the remainder theorem?
6. a) Describe a method you could use to determine the factors of
a polynomial.
b) Use your method to determine the factors of f(x) = x3 + 2x2 - x - 2.
c) Verify your answer.
Link the Ideas
The factor theorem states that x - a is a factor of a polynomial in x, factor theorem

P(x), if and only if P(a) = 0. • a polynomial in x, P(x),
has a factor x - a if
and only if P(a) = 0
For example, given the polynomial P(x) = x3 - x2 - 5x + 2,
determine if x - 1 and x + 2 are factors by calculating P(1) and
P(-2), respectively.
P(x) = x3 - x2 - 5x + 2 P(x) = x3 - x2 - 5x + 2 D i d You K n ow?
P(1) = 13 - 12 - 5(1) + 2 P(-2) = (-2)3 - (-2)2 - 5(-2) + 2
“If and only if” is a
P(1) = 1 - 1 - 5 + 2 P(-2) = -8 - 4 + 10 + 2 term used in logic to
P(1) = -3 P(-2) = 0 say that the result
works both ways.
Since P(1) = -3, P(x) is not divisible by x - 1. Therefore, x - 1 is So, the factor
not a factor of P(x). theorem means
• if x - a is a factor
Since P(-2) = 0, P(x) is divisible by x + 2. Therefore, x + 2 is a of P(x), then
factor of P(x). P(a) = 0
• if P(a) = 0, then
The zeros of a polynomial function are P(x) x - a is a factor
related to the factors of the polynomial. of P(x)
6
The graph of P(x) = x3 - x2 - 4x + 4
4
shows that the zeros of the function, or the
x-intercepts of the graph, are at x = -2, 2
x = 1, and x = 2. The corresponding
factors of the polynomial are x + 2, x - 1, -4 -2 0 2 4 x
and x - 2. -2
P(x) = x3 - x2 - 4x + 4
3.3 The Factor Theorem • MHR 127

Example 1
Use the Factor Theorem to Test for Factors of a Polynomial
Which binomials are factors of the polynomial P(x) = x3 - 3x2 - x + 3?
Justify your answers.
a) x - 1
b) x + 1
c) x + 3
d) x - 3
Solution
a) Use the factor theorem to evaluate P(a) given x - a.
For x - 1, substitute x = 1 into the polynomial expression.
P(x) = x3 - 3x2 - x + 3
P(1) = 13 - 3(1)2 - 1 + 3
P(1) = 1 - 3 - 1 + 3
P(1) = 0
Since the remainder is zero, x - 1 is a factor of P(x).
b) For x + 1, substitute x = -1 into the polynomial expression.

P(x) = x3 - 3x2 - x + 3
P(-1) = (-1)3 - 3(-1)2 - (-1) + 3
P(-1) = -1 - 3 + 1 + 3
P(-1) = 0
Since the remainder is zero, x + 1 is a factor of P(x).
c) For x + 3, substitute x = -3 into the polynomial expression.

P(x) = x3 - 3x2 - x + 3
P(-3) = (-3)3 - 3(-3)2 - (-3) + 3
P(-3) = -27 - 27 + 3 + 3
P(-3) = -48
Since the remainder is not zero, x + 3 is not a factor of P(x).
d) For x - 3, substitute x = 3 into the polynomial expression.

P(x) = x3 - 3x2 - x + 3
P(3) = 33 - 3(3)2 - 3 + 3
P(3) = 27 - 27 - 3 + 3
P(3) = 0
Since the remainder is zero, x - 3 is a factor of P(x).
Your Turn
Determine which of the following binomials are factors of the polynomial
P(x) = x3 + 2x2 - 5x - 6.
x - 1, x + 1, x - 2, x + 2, x - 3, x + 3, x - 6, x + 6

Possible Factors of a Polynomial
When factoring a polynomial, P(x), it is helpful to know which integer
values of a to try when determining if P(a) = 0.
Consider the polynomial P(x) = x3 - 7x2 + 14x - 8. If x = a satisfies
P(a) = 0, then a3 - 7a2 + 14a - 8 = 0, or a3 - 7a2 + 14a = 8. Factoring
out the common factor on the left side of the equation gives the product
a(a2 - 7a + 14) = 8. Then, the possible integer values for the factors in the
product on the left side are the factors of 8. They are ±1, ±2, ±4, and ±8.
The relationship between the factors of a polynomial and the constant

term of the polynomial is stated in the integral zero theorem. integral zero
theorem
The integral zero theorem states that if x - a is a factor of a polynomial
• if x = a is an integral
function P(x) with integral coefficients, then a is a factor of the
zero of a polynomial,
constant term of P(x). P(x), with integral
coefficients, then a is a
factor of the constant
term of P(x)
Example 2
Factor Using the Integral Zero Theorem
a) Factor 2x3 - 5x2 - 4x + 3 fully.
b) Describe how to use the factors of the polynomial expression to
determine the zeros of the corresponding polynomial function.
Solution
a) Let P(x) = 2x3 - 5x2 - 4x + 3. Find a factor by evaluating P(x) for
values of x that are factors of 3: ±1 and ±3.
Test the values.
P(x) = 2x3 - 5x2 - 4x + 3
P(1) = 2(1)3 - 5(1)2 - 4(1) + 3
P(1) = 2 - 5 - 4 + 3
P(1) = -4
Since P(1) ≠ 0, x - 1 is not a factor of 2x3 - 5x2 - 4x + 3.
P(x) = 2x3 - 5x2 - 4x + 3
P(-1) = 2(-1)3 - 5(-1)2 - 4(-1) + 3
P(-1) = -2 - 5 + 4 + 3
P(-1) = 0
Since P(-1) = 0, x + 1 is a factor of 2x3 - 5x2 - 4x + 3.
Use synthetic or long division to find the other factors.
+1 2 -5 -4 3
- 2 -7 3
× 2 -7 3 0
The remaining factor is 2x2 - 7x + 3.
So, 2x3 - 5x2 - 4x + 3 = (x + 1)(2x2 - 7x + 3).
Factoring 2x2 - 7x + 3 gives (2x - 1)(x - 3).
Therefore, 2x3 - 5x2 - 4x + 3 = (x + 1)(2x - 1)(x - 3).

b) Since the factors of 2x3 - 5x2 - 4x + 3 are x + 1, 2x - 1, and x - 3,
1 , and 3. Confirm
the corresponding zeros of the function are -1, _
2
the zeros by graphing P(x) and using the trace or zero feature of a
graphing calculator.
Your Turn
What is the factored form of x3 - 4x2 - 11x + 30? How can you use the
graph of the corresponding polynomial function to simplify your search
for integral roots?
Example 3
Factor Higher-Degree Polynomials
Fully factor x 4 - 5x3 + 2x2 + 20x - 24.
Solution
Let P(x) = x 4 - 5x3 + 2x2 + 20x - 24.
Find a factor by testing factors of -24: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±8, ±12, and ±24
P(x) = x 4 - 5x3 + 2x2 + 20x - 24
P(1) = 14 - 5(1)3 + 2(1)2 + 20(1) - 24
P(1) = 1 - 5 + 2 + 20 - 24
P(1) = -6 When should you stop
testing possible factors?
P(x) = x 4 - 5x3 + 2x2 + 20x - 24
P(-1) = (-1)4 - 5(-1)3 + 2(-1)2 + 20(-1) - 24
P(-1) = 1 + 5 + 2 - 20 - 24
P(-1) = -36
P(x) = x 4 - 5x3 + 2x2 + 20x - 24
P(2) = 24 - 5(2)3 + 2(2)2 + 20(2) - 24
P(2) = 16 - 40 + 8 + 40 - 24
P(2) = 0
Since P(2) = 0, x - 2 is a factor of x 4 - 5x3 + 2x2 + 20x - 24.
Use division to find the other factors.
-2 1 -5 2 20 -24
- -2 6 8 -24
× 1 -3 -4 12 0

The remaining factor is x3 - 3x2 - 4x + 12.
Method 1: Apply the Factor Theorem Again
Let f (x) = x3 - 3x2 - 4x + 12.
Since f(2) = 0, x - 2 is a second factor.
Use division to determine that the other factor is x2 - x - 6.
-2 1 -3 -4 12
- -2 2 12
× 1 -1 -6 0
Factoring x2 - x - 6 gives (x + 2)(x - 3).

Therefore,
x 4 - 5x3 + 2x2 + 20x - 24 = (x - 2)(x - 2)(x + 2)(x - 3)
= (x - 2)2(x + 2)(x - 3)
Method 2: Factor by Grouping
x3 - 3x2 - 4x + 12 = x2(x - 3) - 4(x - 3) Group the first two terms and factor out
x2. Then, group the second two terms
and factor out -4.
= (x - 3)(x2 - 4) Factor out x - 3.

= (x - 3)(x - 2)(x + 2) Factor the difference of squares x2 - 4.
Therefore,
x 4 - 5x3 + 2x2 + 20x - 24
= (x - 2)(x - 3)(x - 2)(x + 2)
= (x - 2)2(x + 2)(x - 3)
Your Turn
What is the fully factored form of x 4 - 3x3 - 7x2 + 15x + 18?
Example 4
Solve Problems Involving Polynomial
Expressions
An intermodal container that has the
shape of a rectangular prism has a
volume, in cubic feet, represented
by the polynomial function
V(x) = x3 + 7x2 - 28x + 20, where
x is a positive real number.
What are the factors that represent
possible dimensions, in terms of x,
of the container?
Dockside at Port of Vancouver

Solution
Method 1: Use Factoring
The possible integral factors correspond to the factors of the constant
term of the polynomial, 20: ±1, ±2, ±4, ±5, ±10, and ±20. Use the factor
theorem to determine which of these values correspond to the factors of
the polynomial. Use a graphing calculator or spreadsheet to help with the
multiple calculations.
The values of x that result in a remainder of zero are -10, 1, and 2.

The factors that correspond to these values are x + 10, x - 1, and
x - 2. The factors represent the possible dimensions, in terms of x,
of the container.
Method 2: Use Graphing
Since the zeros of the polynomial function correspond to the factors of
the polynomial expression, use the graph of the function to determine
the factors.
For this example, what

are the restrictions on
the domain?
The trace or zero feature of a graphing calculator shows that the zeros
of the function are x = -10, x = 1, and x = 2. These correspond to
the factors x + 10, x - 1, and x - 2. The factors represent the possible
dimensions, in terms of x, of the container.
Your Turn
A form that is used to make large rectangular blocks of ice comes in
different dimensions such that the volume, V, in cubic centimetres, of
each block can be modelled by V(x) = x3 + 7x2 + 16x + 12, where x is in
centimetres. Determine the possible dimensions, in terms of x, that result
in this volume.

Key Ideas
The factor theorem states that x - a is a factor of a polynomial P(x) if and only if
P(a) = 0.
The integral zero theorem states that if x - a is a factor of a polynomial function
P(x) with integral coefficients, then a is a factor of the constant term of P(x).
You can use the factor theorem and the integral zero theorem to factor some
polynomial functions.
Use the integral zero theorem to list possible integer values for the zeros.
Next, apply the factor theorem to determine one factor.
Then, use division to determine the remaining factor.
Repeat the above steps until all factors are found or the remaining factor is a
trinomial which can be factored.
Practise 3. State whether each polynomial has

1. What is the corresponding binomial factor x + 2 as a factor.
of a polynomial, P(x), given the value of a) 5x2 + 2x + 6
the zero?
b) 2x3 - x2 - 5x - 8
a) P(1) = 0
c) 2x3 + 2x2 - x - 6
b) P(-3) = 0
d) x 4 - 2x2 + 3x - 4
c) P(4) = 0
e) x 4 + 3x3 - x2 - 3x + 6
d) P(a) = 0
f) 3x 4 + 5x3 + x - 2
2. Determine whether x - 1 is a factor of
4. What are the possible integral zeros
each polynomial.
of each polynomial?
a) x3 - 3x2 + 4x - 2
a) P(x) = x3 + 3x2 - 6x - 8
3 2
b) 2x - x - 3x - 2
b) P(s) = s3 + 4s2 - 15s - 18
3
c) 3x - x - 3
c) P(n) = n3 - 3n2 - 10n + 24
3 2
d) 2x + 4x - 5x - 1
d) P(p) = p4 - 2p3 - 8p2 + 3p - 4
e) x 4 - 3x3 + 2x2 - x + 1
e) P(z) = z4 + 5z3 + 2z2 + 7z - 15
f) 4x 4 - 2x3 + 3x2 - 2x + 1
f) P(y) = y 4 - 5y 3 - 7y 2 + 21y + 4

5. Factor fully. 10. Mikisiti Saila (1939–2008), an Inuit artist
a) P(x) = x3 - 6x2 + 11x - 6 from Cape Dorset, Nunavut, was the son
of famous soapstone carver Pauta Saila.
b) P(x) = x3 + 2x2 - x - 2
Mikisita’s preferred theme was wildlife
c) P(v) = v3 + v2 - 16v - 16 presented in a minimal but graceful and
d) P(x) = x 4 + 4x3 - 7x2 - 34x - 24 elegant style. Suppose a carving is created
e) P(k) = k5 + 3k4 - 5k3 - 15k2 + 4k + 12 from a rectangular block of soapstone
whose volume, V, in cubic centimetres, can
6. Factor fully.
be modelled by V(x) = x3 + 5x2 - 2x - 24.
a) x3 - 2x2 - 9x + 18
What are the possible dimensions of the
b) t 3 + t 2 - 22t - 40 block, in centimetres, in terms of binomials
c) h3 - 27h + 10 of x?
d) x5 + 8x3 + 2x - 15
e) q4 + 2q3 + 2q2 - 2q - 3
Apply
7. Determine the value(s) of k so that the
binomial is a factor of the polynomial.
a) x2 - x + k, x - 2
b) x2 - 6x - 7, x + k
c) x3 + 4x2 + x + k, x + 2 Walrus created in 1996 by Mikisiti Saila
d) x2 + kx - 16, x - 2 11. The volume of water in a rectangular fish

8. The volume, V(h), of a bookcase can tank can be modelled by the polynomial
be represented by the expression V(x) = x3 + 14x2 + 63x + 90. If the depth
h3 - 2h2 + h, where h is the height of of the tank is given by the polynomial
the bookcase. What are the possible x + 6, what polynomials represent the
dimensions of the bookcase in terms of h? possible length and width of the fish tank?
9. A racquetball court has a volume that
can be represented by the polynomial
V(l) = l 3 - 2l 2 - 15l, where l is the length
of the side walls. Factor the expression to x+6
determine the possible width and height of
the court in terms of l.

12. When a certain type of plastic is cut into 16. a) Factor each polynomial.
sections, the length of each section i) x3 - 1
determines its relative strength. The function
ii) x3 - 27
f(x) = x 4 - 14x3 + 69x2 - 140x + 100
describes the relative strength of a iii) x3 + 1
section of length x feet. After testing the iv) x3 + 64
plastic, engineers discovered that 5-ft b) Use the results from part a) to decide
sections were extremely weak. whether x + y or x - y is a factor of
a) Why is x - 5 a possible factor when x3 + y 3. State the other factor(s).
x = 5 is the length of the pipe? Show c) Use the results from part a) to decide
that x - 5 is a factor of the polynomial whether x + y or x - y is a factor of
function. x3 - y 3. State the other factor(s).
b) Are there other lengths of plastic that d) Use your findings to factor x 6 + y 6.
are extremely weak? Explain your
reasoning. Create Connections
C1 Explain to a classmate how to use
D id Yo u K n ow ?
the graph of f(x) = x 4 - 3x2 - 4 to
The strength of a determine at least one binomial factor
material can be
affected by its
of the polynomial. What are all of the
mechanical resonance. factors of the polynomial?
Mechanical resonance
f(x)
is the tendency of a
mechanical system to 4
absorb more energy
when it oscillates at 2
the system’s natural
frequency of vibration.
It may cause intense swaying motions and even -4 -2 0 2 4 x
catastrophic failure in improperly constructed -2
structures including bridges, buildings, and airplanes.
The collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge into -4
Puget Sound on November 7, 1940, was due in part
to the effects of mechanical resonance. -6
f(x) = x4 - 3x2 - 4
13. The product of four integers is

C2 Identify the possible factors of the
x 4 + 6x3 + 11x2 + 6x, where x is one of the
expression x 4 - x3 + 2x2 - 5. Explain
integers. What are possible expressions for
your reasoning in more than one way.
the other three integers?
C3 How can the factor theorem, the integral
zero theorem, the quadratic formula,
Extend
and synthetic division be used together
14. Consider the polynomial
to factor a polynomial of degree greater
f(x) = ax 4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e, where
than or equal to three?
a + b + c + d + e = 0. Show that this
polynomial is divisible by x - 1.
15. Determine the values of m and n so that
the polynomials 2x3 + mx2 + nx - 3 and
x3 - 3mx2 + 2nx + 4 are both divisible by
x - 2.

3.4
Equations and
Graphs of Polynomial
Functions
Focus on . . .
• describing the relationship between zeros, roots, and
x-intercepts of polynomial functions and equations
• sketching the graph of a polynomial function without
technology
• modelling and solving problems involving polynomial functions
unctions
On an airplane, carry-on baggage must fit into the overhead D i d You K n ow ?

compartment or under the seat in front of you. As a result, the
In 1973, Rosella
dimensions of carry-on baggage for some airlines are restricted so Bjornson became the
that the width of the carry-on is 17 cm less than the height, and first female pilot in
the length is no more than 15 cm greater than the height. The Canada to be hired by
an airline. In 1990,
maximum volume, V, in cubic centimetres, of carry-on bags can be she became the first
represented by the polynomial function V(h) = h3 - 2h2 - 255h, female captain.
where h is the height, in centimetres, of the bag. If the maximum
volume of the overhead compartment is 50 600 cm3, how could
you determine the maximum dimensions of the carry-on bags?
In this section, you will use polynomial functions to model
real-life situations such as this one. You will also sketch graphs of
polynomial functions to help you solve problems.
Investigate Sketching the Graph of a Polynomial Function
Materials A: The Relationship Among the Roots, x-Intercepts, and Zeros

• graphing calculator of a Function
or computer with
graphing software 1. a) Graph the function f (x) = x 4 + x3 - 10x2 - 4x + 24 using
graphing technology.
b) Determine the x-intercepts from the graph.
c) Factor f(x). Then, use the factors to What are the possible
determine the zeros of f(x). integral factors of this
polynomial?
2. a) Set the polynomial function
f(x) = x 4 + x3 - 10x2 - 4x + 24 equal
to 0. Solve the equation x 4 + x3 - 10x2 - 4x + 24 = 0 to
determine the roots.
b) What do you notice about the roots of the equation and the
x-intercepts of the graph of the function?

Reflect and Respond
3. What is the relationship between the zeros of a function, the
x-intercepts of the corresponding graph, and the roots of the
polynomial equation?
B: Determine When a Function Is Positive and When It Is Negative

4. Refer to the graph you made in step 1. The x-intercepts divide the
x-axis into four intervals. Copy and complete the table by writing
in the intervals and indicating whether the function is positive
(above the x-axis) or negative (below the x-axis) for each interval.
Interval x < -3
Sign of f(x) positive
Reflect and Respond

5. a) What happens to the sign of f (x) if the graph crosses from one side
of the x-axis to the other?
b) How does the graph behave if there are two identical zeros?
C: Sketch the Graph of a Polynomial Function Materials

6. Without using a graphing calculator, determine the following • grid paper
characteristics of the function f(x) = -x3 - 5x2 - 3x + 9:
• the degree of the polynomial
• the sign of the leading coefficient
• the zeros of the function
• the y-intercept
• the interval(s) where the function is positive
• the interval(s) where the function is negative
7. Use the characteristics you determined in step 6 to sketch the graph
of the function. Graph the function using technology and compare
the result to your hand-drawn sketch.
Reflect and Respond

8. Describe how to sketch the graph of a polynomial using the
x-intercepts, the y-intercept, the sign of the leading coefficient,
and the degree of the function.
D id Yo u Kn ow?
Polynomiography is a fusion of art, mathematics, and computer

science. It creates a visualization of the approximation of zeros
of polynomial functions.
3.4 Equations and Graphs of Polynomial Functions • MHR 137

Link the Ideas
As is the case with quadratic functions, the zeros of any polynomial

function y = f(x) correspond to the x-intercepts of the graph and to the
roots of the corresponding equation, f(x) = 0. For example, the function
f(x) = (x - 1)(x - 1)(x + 2) has two identical zeros at x = 1 and a third
zero at x = -2. These are the roots of the equation
(x - 1)(x - 1)(x + 2) = 0.
multiplicity If a polynomial has a factor x - a that is repeated n times, then x = a is
(of a zero) a zero of multiplicity, n. The function f(x) = (x - 1)2(x + 2) has a zero of
• the number of times multiplicity 2 at x = 1 and the equation (x - 1)2(x + 2) = 0 has a root of
a zero of a polynomial multiplicity 2 at x = 1.
function occurs
• the shape of the graph Consider the graph of the function f (x) = (x - 1)(x - 1)(x + 2).
of a function close to
a zero depends on its
multiplicity
y
0 x
zero of
multiplicity 1
At x = -2 (zero of odd multiplicity), the sign of the function changes.
y
At x = 1 (zero of even multiplicity), the sign of the function does
not change.
0 x
Example 1
zero of
multiplicity 2 Analyse Graphs of Polynomial Functions
For each graph of a polynomial function, determine
y
• the least possible degree
• the x-intercepts and the factors of the function with least
0 x possible degree
• the intervals where the function is positive and the intervals
zero of where it is negative
multiplicity 3
a) b)
Did Yo u Know ?
The multiplicity of a
zero or root can also
be referred to as the
order of the zero or
root.

Solution
a) • The graph of the polynomial function crosses
the x-axis (negative to positive or positive to
negative) at all three x-intercepts. The three
Could the multiplicity
x-intercepts are of odd multiplicity. The least of each x-intercept
possible multiplicity of each x-intercept is 1, so be something other
the least possible degree is 3. than 1?
• The graph extends down into quadrant III and up into quadrant I, so
the leading coefficient is positive.
• The x-intercepts are -4, -2, and 2. The factors are x + 4, x + 2,
and x - 2.
• The function is positive for values of x in the intervals -4 < x < -2
and x > 2. The function is negative for values of x in the intervals
x < -4 and -2 < x < 2.
b) • The graph of the polynomial function crosses

the x-axis at two of the x-intercepts and touches
the x-axis at one of the x-intercepts. The least Could the multiplicities
possible multiplicities of these x-intercepts are, of the x-intercepts be
respectively, 1 and 2, so the least possible degree something other than
1 or 2?
is 4.
• The graph extends down into quadrant III and down into
quadrant IV, so the leading coefficient is negative.
• The x-intercepts are -5, -1, and 4 (multiplicity 2). The factors are
x + 5, x + 1, and (x - 4)2.
• The function is positive for values of x in the interval -5 < x < -1.
The function is negative for values of x in the intervals x < -5,
-1 < x < 4, and x > 4.
Your Turn
For the graph of the polynomial function shown, determine
• the least possible degree
• the x-intercepts and the factors of the function of least possible degree
• the intervals where the function is positive and the intervals where it
is negative

Example 2
Analyse Equations to Sketch Graphs of Polynomial Functions
Sketch the graph of each polynomial function.
a) y = (x - 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
b) f(x) = -(x + 2)3(x - 4)
c) y = -2x3 + 6x - 4
Solution
a) The function y = (x - 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) is in
factored form.
Use a table to organize information about the function. Then, use the
information to sketch the graph.
Degree 3
Leading Coefficient 1
End Behaviour extends down into quadrant III and up into quadrant I
Zeros/x-Intercepts -3, -2, and 1
y-Intercept (0 - 1)(0 + 2)(0 + 3) = -6
Interval(s) Where the positive values of f(x) in the intervals -3 < x < -2 and x > 1
Function is Positive negative values of f(x) in the intervals x < -3 and -2 < x < 1
or Negative
To check whether the function is positive or negative, test values

within the interval, rather than close to either side of the interval.
Mark the intercepts. Since the multiplicity of each zero is 1, the

graph crosses the x-axis at each x-intercept. Beginning in quadrant
III, sketch the graph so that it passes through x = -3 to above the
x-axis, back down through x = -2 to below the x-axis, through the
y-intercept -6, up through x = 1, and upward in quadrant I.
y
(-2, 0) 2
(-3, 0) (1, 0)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4
(0, -6)
-6
y = (x - 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)

b) The function f(x) = -(x + 2)3(x - 4) is in factored form.
Degree When the function is expanded, the exponent of the

highest-degree term is 4. The function is of degree 4.
Leading Coefficient When the function is expanded, the leading coefficient is
(-1)(13)(1) or -1.
End Behaviour extends down into quadrant III and down into quadrant IV
Zeros/x-Intercepts -2 (multiplicity 3) and 4
y-Intercept -(0 + 2)3(0 - 4) = 32
Interval(s) Where the positive values of f(x) in the interval -2 < x < 4
Function Is Positive negative values of f(x) in the intervals x < -2 and x > 4
or Negative
Mark the intercepts. Since the multiplicity of each zero is odd, the
graph crosses the x-axis at both x-intercepts. Beginning in quadrant
III, sketch the graph so that it passes through x = -2 to above the
x-axis through the y-intercept 32, continuing upward, and then back
down to pass through x = 4, and then downward in quadrant IV. In
the neighbourhood of x = -2, the graph behaves like the cubic curve
y = (x + 2)3.
f(x) Why is it useful to evaluate the
f(x) = -(x + 2)3(x - 4) function for values such as x = 2
140
and x = 3?
120 How are the multiplicity of the
zero of -2 and the shape of the
100 graph at this x-intercept related?
80
60
40
(0, 32)
20
(-2, 0) (4, 0)
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-20
c) First factor out the common factor.

y = -2x3 + 6x - 4 How does factoring out the
y = -2(x3 - 3x + 2) common factor help?
Next, use the integral zero theorem and the factor theorem
to determine the factors of the polynomial expression
x3 - 3x + 2. Test possible factors of 2, that is, ±1 and ±2.
Substitute x = 1.
x3 - 3x + 2
= 13 - 3(1) + 2
=1-3+2
=0

Therefore, x - 1 is a factor.
Divide the polynomial expression x3 - 3x + 2 by x - 1 to get the
factor x2 + x - 2.
-1 1 0 -3 2 Why is one of the coefficients 0?
- -1 -1 2
× 1 1 -2 0
Then, factor x2 + x - 2 to give (x + 2)(x - 1). How can you check that the
So, the factored form of y = -2x3 + 6x - 4 is factored form is equivalent
to the original polynomial?
y = -2(x - 1)2(x + 2).
Degree 3
Leading Coefficient -2
End Behaviour extends up into quadrant II and down into quadrant IV
Zeros/x-Intercepts -2 and 1 (multiplicity 2)
y-Intercept -4
Interval(s) Where the positive values of f(x) in the interval x < -2
Function Is Positive negative values of f(x) in the intervals -2 < x < 1 and x > 1
or Negative
Mark the intercepts. The graph crosses the x-axis at x = -2

(multiplicity 1) and touches the x-axis at x = 1 (multiplicity 2).
Beginning in quadrant II, sketch the graph so that it passes through
x = -2 to below the x-axis, up through the y-intercept -4 to touch
the x-axis at x = 1, and then downward in quadrant IV.
y
4
y = -2x 3 + 6x - 4
2
(-2, 0) (1, 0)
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
(0, -4)
-4
-6
-8
Your Turn
Sketch a graph of each polynomial function by hand. State the
characteristics of the polynomial functions that you used to sketch
the graphs.
a) g(x) = (x - 2)3(x + 1)
b) f(x) = -x3 + 13x + 12

Graphing Polynomial Functions using Transformations
The graph of a function of the form y = a(b(x - h))n + k is obtained
by applying transformations to the graph of the general polynomial
function y = xn, where n ∈ N. The effects of changing parameters
in polynomial functions are the same as the effects of changing
parameters in other types of functions.
Parameter Transformation
k • Vertical translation up or down
• (x, y) → (x, y + k)
h • Horizontal translation left or right

• (x, y) → (x + h, y)
a • Vertical stretch about the x-axis by a factor of |a|

• For a < 0, the graph is also reflected in the x-axis.
• (x, y) → (x, ay)
b 1
• Horizontal stretch about the y-axis by a factor of _
|b|
• For b < 0, the graph is also reflected in the y-axis.
x
( )
• (x, y) → _ , y
b
To obtain an accurate sketch of a transformed graph, apply the

transformations represented by a and b (reflections and stretches)
before the transformations represented by h and k (translations).
Example 3
Apply Transformations to Sketch a Graph
The graph of y = x3 is transformed to obtain the graph of
y = -2(4(x - 1))3 + 3.
a) State the parameters and describe the corresponding transformations.
b) Copy and complete the table to show what happens to the given
points under each transformation.
y = x3 y = (4x)3 y = -2(4x)3 y = -2(4(x - 1))3 + 3
(-2, -8)
(-1, -1)
(0, 0)
(1, 1)
(2, 8)
c) Sketch the graph of y = -2(4(x - 1))3 + 3.

Solution
a) Compare the functions y = -2(4(x - 1))3 + 3 and y = a(b(x - h))n + k
to determine the values of the parameters.
1 . Multiply the
• b = 4 corresponds to a horizontal stretch of factor _
4
x-coordinates of the points in column 1 by _ 1.
4
• a = -2 corresponds to a vertical stretch of factor 2 and a reflection
in the x-axis. Multiply the y-coordinates of the points in column 2
by -2.
• h = 1 corresponds to a translation of 1 unit to the right and
k = 3 corresponds to a translation of 3 units up. Add 1 to the
x-coordinates and 3 to the y-coordinates of the points in column 3.
b) y = x3 y = (4x)3 y = -2(4x)3 y = -2(4(x - 1))3 + 3

(-2, -8) (-0.5, -8) (-0.5, 16) (0.5, 19)
(-1, -1) (-0.25, -1) (-0.25, 2) (0.75, 5)
(0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 0) (1, 3)
(1, 1) (0.25, 1) (0.25, -2) (1.25, 1)
(2, 8) (0.5, 8) (0.5, -16) (1.5, -13)
c) To sketch the graph, plot the points from column 4 and draw a
smooth curve through them.
y
20
(0.5, 19)
16
y = x3
12
8
(0.75, 5)
4
(1, 3)
(1.25, 1)
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
-4
y = -2(4(x - 1))3 + 3
-8
-12
(1.5, -13)
Your Turn
Transform the graph of y = x3 to sketch the graph of y = -4(2(x + 2))3 - 5.

Example 4
Model and Solve Problems Involving Polynomial Functions
Bill is preparing to make an ice sculpture. He has a block of ice that is
3 ft wide, 4 ft high, and 5 ft long. Bill wants to reduce the size of the
block of ice by removing the same amount from each of the three
dimensions. He wants to reduce the volume of the ice block to 24 ft3.
a) Write a polynomial function to model this situation.
b) How much should he remove from each dimension?
Solution
a) Let x represent the amount to be removed from each dimension.
Then, the new dimensions are

length = 5 - x, width = 3 - x,
and height = 4 - x.
The volume of the ice block is 4-x
V(x) = lwh
V(x) = (5 - x)(3 - x)(4 - x) 5-x
3-x
b) Method 1: Intersecting Graphs
Sketch the graphs of V(x) = (5 - x)(3 - x)(4 - x) and V(x) = 24 on
the same set of coordinate axes. The point of intersection of the two
graphs gives the value of x that will result in a volume of 24 ft3.
Degree 3
Leading Coefficient -1
End Behaviour extends up into quadrant II and down into quadrant IV
Zeros/x-Intercepts 3, 4, and 5
y-Intercept 60
Interval(s) Where the
positive values of V(x) in the intervals x < 3 and 4 < x < 5
Function Is Positive
negative values of V(x) in the intervals 3 < x < 4 and x > 5
or Negative
V(x)
V(x) = (5 - x)(3 - x)(4 - x)
60
50
40
30
(1, 24) V(x) = 24
20
10
0 2 4 6 8 x
Since the point of intersection is (1, 24), 1 ft should be removed

from each dimension.

Method 2: Factoring
Since the volume of the reduced block of ice is 24 ft3, substitute this
value into the function.
V(x) = (5 - x)(3 - x)(4 - x)
24 = (5 - x)(3 - x)(4 - x)
24 = -x3 + 12x2 - 47x + 60 Expand the right side.
0 = -x3 + 12x2 - 47x + 36 Collect like terms.
0 = -(x3 - 12x2 + 47x - 36)
The possible integral factors of the constant term of the polynomial

expression x3 - 12x2 + 47x - 36 are ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±9, ±12,
±18, and ±36.
Test x = 1.
x3 - 12x2 + 47x - 36
= 13 - 12(1)2 + 47(1) - 36
= 1 - 12 + 47 - 36
=0
Therefore, x - 1 is a factor.
Divide the polynomial expression x3 - 12x2 + 47x - 36 by this factor.
x3 - 12x2 + 47x - 36
____
x-1 = x2 - 11x + 36
The remaining factor, x2 - 11x + 36, cannot be factored further.

Then, the roots of the equation are the solutions to x - 1 = 0
and x2 - 11x + 36 = 0.
Use the quadratic formula with a = 1, b = -11, and c = 36 to
check for other real roots.
________
-b
___± √b2 - 4ac
x=
2a ________________
-(-11)
______ ± √(-11)2 - 4(1)(36)
x=
2(1)
__________
11 ± √121 - 144
____
x=
2
_____
11
___± √ -23 Since the square root of a negative number
x= is not a real number, there are no real roots.
2
So, the only real root of 0 = -(x3 - 12x2 + 47x - 36) is x = 1.

Bill needs to remove 1 ft from each dimension to get a volume
of 24 ft3.
Your Turn
Three consecutive integers have a product of -210.
a) Write a polynomial function to model this situation.
b) What are the three integers?

Key Ideas
You can sketch the graph of a polynomial function using the x-intercepts, the
y-intercept, the degree of the function, and the sign of the leading coefficient.
The x-intercepts of the graph of a polynomial function are the roots of the
corresponding polynomial equation.
When a polynomial function is in factored form, you can determine the zeros
from the factors. When it is not in factored form, you can use the factor theorem
and the integral zero theorem to determine the factors.
When a factor is repeated n times, the corresponding zero has multiplicity, n.
The shape of a graph close to a zero of x = a (multiplicity n) y
is similar to the shape of the graph of a function with 4
degree equal to n of the form y = (x - a)n. For example, the
graph of a function with a zero of x = 1 (multiplicity 3) 2
y = (x - 1)3
will look like the graph of the cubic function (degree 3)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
y = (x - 1)3 in the region close to x = 1.
-2
Polynomial functions change sign at x-intercepts that
correspond to zeros of odd multiplicity. The graph crosses -4
over the x-axis at these intercepts. y = (x + 2)(x - 1)3
-6
Polynomial functions do not change sign at x-intercepts
-8
that correspond to zeros of even multiplicity. The graph
touches, but does not cross, the x-axis at these intercepts.
The graph of a polynomial function of the form y = a(b(x - h))n + k
[or y - k = a(b(x - h))n] can be sketched by applying transformations to the
graph of y = xn, where n ∈ N. The transformations represented by a and b may be
applied in any order before the transformations represented by h and k.
Practise 2. Solve.
1. Solve. a) (x + 1)2(x + 2) = 0
a) x(x + 3)(x - 4) = 0 b) x3 - 1 = 0
b) (x - 3)(x - 5)(x + 1) = 0 c) (x + 4)3(x + 2)2 = 0
c) (2x + 4)(x - 3) = 0

3. Use the graph of the given function to b) y
write the corresponding polynomial
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
possible equation. State the roots of the
equation. The roots are all integral values. -20
a) y -40
2
c) y
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2 8
-4 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-6 -8
-16
b) y -24
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-8 d) y
-16 8
-24 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-8
c) y -16
20
-24
-4 -2 0 2 4 x -32
-20
-40 5. Without using technology, match each

-60 graph with the corresponding function.
Justify your choice.
a) y b) y
4. For each graph,
2
i) state the x-intercepts 0 2 4 x
ii) state the intervals where the function -2
-2 0 2x
is positive and the intervals where it
-4 -2
is negative
iii) explain whether the graph might
represent a polynomial that has zero(s) c) y d) y
of multiplicity 1, 2, or 3 4 2
a) y
2
0 2 x
8
-2
-2 0 2 x
4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x A y = (2(x - 1))4 - 2 B y = (x - 2)3 - 2

-4 C y = 0.5x 4 + 3 D y = (-x)3 + 1

6. The graph of y = x3 is transformed to Apply
obtain the graph of 10. For each graph of a polynomial function
y = 0.5(-3(x - 1))3 + 4. shown, determine
a) What are the parameters and • the sign of the leading coefficient
corresponding transformations? • the x-intercepts
b) Copy and complete the table. Use the • the intervals where the function is positive
headings y = (-3x)3, y = 0.5(-3x)3, and and the intervals where it is negative
y = 0.5(-3(x - 1))3 + 4 for columns • the equation for the polynomial function
two, three, and four, respectively. a) y
y = x3 100
(-2, -8)
80
(-1, -1)
60
(0, 0)
(1, 1) 40
(2, 8)
20
c) Sketch the graph of
y = 0.5(-3(x - 1))3 + 4. -4 -2 0 2 4 x
7. For each function, determine -20
i) the x-intercepts of the graph

ii) the degree and end behaviour of b) y
the graph
16
iii) the zeros and their multiplicity
8
iv) the y-intercept of the graph
v) the intervals where the function is -4 -2 0 2 4 x
positive and the intervals where it -8
is negative
a) y = x3 - 4x2 - 45x
b) f(x) = x 4 - 81x2 c) y
c) h(x) = x3 + 3x2 - x - 3 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
4 3 2
d) k(x) = -x - 2x + 7x + 8x - 12 -8
8. Sketch the graph of each function in #7.
-16
9. Without using technology, sketch the graph
-24
of each function. Label all intercepts.
a) f(x) = x 4 - 4x3 + x2 + 6x
b) y = x3 + 3x2 - 6x - 8 d) y
3 2
c) y = x - 4x + x + 6 4
3 2
d) h(x) = -x + 5x - 7x + 3
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
e) g(x) = (x - 1)(x + 2)2(x + 3)2
-4
f) f(x) = -x 4 - 2x3 + 3x2 + 4x - 4
-8

11. a) Given the function y = x3, list the 14. Determine the equation with least degree
parameters of the transformed for each polynomial function. Sketch a
polynomial function graph of each.
1 (x - 2) 3 - 3.
y= _ (2 ) a) a cubic function with zeros -3
(multiplicity 2) and 2 and
b) Describe how each parameter in part a)
y-intercept -18
transforms the graph of the function
y = x3. b) a quintic function with
zeros -1 (multiplicity 3) and 2
c) Determine the domain and range for the
(multiplicity 2) and y-intercept 4
c) a quartic function with a negative
12. The competition swimming pool at
leading coefficient, zeros -2
Saanich Commonwealth Place is in the
(multiplicity 2) and 3 (multiplicity 2),
shape of a rectangular prism and has a
and a constant term of -6
volume of 2100 m3. The dimensions of
the pool are x metres deep by 25x metres 15. The width of a rectangular prism is
long by 10x + 1 metres wide. What are the w centimetres. The height is 2 cm less
actual dimensions of the pool? than the width. The length is 4 cm
more than the width. If the magnitude
of the volume of the prism is 8 times
the measure of the length, what are the
dimensions of the prism?
16. Three consecutive odd integers have
a product of -105. What are the three
integers?
17. A monument consists of two cubical
blocks of limestone. The smaller block
rests on the larger. The total height of the
monument is 5 m and the area of exposed
surface is 61 m2. Determine the dimensions
of the blocks.
D i d You K n ow ?
D id Yo u Know ?
A type of limestone called Tyndall stone has
Forty-four aquatic events in diving and swimming been quarried in Garson, Manitoba, since the
were held at the Saanich Commonwealth Pool during 1890s. You can see this stone in structures such
the 1994 Commonwealth Games held in Victoria, as the Parliament Buildings in Ottawa, Ontario,
British Columbia. Canada won 32 medals in aquatics. the Saskatchewan Legislative Building in Regina,
Saskatchewan, and the Manitoba Legislative
Building in Winnipeg, Manitoba.
13. A boardwalk that is x feet wide is
built around a rectangular pond. The
pond is 30 ft wide and 40 ft long. The
combined surface area of the pond and
the boardwalk is 2000 ft2. What is the
width of the boardwalk?

18. Olutie is learning from her grandmother Extend
how to make traditional Inuit wall 20. Write a __
cubic function with x-intercepts of
__
hangings from stroud and felt. She plans √3 , - √3 , and 1 and a y-intercept of -1.
to make a square border for her square 21. The roots of the equation
wall hanging. The dimensions of the wall 2x3 + 3x2 - 23x - 12 = 0 are
hanging with its border are shown. Olutie represented by a, b, and c (from least
needs 144 in.2 of felt for the border. to greatest). Determine the equation
a) Write a polynomial expression to with roots a + b, _a , and ab.
model the area of the border. b
22. a) Predict the relationship between
b) What are the dimensions of her
the graphs of y = x3 - x2 and
wall hanging, in inches?
y = (x - 2)3 - (x - 2)2.
c) What are the dimensions of the
b) Graph each function using technology
border, in inches?
to verify your prediction.
c) Factor each function in part a) to
determine the x-intercepts.
23. Suppose a spherical floating buoy has
radius 1 m and density _ 1 that of sea
4
water. Given that the formula for the
volume of a spherical cap is
x πx (3a2 + x2), to what depth
Vcap = _
6
does the buoy sink in sea water?
x2 - 12
D id Yo u K n ow ? 1
1 -x
Stroud is a coarse woollen cloth traditionally used to a
make wall hangings. x
D i d You K n ow ?
Archimedes of Syracuse (287—212 B.C.E.) was a Greek

mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and
astronomer. He developed what is now known as
Archimedes’ principle: Any floating object displaces
its own weight of fluid.
Gravity
mobject
(mass of ρobject
the object) (density of
the object)
Inuit wall hanging, artist unknown.
ρfluid
(density of the fluid)
19. Four consecutive integers have a product
Buoyancy
of 840. What are the four integers?

Create Connections Step 3 Graph each set of functions on one set
of coordinate axes. Sketch the graphs
C1 Why is it useful to express a polynomial in
in your notebook.
factored form? Explain with examples.
Set C Set D
C2 Describe what is meant by a root, a zero,
3
and an x-intercept. How are they related? i) y = x i) y = x 4
ii) y = 3x3
1
ii) y = _ x 4
C3 How can you tell from a graph if the
3
multiplicity of a zero is 1, an even number, 1
iii) y = -3x 3
iii) y = - _ x 4
or an odd number greater than 1? 3
a) Compare the graphs in set C. For
C4 MINI LAB Materials
any integer value a, describe the
Apply your prior • graphing calculator
relationship between the graphs
knowledge of or computer with
graphing software of y = x3 and y = ax3.
transformations to
b) Compare the graphs in set D. For
predict the effects
any rational value a such that
of translations, stretches, and
-1 < a < 0 or 0 < a < 1, describe
reflections on polynomial functions
the relationship between the graphs
of the form y = a(b(x - h))n + k and
of y = x 4 and y = ax 4.
the associated graphs.
Step 4 Graph each set of functions on one set
Step 1 Graph each set of functions on one set
in your notebook.
in your notebook.
Set E Set F
Set A Set B
3
i) y = x i) y = x 4
i) y = x3 i) y = x 4 4
1
ii) y = x3 + 2 ii) y = (x + 2)4
ii) y = (3x)3 (3 )
ii) y = _ x
4
iii) y = x3 - 2 iii) y = (x - 2)4 iii) y = (-3x)3
1
iii) y = (- _ x)
3
a) Compare the graphs in set A.
a) Compare the graphs in set E. For
For any constant k, describe the any integer value b, describe the
relationship between the graphs relationship between the graphs
of y = x3 and y = x3 + k. of y = x3 and y = (bx)3.
b) Compare the graphs in set B.
b) Compare the graphs in set F. For
For any constant h, describe the any rational value b such that
relationship between the graphs -1 < b < 0 or 0 < b < 1, describe
of y = x 4 and y = (x - h)4. the relationship between the graphs
Step 2 Describe the roles of the parameters of y = x 4 and y = (bx)4.
h and k in functions of the form Step 5 Describe the roles of the parameters
y = a(b(x - h))n + k. a and b in functions of the form
y = a(b(x - h))n + k.

Chapter 3 Review
3.1 Characteristics of Polynomial Functions, 3.2 The Remainder Theorem, pages 118—125
pages 106—117 4. Use the remainder theorem to determine
1. Which of the following are polynomial the remainder for each division. Then,
functions? Justify your answer. perform each division using the indicated
______ method. Express the result in the
a) y = √x + 1
P(x) R
b) f(x) = 3x 4 form __ __
x - a = Q(x) + x - a and identify
c) g(x) = -3x3 - 2x2 + x any restrictions on the variable.
1 a) x3 + 9x2 - 5x + 3 divided by x - 2
d) y = _ x + 7
2 using long division
2. Use the degree and the sign of the leading b) 2x3 + x2 - 2x + 1 divided by x + 1
coefficient of each function to describe the using long division
end behaviour of its corresponding graph.
c) 12x3 + 13x2 - 23x + 7 divided by x - 1
State the possible number of x-intercepts
using synthetic division
and the value of the y-intercept.
d) -8x 4 - 4x + 10x3 + 15 divided by
a) s(x) = x 4 - 3x2 + 5x
x + 1 using synthetic division
b) p(x) = -x3 + 5x2 - x + 4
5. a) Determine the value of k such that
c) y = 3x - 2 when f(x) = x 4 + kx3 - 3x - 5 is
2
d) y = 2x - 4 divided by x - 3, the remainder is -14.
e) y = 2x5 - 3x3 + 1 b) Using your value from part a),
3. A parachutist jumps from a plane 11 500 ft determine the remainder when f(x)
above the ground. The height, h, in feet, of is divided by x + 3.
the parachutist above the ground t seconds 6. For what value of b will the polynomial
after the jump can be modelled by the P(x) = 4x3 - 3x2 + bx + 6 have the same
function h(t) = 11 500 - 16t 2. remainder when it is divided by both x - 1
a) What type of function is h(t)? and x + 3?
b) What will the parachutist’s height above
the ground be after 12 s? 3.3 The Factor Theorem, pages 126—135
c) When will the parachutist be 1500 ft 7. Which binomials are factors of the
above the ground? polynomial P(x) = x3 - x2 - 16x + 16?
d) Approximately how long will it take the Justify your answers.
parachutist to reach the ground? a) x - 1
b) x + 1
c) x + 4
d) x - 4
8. Factor fully.
a) x3 - 4x2 + x + 6
b) -4x3 - 4x2 + 16x + 16
c) x 4 - 4x3 - x2 + 16x - 12
d) x5 - 3x 4 - 5x3 + 27x2 - 32x + 12

9. Rectangular blocks of granite are to be cut 13. Determine the equation of the polynomial
and used to build the front entrance of a function that corresponds to each graph.
new hotel. The volume, V, in cubic metres, a) y
of each block can be modelled by the 4
function V(x) = 2x3 + 7x2 + 2x - 3, where
x is in metres. 2
a) What are the possible dimensions of the

-4 -2 0 x
blocks in terms of x?
-2
b) What are the possible dimensions of the
blocks when x = 1? -4
10. Determine the value of k so that x + 3 is a

factor of x3 + 4x2 - 2kx + 3. b) y
3.4 Equations and Graphs of Polynomial 6

Functions, pages 136—152
4
11. For each function, determine
• the x-intercepts of the graph 2
• the degree and end behaviour of the graph
• the zeros and their multiplicity -2 0 2 x
• the y-intercept of the graph
• the interval(s) where the function is 14. The zeros of a quartic function are
positive and the interval(s) where it -2, -1, and 3 (multiplicity 2).
is negative a) Determine equations for two functions
Then, sketch the graph. that satisfy this condition.
a) y = (x + 1)(x - 2)(x + 3) b) Determine the equation of the function
that satisfies this condition and passes
b) y = (x - 3)(x + 2)2
through the point (2, 24).
c) g(x) = x 4 - 16x2
15. The specifications for a cardboard box state
d) g(x) = -x5 + 16x
that the width must be 5 cm less than the
12. The graph of y = x 3 is transformed to length, and the height must be double the
obtain the graph of y = 2(-4(x - 1))3 + 3. length.
a) What are the parameters and a) Write the equation for the volume of
corresponding transformations? the box.
b) Copy and complete the table. b) What are the dimensions of a box with
Parameter a volume of 384 cm3?
Transformation Value Equation
horizontal stretch/
y=
reflection in y-axis
vertical stretch/
y=
reflection in x-axis
translation
y=
left/right
translation
y=
up/down
c) Sketch the graph of

y = 2(-4(x - 1))3 + 3.

Multiple Choice 5. Which statement describes how to
transform the function y = x3 into
For #1 to #5, choose the best answer. 1 (x - 5) 3 - 2?
1. Which statement is true?
y=3 _( 4 )
A stretch horizontally by a factor of 3,
A Some odd-degree polynomial functions 1,
stretch vertically by a factor of _
have no x-intercepts. 4
and translate 5 units to the left and
B Even-degree polynomial functions
2 units up
always have an even number of
B stretch horizontally by a factor of 3,
x-intercepts.
1,
stretch vertically by a factor of _
C All odd-degree polynomial functions 4
have at least one x-intercept. and translate 2 units to the right and
D All even-degree polynomial functions
5 units down
have at least one x-intercept. C stretch horizontally by a factor of
2. Which statement is true for
4, stretch vertically by a factor of 3,
P(x) = 3x3 + 4x2 + 2x - 9? and translate 5 units to the right and
2 units down
A When P(x) is divided by x + 1, the
D stretch horizontally by a factor of
remainder is 6.
4, stretch vertically by a factor of 3,
B x - 1 is a factor of P(x).
and translate 2 units to the left and
C P(3) = 36 5 units up
D P(x) = (x + 3)(3x2 - 5x + 17) + 42
3. Which set of values for x should be Short Answer
tested to determine the possible zeros 6. Determine the real roots of each equation.
of x 4 - 2x3 - 7x2 - 8x + 12?
a) (x + 4)2(x - 3) = 0
A ±1, ±2, ±4, ±12
b) (x - 3)2(x + 1)2 = 0
B ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6
c) (4x2 - 16)(x2 - 3x - 10) = 0
C ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±8
d) (9x2 - 81)(x2 - 9) = 0
D ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±12
7. Factor each polynomial in x.
4. Which of the following is a factor of
a) P(x) = x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 2
2x3 - 5x2 - 9x + 18?
b) P(x) = x3 - 13x2 + 12
A x-1
c) P(x) = -x3 + 6x2 - 9x
B x+2
d) P(x) = x3 - 3x2 + x + 5
C x+3
D x-6

8. Match each equation with the Extended Response
corresponding graph of a polynomial 9. Boxes for candies are to be constructed
function. Justify your choices. from cardboard sheets that measure
a) y = x 4 + 3x3 - 3x2 - 7x + 6 36 cm by 20 cm. Each box is formed by
b) y = x3 - 4x2 + 4x folding a sheet along the dotted lines,
c) y = -2x3 + 6x2 + 2x - 6 as shown.
x x
A y x
6
20 cm
4
2 x
36 cm
-4 -2 0 2 4 x a) What is the volume of the box as a

-2 function of x?
-4 b) What are the possible whole-number
dimensions of the box if the volume is
-6 to be 512 cm3?
10. a) Identify the parameters
B y a, b, h, and k in the polynomial
y=_ 1 (x + 3)3 - 2. Describe
8 3
how each parameter transforms
6
the base function y = x 3.
4 b) State the domain and range of the
2
c) Sketch graphs of the base function and
-4 -2 0 2 4 x the transformed function on the same
-2 set of axes.
-4
C y
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4

Cumulative Review, Chapters 1—3
Chapter 1 Function Transformations 5. The x-intercepts of the graph of y = f(x)
are -4 and 6. The y-intercept is -3.
1. Given the graph of the function y = f(x),
Determine the new x-intercepts and
sketch the graph of each transformation.
y-intercept for each of the following
y
transformations of f(x).
6
a) y = f(3x) b) y = -2f(x)
4 6. Consider the graph of y = |x| + 4.
y
2
8
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
6
y = |x| + 4
-2
y = f(x) 4
-4
2
a) y + 2 = f(x - 3) b) y + 1 = -f(x)
c) y = f(3x + 6) d) y = 3f(-x) -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
2. Write the equation for the translated graph,

g(x), in the form y - k = f(x - h). a) Does this graph represent a function?
y b) Sketch the graph of the inverse of

f(x) y = |x| + 4.
4
c) Is the inverse of y = |x| + 4 a function?
2 If not, restrict the domain of y = |x| + 4
so that its inverse is a function.
-2 0 2 4 6 x
-2 Chapter 2 Radical Functions
g(x) __
-4 7. The graph of the function f (x) =x is √
transformed to the graph shown. Determine

the equation of the transformed graph in
________
3. Describe the combination of transformations
the form g(x) = √b(x - h) - k.
that must be applied to the function f(x) to
y
obtain the transformed function g(x).
2
a) y = f(x) and g(x) = f(x + 1) - 5 g(x)
b) f(x) = x2 and g(x) = -3(x - 2)2 x
-2 0 2 4 6 8
c) f(x) = |x| and g(x) = |-x + 1| + 3 -2
4. The graph of y = f(x) is transformed as
indicated. State the coordinates of the __
8. The graph of the function f (x) = x is√
image point of (6, 9) on the transformed
graph. transformed by a vertical stretch by a
factor of 2 and then reflected in the y-axis
a) h(x) = f(x - 3) + 1
and translated 1 unit to the left. State the
b) i(x) = -2f (x) equation of the transformed function,
c) j(x) = f (-3x) sketch the graph, and identify the domain
and range.
158 MHR • Cumulative Review, Chapters 1—3

9. The graph of g(x) is a transformation of Chapter 3 Polynomial Functions
the graph of f(x).
13. Divide each of the following as indicated.
y
Express your answer in the form
8 P(x) R
g(x) __ __
x - a = Q(x) + x - a . Confirm your
6 remainder using the remainder theorem.
4 a) x 4 + 3x + 4 divided by x + 1
f(x)
2
b) x 3 + 5x2 + x - 9 divided by x + 3
14. List the possible integral
0 2 4 6 8 x zeros of the polynomial
P(x) = x 4 - 3x 3 - 3x2 + 11x - 6. Use
a) Write the equation of g(x) as a the remainder theorem to determine the
horizontal stretch of f(x). remainder for each possible value.
b) Write the equation of g(x) as a 15. Factor fully.
vertical stretch of f(x). a) x3 - 21x + 20
c) Show that the functions in parts a) b) x3 + 3x2 - 10x - 24
and b) are equivalent. c) -x 4 + 8x2 - 16
2
10. Consider the____
functions f(x) = x - 1 16. Determine the x-intercepts and the
and g(x) = √f(x) . y-intercept of the graphs of each
a) Compare the x-intercepts of the polynomial function. Then, sketch the
graphs of the two functions. Explain graph.
your results. a) f(x) = -x3 + 2x2 + 9x - 18
b) Compare the domains of the functions. b) g(x) = x 4 - 2x3 - 3x2 + 4x + 4
Explain your results.
______ 17. The volume of a box is represented by the
11. The radical equation 2x = √x + 3 - 5 can function V(x) = x3 + 2x2 - 11x - 12.
be solved graphically or algebraically.
a) If the height of the box can be
a) Ron solved the equation algebraically represented by x + 1, determine the
and obtained the solutions x = -2.75 possible length and width by factoring
and x = -2. Are these solutions correct? the polynomial.
Explain.
b) If the height of the box is 4.5 m,
b) Solve the equation graphically to determine the dimensions of the box.
confirm your answer to part a).
______ 18. Determine the equation of the transformed
12. Consider the function f(x) = 3√x - 4 - 6. function.
a) Sketch the graph of the function and f(x) = x3 is stretched vertically about the
determine its x-intercept. x-axis by a factor of 3, then reflected in the
______
b) Solve the equation 0 = 3√x - 4 - 6. y-axis, and then translated horizontally
c) Describe the relationship between the 5 units to the right.
x-intercept of the graph and the solution
to the equation.
Cumulative Review, Chapters 1—3 • MHR 159

Unit 1 Test
Multiple Choice 3. Which pair of functions are not inverses of
each other?
For #1 to #7, choose the best answer. x
A f(x) = 5x and g(x) = _
5
1. The graph of f(x) and its transformation,
B f(x) = x + 3 and g(x) = x - 3
g(x), are shown below.
1 1
C f (x) = 4x - 1 and g(x) = _ x + _
y 4 4
x
D f(x) = _ + 5 and g(x) = 2x - 5
6
g(x) 2
4. Which function has a domain of {x | x ∈ R}
4 f(x)
and a range of {y | y ≥ -3, y ∈ R}?
2
A y = |x + 4| - 3
______
x
B y = √x + 4 - 3
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 ______
-2 C y = √x2 - 4 - 3
D y = (x - 4)3 - 3
______
5. If the graph of y = √x + 3 is reflected
The equation of the transformed
function is in the line y = x, then which statement
is true?
1
(
A g(x) = f _ (x - 3) + 1
2 ) A All invariant points lie on the y-axis.
B g(x) = f(2(x - 3)) + 1 B The new graph is not a function.
1
(
C g(x) = f _ (x + 3) + 1
2 ) C The point (6, 3) will become (-3, 6).
D g(x) = f(2(x + 3)) + 1 D The domain of the new graph is

{x | x ≥ 0, x ∈ R}.
2. The graph of the function y = f(x) is
transformed by a reflection in the y-axis 6. If the graph of a polynomial function of
and a horizontal stretch about the y-axis by degree 3 passes through (2, 4) and has
a factor of 3. Which of the following will x-intercepts of -2 and 3 only, the function
not change? could be
I the domain A f(x) = x 3 + x 2 - 8x - 12
II the range B f(x) = x 3 - x 2 - 8x + 12
III the x-intercepts C f (x) = x 3 - 4x 2 - 3x + 18

D f(x) = x 3 + 4x 2 - 3x - 18
IV the y-intercept
7. If P(x) = -x 3 - 4x 2 + x + 4, then
A I only
A x + 1 is a factor
B I and III
B P(0) = -1
C II and IV
C the y-intercept is -4
D depends on y = f(x)
D x - 1 is not a factor
160 MHR • Unit 1 Test

Numerical Response 14. The graph of y = f(x) represents one
quarter of a circle. Describe the reflections
Copy and complete the statements in #8 of y = f(x) required to produce a whole
to #11. circle. State the equations required.
8. When x 4 + k is divided by x + 2, the y
remainder is 3. The value of k is . 6
9. If the range of the function y = f(x) is f(x)
4
{y | y ≥ 11, y ∈ R}, then the range of the
new function g(x) = f(x + 2) - 3 is . 2
10. The graph of the function f(x) = |x|

-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
is transformed so that the point (x, y)
becomes (x - 2, y + 3). The equation of -2
the transformed function is g(x) = .
_______
11. The root of the equation x = √2x - 1 + 2 15. Mary and John were asked to solve the
______
is . equation 2x = √x + 1 + 4.
a) Mary chose to solve the equation
Written Response algebraically. Her first steps are shown.
2
12. a) The graph of y = x is stretched Identify any errors in her work, and
horizontally about the y-axis by a factor complete the correct solution.
______
1 and then translated horizontally
of _ 2x = √x______
+1+4
2
6 units to the right. Sketch the graph. Step 1: (2x)2 = (√x + 1 + 4)2
Step 2: 4x2 = x + 1 + 16
b) The graph of y = x2 is translated
b) John decided to find the solution
horizontally 6 units to the right and
then stretched horizontally about the graphically. He entered the following
1 . Sketch the equations in his calculator. Could
y-axis by a factor of _
2 his method lead to a correct answer?
graph.
Explain.
c) How are the two images related? ______
y = √x + 1 + 4
Explain.
y = 2x
13. Consider f(x) = x2 - 9.
16. Given that x + 3 is a factor of the
a) Sketch the graph of f(x).
polynomial P(x) = x 4 + 3x 3 + cx2 - 7x + 6,
b) Determine the equation of the inverse of determine the value of c. Then, factor the
f (x) and sketch its graph. polynomial fully.
____
c) State the equation of y = √f(x) and 17. Consider P(x) = x 3 - 7x - 6.
sketch its graph.
a) List the possible integral zeros of P(x).
d) Identify and compare the domain and
b) Factor P(x) fully.
range of the three relations.
c) State the x-intercepts and y-intercept of
the graph of the function P(x).
d) Determine the intervals where P(x) ≥ 0.
Unit 1 Test • MHR 161

CHAPTER
4 Trigonometry
and the
Unit Circle
Have you ever wondered about the repeating
patterns that occur around us? Repeating patterns
occur in sound, light, tides, time, and molecular
motion. To analyse these repeating, cyclical
patterns, you need to move from using ratios in
triangles to using circular functions to approach
trigonometry.
In this chapter, you will learn how to model and

solve trigonometric problems using the unit circle
and circular functions of radian measures.
Did Yo u Know ?
The flower in the photograph is called the Trigonometry daffodil.

Why do you think this name was chosen?
Key Terms
radian cosecant
coterminal angles secant
general form cotangent
unit circle trigonometric equation

4.1
Angles and Angle
Measure
Focus on . . .
• sketching angles in standard position measured in
degrees and radians
• converting angles in degree measure to radian
measure and vice versa
• determining the measures of angles that are
coterminal with a given angle
• solving problems involving arc lengths, central
angles, and the radius in a circle
Angles can be measured using different units, such as revolutions,

degrees, radians, and gradians. Which of these units are you familiar
with? Check how many of these units are on your calculator.
Angles are everywhere and can be found in unexpected places. How
many different angles can you see in the structure of the racing car?
Did Yo u Know ?
Sound (undamaged) hooves of all horses share certain

angle aspects determined by anatomy and the laws of
physics. A front hoof normally exhibits a 30° hairline and
a 49° toe angle, while a hind hoof has a 30° hairline and
a 55° toe angle. 49° 30° 30° 55°
Investigate Angle Measure
Materials Work in small groups.

• masking tape 1. Mark the centre of a circle on the floor with sidewalk chalk. Then,
• sidewalk chalk using a piece of string greater than 1 m long for the radius, outline
• string the circle with chalk or pieces of masking tape.
• measuring tape
2. Label the centre of the circle O. Choose any point A on the
circumference of the circle. OA is the radius of the circle. Have
one member of your group walk heel-to-toe along the radius,
counting foot lengths. Then, have the same person count the same
number of foot lengths moving counterclockwise from A along the
circumference. Label the endpoint B. Use tape to make the radii AO
and BO. Have another member of the group confirm that the radius
AO is the same length as arc AB.

3. Determine, by walking round the circle from B, approximately
how many times the length of the radius fits onto the
circumference.
B
O A
Reflect and Respond

4. Use your knowledge of circumference to show that your answer
in step 3 is reasonable.
5. Is ∠AOB in step 3 greater than, equal to, or less than 60°?
Discuss this with your group.
6. Determine the degree measure of ∠AOB, to the nearest tenth of
a degree.
7. Compare your results with those of other groups. Does the
central angle AOB maintain its size if you use a larger circle?
a smaller circle?
Link the Ideas
In the investigation, you encountered several key points associated

with angle measure.
By convention, angles measured in a counterclockwise direction
are said to be positive. Those measured in a clockwise direction
are negative. radian
• one radian is the
The angle AOB that you created measures 1 radian. measure of the central
angle subtended in a
One full rotation is 360° or 2π radians.
circle by an arc equal in
One half rotation is 180° or π radians. length to the radius of
the circle
π radians.
One quarter rotation is 90° or _ • 2π = 360°
2 = 1 full rotation (or
One eighth rotation is 45° or π
_ radians. revolution)
4 B
Many mathematicians omit units for radian measures. For
r r
example, _2π radians may be written as _ 2π . Angle measures
3 3 1
0 A
without units are considered to be in radians. r
4.1 Angles and Angle Measure • MHR 167

Example 1
Convert Between Degree and Radian Measure
Draw each angle in standard position. Change each degree measure
to radian measure and each radian measure to degree measure. Give
answers as both exact and approximate measures (if necessary) to the
nearest hundredth of a unit.
a) 30° b) -120°
5π
c) _ d) 2.57
4
Solution
a) y
terminal An angle in standard position has its

arm centre at the origin and its initial arm
30° along the positive x-axis.
0 x
In which direction are positive angles
measured?
Unitary Method
360° = 2π
1° = _2π
360
=_ π
180
π
30° = 30 _ (
180 )
=_π π
_
is an exact value.
6 6
≈ 0.52
b) y
Why is the angle drawn using a

0 x clockwise rotation?
-120°
Proportion Method
180° = π
-120° = _
__ x
180° π
-120π
x = __
180
= -_2π
3
≈ -2.09
2π or approximately -2.09.
So, -120° is equivalent to - _
3

1
c) π is _ rotation. y
2
π is _
_ 1 rotation.
4 8 5π
__
5π terminates in 4
So _
4 0 x
the third quadrant.
Unit Analysis
5π =
_
4 (_
5π _ 180°
4 )( π )
180°
Why does _π ( )
have value 1?
5(180°)
= __
4
= 225°
5π
_
4 is equivalent to 225°.
1
d) π (approximately 3.14) is _ rotation. y
2
π (approximately 1.57) is _
_ 1 rotation.
2 4 2.57
2.57 is between 1.57 and 3.14,
so it terminates in the second quadrant. 0 x
Unitary Method Proportion Method Unit Analysis

π = 180° _x =_ 180° 2.57
2.57 π
180° 180°
1=_ π 180°
x = 2.57 _ ( )
= 2.57 _ (
π )
2.57 π 462.6°
462.6°
__ = __ π
180° x= π
= 2.57 _ (
π ) ≈ 147.25°
462.6°
__
= π x ≈ 147.25°
≈ 147.25°
462.6° or approximately 147.25°.
2.57 is equivalent to __π
Your Turn D i d You K n ow?

Draw each angle in standard position. Change each degree measure to Most scientific and
radians and each radian measure to degrees. Give answers as both exact graphing calculators
can calculate using
and approximate measures (if necessary) to the nearest hundredth of
angle measures in
a unit. both degrees and
a) -270° b) 150° radians. Find out how
7π to change the mode
c) _ d) -1.2 on your calculator.
6

Coterminal Angles
When you sketch an angle of 60° and an angle of 420° in standard
coterminal angles position, the terminal arms coincide. These are coterminal angles.
• angles in standard y
position with the same
terminal arms
• may be measured in
60°
degrees or radians
π 9π 0 x
• _ and _ are 420°
4 4
coterminal angles, as
are 40° and -320°
Example 2
Identify Coterminal Angles
Determine one positive and one negative angle measure that is
coterminal with each angle. In which quadrant does the terminal arm lie?
8π
a) 40° b) -430° c) _
3
Solution
a) The terminal arm is in quadrant I.
To locate coterminal angles, begin on the terminal arm of the given
angle and rotate in a positive or negative direction until the new
terminal arm coincides with that of the original angle.
y y
40° 40°
0 x 0 x
40° + 360° = 400° 40° + (-360°) = -320°

Two angles coterminal with 40° are 400° and -320°. What other answers
are possible?
b) The terminal arm of -430° is in quadrant IV.
y y
-430°
0 x 0 x
-430°
-430° + 360° = -70° -430° + 720° = 290° The reference angle

Two angles coterminal with -430° are 290° and -70°. is 70°.

c) y
8π
__
3 6π + _
8π = _ 2π
_
3 3 3
0 x So, the angle is one full

2π
rotation (2π) plus _ .
3
The terminal arm is in quadrant II.

6π in one full rotation.
There are 2π or _
3
Counterclockwise one full rotation: _ 8π + _6π = _ 14π
3 3 3
Clockwise one full rotation: 8π
_ - 6π
_ = 2π
_
3 3 3
Clockwise two full rotations: 8π
_ - 12π
_ = -_ 4π
3 3 3
Two angles coterminal with 8π
_ are 2π
_ and - _ 4π .
3 3 3
Your Turn
For each angle in standard position, determine one positive and
one negative angle measure that is coterminal with it.
a) 270°
5π
b) - _ c) 740°
4
Coterminal Angles in General Form

By adding or subtracting multiples of one full rotation, you can write an
infinite number of angles that are coterminal with any given angle.
For example, some angles that are coterminal with 40° are
40° + (360°)(1) = 400° 40° - (360°)(1) = -320°
40° + (360°)(2) = 760° 40° - (360°)(2) = -680°
In general, the angles coterminal with 40° are 40° ± (360°)n, where
n is any natural number.
2π are
Some angles coterminal with _
3
2π 2π
_ + 2π(1) = _ + _ 6π 2π - 2π(1) = _
_ 2π - _6π
3 3 3 3 3 3
= 8π
_ =- 4π
_
3 3
2π 2π
_ + 2π(2) = _ + _ 12π 2π 2π
_ - 2π(2) = _ - _ 12π
3 3 3 3 3 3
=_14π = -_10π
3 3
2π are _
In general, the angles coterminal with _ 2π ± 2πn, where n is
3 3
any natural number.

Any given angle has an infinite number of angles coterminal with it,
since each time you make one full rotation from the terminal arm,
you arrive back at the same terminal arm. Angles coterminal with any
angle θ can be described using the expression
θ ± (360°)n or θ ± 2πn,
where n is a natural number. This way of expressing an answer is
general form called the general form.
• an expression
containing parameters
that can be given
specific values to
generate any answer Example 3
that satisfies the given
information or situation
Express Coterminal Angles in General Form
• represents all possible a) Express the angles coterminal with 110° in general form. Identify the
cases
angles coterminal with 110° that satisfy the domain -720° ≤ θ < 720°.
8π
b) Express the angles coterminal with _ in general form. Identify the
3
angles coterminal with _8π in the domain -4π ≤ θ < 4π.
3
Solution
a) Angles coterminal with 110° occur at 110° ± (360°)n, n ∈ N.
Substitute values for n to determine these angles.
n 1 2 3
110° - (360°)n -250° -610° -970°
110° + (360°)n 470° 830° 1190°
From the table, the values that satisfy the domain -720° ≤ θ < 720°
are -610°, -250°, and 470°. These angles are coterminal.
8π 8π
b) _ ± 2πn, n ∈ N, represents all angles coterminal with _ .
3 3
Substitute values for n to determine these angles.
n 1 2 3 4
_
8π
- 2πn 2π
_ 4π
-_ 10π
-_ 16π
-_
3 3 3 3 3
_
8π
+ 2πn 14π
_ 20π
_ 26π
_ 32π
_
3 3 3 3 3
The angles in the domain -4π ≤ θ < 4π that are 16π not an
Why is - _
10π , - _ 2π .
4π , and _ 3
coterminal are - _ acceptable answer?
3 3 3
Your Turn
Write an expression for all possible angles coterminal with each
given angle. Identify the angles that are coterminal that satisfy
-360° ≤ θ < 360° or -2π ≤ θ < 2π.
9π
a) -500° b) 650° c) _
4

Arc Length of a Circle
π have the same central angle, but
All arcs that subtend a right angle _( )
2
they have different arc lengths depending on the radius of the circle. The
arc length is proportional to the radius. This is true for any central angle
and related arc length.
Consider two concentric circles with centre O.
The radius of the smaller circle is 1, and the r
radius of the larger circle is r. A central angle of
1 B D
θ radians is subtended by arc AB on the smaller O θ x
circle and arc CD on the larger one. You can a
write the following proportion, where x A
represents the arc length of the smaller circle C
and a is the arc length of the larger circle.

a=_
_ r
x 1
a = xr q
Consider the circle with radius 1 and the sector with central angle θ.
The ratio of the arc length to the circumference is equal to the ratio of
the central angle to one full rotation.
_ x =_ θ Why is r = 1?
2πr 2π
x= _( )
θ 2π(1)
2π
x=θ
Substitute x = θ in q.
a = θr
This formula, a = θr, works for any circle, provided that θ is measured
in radians and both a and r are measured in the same units.
Example 4
Determine Arc Length in a Circle
Rosemarie is taking a course in industrial engineering. For an
assignment, she is designing the interface of a DVD player. In her
plan, she includes a decorative arc below the on/off button. The arc
has central angle 130° in a circle with radius 6.7 mm. Determine the
length of the arc, to the nearest tenth of a millimetre.
6.7 mm
130°

Solution
Method 1: Convert to Radians and Use the Formula a = θr
Convert the measure of the central angle to radians before using
the formula a = θr, where a is the arc length; θ is the central angle,
in radians; and r is the length of the radius.
180° = π
1° = _π
180
π
130° = 130 _
180( )
=_ 13π
18
a = θr
13π (6.7)
(
= _
18 ) Why is it important to use exact
values throughout the calculation
= 87.1π
__ and only convert to decimal
18 fractions at the end?
= 15.201…
The arc length is 15.2 mm, to the nearest tenth of a millimetre.
Method 2: Use a Proportion

Let a represent the arc length.
arc length
___ central angle
= ___ 6.7 mm
circumference full rotation
a
__ 130°
=_ 130°
2π(6.7) 360°
2π(6.7)130°
a = ___
360° a
= 15.201…
The arc length is 15.2 mm, to the nearest tenth of a millimetre.
Your Turn
If a represents the length of an arc of a circle with radius r, subtended by
a central angle of θ, determine the missing quantity. Give your answers to
the nearest tenth of a unit.
a) r = 8.7 cm, θ = 75°, a = cm
b) r = mm, θ = 1.8, a = 4.7 mm
c) r = 5 m, a = 13 m, θ =

Key Ideas
Angles can be measured using different units, including degrees and radians.
An angle measured in one unit can be converted to the other unit using the
relationships 1 full rotation = 360° = 2π.
An angle in standard position has its vertex at the origin and its initial
arm along the positive x-axis.
Angles that are coterminal have the same initial arm and the same
terminal arm.
An angle θ has an infinite number of angles that are coterminal expressed
by θ ± (360°)n, n ∈ N, in degrees, or θ ± 2πn, n ∈ N, in radians.
The formula a = θr, where a is the arc length; θ is the central angle, in
radians; and r is the length of the radius, can be used to determine any of
the variables given the other two, as long as a and r are in the same units.
Practise 4. Convert each radian measure to degrees.

1. For each angle, indicate whether the Express your answers as exact values and
direction of rotation is clockwise or as approximate measures, to the nearest
counterclockwise. tenth of a degree, if necessary.
π 2π
a) -4π b) 750° a) _ b) _
6 3
c) -38.7° d) 1 c) - _
3π 5π
d) - _
8 2
2. Convert each degree measure to radians. e) 1 f) 2.75
Write your answers as exact values.
5. Convert each radian measure to degrees.
Sketch the angle and label it in degrees
Express your answers as exact values and
and in radians.
as approximate measures, to the nearest
a) 30° b) 45° thousandth.
c) -330° d) 520° 2π 7π
a) _ b) _
7 13
e) 90° f) 21°
c) _
2 d) 3.66
3. Convert each degree measure to radians. 3
Express your answers as exact values and e) -6.14 f) -20
as approximate measures, to the nearest 6. Sketch each angle in standard position. In
hundredth of a radian. which quadrant does each angle terminate?
a) 60° b) 150° a) 1 b) -225°
c) -270° d) 72° 17π
c) _ d) 650°
6
e) -14.8° f) 540°
2π
e) - _ f) -42°
3

7. Determine one positive and one negative 13. Use the information in each diagram to
angle coterminal with each angle. determine the value of the variable. Give
3π your answers to the nearest hundredth of
a) 72° b) _
4 a unit.
c) -120° d)
11π
_
a) 9 cm
2
e) -205° f) 7.8
θ
4 cm
8. Determine whether the angles in each pair
are coterminal. For one pair of angles,
explain how you know.
5π 17π 5π 9π
a) _ , _ b) _ , - _
6 6 2 2 b)
c) 410°, -410° d) 227°, -493°
9. Write an expression for all of the angles 1.22 a
coterminal with each angle. Indicate what
9 ft
your variable represents.
a) 135° b) - _
π
2
c) 15 cm
c) -200° d) 10
10. Draw and label an angle in standard
position with negative measure. Then, 3.93
determine an angle with positive measure r

that is coterminal with your original angle.
Show how to use a general expression for
coterminal angles to find the second angle. d) a
11. For each angle, determine all angles that 140°

are coterminal in the given domain. 7m
a) 65°, 0° ≤ θ < 720°

b) -40°, -180° ≤ θ < 360°
c) -40°, -720° ≤ θ < 720°
3π
d) _ , -2π ≤ θ < 2π Apply
4
11π 14. A rotating water sprinkler makes one
e) - _ , -4π ≤ θ < 4π
6 revolution every 15 s. The water reaches a
f)
7π
_ , -2π ≤ θ < 4π distance of 5 m from the sprinkler.
3
a) What is the arc length of the sector
g) 2.4, -2π ≤ θ < 2π
watered when the sprinkler rotates
h) -7.2, -4π ≤ θ < 2π 5π ? Give your answer as both
through _
12. Determine the arc length subtended by 3
an exact value and an approximate
each central angle. Give answers to the
measure, to the nearest hundredth.
nearest hundredth of a unit.
b) Show how you could find the area of
a) radius 9.5 cm, central angle 1.4
the sector watered in part a).
b) radius 1.37 m, central angle 3.5
c) What angle does the sprinkler rotate
c) radius 7 cm, central angle 130° through in 2 min? Express your answer
d) radius 6.25 in., central angle 282° in radians and degrees.

15. Angular velocity describes the rate of 17. Copy and complete the table by
change in a central angle over time. For converting each angle measure to its
example, the change could be expressed in equivalent in the other systems. Round
revolutions per minute (rpm), radians per your answers to the nearest tenth
second, degrees per hour, and so on. All where necessary.
that is required is an angle measurement Revolutions Degrees Radians
expressed over a unit of time.
a) 1 rev
a) Earth makes one revolution every 24 h.
b) 270°
Express the angular velocity of Earth in
5π
_
three other ways. c) 6
b) An electric motor rotates at 1000 rpm. d) -1.7
What is this angular velocity expressed
e) -40°
in radians per second?
f) 0.7 rev
c) A bicycle wheel completes
g) -3.25 rev
10 revolutions every 4 s. Express this
angular velocity in degrees per minute. h) 460°
3π
-_
16. Skytrek Adventure Park in Revelstoke, i) 8
British Columbia, has a sky swing. Can
you imagine a 170-ft flight that takes riders 18. Joran and Jasmine are discussing
through a scary pendulum swing? At one expressions for the general form of
point you are soaring less than 10 ft from coterminal angles of 78°. Joran claims
the ground at speeds exceeding 60 mph. the answer must be expressed as
a) The length of the cable is 72 ft and you 78° + (360°)n, n ∈ I. Jasmine indicates
travel on an arc of length 170 ft on one that although Joran’s expression is correct,
particular swing. What is the measure another answer is possible. She prefers
of the central angle? Give your answer 78° ± k(360°), k ∈ N, where N represents
in radians, to the nearest hundredth. positive integers. Who is correct? Why?
b) What is the measure of the central angle 19. The gradian (grad) is another unit of
from part a), to the nearest tenth of angle measure. It is defined as _ 1 of a
400
a degree?
revolution, so one full rotation contains
400 grads.
a) Determine the number of gradians
in 50°.
b) Describe a process for converting
from degree measure to gradians and
vice versa.
c) Identify a possible reason that the
gradian was created.
D i d You K n ow ?
Gradians originated in France in the 1800s. They are

still used in some engineering work.

20. Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, and 21. Sam Whittingham from Quadra Island,
Crowsnest Pass, Alberta, lie along the British Columbia, holds five 2009 world
114° W line of longitude. The latitude of human-powered speed records on his
Yellowknife is 62.45° N and the latitude recumbent bicycle. In the 200-m flying
of Crowsnest Pass is 49.63° N. Consider start, he achieved a speed of 133.284 km/h.
Earth to be a sphere with radius a) Express the speed in metres per minute.
6400 km.
b) The diameter of his bicycle wheel is
a) Sketch the information given above 60 cm. Through how many radians per
using a circle. Label the centre of minute must the wheels turn to achieve
Earth, its radius to the equator, and his world record in the 200-m flying start?
the locations of Yellowknife and
Crowsnest Pass.
b) Determine the distance between
Yellowknife and Crowsnest Pass.
Give your answer to the nearest
hundredth of a kilometre.
c) Choose a town or city either where
you live or nearby. Determine
the latitude and longitude of this
location. Find another town or city 22. A water wheel with diameter 3 m is used
with the same longitude. What is the to measure the approximate speed of the
distance between the two places? water in a river. If the angular velocity of
the wheel is 15 rpm, what is the speed of
D id Yo u Know ?
the river, in kilometres per hour?
Lines of latitude and longitude locate places on 23. Earth is approximately 93 000 000 mi from
Earth. Lines of latitude are parallel to the equator
the sun. It revolves around the sun, in an
and are labelled from 0° at the equator to 90° at
the North Pole. Lines of longitude converge at the almost circular orbit, in about 365 days.
poles and are widest apart at the equator. 0° passes Calculate the linear speed, in miles per
through Greenwich, England, and the lines are hour, of Earth in its orbit. Give your
numbered up to 180° E and 180° W, meeting at the
International Date Line. answer to the nearest hundredth.
North Pole, International Date Line,

latitude 90° N longitude 180° W Extend
and 180° E 24. Refer to the Did You Know? below.
a) With a partner, show how to convert
longitude 0° 69.375° to 69° 22 30
.
b) Change the following angles into
degrees-minutes-seconds.
i) 40.875° ii) 100.126°
equator,
latitude 0° iii) 14.565° iv) 80.385°
45° W 45° E D i d You K n ow ?
South Pole, You have expressed degree measures as decimal

latitude 90° S numbers, for example, 69.375°. Another way
subdivides 1° into 60 parts called minutes. Each
minute can be subdivided into 60 parts called
seconds. Then, an angle such as 69.375° can be
written as 69° 22 min 30 s or 69° 22 30
.

25. a) Reverse the process of question 24 and Create Connections
show how to convert 69° 22 30
to
C1 Draw a diagram and use it to help explain
69.375°. Hint: Convert 30
into a decimal
whether 6 radians is greater than, equal to,
fraction part of a minute. Combine this
or less than 360°.
part of a minute with the 22 and then
convert the minutes to part of a degree. C2 In mathematics, angle measures are
commonly defined in degrees or radians.
b) Change each angle measure into degrees,
Describe the difference between 1° and
rounded to the nearest thousandth.
1 radian. Use drawings to support your
i) 45° 30 30
answer.
ii) 72° 15 45
C3 The following angles are in standard
iii) 105° 40 15
position. What is the measure of the
iv) 28° 10 reference angle for each? Write an
expression for all coterminal angles
26. A segment of a circle
A associated with each given angle.
is the region between
a chord and the arc θ B a) 860°
subtended by r b) -7 (give the reference angle to the
that chord. Consider nearest hundredth)
chord AB subtended C4 a) Make a circle diagram similar to the
by central angle θ in one shown. On the outside of the
a circle with radius r. circle, label all multiples of 45° in the
Derive a formula using r and θ for the area domain 0° ≤ θ < 360°. Show the radian
of the segment subtended by θ. equivalent as an exact value inside
27. The hour hand of an analog clock moves in the circle.
proportion to the movement of the minute
hand. This means that at 4:05, the hour
hand will have moved beyond the 4 by _ 5
60
of the distance it would move in an hour.
a) What is the measure of the obtuse angle
between the hands of a clock at 4:00?
Give your answer in degrees.
b) What is the measure, in degrees, of the
acute angle between the hands of a b) Make another circle diagram. This time,
clock at 4:10? mark and label all the multiples of 30°
c) At certain times, the hands of a clock in the domain 0° ≤ θ < 360°. Again,
are at right angles to each other. What show the degree values outside the
are two of these times? circle and the exact radian equivalents
d) At how many different times does the inside the circle.
angle between the hands of a clock C5 A line passes through the point (3, 0). Find
measure 90° between 4:00 and 5:00? the equation of the line if the angle formed
e) Does one of the times occur before, at, between the line and the positive x-axis is
or shortly after 4:05? Explain. π
a) _ b) 45°
2

4.2
The Unit Circle
Focus on . . .
• developing and applying the equation of the unit circle
• generalizing the equation of a circle with centre (0, 0) and radius r
• using symmetry and patterns to locate the coordinates of points
on the unit circle
A gauge is a measuring tool that is used in many different

situations. There are two basic types of gauges—radial
(circular) and linear. What gauges can you think of that
are linear? What gauges are you familiar with that are
circular? How are linear and circular gauges similar, and
how do they differ?
Have you ever wondered why some phenomena, such
as tides and hours of daylight, are so predictable? It is
because they have repetitive or cyclical patterns. Why is
sin 30° the same as sin 150°? Why is cos 60° = sin 150°?
How do the coordinates of a point on a circle of radius
1 unit change every quarter-rotation?
Investigate Circular Number Lines
Materials 1. Select a can or other cylinder. Cut a strip of paper about 1.5 cm wide
• paper and the same length as the circumference of the cylinder.
• scissors 2. Create a number line by drawing a line along the centre of the strip.
• tape Label the left end of the line 0 and the right end 2π. According to
• can or other cylinder this labelling, how long is the number line?
• straight edge 3. Divide the number line into eight equal subdivisions. What value
• compass would you use to label the point midway between 0 and 2π? What
value would you use to label halfway between 0 and the middle
of the number line? Continue until all seven points that subdivide
the number line are labelled. Write all values in terms of π. Express
fractional values in lowest terms.
4. Tape the number line around the bottom of the can, so that the labels
read in a counterclockwise direction.
5. Use the can to draw a circle on a sheet of paper. Locate the centre of
the circle and label it O. Draw coordinate axes through O that extend
beyond the circle. Place the can over the circle diagram so that the
zero of the number line lies above where the circle intersects the
positive x-axis.

6. Mark the coordinates of all points where the circle crosses the axes
on your diagram. Label these points as P(θ) = (x, y), where P(θ)
represents a point on the circle that has a central angle θ in standard
position. For example, label the point where the circle crosses the
π = (0, 1).
positive y-axis as P _
2 ( )
7. Now, create a second number line. Label the ends as 0 and 2π. Divide
this number line into 12 equal segments. Label divisions in terms of
π. Express fractional values in lowest terms.
Reflect and Respond

8. Since each number line shows the circumference of the can and the
circle to be 2π units, what assumption is being made about the length
of the radius?
9. a) Two students indicate that the points in step 6 are simply
multiples of _π . Do you agree? Explain.
2
b) In fact, they argue that the values on the original number line are
all multiples of _π . Is this true? Explain.
4
π
( )
10. Show how to determine the coordinates for P _ . Hint: Use your
4
knowledge of the ratios of the side lengths of a 45°-45°-90° triangle.
Mark the coordinates for all the points on the circle that are midway
between the axes. What is the only difference in the coordinates for
these four points? What negative values for θ would generate the
same points on the circle midway between the axes?
Link the Ideas
Unit Circle
The circle you drew in the investigation is a unit circle. unit circle
y • a circle with radius
1 unit
(0, 1) • a circle of radius 1 unit
with centre at the
origin on the Cartesian
plane is known as the
(-1, 0) (1, 0) unit circle
0 x
(0, -1)
4.2 The Unit Circle • MHR 181

You can find the equation of the unit y
circle using the Pythagorean theorem.
Consider a point P on the unit circle. P(x, y)
1
Let P have coordinates (x, y).
Draw right triangle OPA as shown. 0 A x
OP = 1 The radius of the unit circle is 1.

PA = |y| The absolute value of the y-coordinate represents
the distance from a point to the x-axis.
OA = |x| Why is this true?
(OP)2 = (OA)2 + (PA)2 Pythagorean theorem
12 = |x|2 + |y|2 How would the equation for a circle with centre
1 = x2 + y 2 O(0, 0) differ if the radius were r rather than 1?
The equation of the unit circle is x2 + y 2 = 1.
Example 1
Equation of a Circle Centred at the Origin
Determine the equation of the circle y
with centre at the origin and radius 2.
P(x, y)
Solution 2
Choose a point, P, on the circle with 0 A x

coordinates (x, y).
The radius of the circle is 2, and a vertical
line from the y-coordinate to the x-axis forms
a right angle with the axis. This means you
can use the Pythagorean theorem.
|x|2 + |y|2 = 22
x2 + y 2 = 4
Since this is true for every point P on the circle, the equation
of the circle is x2 + y 2 = 4.
Your Turn
Determine the equation of a circle with centre at the origin and
radius 6.

Example 2
Determine Coordinates for Points of the Unit Circle
Determine the coordinates for all points on the unit circle that satisfy
the conditions given. Draw a diagram in each case.
2
a) the x-coordinate is _
3
b) the y-coordinate is - _
1__ and the point is in quadrant III
√2
Solution
a) Coordinates on the unit circle satisfy the equation x2 + y 2 = 1.
2
( _23 ) + y 2
=1 Since x is positive, which quadrants could the points be in?
4 + y2 = 1
_
9
5
y2 = _ y
9 __
√5 Why are there
y = ±_
3 two answers?
1
( 2_3 , y )
Two points satisfy the given
__ 0 x
√5
2, _
conditions: _ in (3 3 ) __
( 2_3 , y )
√5
2 , -_
quadrant I and _ in (3 3 )
quadrant IV.
b) y = - ___ 1 y
√2
y is negative in quadrants III and IV.

But the point is in quadrant III, so x
is also negative.
0 x
x2 + y 2 = 1
1__ 2 = 1
x2 + - _ (
√2 ) ( 1
x, - __ )
1 =1 2
x +_
2
2
x2 = _1
2
x = -_ 1__ Why is there
√2 only one answer?
__ __
The point is (-_1__ , - _
√2 √2 ) (
1__ , or - _ √2
2
,
√2
-_ .
2 )
Your Turn
Determine the missing coordinate(s) for all points on the unit circle
satisfying the given conditions. Draw a diagram and tell which
quadrant(s) the points lie in.
5 , where the point is in quadrant II
a) (- _58 , y) b)
13 )
(x, _

Relating Arc Length and Angle Measure in Radians
The formula a = θr, where a is the arc length; θ is the central angle, in
radians; and r is the radius, applies to any circle, as long as a and r are
measured in the same units. In the unit circle, the formula becomes
a = θ(1) or a = θ. This means that a central angle and its subtended arc
on the unit circle have the same numerical value.
You can use the function P(θ) = (x, y) to link the arc length, θ, of a
central angle in the unit circle to the coordinates, (x, y), of the point
of intersection of the terminal arm and the unit circle.
If you join P(θ) to the origin, you y
create an angle θ in standard position.
Now, θ radians is the central angle P(θ)
and the arc length is θ units. θ
P(π) = (-1, 0) θ (1, 0)
Function P takes real-number values
0 x
for the central angle or the arc length
on the unit circle and matches them
with specific points. For example, if
θ = π, the point is (-1, 0). Thus, you
can write P(π) = (-1, 0).
Example 3
π
Multiples of _ on the Unit Circle
3
π
a) On a diagram of the unit circle, show the integral multiples of _ in
3
the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
b) What are the coordinates for each point P(θ) in part a)?
c) Identify any patterns you see in the coordinates of the points.
Solution
π
a) This is essentially a counting problem using _ .
3
π in the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π are
Multiples of _
3
π = 0, 1 _
π =_ 2π , 3 _
π =_
π, 2 _ π = π, 4 _ 4π ,
π =_
(3)
0 _ (3) 3 (3) 3 (3) (3) 3
π
5( ) = 5π π = 2π.
, and 6( _
3)
_ _
3 3
y Why must you show only the multiples in
2π
__
P 3 ( ) ( )
π
_
P 3
one positive rotation in the unit circle?
π
_
P(π) 3 P(0) = (1, 0)
0 x
P(2π)
4π
__
P 3 ( ) ( )
5π
__
P 3

b) Recall that a 30°-60°-90° triangle has sides in the ratio P
__
__ √3
1 :_
1: √3 : 2 or _ : 1.
2 2 Why is the 30°-60°-90°
triangle used? 30°
Place POA in the unit circle as shown. 1
3
__
y 2
__
π
_
P ( 1 √3
Why are _ , _ the
2 2 ) 60°
3
__ π O A
3 2
coordinates of P _ ?
3 ( ) 1
_
2
(1, 0)
0 _ A
1 x
2
POA could be placed in the second quadrant with O at the origin

__
and OA along the x-axis as shown. This gives P 2π
_
3
_
= - ,1 _
2 2
√3
. ( ) ( )
y
Why is the x-coordinate negative?
P
What transformation could be used
3
__
2 1 2π
__ to move POA from quadrant I to
3 quadrant II?
A 0 x
-1
_
2
Continue, placing POA in quadrants III and IV to find the

4π and P _ 5π . Then, the coordinates of
coordinates of P _
3 ( )3 ( )
π are
point P corresponding to angles that are multiples of _
3 __
( ) ( )
π = _ 1, _√3
P(0) = P(2π) = (1, 0) P(π) = (-1, 0) P _
__ __ 3 2 2 __
P( ) (
2π
_
3
= - ,1
_
2 2
√3
_ P 4π
_
3 ) 1
_
= - ,-
2 ( ) (
√3
_
2
P 5π
_
3
= _
2 )
1 , -_ √3
2 ( ) ( )
c) Some patterns are:
• The points corresponding to angles that are multiples of _π that
3
π 2π 4π 5π ,
cannot be simplified, for example, P _
3
,P _
3
,P _
( ) ( ) ( )
3
, and P _
3 ( )
have the same coordinates except for their signs.
• Any points where θ reduces to a multiple of π, for example, P(0),
3π = P(π), and P _ 6π = P(2π), fall on an axis.
P _( )
3 3 ( )
Your Turn
π
a) On a diagram of the unit circle, show all the integral multiples of _ in
6
the interval 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
b) Label the coordinates for each point P(θ) on your diagram.
c) Describe any patterns you see in the coordinates of the points.

Key Ideas
The equation for the unit circle is x2 + y 2 = 1. It can be used to

determine whether a point is on the unit circle or to determine the value
of one coordinate given the other. The equation for a circle with centre at
(0, 0) and radius r is x2 + y 2 = r 2.
On the unit circle, the measure in radians of the central angle and the arc
subtended by that central angle are numerically equivalent.
Some of the points on the unit circle correspond to exact values of the
special angles learned previously.
You can use patterns to determine coordinates of points. For example,
the numerical value of the coordinates of points on the unit circle change
to their opposite sign every _1 rotation.
2
If P(θ) = (a, b) is in quadrant I, then both a and b are positive. P(θ + π) is
in quadrant III. Its coordinates are (-a, -b), where a > 0 and b > 0.
y y
( )
π
_
P 2
π
_
P 2 ( )
( )
2π
__
( ) ( )
π
_ 1 3
_ __
( )
3π
__
P 4 ( )
π
_ __
P 4 = 2 2 (
1 , __
1
) P 3 P 3 = 2, 2
( ) P( 6 ) = ( 2 , 2 )
5π
__ π
_ 3 1
__ _
P 6
P(π) P(0) P(π) P(0)

0 x 0 x
( )
7π
__
P 6
( )
11π
__
P 6
( )
5π
__
P 4 ( )
7π
__
P 4 ( )
5π
__
P 3
( )
3π
__
P 2 ( )
4π
__
P 3 3π
__
P 2 ( )
Practise 2. Is each point on the unit circle? How do

1. Determine the equation of a circle with you know?
__
centre at the origin and radius
a) 4 units
3 1
(
a) - _ , _
4 4 ) b) ( 8 8)
√5 _
_ , 7
5 12
b) 3 units (
c) - _ , _
13 13 ) d) ( _45 , - _53 )
__ __
c) 12 units
d) 2.6 units
e) ( √3 1
-_, -_
2 2 ) f) ( 4 4)
√7 _
_ , 3

3. Determine the missing coordinate(s) for Apply
all points on the unit circle satisfying 7. Draw a diagram of the unit circle.
the given conditions. Draw a diagram to a) Mark two points, P(θ) and P(θ + π), on
support your answer. your diagram. Use measurements to
1
( )
a) _ , y in quadrant I
4
show that these points have the same
coordinates except for their signs.
2
( )
b) x, _ in quadrant II
3 b) Choose a different quadrant for the
7 original point, P(θ). Mark it and
( )
c) - _ , y in quadrant III
8 P(θ + π) on your diagram. Is the result
5 from part a) still true?
( )
d) x, - _ in quadrant IV
7
8. MINI LAB Determine the pattern in the
1
( )
e) x, _ , where x < 0
3
1 rotation
coordinates of points that are _
4
12 apart on the unit circle.
( )
f) _ , y , not in quadrant I
13 Step 1 Start with the__points P(0) = (1, 0),
( ) ( )
4. If P(θ) is the point at the intersection of the π = _ 1, _√3
P _ , and
terminal arm of angle θ and the unit circle, 3 2 2 __
determine the exact coordinates of each of
the following.
P _5π = _
3 ( ) (
1 , -_
2
√3
2
. )
Show these points on a diagram.
a) P(π) ( π2 )
b) P - _
Step 2 Move + _ 1 rotation from each point.
4
π π Determine each new point and its
(3)
c) P _ d)
6)
P(- _
coordinates. Show these points on your
3π
(4)
e) P _ ( 7π4 )
f) P - _ diagram from step 1.
Step 3 Move - _ 1 rotation from each original
g) P(4π)
5π
h) P( _ ) 4
2 point. Determine each new point and
5π 4π
(6)
i) P _ j) P(- _ )
3
its coordinates. Mark these points on
your diagram.
5. Identify a measure for the central angle θ Step 4 How do the values of the x-coordinates
in the interval 0 ≤ θ < 2π such that P(θ) is and y-coordinates of points change
the given point. with each quarter-rotation? Make a
a) (0, -1) b) (1, 0) copy of the diagram and complete
__ __
c) ( 2 ,_
√2
_
2 )
√2
d) (- 12 , 12 )
_
√
__ ___
√
the coordinates to summarize your
findings.
__ __
y
e) ( ,
2 2 )
f) ( , -
2 )
1 √
_ _ 3 1 _ 3 √
_
__
2
__ (
P θ+ π
2 )
_ = (?, ?)
g) (-
2 2)
h) (- , -1)
√
_3 1
_ 3 √
_ _
, P(θ) = (a, b)
__ __
2 2
i) (- , -_)
√
_2 2 √
j) (-1, 0) 0 x
2 2
6. Determine one positive and__one negative
(
√3 1
measure for θ if P(θ) = - _ , _
2 2
. ) ( π π
)
P θ + _ + _ = (?, ?)
2 2 ( π+ _
P θ+ _ π+ _
)
π = (?, ?)
2 2 2

9. Use the diagram below to help answer 11. Wesley enjoys tricks and puzzles. One of
these questions. his favourite tricks involves remembering
π ,P _ π , and P _
π .
a) What is the equation of this circle?
__ the coordinates for P _
3 ( ) ( )
4 6 ( )
2 √5
(
b) If the coordinates of C are - _ , _ ,
3 3 ) He will not tell you his trick. However, you
can discover it for yourself.
what are the coordinates of B?
a) Examine the coordinates shown on

c) If the measure of AB is θ, what is an the diagram.

expression for the measure of AC?

Note: AB means the arc length from
y
( ) ( )
π
_ 1 3
_ __
P 3 = 2, 2
P( 4 ) = ( 2 , 2 )
A to B. π
_ __2 __ 2
d) Let P(θ) = B. In which quadrant
P( 6 ) = ( 2 , 2 )
π ? π
_ 3 1
__ _
(
is P θ - _
2 )
e) What are the maximum and minimum 0 x
values for either the x-coordinates
or y-coordinates of points on the
unit circle?
y
B
b) What do you notice about the
denominators?
C
c) What do you notice about the
A(1, 0)
numerators of the x-coordinates?
0 x
Compare them with the numerators
of the y-coordinates. Why do these
patterns make sense?
d) Why are square roots involved?
e) Explain this memory trick to a partner.
10. Mya claims that every value of x between
0 and 1 can be used to find the coordinates 12. a) Explain, with reference to the unit
of a point on the unit circle in quadrant I. circle, what the interval -2π ≤ θ < 4π
represents.
a) Do you agree with Mya? Explain.
b) Use your explanation to determine
b) Mya showed the following work to find
all values for θ in the interval
the y-coordinate when x = 0.807.
-2π ≤ θ < 4π__such that
y = 1 - (0.807)2
= 0.348 751 (
P(θ) = - _
2 2
√3
1, _
)
.
The point on the unit circle is (0.807, 0.348 751). c) How do your answers relate to the word
“coterminal”?
How can you check Mya’s answer? Is __
she correct? If not, what is the correct ( 1 2√2
)
13. If P(θ) = - _ , - _ , determine the
3 3
answer? following.
c) If y = 0.2571, determine x so the point a) What does P(θ) represent? Explain using
is on the unit circle and in the first a diagram.
quadrant.
b) In which quadrant does θ terminate?
π
( 2)
c) Determine the coordinates of P θ + _ .
π .
Determine the coordinates of P(θ - _
2)
d)

14. In ancient times, determining the 16. Use the unit circle diagram to answer the
perimeter and area of a circle were following questions. Points E, F, G, and D
considered major mathematical challenges. are midway between the axes.
One of Archimedes’ greatest contributions y
to mathematics was his method for
A
approximating π. Now, it is your turn to
F E
be a mathematician. Using a unit circle
diagram, show the difference between
π units and π square units. S(1, 0)
B 0 x
D id Yo u K n ow ?
G D
Archimedes was a Greek mathematician, physicist,
inventor, and astronomer who lived from 287 BCE- C
212 BCE. He died in the Roman siege of Syracuse.
He is considered one of the greatest mathematicians
of all time. He correctly determined the value of π as a) What angle of rotation creates arc SG?
_22 223
being between and _ and proved the area of What is the arc length of SG?
7 71
a circle to be πr 2, where r is the radius. b) Which letter on the diagram
13π ? Explain your
corresponds to P _
2 ( )
answer fully so someone not taking
this course would understand. Use a
diagram and a written explanation.
c) Between which two points would you
find P(5)? Explain.
Extend
17. a) Determine the coordinates of all points
15. a) In the diagram, A has coordinates (a, b).
where the line represented by y = -3x
ABCD is a rectangle with sides parallel
intersects the unit circle. Give your
to the axes. What are the coordinates of
answers as exact values in simplest
B, C, and D?
y form.
b) If one of the points is labelled P(θ + π),
draw a diagram and show at least two
B A(a, b)
values for θ. Explain what θ represents.
θ F(1, 0)
0 x 18. a) P(θ) lies at the intersection of the unit
circle and the line joining A(5, 2) to
C D
the origin. Use your knowledge of
similar triangles and the unit circle
to determine the exact coordinates
b) ∠FOA = θ, and A, B, C, and D lie on the of P(θ).
unit circle. Through which point will the b) Determine the radius of a larger circle
terminal arm pass for each angle? Assume with centre at the origin and passing
all angles are in standard position. through point A.
i) θ + π ii) θ - π c) Write the equation for this larger circle.
iii) -θ + π iv) -θ - π
c) How are the answers in part b) different
if θ is given as the measure of arc FA?

19. In previous grades, you used sine d) Identify several patterns from your unit
and cosine as trigonometric ratios of circle diagrams. Patterns can relate to
sides of right triangles. Show how arc lengths, coordinates of points, and
that use of trigonometry relates to the symmetry.
unit circle. Specifically, show that the C2 Consider the isosceles AOB drawn in the
coordinates of P(θ) can be represented unit circle.
by (cos θ, sin θ) for any θ in the unit y
circle.
20. You can locate a point in a plane using
Cartesian coordinates (x, y), where |x| B
is the distance from the y-axis and |y|
(-1, 0)
is the distance from the x-axis. You can
also locate a point in a plane using (r, θ),
0 A(1, 0) x
where r, r ≥ 0, is the distance from the

origin and θ is the angle of rotation from
the positive x-axis. These are known as
polar coordinates. Determine the polar
coordinates for each point. a) If the measure of one of the equal angles
__ __ __
is twice the measure of the third angle,
a) (2, 2)
√2 _
_ √2
b) (- 2 , - 31 )
√3
_ _
determine the exact measure of arc AB.
c) (2, 2) d) (4, -3) b) Draw a new COA in which
π . What is the exact
Create Connections (
P(C) = P B + _
2 )
C1 The diagram represents the unit circle with measure of ∠CAO, in radians?
some positive arc lengths shown. C3 a) Draw a diagram of a circle with centre
y at the origin and radius r units. What is
π
_ the equation of this circle?
π
_
2
3 _
π b) Show that the equation of any circle
4
π
_ with centre (h, k) and radius r can be
6 expressed as (x - h)2 + (y - k)2 = r 2.
π 0 Hint: Use transformations to help with
0 x
7π
your explanation.
__
6 C4 The largest possible unit circle is cut from
5π
__
4π
4 __ a square piece of paper as shown.
3
a) Draw a similar diagram in your

notebook. Complete the labelling for
positive measures.
b) Write the corresponding negative
value beside each positive value.
a) What percent of the paper is cut off?
Complete this process over the interval
Give your answer to one decimal place.
-2π ≤ θ < 0.
b) What is the ratio of the circumference
c) Give the exact coordinates for the
of the circle to the perimeter of the
vertices of the dashed rectangle.
original piece of paper?

4.3
Trigonometric Ratios
Focus on . . .
• relating the trigonometric ratios to the coordinates of points on the
unit circle
• determining exact and approximate values for trigonometric ratios
• identifying the measures of angles that generate specific
trigonometric values
• solving problems using trigonometric ratios
What do a software designer, a civil engineer,

an airline pilot, and a long-distance swimmer’s
support team have in common? All of them use angles and
trigonometric ratios to help solve problems. The software
designer uses trigonometry to present a 3-D world on a 2-D
screen. The engineer uses trigonometric ratios in designs of
on-ramps and off-ramps at highway interchanges. A pilot uses
an approach angle that is determined based on the tangent
ratio. The support team for a long-distance swimmer uses
trigonometry to compensate for the effect of wind and currents
and to guide the swimmer’s direction.
Investigate Trigonometric Ratios and the Unit Circle
1. Draw a unit circle as shown, with a positive angle θ in standard Materials

position. Work with a partner to describe the location of points P • grid paper
and Q. Be specific. • straight edge
y • compass
Q
P
θ B(1, 0)
0 A x
2. From your drawing, identify a single line segment whose length is

equivalent to sin θ. Hint: Use the ratio definition of sin θ and the unit
circle to help you.
3. Identify a line segment whose length is equivalent to cos θ and a line
segment whose length is equivalent to tan θ in your diagram.
4. From your answers in steps 2 and 3, what could you use to represent
the coordinates of point P?
4.3 Trigonometric Ratios • MHR 191

Reflect and Respond
5. Present an argument or proof that the line segment you selected in
step 3 for cos θ is correct.
6. What equation relates the coordinates of point P? Does this apply
to any point P that lies at the intersection of the terminal arm for an
angle θ and the unit circle? Why?
7. What are the maximum and minimum values for cos θ and sin θ?
Express your answer in words and using an inequality. Confirm your
answer using a calculator.
8. The value of tan θ changes from 0 to undefined for positive values
of θ less than or equal to 90°. Explain how this change occurs with
reference to angle θ in quadrant I of the unit circle. What happens on
a calculator when tan θ is undefined?
Link the Ideas
Coordinates in Terms of Primary Trigonometric Ratios

If P(θ) = (x, y) is the point on the terminal arm of angle θ that intersects
the unit circle, notice that
• cos θ = _ x = x, which How do these ratios connect to
1 the right-triangle definition for
is the first coordinate of P(θ) cosine and sine?
y
• sin θ = _ = y, which
1
is the second coordinate of P(θ)
y
P(θ) = (x, y)
1
θ B(1, 0)
0 A x
You can describe the coordinates of any point P(θ) as (cos θ, sin θ). This
is true for any point P(θ) at the intersection of the terminal arm of an
angle θ and the unit circle.
y Explain how this statement is
Also, you know that tan θ = _ x. consistent with the right-triangle
definition of the tangent ratio.

Reciprocal Trigonometric Ratios
Three other trigonometric ratios are defined: they are the reciprocals of
sine, cosine, and tangent. These are cosecant, secant, and cotangent. cosecant ratio
By definition, csc θ = _ 1 , sec θ = _ 1 , and cot θ = _ 1 . • the reciprocal of the
sin θ cos θ tan θ sine ratio
• abbreviated csc
• for P(θ) = (x, y) on the
Example 1 1
unit circle, csc θ = _y
__
Determine the Trigonometric Ratios for Angles in the Unit Circle √ 3
• if sin θ = - _ , then
3 ,- _
4 lies at the intersection of the unit circle and 2 __
The point A - _ (
5 5 ) csc θ = - _
√3
2√3
2__ or - _
3
the terminal arm of an angle θ in standard position.
a) Draw a diagram to model the situation.
secant ratio
b) Determine the values of the six trigonometric ratios for θ. • the reciprocal of the
cosine ratio
Express answers in lowest terms.
• abbreviated sec
• for P(θ) = (x, y) on the
Solution 1
unit circle, sec θ = _
x
a) y 1 , then
• if cos θ = _
2
sec θ = _2 or 2
1
cotangent ratio
(1, 0)
• the reciprocal of the
θ 0 x tangent ratio
• abbreviated cot
( 3 4
_ _
A - 5, -5 ) • for P(θ) = (x, y) on the
x
unit circle, cot θ = _
y
• if tan θ = 0, then cot θ
is undefined
b) sin θ = - _
4 The y-coordinate of P(θ) is defined as sin θ.
5
3
cos θ = - _ Why is this true?
5
y
_
tan θ = x
-_4
= _ 5 Explain the arithmetic used to simplify this double fraction.
-_3
5
=_4 Why does it make sense for tan θ to be positive?
3
csc θ = _ 1
sin θ
= -_5 Explain how this answer was determined.
4
sec θ = _ 1 Read as “sec θ equals the reciprocal of cos θ.”
cos θ
= -_5
3
cot θ = _ 1
tan θ
=_3
4

Your Turn __
2√2
1, _
The point B - _
3 3 ( )
lies at the intersection of the unit circle
and the terminal arm of an angle θ in standard position.
b) Determine the values of the six trigonometric ratios for θ.
Express your answers in lowest terms.
Exact Values of Trigonometric Ratios

Exact values for the trigonometric ratios can be determined using special
triangles (30°-60°-90° or 45°-45°-90°) and multiples of θ = 0, _π, _
π, _π,
6 4 3
and _π or θ = 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, and 90° for points P(θ) on the unit circle.
2
y
( π
_
P 90° or 2 )
( π
_
P 60° or 3 ) How are P(30°), C, E, and K related?
B
A
( π
_
P 45° or 4 ) What points have the same
π
C
( π
_
P 30° or 6 ) 3 ( )
coordinates as P _ except for
their signs?
P(π or 180°) P(0° or 0)
0 x For P(45°), what are the coordinates
and in which quadrant is θ?
E K
Which special triangle would you
F J
G I use and where would it be placed
H for θ = 135°?
Example 2
Exact Values for Trigonometric Ratios
Determine the exact value for each. Draw diagrams to illustrate your
answers.
5π 4π
a) cos _
6
b) sin - _
3 ( )
c) sec 315° d) cot 270°
Solution
5π
(6)
a) The point P _ lies in quadrant II.
( ) (
5π
__ 3 1
__ _
P 6 = - 2 , 2
y
)
The reference angle for _ 5π is
6
5π
( ) (
π
_ 3 1
__ _
P 6 = 2 , 2 )
θR = π - _5π = _ π. __
6 6 6
θR P(0) = (1, 0)
Recall that the reference Its x-coordinate is negative and 0 x
angle, θR, is the acute its y-coordinate is positive.
angle formed between the __
terminal arm and the x-axis. √3 1
P(θ) = - _ , _
2 2
__
( )
cos 5π
_
6
=-
√3
_
2
P ( 5π6 ) has the same coordinates as P( π6 ),
_ _
except the x-coordinates have different signs.

4π
b) - _ is a clockwise rotation y
3
from the positive x-axis. ( 4π
__
) ( 1 3
_ __
P - 3 = - 2, 2 ) ( ) (
π
_ 1 3
_ __
P 3 = 2, 2 )
4π lies in quadrant II.
(
P -_
3 )
The reference angle for - _ 4π θR
P(0) = (1, 0)
3
2π = _ π. 0 x
is θR = π - _ 4π
3 3 __ - __
3
P(θ) = - _(
__
√3
1, _
2 2 )
4π = _ √3
(
sin - _
3 ) 2
What is a positive
4π ?
coterminal angle for - _
3
c) An angle of 315° is a counterclockwise rotation that terminates in
quadrant IV.
The reference angle for 315° y
is θR = 360° - 315° = 45°.
1__ , - _ 1__
P(θ) = _ (
√2 √2 ) Explain how
to get the
__ 1 coordinates P(0) = (1, 0)
sec 315° = for P(θ).
cos 315° 0 θR x
__ 315°
√2 __
= _ or √2
1
d) An angle of 270° terminates on the negative y-axis.

P(270°) = (0, -1) y
y x
Since tan θ = _ _
x , cot θ = y .
Therefore,
cot 270° = _0 P(0) = (1, 0)
-1 0 x
=0 270°
P(270°) = (0, -1)
Your Turn
Draw diagrams to help you determine the exact value of each
trigonometric ratio.
a) tan _
π 7π
b) csc _
2 6
c) sin (-300°) d) sec 60°

Approximate Values of Trigonometric Ratios
You can determine approximate values for sine, cosine, and tangent
using a scientific or graphing calculator. Most calculators can
determine trigonometric values for angles measured in degrees or
radians. You will need to set the mode to the correct angle measure.
Check using
cos 60° = 0.5 (degree mode)
In which quadrant does an
cos 60 = -0.952 412 980… (radian mode) angle of 60 terminate?
Most calculators can compute trigonometric ratios for negative
angles. However, you should use your knowledge of reference
angles and the signs of trigonometric ratios for the quadrant to
check that your calculator display is reasonable.
cos (-200°) = -0.939 692 620… y
Is the negative value appropriate?

What is the reference angle for
θR
-200°? What other trigonometric
0 x
ratio could you compute as a check? -200°
You can find the value of a trigonometric ratio for cosecant, secant, or
cotangent using the correct reciprocal relationship.
sec 3.3 = __ 1
cos 3.3
= -1.012 678 973…
≈ -1.0127
Example 3
Approximate Values for Trigonometric Ratios
Determine the approximate value for each trigonometric ratio. Give your
answers to four decimal places.
a) tan _
7π b) cos 260°
5
c) sin 4.2 d) csc (-70°)
Solution
7π
7π In which quadrant does an angle of _
a) _ is measured in radians. 5
5 terminate?
7π = 3.077 683 537…
tan _ Make sure your calculator is in radian mode.
5
≈ 3.0777 Why is the answer positive?
b) cos 260° = -0.173 648 177… In which quadrant does 260° terminate?
≈ -0.1736

c) sin 4.2 = -0.871 575 772… Which angle mode do you need here?
≈ -0.8716 Why is the answer negative?
d) An angle of -70° terminates in quadrant IV.

The y-coordinate for points in quadrant IV is negative.
csc (-70°) = __ 1 What steps are needed to evaluate
sin (-70°) __ 1
on your calculator?
= -1.064 177 772… sin (-70°)
≈ -1.0642
y
0 -70° x
Your Turn
What is the approximate value for each trigonometric ratio? Round
answers to four decimal places. Justify the sign of each answer.
a) sin 1.92
b) tan (-500°)
c) sec 85.4°
d) cot 3
Approximate Values of Angles

How can you find the measure of an angle when the value of the
trigonometric ratio is given? To reverse the process (for example, to
determine θ if you know sin θ), use the inverse trigonometric function
keys on a calculator.
sin 30° = 0.5 sin-1 0.5 = 30°
Note that sin-1 is an abbreviation for “the inverse of sine.” Do not
confuse this with (sin 30°)-1, which means __ 1 , or the reciprocal
sin 30°
of sin 30°.
The calculator keys sin-1, cos-1, and tan-1 return one answer only, when
there are often two angles with the same trigonometric function value in
any full rotation. In general, it is best to use the reference angle applied
to the appropriate quadrants containing the terminal arm of the angle.

Example 4
Find Angles Given Their Trigonometric Ratios
Determine the measures of all angles that satisfy the following. Use
diagrams in your explanation.
a) sin θ = 0.879 in the domain 0 ≤ θ < 2π. Give answers to the nearest
tenth of a radian.
b) cos θ = -0.366 in the domain 0° ≤ θ < 360°. Give answers to the
nearest tenth
__
of a degree.
c) tan θ = 3 in the domain -180° ≤ θ < 180°. Give exact answers.
√
d) sec θ = _
2__ in the domain -2π ≤ θ < 2π. Give exact answers.
√3
Solution
Did Yo u Know ? a) sin θ > 0 in quadrants I and II.
The domain consists of one positive rotation.
By convention, if
the domain is given Therefore, two answers need to be identified.
in radian measure,
express answers in sin-1 0.879 = 1.073 760 909… Use a calculator in radian mode.
radians. If the domain ≈ 1.1
is expressed using
y
degrees, give the
answers in degrees.
θR 1.1
0 x
In quadrant I, θ ≈ 1.1, to the nearest tenth. This is the reference angle.

In quadrant II, θ ≈ π - 1.1 or 2.0, to the nearest tenth.
The answers, to the nearest tenth of a radian, are 1.1 and 2.0.
b) cos θ < 0 in quadrants II and III. Why will the answer be

measured in degrees?
y
θR θ
0 x
Did you check that your

cos-1 (-0.366) ≈ 111.5°, to the nearest tenth. calculator is in degree
This answer is in quadrant II. mode?
The reference angle for other answers is 68.5°. How do you determine
this reference angle
In quadrant III, θ ≈ 180° + 68.5° or 248.5°.
from 111.5°?
The answers, to the nearest tenth of a degree, are 111.5° and 248.5°.

c) tan θ > 0 in quadrants I and III.
The domain includes both quadrants. In the positive direction an

answer will be in quadrant I, and in the negative direction an answer
will be in quadrant III.
To answer with exact values, work with the special coordinates on a
unit circle.
__ __
tan 60° = √3 How do you know that tan 60° = √3 ?
y Could you use a calculator here?
1 3
(
P(60°) = _ , __
2 2 )
60°
60° 0 x
-120°
In quadrant I, from the domain 0° ≤ θ < 180°, θ = 60°. This is the

reference angle. In quadrant III, from the domain -180° ≤ θ < 0°,
θ = -180° + 60° or -120°.
The exact answers are 60° and -120°.
1
d) sec θ > 0 in quadrants I and IV since sec θ = _ and cos θ > 0 in
cos θ
quadrants I and IV.
The domain includes four quadrants in both the positive and
negative directions. Thus, there are two positive answers and two
negative answers.
y
( )
π
_ 3 1
(
P 6 = __ , _
2 2 )
π
_
6
0 x
11π
__
6
__
1 =_ √3
cos θ = _
sec__θ 2
π √ 3
cos _ = _
6 2
θ=_ π and θ = _11π in the domain 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
6 6
θ = -_π and θ = - _11π in the domain -2π ≤ θ < 0. How do coterminal
6 6 angles help?
11π , - _
π, _
The exact answers in radians are _ 11π .
π , and - _
6 6 6 6

Your Turn
Determine the measures of all angles that satisfy each of the following.
Use diagrams to show the possible answers.
a) cos θ = 0.843 in the domain -360° < θ < 180°. Give approximate
answers to the nearest tenth.
b) sin θ = 0 in the domain 0° ≤ θ ≤ 180°. Give exact answers.
c) cot θ = -2.777 in the domain -π ≤ θ ≤ π. Give approximate answers
to the nearest tenth.
d) csc θ = - _
2__ in the domain -2π ≤ θ ≤ π. Give exact answers.
√2
Example 5
Calculating Trigonometric Values for Points Not on the Unit Circle
The point A(-4, 3) lies on the terminal arm of an angle θ in standard
position. What is the exact value of each trigonometric ratio for θ?
Solution
ABO is a right triangle. y
4
Identify trigonometric values for θ using A(-4, 3)
the lengths of the sides of ABO. 2
θ
Confirm this B
ABO has sides of lengths 3, 4, and 5. using the
-4 -2 0 2 x
Recall that OA is a length and the Pythagorean
theorem.
segments OB and BA are considered
as directed lengths.
y 1
sin θ = _
r csc θ = _
sin θ
=_3 =_5
5 3
x
cos θ = _ sec θ = _ 1
r cos θ
=_-4 = -_5
5 4
=- 4
_
5
y 1
tan θ = _
x cot θ = _
tan θ
=_ 3 = -_4
-4 3
=- 3
_
4
Your Turn
The point D(-5, -12) lies on the terminal arm of an angle θ in standard
position. What is the exact value of each trigonometric ratio for θ?

Key Ideas
Points that are on the intersection of the terminal arm of an angle θ

in standard position and the unit circle can be defined using
trigonometric ratios.
P(θ) = (cos θ, sin θ)
Each primary trigonometric ratio—sine, cosine, and tangent—has a
reciprocal trigonometric ratio. The reciprocals are cosecant, secant,
and cotangent, respectively.
csc θ = _ 1 sec θ = _ 1 cot θ = _ 1 3 , and vice versa.
2 , then csc θ = _
If sin θ = _
sin θ cos θ tan θ 3 2
You can determine the trigonometric ratios for any angle in standard
position using the coordinates of the point where the terminal arm
intersects the unit circle.
π, _
Exact values of trigonometric rations for special angles such as 0, _ π,
π, _
6 4 3
and _π and their multiples may be determined using the coordinates of
2
points on the unit circle.
You can determine approximate values for trigonometric ratios using a
calculator in the appropriate mode: radians or degrees.
You can use a scientific or graphing calculator to determine an angle
measure given the value of a trigonometric ratio. Then, use your knowledge
of reference angles, coterminal angles, and signs of ratios in each quadrant
to determine other possible angle measures. Unless the domain is
restricted, there are an infinite number of answers.
Determine the trigonometric ratios for an angle θ in standard position
from the coordinates of a point on the terminal arm of θ and right triangle
definitions of the trigonometric ratios.
Practise 2. Determine the approximate value for each

1. What is the exact value for each trigonometric ratio. Give answers to two
trigonometric ratio? decimal places.
a) sin 45° b) tan 30° a) cos 47° b) cot 160°
3π
c) cos _
7π
d) cot _
c) sec 15° d) csc 4.71
4 6
e) sin 5 f) tan 0.94
e) csc 210° f) sec (-240°)
3π 5π
g) sin _ h) tan 6.9
g) tan _ h) sec π 7
2
11π
i) cot (-120°) j) cos 390° i) cos 302° (
j) sin - _
19 )
k)
5π
sin _ l) csc 495° k) cot 6 l) sec (-270°)
3

3. If θ is an angle in standard position Apply
with the following conditions, in which 9. Determine the exact value of each
quadrants may θ terminate? expression.
a) cos θ > 0 a) cos 60° + sin 30°
b) tan θ < 0 b) (sec 45°)2
5π sec _
5π
c) sin θ < 0 c) (cos _3 )( 3 )
d) sin θ > 0 and cot θ < 0
d) (tan 60°)2 - (sec 60°)2
e) cos θ < 0 and csc θ > 0 2 2
7π + sin _
f) sec θ > 0 and tan θ > 0
e) (cos _4 ) ( 7π4 )
2
5π
4. Express the given quantity using the
same trigonometric ratio and its reference
f) (cot _6 )
angle. For example, cos 110° = -cos 70°. 10. Determine the exact measure of all angles
For angle measures in radians, that satisfy the following. Draw a diagram
give exact answers. For example, for each.
cos 3 = -cos (π - 3). 1
a) sin θ = - _ in the domain
2
a) sin 250° b) tan 290° 0 ≤ θ < 2π
c) sec 135° d) cos 4 b) cot θ = 1 in the domain
e) csc 3 f) cot 4.95 -π ≤ θ < 2π
5. For each point, sketch two coterminal c) sec θ = 2 in the domain
angles in standard position whose terminal -180° ≤ θ < 90°
arm contains the point. Give one positive d) (cos θ)2 = 1 in the domain
and one negative angle, in radians, where -360° ≤ θ < 360°
neither angle exceeds one full rotation. 11. Determine the approximate measure
a) (3, 5) b) (-2, -1) of all angles that satisfy the following.
c) (-3, 2) d) (5, -2) Give answers to two decimal places. Use
diagrams to show the possible answers.
6. Indicate whether each trigonometric
ratio is positive or negative. Do not use a a) cos θ = 0.42 in the domain
calculator. -π ≤ θ ≤ π
b) tan θ = -4.87 in the domain
a) cos 300° b) sin 4
-_π ≤θ≤π
c) cot 156° d) csc (-235°) 2
13π 17π c) csc θ = 4.87 in the domain
e) tan _ f) sec _ -360° ≤ θ < 180°
6 3
7. Determine each value. Explain what the d) cot θ = 1.5 in the domain
answer means. -180° ≤ θ < 360°
a) sin-1 0.2 b) tan-1 7 12. Determine the exact values of the other
c) sec 450° d) cot (-180°) five trigonometric ratios under the given
3 conditions.
( )
8. The point P(θ) = _ , y lies on the terminal
5 3 π
arm of an angle θ in standard position and a) sin θ = _ , _ < θ < π
5 2 __
on the unit circle. P(θ) is in quadrant IV. -2√2 3π
b) cos θ = __ , -π ≤ θ ≤ _
a) Determine y. 3 2
2
_
c) tan θ = , -360° < θ < 180°
b) What is the value of tan θ? 3 __
c) What is the value of csc θ? 4√3
d) sec θ = _ , -180° ≤ θ ≤ 180°
3

13. Using the point B(-2, -3), explain how to 18. Examine the diagram. A piston rod, PQ, is
determine the exact value of cos θ given connected to a wheel at P and to a piston
that B is a point on the terminal arm of an at Q. As P moves around the wheel in a
angle θ in standard position. counterclockwise direction, Q slides back
14. The measure of angle θ in standard and forth.
position is 4900°. y
a) Describe θ in terms of revolutions. P
Be specific.
b) In which quadrant does 4900°
θ (1, 0)
terminate? 0 x
Q
c) What is the measure of the
reference angle?
d) Give the value of each trigonometric
ratio for 4900°.
15. a) Determine the positive value of a) What is the maximum distance that Q
sin (cos-1 0.6). Use your knowledge can move?
of the unit circle to explain why the b) If the wheel starts with P at (1, 0) and
answer is a rational number. rotates at 1 radian/s, draw a sketch
b) Without calculating, what is the to show where P will be located after
positive value of cos (sin-1 0.6)? 1 min.
Explain. c) What distance will Q have moved 1 s
16. a) Jason got an answer of 1.051 176 209 after start-up? Give your answer to the
when he used a calculator to determine nearest hundredth of a unit.
40π . Is he correct? If
the value of sec _ 19. Each point lies on the terminal arm of an
7
not, where did he make his mistake? angle θ in standard position. Determine θ
b) Describe the steps you would use to in the specified domain. Round answers to
determine an approximate value for the nearest hundredth of a unit.
40π on your calculator.
sec _ a) A(-3, 4), 0 < θ ≤ 4π
7
17. a) Arrange the following values of sine in b) B(5, -1), -360° ≤ θ < 360°
increasing order. 3π 7π
c) C(-2, -3), - _ < θ < _
sin 1, sin 2, sin 3, sin 4 2 2
b) Show what the four values represent on
Extend
a diagram of the unit circle. Use your
20. Draw ABC with ∠A = 15° and ∠C = 90°.
diagram to justify the order from part a).
Let BC = 1. D is a point on AC such that
c) Predict the correct increasing order for ∠DBC = 60°. Use your diagram to help you
cos 1, cos 2, cos 3, and cos 4. Check
show that tan 15° = ____1 .
with a calculator. Was your prediction √3 + 2
correct?

21. The diagram shows a quarter-circle of 23. In the investigation at the beginning of
radius 5 units. Consider the point on the this section, you identified line segments
curve where x = 2.5. Show that this point whose lengths are equivalent to cos θ, sin
is one-third the distance between (0, 5) and θ, and tan θ using the diagram shown.
(5, 0) on the arc of the circle. y Q
y
5 P
θ B(1, 0)
0 A x
0 5 x
22. Alice Through the Looking Glass by

Lewis Carroll introduced strange new
worlds where time ran backwards. Your a) Determine a line segment from the
challenge is to imagine a unit circle in diagram whose length is equivalent to
which a positive rotation is defined to be sec θ. Explain your reasoning
clockwise. Assume the coordinate system b) Make a copy of the diagram. Draw a
remains as we know it. horizontal line tangent to the circle that
a) Draw a unit circle in which positive intersects the positive y-axis at C and
angles are measured clockwise from OQ at D. Now identify segments whose
π ,R _5π , R _7π , lengths are equivalent to csc θ and
(0, 1). Label where R _
6 ( ) ( ) ( )
6 6 cot θ. Explain your reasoning.
11π
and R _
(6 )
are on your new unit circle.
Create Connections
b) What are the coordinates for the new
π and R _ 5π ? C1 a) Paula sees that sine ratios increase from
R _( )
6 6 ( ) 0 to 1 in quadrant 1. She concludes
c) How do angles in this new system relate that the sine relation is increasing in
to conventional angles in standard quadrant I. Show whether Paula is
position? correct using specific values for sine.
d) How does your new system of b) Is sine increasing in quadrant II?
angle measure relate to bearings in Explain why or why not.
navigation? Explain. c) Does the sine ratio increase in any other
quadrant, and if so, which? Explain.
C2 A regular hexagon is inscribed in the unit
circle as shown. If one vertex is at (1, 0),
what are the exact coordinates of the other
vertices? Explain your reasoning.
y
(1, 0)
0 x

C3 Let P be the point of intersection of the C4 Use the diagram to help find the value of
unit circle and the terminal arm of an each expression.
angle θ in standard position. y
y
4
P
2
θ
θ (1, 0)
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6x
0 x
-2
-4
a) What is a formula for the slope of

OP? Write your formula in terms of
( ( 5 ))
4
a) sin sin-1 _
b) cos (tan ( _ ))
trigonometric ratios. 4
-1
3
b) Does your formula apply in every
c) csc (cos (- _ )), where the angle is in
quadrant? Explain. -1 3
5
c) Write an equation for any line OP. Use quadrant II
your trigonometric value for the slope.
d) Use transformations to show that your ( ( 43 ))
d) sin tan-1 - _ , where the angle is in
equation from part c) applies to any line quadrant IV

where the slope is defined.
Project Corner History of Angle Measurement
• The use of the angular measurement unit “degree” is believed

to have originated with the Babylonians. One theory is that their
division of a circle into 360 parts is approximately the number of
days in a year.
• Degree measures can also be subdivided into minutes
( ) and seconds (
), where one degree is divided into 60
min, and one minute is divided into 60 s. For example,
30.1875° = 30° 11 15
.
• The earliest textual evidence of π dates from about 2000 B.C.E.,
25 and
with recorded approximations by the Babylonians _ ( )
8
256 . Roger Cotes (1682–1716) is credited with the
Rhind Papyrus, ancient
Egypt c1650 B.C.E.
the Egyptians _ ( )
81
concept of radian measure of angles, although he did not name the unit.
• The radian is widely accepted as the standard unit of angular measure in
many fields of mathematics and in physics. The use of radians allows for
the simplification of formulas and provides better approximations.
• What are some alternative units for measuring angles? What are some
advantages and disadvantages of these units? What are some contexts in
which these units are used?

4.4
Introduction to
Trigonometric
Equations
Focus on . . .
• algebraically solving first-degree and second-degree
trigonometric equations in radians and in degrees
• verifying that a specific value is a solution to a
trigonometric equation
• identifying exact and approximate solutions of a
trigonometric equation in a restricted domain
• determining the general solution of a trigonometric
equation
Many situations in nature involve cyclical patterns,

atterns, such
as average daily temperature at a specific location.
cation Other
This old silver-gelatin photograph of
applications of trigonometry relate to electricity or the way traditional Kwakiutl spear fishing was
light passes from air into water. When you look at a fish in taken in 1914 by Edward S. Curtis. The
the water, it is not precisely where it appears to be, due to Kwakiutl First Nation’s people have
lived on the north-eastern shores of
the refraction of light. The Kwakiutl peoples from Northwest
Vancouver Island for thousands of
British Columbia figured this out centuries ago. They became years. Today, the band council is based
expert spear fishermen. in Fort Rupert and owns 295 hectares
of land in the area.
In this section, you will explore how to use algebraic
techniques, similar to those used in solving linear and
quadratic equations, to solve trigonometric equations. Your trigonometric
knowledge of coterminal angles, points on the unit circle, equation
and inverse trigonometric functions will be important for • an equation involving
understanding the solution of trigonometric equations. trigonometric ratios
Investigate Trigonometric Equations
Did Yo u Know ?
1
1. What are the exact measures of θ if cos θ = - _ , 0 ≤ θ < 2π? How is
2
In equations, the equation related to 2 cos θ + 1 = 0?
mathematicians often
2. What is the answer for step 1 if the domain is given as 0° ≤ θ < 360°?
use the notation
cos2 θ. This means 3. What are the approximate measures for θ if 3 cos θ + 1 = 0 and the
the same as (cos θ)2.
domain is 0 ≤ θ < 2π?

4. Set up a T-chart like the one below. In the left column, show the
steps you would use to solve the quadratic equation x2 - x = 0. In
the right column, show similar steps that will lead to the solution of
the trigonometric equation cos2 θ - cos θ = 0, 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
Quadratic Equation Trigonometric Equation
Reflect and Respond

5. How is solving the equations in steps 1 to 3 similar to solving a
linear equation? How is it different? Use examples.
6. When solving a trigonometric equation, how do you know whether
to give your answers in degrees or radians?
7. Identify similarities and differences between solving a quadratic
equation and solving a trigonometric equation that is quadratic.
Link the Ideas
In the investigation, you explored solving trigonometric equations.

Did you realize that in Section 4.3 you were already solving simple
trigonometric equations? The same processes will be used each time
you solve a trigonometric equation, and these processes are the same
as those used in solving linear and quadratic equations.
The notation [0, π] represents the interval from 0 to π inclusive and is
another way of writing 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
• θ ∈ (0, π) means the same as 0 < θ < π. How would you show
-π < θ ≤ 2π using
• θ ∈ [0, π) means the same as 0 ≤ θ < π. interval notation?
Example 1
Solve Trigonometric Equations
Solve each trigonometric equation in the specified domain.
a) 5 sin θ + 2 = 1 + 3 sin θ, 0 ≤ θ < 2π
b) 3 csc x - 6 = 0, 0° ≤ x < 360°
Solution
a) 5 sin θ + 2 1 + 3 sin θ
=
5 sin θ + 2 - 3 sin θ 1 + 3 sin θ - 3 sin θ
=
2 sin θ + 2 1=
2 sin θ + 2 - 2 1-2
=
2 sin θ =
-1
1
sin θ = - _
2
4.4 Introduction to Trigonometric Equations • MHR 207

y
π
( 3 1
__
2 2
, _ )
_
6
0 x
π.
The reference angle is θR = _ In which quadrants must θ terminate
6 1?
if sin θ = - _
2
θ=π+_ π =_7π (quadrant III)
6 6
θ = 2π - _π =_ 11π (quadrant IV)
6 6
The solutions are θ = _7π and θ = _
11π in the domain 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
6 6
b) 3 csc x - 6 = 0
3 csc x = 6
csc x = 2 What operations were performed to arrive at this equation?
1
If csc x = 2, then sin x = _
2
x = 30° and 150° Explain how to arrive at these answers.
The solutions are x = 30° and x = 150° in the domain 0° ≤ x < 360°.
Your Turn
Solve each trigonometric equation in the specified domain.
a) 3 cos θ - 1 = cos θ + 1, -2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π
b) 4 sec x + 8 = 0, 0° ≤ x < 360°
Example 2
Factor to Solve a Trigonometric Equation
Solve for θ.
tan2 θ - 5 tan θ + 4 = 0, 0 ≤ θ < 2π
Give solutions as exact values where possible. Otherwise, give
approximate angle measures, to the nearest thousandth of a radian.
Solution
tan2 θ - 5 tan θ + 4 = 0 How is this similar to solving
(tan θ - 1)(tan θ - 4) = 0 x2 - 5x + 4 = 0?
tan θ - 1 = 0 or tan θ - 4 = 0
tan θ = 1 tan θ = 4 In which quadrants is tan θ > 0?
5π
π, _ What angle mode must your
θ=_ tan-1 4 = θ calculator be in to find tan-1 4?
4 4
θ = 1.3258…
How do you know that
θ ≈ 1.326 is a measure in quadrant I. 1.326 is in quadrant I?

In quadrant III,
θ= π + θR Why is tan-1 4 used as the
= π + tan-1 4 reference angle here?
= π + 1.3258…
= 4.467 410 317…
≈ 4.467
The solutions are θ = _ 5π (exact), θ ≈ 1.326, and
π, θ = _
4 4
θ ≈ 4.467 (to the nearest thousandth).
Your Turn
Solve for θ.
cos2 θ - cos θ - 2 = 0, 0° ≤ θ < 360°
Give solutions as exact values where possible. Otherwise, give
approximate measures to the nearest thousandth of a degree.
Example 3
General Solution of a Trigonometric Equation
a) Solve for x in the interval 0 ≤ x < 2π if sin2 x - 1 = 0.
Give answers as exact values.
b) Determine the general solution for sin2 x - 1 = 0 over the real
numbers if x is measured in radians.
Solution
a) Method 1: Use Square Root Principles
sin2 x - 1 = 0
sin2 x = 1
sin x = ±1 Why are there two values for sin x?
sin x = 1 or sin x = -1
π.
If sin x = 1, then x = _
2
If sin x = -1, then x = _3π . π 3π
Where did _ and _ come from?
2 2 2
5π
y Why is _ not an acceptable
2
answer?
(0, 1)
(-1, 0) (1, 0)
0 x
(0, -1)

Method 2: Use Factoring
sin2 x - 1 = 0
(sin x - 1)(sin x + 1) = 0
sin x - 1 = 0 or sin x + 1 = 0
Continue as in Method 1.
Check: x = _π x=_ 3π
2 2
Left Side Right Side Left Side Right Side
sin2 x - 1 0 sin2 x - 1 0
2
π 2-1 3π - 1
(
= sin _
2 ) (
= sin _
2 )
= 12 - 1 = (-1)2 - 1
=0 =0
Both answers are verified.
3π .
π, _
The solution is x = _
2 2
b) If the domain is real numbers, you can make an infinite number of

rotations on the unit circle in both a positive and a negative direction.
π are … - _
Values corresponding to x = _ 3π , _
7π , - _ 5π , _
π, _ 9π , …
2 2 2 2 2 2
What patterns do you see in these values for θ?
3π are … - _
Values corresponding to x = _ 5π , - _ 3π , _
π, _ 7π , _
11π , …
2 2 2 2 2 2
Do you see that the terminal arm is at the point
(0, 1) or (0, -1) with any of the angles above?
Did Yo u Know ? An expression for the values corresponding to x = _ π is

π + 2πn, where n ∈ I. 2
2n, where n ∈ I, x=_
2
represents all even 3π is
integers. An expression for the values corresponding to x = _
2
2n + 1, where n ∈ I, x=_ 3π + 2πn, where n ∈ I.
is an expression for all 2
odd integers. The two expressions above can be combined to form the general
π + πn, where n ∈ I.
solution x = _
2
The solution can also be described as “odd integral multiples of _ π .”
2
In symbols, this is written
π , n ∈ I. How can you show algebraically that
as (2n + 1) _
2 ( ) π
( ) π
(2n + 1) _ , n ∈ I, and _ + πn, n ∈ I,
2 2
are equivalent?
Your Turn
a) If cos2 x - 1 = 0, solve for x in the domain 0° ≤ x < 360°.
Give solutions as exact values.
b) Determine the general solution for cos2 x - 1 = 0, where
the domain is real numbers measured in degrees.

Key Ideas
To solve a trigonometric equation algebraically, you can use the same

techniques as used in solving linear and quadratic equations.
When you arrive at sin θ = a or cos θ = a or tan θ = a, where a ∈ R, then use
the unit circle for exact values of θ and inverse trigonometric function keys on
a calculator for approximate measures. Use reference angles to find solutions in
other quadrants.
To solve a trigonometric equation involving csc θ, sec θ, or cot θ, you may need
to work with the related reciprocal value(s).
To determine a general solution or if the domain is real numbers, find the
solutions in one positive rotation (2π or 360°). Then, use the concept of
coterminal angles to write an expression that identifies all possible measures.
Practise 4. Solve each equation for 0 ≤ θ < 2π.

1. Without solving, determine the number of Give solutions to the nearest hundredth
solutions for each trigonometric equation of a radian.
in the specified domain. Explain your a) tan θ = 4.36
reasoning. b) cos θ = -0.19
__
√3
a) sin θ = _ , 0 ≤ θ < 2π c) sin θ = 0.91
2
_1 d) cot θ = 12.3
b) cos θ = __ , -2π ≤ θ < 2π
√2 e) sec θ = 2.77
c) tan θ = -1, -360° ≤ θ ≤ 180°
__ f) csc θ = -1.57
2√3
_
d) sec θ = , -180° ≤ θ < 180° 5. Solve each equation in the specified
3
1
2. The equation cos θ = _ , 0 ≤ θ < 2π, has domain.
2
π and _ 5π . Suppose the domain a) 3 cos θ - 1 = 4 cos θ, 0 ≤ θ < 2π
solutions _ __
3 3 b) √3 tan θ + 1 = 0, -π ≤ θ ≤ 2π
is not restricted. __
c) √2 sin x - 1 = 0, –360° < x ≤ 360°
a) What is the general solution
π? d) 3 sin x - 5 = 5 sin x - 4,
corresponding to θ = _
3 -360° ≤ x < 180°
b) What is the general solution
e) 3 cot x + 1 = 2 + 4 cot x,
corresponding to θ = _5π ?
3 -180° < x < 360°
__
3. Determine the exact roots for f) √3 sec θ + 2 = 0, -π ≤ θ ≤ 3π
each trigonometric equation or
statement in the specified domain.
__
a) 2 cos θ - √3 = 0, 0 ≤ θ < 2π
b) csc θ is undefined, 0° ≤ θ < 360°
c) 5 - tan2 θ = 4, -180° ≤ θ ≤ 360°
__ 3π
d) sec θ + √2 = 0, -π ≤ θ ≤ _
2

6. Copy and complete the table to express 10. Explain why the equation sin θ = 0 has
each domain or interval using the other no solution in the interval (π, 2π).
notation. 11. What is the solution for sin θ = 2? Show
Domain Interval Notation how you know. Does the interval matter?
a) -2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π 12. Jaycee says that the trigonometric equation
7π
1 has an infinite number of
cos θ = _
π ≤θ≤_
-_
b) 3 2
3
solutions. Do you agree? Explain.
c) 0° ≤ θ ≤ 270°
13. a) Helene is asked to solve the equation
d) θ ∈ [0, π)
3 sin2 θ - 2 sin θ = 0, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π. She
e) θ ∈ (0°, 450°)
finds that θ = π. Show how she could
f) θ ∈ (-2π, 4π] check whether this is a correct root for
7. Solve for θ in the specified domain. Give the equation.
solutions as exact values where possible. b) Find all the roots of the equation
Otherwise, give approximate measures to 3 sin2 θ - 2 sin θ = 0, θ ∈ [0, π].
the nearest thousandth. 14. Refer to the Did You Know? below. Use
a) 2 cos2 θ - 3 cos θ + 1 = 0, 0 ≤ θ < 2π Snell’s law of refraction to determine
b) tan2 θ - tan θ - 2 = 0, 0° ≤ θ < 360° the angle of refraction of a ray of light
c) sin2 θ - sin θ = 0, θ ∈ [0, 2π) passing from air into water if the angle of
incidence is 35°. The refractive index is
d) sec2 θ - 2 sec θ - 3 = 0,
1.000 29 for air and 1.33 for water.
θ ∈ [-180°, 180°)
8. Todd believes that 180° and 270° D i d You K n ow ?
are solutions to the equation Willebrord Snell, a Dutch physicist, discovered
5 cos2 θ = -4 cos θ. Show how you that light is bent (refracted) as it passes from
would check to determine whether Todd’s one medium into another. Snell’s law is shown in
the diagram.
solutions are correct.
Apply θ1
n1
9. Aslan and Shelley are finding the
n2 0
solution for 2 sin2 θ = sin θ, 0 < θ ≤ π.
θ2
Here is their work.
2sin2 -0 = sin -0
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2,
2sin2 -
__ 0 sin -
_ 0
= Step 1 where θ1 is the angle of incidence,
sin -
0 sin -
0
θ2 is the angle of refraction, and
2sin -0 = 1 Step 2 n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the mediums.
1
sin -0 = _ Step 3
2
π 5π
-0 = _ , _ Step 4
6 6
a) Identify the error that Aslan and Shelley
made and explain why their solution is
incorrect.
b) Show a correct method to determine the
solution for 2 sin2 θ = sin θ, 0 < θ ≤ π.

15. The average number of air conditioners Extend
sold in western Canada varies seasonally 19. A beach ball is riding the waves near
and depends on the month of the year. Tofino, British Columbia. The ball goes up
π (t - 3)
The formula y = 5.9 + 2.4 sin _
6 ( ) and down with the waves according to the
πt , where h is the
gives the expected sales, y, in thousands, formula h = 1.4 sin _
3( )
according to the month, t, where t = 1 height, in metres, above sea level, and t is
represents January, t = 2 is February, and the time, in seconds.
so on. a) In the first 10 s, when is the ball at
a) In what month are sales of 8300 air sea level?
conditioners expected? b) When does the ball reach its greatest
b) In what month are sales expected to height above sea level? Give the
be least? first time this occurs and then write
c) Does this formula seem reasonable? an expression for every time the
Explain. maximum occurs.
16. Nora is required to solve the following c) According to the formula, what is the
trigonometric equation. most the ball goes below sea level?
2
9 sin θ + 12 sin θ + 4 = 0, θ ∈ [0°, 360°) 20. The current, I, in amperes, for an
electric circuit is given by the formula
Nora did the work shown below. Examine
I = 4.3 sin 120πt, where t is time,
her work carefully. Identify any errors.
in seconds.
Rewrite the solution, making any changes
necessary for it to be correct. a) The alternating current used in western
Canada cycles 60 times per second.
9 sin2 -0 + 12 sin -0 + 4 = 0
Demonstrate this using the given
(3 sin -0 + 2)2 = 0
formula.
3 sin -0 + 2 = 0
2 b) At what times is the current at its
Therefore, sin -0 = - _
3 maximum value? How does your
Use a calculator.
understanding of coterminal angles
( ) 3
2
sin-1 - _ = -41.810 314 9
So, the reference angle is 41.8°, to the nearest tenth of
help in your solution?
c) At what times is the current at its
a degree.
minimum value?
Sine is negative in quadrants II and III.
The solution in quadrant II is 180° - 41.8° = 138.2°. d) What is the maximum current?
The solution in quadrant III is 180° + 41.8° = 221.8°.
Therefore, -0 = 138.2° and -0 = 221.8°, to the nearest
tenth of a degree.
17. Identify two different cases when a
trigonometric equation would have no
solution. Give an example to support
each case.
3
18. Find the value of sec θ if cot θ = _ ,
4 Oscilloscopes can measure wave
180° ≤ θ ≤ 270°. functions of varying voltages.

21. Solve the trigonometric
__
equation C2 A computer determines that a point on
π = √3 the unit circle has coordinates
(
cos x - _
2 ) 2
_ , -π < x < π.
A(0.384 615 384 6, 0.923 076 923 1).
22. Consider the trigonometric equation
a) How can you check whether a point is
sin2 θ + sin θ - 1 = 0. on the unit circle? Use your method to
a) Can you solve the equation by see if A is on the unit circle.
factoring? b) If A is the point where the terminal arm
b) Use the quadratic formula to solve of an angle θ intersects the unit circle,
for sin θ. determine the values of cos θ, tan θ,
c) Determine all solutions for θ in the and csc θ. Give your answers to three
interval 0 < θ ≤ 2π. Give answers to decimal places.
the nearest hundredth of a radian, c) Determine the measure of angle θ, to
if necessary. the nearest tenth of a degree. Does
23. Jaime plans to build a new deck behind this approximate measure for θ seem
her house. It is to be an isosceles trapezoid reasonable for point A? Explain using
shape, as shown. She would like each a diagram.
outer edge of the deck to measure 4 m. C3 Use your knowledge of non-permissible
4m values for rational expressions to answer
the following.
4m 4m a) What is meant by the expression
θ θ “non-permissible values”? Give an
example.
a) Show that the area, A, of the deck
b) Use the fact that any point on
is given by A = 16 sin θ(1 + cos θ).
the unit circle has coordinates
b) Determine the exact value of θ in P(θ) = (cos θ, sin θ) to identify a
radians
__
if the area of the deck is trigonometric relation that could have
2
12 3 m .
√
non-permissible values.
c) The angle in part b) gives the maximum c) For the trigonometric relation that you
area for the deck. How can you prove identified in part b), list all the values
this? Compare your method with that of of θ in the interval 0 ≤ θ < 4π that are
another student. non-permissible.
d) Create a general statement for all the
Create Connections non-permissible values of θ for your
C1 Compare and contrast solving linear and trigonometric relation over the real
quadratic equations with solving linear numbers.
and quadratic trigonometric equations. C4 a) Determine all solutions for the equation
2 sin2 θ = 1 - sin θ in the domain
0° ≤ θ < 360°.
b) Are your solutions exact or
approximate? Why?
c) Show how you can check one of your
solutions to verify its correctness.

Chapter 4 Review
4.1 Angles and Angle Measure, 5. Write an expression for all of the angles
pages 166—179 coterminal with each angle. Indicate what
your variable represents.
1. If each angle is in standard position, in
which quadrant does it terminate? a) 250°
a) 100° 5π
b) _
2
b) 500°
c) -300°
c) 10
29π d) 6
d) _
6 6. A jet engine motor cycle is tested
2. Draw each angle in standard position. at 80 000 rpm. What is this angular
Convert each degree measure to radian velocity in
measure and each radian measure to degree
a) radians per minute?
measure. Give answers as exact values.
5π b) degrees per second?
a) _
2
b) 240°
c) -405°
d) -3.5
3. Convert each degree measure to radian
measure and each radian measure
to degree measure. Give answers as
approximate values to the nearest
hundredth, where necessary.
a) 20°
b) -185°
c) -1.75 4.2 The Unit Circle, pages 180—190
5π
d) _
7. P(θ) = (x, y) is the point where the
12 terminal arm of an angle θ intersects the
4. Determine the measure of an angle unit circle. What are the coordinates for
coterminal with each angle in the domain each point?
0° ≤ θ < 360° or 0 ≤ θ < 2π. Draw a 5π
diagram showing the quadrant in which a) P _ ( )
6
each angle terminates.
b) P(-150°)
a) 6.75
11π
b) 400° (
c) P - _
2 )
c) -3 d) P(45°)
d) -105° e) P(120°)
11π
f) P _ ( 3 )

__ __
π 1 √3
8. a) If the coordinates for P _ are _ , _ , (3) (2 2 ) √5
(3 2
)
11. If P(θ) = _ , - _ , answer the following
3
questions.
explain how you can determine the
2π , P _
4π , and
coordinates for P _
3 3 ( ) ( ) a) What is the measure of θ? Explain using
a diagram.
5π .
P _
3( ) b) In which quadrant does θ terminate?
b) If the coordinates for P(θ) are c) What are the coordinates of P(θ + π)?
__
( 2√2 1
-_, _ )
, what are the coordinates
3 3
π
( 2)
d) What are the coordinates of P θ + _ ?
π ? π ?
What are the coordinates of P(θ - _
( ) 2)
for P θ + _ e)
2
5π
c) In which quadrant does P _ + π lie?
6 ( )
5π + π 4.3 Trigonometric Ratios, pages 191—205
Explain how you know. If P _
6 ( ) 1
represents P(θ), what is the measure 12. If cos θ = _ , 0° ≤ θ ≤ 270°, what is the
3
of θ and what are the coordinates value of each of the other trigonometric
of P(θ)? ratios of θ? When radicals occur, leave
9. Identify all measures for θ in the interval your answer in exact form.
-2π ≤ θ < 2π such that P(θ) is the given 13. Without using a calculator, determine the
point. exact value of each trigonometric ratio.
3π
a) (0, 1)
__ (
a) sin - _
2 )
b)
2( √3
_
, -_ 1
2 ) b) cos _3π
4
1__ , _1__
(
c) - _
√2 √2 ) __
7π
c) cot _
6
d) sec (-210°)
d) (- ,
2 2 )
1 3 √
_ _
e) tan 720°
10. Identify all measures for θ in the domain f) csc 300°
-180° < θ ≤ 360° such that P(θ) is the 14. Determine the approximate measure of
given point.
__ all angles that satisfy the following. Give
a) - (
2
√3
1
_
, -_
2 ) answers to the nearest hundredth of a unit.
Draw a sketch to show the quadrant(s)
b) (-1, 0) involved.
__ __
c) (
√2 √2
-_, _
2 __2 ) a) sin θ = 0.54, -2π < θ ≤ 2π
b) tan θ = 9.3, -180° ≤ θ < 360°
d)
1
_
2 ( √3
, -_
2 ) c) cos θ = -0.77, -π ≤ θ < π
d) csc θ = 9.5, -270° < θ ≤ 90°

15. Determine each trigonometric ratio, to 20. Determine the exact roots for each
three decimal places. trigonometric equation.
__
a) sin 285° a) csc θ = √2 , θ ∈ [0°, 360°]
b) cot 130° b) 2 cos θ + 1 = 0, 0 ≤ θ < 2π
__
c) cos 4.5 c) 3 tan θ - √3 = 0, -180° ≤ θ < 360°
d) sec 7.38 d) cot θ + 1 = 0, -π ≤ θ < π
16. The terminal arm of an angle θ in standard 21. Solve for θ. Give solutions as exact
position passes through the point A(-3, 4). values where possible. Otherwise, give
a) Draw the angle and use a protractor to approximate measures, to the nearest
determine its measure, to the nearest thousandth.
degree. a) sin2 θ + sin θ - 2 = 0, 0 ≤ θ < 2π
b) Show how to determine the exact value b) tan2 θ + 3 tan θ = 0, 0° < θ ≤ 360°
of cos θ. c) 6 cos2 θ + cos θ = 1, θ ∈ (0°, 360°)
c) What is the exact value of csc θ + tan θ? d) sec2 θ - 4 = 0, θ ∈ [-π, π]
d) From the value of cos θ, determine the 22. Determine a domain
__ for which the
measure of θ in degrees and in radians, √3
equation sin θ = _ would have the
to the nearest tenth. 2
following solution.
π 2π
a) θ = _ , _
4.4 Introduction to Trigonometric Equations, 3 3
pages 206—214 5π 4π π
b) θ = - _ , - _ , _
3 3 3
17. Factor each trigonometric expression. c) θ = -660°, -600°, -300°, -240°
a) cos2 θ + cos θ d) θ = -240°, 60°, 120°, 420°
2
b) sin θ - 3 sin θ - 4 23. Determine each general solution using the
2
c) cot θ - 9 angle measure specified.
1
a) sin x = - _ , in radians
d) 2 tan2 θ - 9 tan θ + 10 2
18. Explain why it is impossible to find each b) sin x = sin2 x, in degrees
of the following values. c) sec x + 2 = 0, in degrees
__
a) sin -1
2 d) (tan x - 1)(tan x - √3 ) = 0, in radians
b) tan 90°
19. Without solving, determine the number of
solutions for each trigonometric equation
or statement in the specified domain.
a) 4 cos θ - 3 = 0, 0° < θ ≤ 360°
b) sin θ + 0.9 = 0, -π ≤ θ ≤ π
c) 0.5 tan θ - 1.5 = 0, -180° ≤ θ ≤ 0°
d) csc θ is undefined, θ ∈ [-2π, 4π)

Multiple Choice 5. Determine the number of solutions
for the trigonometric equation
__
sin θ (sin θ + 1) = 0, -180° < θ < 360°.
√3 A 3
1. If cos θ = _ , which could be the measure
2
of θ? B 4
2π 5π 5π 11π C 5
A _ B _ C _ D _
3 6 3 6
D 6
2. Which exact __
measures of θ satisfy
√3
_
sin θ = - , 0° ≤ θ < 360°? Short Answer
2
A 60°, 120° 6. A vehicle has tires that are 75 cm in
B -60°, -120° diameter. A point is marked on the edge
C 240°, 300° of the tire.
D -240°, -300° a) Determine the measure of the angle
through which the point turns every
3. If cot θ = 1.4, what is one approximate
second if the vehicle is travelling
measure in radians for θ?
at 110 km/h. Give your answer
A 0.620 in degrees and in radians, to the
B 0.951 nearest tenth.
C 1.052 b) What is the answer in radians if the
D 0.018 diameter of the tire is 66 cm? Do you
4. The coordinates of point P on the
think that tire diameter affects tire
__ life? Explain.
unit circle are - _
4 4
√7
3, _
( )
. What are
7. a) What is the equation for any circle
the coordinates of Q if Q is a 90° with centre at the origin and radius
counterclockwise rotation from P? 1 unit?
__
A (
√7
_
4
3
, -_
__
4 ) b) Determine the value(s) for the missing
coordinate for all points on the unit
( √7
B -_, -_
4
3
4 ) circle satisfying the given conditions.
Draw diagrams.
__
__
C (_34 , _47 )
√
__
i) (5 )
2√3
_ ,y
__
D (-_43 , -_47 )
√
ii) (x,
√
_
4 )
7
,x<0
y
c) Explain how to use the equation for the
unit circle to find the value of cos θ if
P you know the y-coordinate of the point
where the terminal arm of an angle θ
in standard position intersects the
0 x unit circle.

8. Suppose that the cosine of an angle is 14. Draw any ABC with A at the origin,
negative and that you found one solution side AB along the positive x-axis, and
in quadrant III. C in quadrant I. Show that the area of
a) Explain how to find the other solution your triangle can be expressed as
between 0 and 2π. 1 bc sin A or _
_ 1 ac sin B.
2 2
b) Describe how to write the general
15. Solve for θ. Give solutions as exact
solution.
__ values where possible. Otherwise, give
9. Solve the equation 2 cos θ + √2 = 0, approximate measures to the nearest
where θ ∈ R. hundredth.
10. Explain the difference between an angle a) 3 tan2 θ - tan θ - 4 = 0, -π < θ < 2π
measuring 3° and one measuring 3 radians. b) sin2 θ + sin θ - 1 = 0, 0 ≤ θ < 2π
11. An angle in standard position
c) tan2 θ = 4 tan θ, θ ∈ [0, 2π]
measures -500°.
16. Jack chooses a horse to ride on the West
a) In which quadrant does -500°
Edmonton Mall carousel. The horse is
terminate? located 8 m from the centre of the carousel.
b) What is the measure of the reference If the carousel turns through an angle of
angle? 210° before stopping to let a crying child
c) What is the approximate value, to one get off, how far did Jack travel? Give
decimal place, of each trigonometric your answer as both an exact value and
ratio for -500°? an approximate measure to the nearest
12. Identify one positive and one negative hundredth of a metre.
angle measure that is coterminal with each
angle. Then, write a general expression for
all the coterminal angles in each case.
a) _
13π
4
b) -575°
Extended Response
13. The diagram shows a stretch of road
from A to E. The curves are arcs of
circles. Determine the length of the road
from A to E. Give your answer to the
nearest tenth of a kilometre.
E
A B 1 km
1.9 km 2.5 km
1.3 km
1.48 79°
C D

CHAPTER
5 Trigonometric
Functions and
Graphs
You have seen different types of functions and
how these functions can mathematically model the
real world. Many sinusoidal and periodic patterns
occur within nature. Movement on the surface of
Earth, such as earthquakes, and stresses within
Earth can cause rocks to fold into a sinusoidal
pattern. Geologists and structural engineers study
models of trigonometric functions to help them
understand these formations. In this chapter, you
will study trigonometric functions for which the
function values repeat at regular intervals.
Key Terms
periodic function vertical displacement
period phase shift
sinusoidal curve
amplitude

5.1
Graphing Sine and
Cosine Functions
Focus on . . .
• sketching the graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x
• determining the characteristics of the graphs
of y = sin x and y = cos x
• demonstrating an understanding of the effects
of vertical and horizontal stretches on the
graphs of sinusoidal functions
• solving a problem by analysing the graph of a
trigonometric function
Many natural phenomena are cyclic, suchch as the tides of the

ocean, the orbit of Earth around the Sun, and the growth and The Hopewell Rocks on the
Bay of Fundy coastline are
decline in animal populations. What other examples of cyclic sculpted by the cyclic tides.
natural phenomena can you describe?
You can model these types of natural behaviour with periodic
functions such as sine and cosine functions.
Did Yo u Know ?
The Bay of Fundy, between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, has the highest tides in
the world. The highest recorded tidal range is 17 m at Burntcoat Head, Nova Scotia.
Investigate the Sine and Cosine Functions
Materials 1. a) Copy and complete the table. Use your knowledge of special
• grid paper angles to determine exact values for each trigonometric ratio.
• ruler Then, determine the approximate values, to two decimal places.
One row has been completed for you.
Angle, θ y = sin θ y = cos θ

0
__
π
_ 1
_ √3
_
= 0.50 ≈ 0.87
6 2 2
π
_
4
π
_
3
π
_
2
b) Extend the table to include multiples of the special angles in the

other three quadrants.

2. a) Graph y = sin θ on the interval θ ∈ [0, 2π]
D i d You K n ow?
b) Summarize the following characteristics of the function y = sin θ.
The sine function is
• the maximum value and the minimum value
based upon one of the
• the interval over which the pattern of the function repeats trigonometric ratios
• the zeros of the function in the interval θ ∈ [0, 2π] originally calculated
• the y-intercept by the astronomer
• the domain and range Hipparchus of Nicaea
in the second century
3. Graph y = cos θ on the interval θ ∈ [0, 2π] and create a summary
B.C.E. He was trying
similar to the one you developed in step 2b).
to make sense of the
movement of the stars
Reflect and Respond and the moon in the
4. a) Suppose that you extended the graph of y = sin θ to the right of night sky.
2π. Predict the shape of the graph. Use a calculator to investigate
a few points to the right of 2π. At what value of θ will the next
cycle end?
b) Suppose that you extended the graph of y = sin θ to the left of
0. Predict the shape of the graph. Use a calculator to investigate
a few points to the left of 0. At what value of θ will the next
cycle end?
5. Repeat step 4 for y = cos θ.
Link the Ideas
Sine and cosine functions are periodic functions. The values of these periodic function
functions repeat over a specified period. • a function that repeats
itself over regular
A sine graph is a graph of the function y = sin θ. You can also intervals (cycles) of its
describe a sine graph as a sinusoidal curve. domain
y period
y = sin θ Period
1 • the length of the
interval of the domain
0.5 over which a graph
repeats itself
__ -π - π π • the horizontal length of

__ -2π - 3π
- 5π _ 0 _ π 3π
__ 2π 5π
__ θ
one cycle on a periodic
2 2 2 2 2 2
-0.5 graph
-1
One Cycle sinusoidal curve
Period
• the name given to a
Trigonometric functions are sometimes called circular because they curve that fluctuates
back and forth like a
are based on the unit circle. sine graph
• a curve that oscillates
repeatedly up and
down from a centre line
5.1 Graphing Sine and Cosine Functions • MHR 223

The sine function, y = sin θ, relates the measure of angle θ in standard
position to the y-coordinate of the point P where the terminal arm of the
angle intersects the unit circle.
y y
π
_
π
_ 4
2 1
3π
__
4
P y = sin θ
π 0, 2π 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π θ
2 2
5π
__
4 -1
3π
__ 7π
__
2 4
The cosine function, y = cos θ, relates the measure of angle θ in standard

position to the x-coordinate of the point P where the terminal arm of the
angle intersects the unit circle.
y
y
P 1
( π3_ , cos π3_ )
0 x 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π x
2 2
P
-1
(7π
6 6 )
__ , cos 7π
__
The coordinates of point P repeat after point P travels completely

around the unit circle. The unit circle has a circumference of 2π.
Therefore, the smallest distance before the cycle of values for the
functions y = sin θ or y = cos θ begins to repeat is 2π. This distance
is the period of sin θ and cos θ.
Example 1
Graph a Periodic Function
Sketch the graph of y = sin θ for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360° or 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
Describe its characteristics.
Solution
To sketch the graph of the sine function for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360° or 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π,
select values of θ and determine the corresponding values of sin θ. Plot
the points and join them with a smooth curve.

Degrees 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180° 210° 225° 240° 270° 300° 315° 330° 360°
θ π π π π 2π 3π 5π 7π 5π 4π 3π 5π 7π 11π
Radians 0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ π _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2π
6 4 3 2 3 4 6 6 4 3 2 3 4 6
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
1 √2 √3 √3 √2 1 1 √2 √3 √3 √2 1
sin θ 0 _ _ _
1 _ _ _ 0 -_ -_ -_ -1 -_ -_ -_ 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
y y = sin θ
D i d You K n ow?
1
The Indo-Asian
mathematician
0 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360° θ
Aryabhata (476—550)
-1 made tables of
half-chords that are
now known as sine
y y = sin θ and cosine tables.
1
0 π
_ π
_ π
_ 2π
__ 5π
__ π 7π
__ 4π
__ 3π
__ 5π 11π 2π
__ ___ θ
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6
-1
From the graph of the sine function, you can make general observations
about the characteristics of the sine curve:
• The curve is periodic.
• The curve is continuous. Which points would
you determine to be
• The domain is {θ | θ ∈ R}. the key points for
sketching a graph of
• The range is {y | -1 ≤ y ≤ 1, y ∈ R}.
the sine function?
• The maximum value is +1.
• The minimum value is -1.
• The amplitude of the curve is 1. amplitude (of
• The period is 360° or 2π. a sinusoidal
function)
• The y-intercept is 0. Look for a • the maximum vertical
• In degrees, the θ-intercepts are pattern in distance the graph of
the values. a sinusoidal function
…, -540°, -360°, -180°, 0°, 180°, 360°, …, or 180°n, varies above and below
where n ∈ I. the horizontal central
The θ-intercepts, in radians, are axis of the curve
…, -3π, -2π, -π, 0, π, 2π, …, or nπ,
where n ∈ I.
Your Turn
Sketch the graph of y = cos θ for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360°. Describe
its characteristics.

Example 2
Determine the Amplitude of a Sine Function
Any function of the form y = af (x) is related to y = f (x) by a
vertical stretch of a factor |a| about the x-axis, including the sine
and cosine functions. If a < 0, the function is also reflected in
the x-axis.
a) On the same set of axes, graph y = 3 sin x, y = 0.5 sin x, and
y = -2 sin x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
b) State the amplitude for each function.
c) Compare each graph to the graph of y = sin x. Consider the period,
amplitude, domain, and range.
Solution
a) Method 1: Graph Using Transformations
Sketch the graph of y = sin x.
For the graph of y = 3 sin x, apply a vertical stretch by a factor of 3.
For the graph of y = 0.5 sin x, apply a vertical stretch by a factor of 0.5.
For the graph of y = -2 sin x, reflect in the x-axis and apply a vertical
stretch by a factor of 2.
y
y = 3 sin x
3
y = 0.5 sin x
2
y = sin x
1
0 π
_ π
_ 3π
__ π 5π
__ 3π
__ 7π
__ 2π x
4 2 4 4 2 4
-1
-2
y = -2 sin x
-3
Method 2: Use a Graphing Calculator

Select radian mode.
Use the following

window settings:
[ π
x: 0, 2π, _
4]
y: [-3.5, 3.5, 0.5]

b) Determine the amplitude of a sine function using the formula
Amplitude = maximum
_______ value - minimum value .
2
1 - (-1) How is the
The amplitude of y = sin x is __ , or 1. amplitude
2
related to the
3 - (-3)
The amplitude of y = 3 sin x is __ , or 3. range of the
2 function?
0.5 - (-0.5)
The amplitude of y = 0.5 sin x is ___ , or 0.5.
2
2 - (-2)
The amplitude of y = -2 sin x is __ , or 2.
2
c) Function Period Amplitude Specified Domain Range
y = sin x 2π 1 {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, x ∈ R} {y | -1 ≤ y ≤ 1, y ∈ R}
y = 3 sin x 2π 3 {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, x ∈ R} {y | -3 ≤ y ≤ 3, y ∈ R}
y = 0.5 sin x 2π 0.5 {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, x ∈ R} {y | -0.5 ≤ y ≤ 0.5, y ∈ R}
y = -2 sin x 2π 2 {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, x ∈ R} {y | -2 ≤ y ≤ 2, y ∈ R}
Changing the value of a affects the amplitude of a sinusoidal function.

For the function y = a sin x, the amplitude is |a|.
Your Turn
a) On the same set of axes, graph y = 6 cos x and y = -4 cos x for
0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
b) State the amplitude for each graph.
c) Compare your graphs to the graph of y = cos x. Consider the period,
amplitude, domain, and range.
d) What is the amplitude of the function y = 1.5 cos x?
Period of y = sin bx or y = cos bx

The graph of a function of the form y = sin bx or y = cos bx for b ≠ 0
has a period different from 2π when |b| ≠ 1. To show this, remember that
sin bx or cos bx will take on all possible values as bx ranges from 0 to
2π. Therefore, to determine the period of either of these functions, solve
the compound inequality as follows.
0 ≤ x ≤ 2π Begin with the interval of one cycle of y = sin x or y = cos x.
0 ≤ |b|x ≤ 2π Replace x with |b|x for the interval of one cycle of y = sin bx or y = cos bx.
0≤x≤_ 2π Divide by |b|.

|b|
Solving this inequality determines the length of a cycle for the sinusoidal
curve, where the start of a cycle of y = sin bx is 0 and the end is _ 2π .
|b|
Determine the period, or length of the cycle, by finding the distance
2π . Thus, the period for y = sin bx or y = cos bx is _
from 0 to _ 2π ,
|b| |b|
in radians, or 360°
_ , in degrees. Why do you use |b| to determine the period?
|b|

Example 3
Determine the Period of a Sine Function
Any function of the form y = f (bx) is related to y = f (x) by a
horizontal stretch by a factor of _1 about the y-axis, including
|b|
the sine and cosine functions. If b < 0, then the function is
also reflected in the y-axis.
a) Sketch the graph of the function y = sin 4x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 360°. State
the period of the function and compare the graph to the graph of
y = sin x.
1
b) Sketch the graph of the function y = sin _ x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 4π. State
2
the period of the function and compare the graph to the graph of
y = sin x.
Solution
a) Sketch the graph of y = sin x.
1.
For the graph of y = sin 4x, apply a horizontal stretch by a factor of _
4
y
2
y = sin x
y = sin 4x To find the period of a function, start from
1 any point on the graph (for example, the
y-intercept) and determine the length of
0 90° 180° 270° 360° x the interval until one cycle is complete.
-1
-2
From the graph of y = sin 4x, the period is 90°.

360° .
You can also determine this using the formula Period = _
|b|
Period = 360°
_
|b|
360°
Period = _ Substitute 4 for b.
|4|
360°
Period = _
4
Period = 90°
Compared to the graph of y = sin x, the graph of y = sin 4x has the

same amplitude, domain, and range, but a different period.

b) Sketch the graph of y = sin x.
1 x, apply a horizontal stretch by a factor of 2.
For the graph of y = sin _
2
y
y = sin 1
_x
y = sin x
1 2
0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π 5π
__ 3π 7π
__ 4π x
2 2 2 2
-1
From the graph, the period for y = sin _ 1 x is 4π.

2
Using the formula,
2π
Period = _
|b|
Period = _2π 1
Substitute _ for b.
1 2
_
2 | |
Period = _2π
1
_
2
Period = 4π
1 x has the
Compared to the graph of y = sin x, the graph of y = sin _
2
same amplitude, domain, and range, but a different period.
Changing the value of b affects the period of a sinusoidal function.
Your Turn
a) Sketch the graph of the function y = cos 3x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 360°.
State the period of the function and compare the graph to the
graph of y = cos x.
1
b) Sketch the graph of the function y = cos _ x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 6π.
3
State the period of the function and compare the graph to the
graph of y = cos x.
c) What is the period of the graph of y = cos (-3x)?
Example 4
Sketch the Graph of y = a cos bx
a) Sketch the graph of y = -3 cos 2x for at least one cycle.
b) Determine
• the amplitude
• the period
• the maximum and minimum values
• the x-intercepts and the y-intercept
• the domain and range

Solution
a) Method 1: Graph Using Transformations
Compared to the graph of y = cos x, the graph of y = -3 cos 2x is
stretched horizontally by a factor of _1 about the y-axis, stretched
2
vertically by a factor of 3 about the x-axis, and reflected in the x-axis.
Begin with the graph of y = cos x. Apply Why is the horizontal stretch
1
1 about the y-axis. by a factor of _ ?
a horizontal stretch of _ 2
2
y
3
2
y = cos 2x
1
0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π 5π
__ 3π 7π
__ 4πx
2 2 2 2
-1
y = cos x
-2
-3
Then, apply a vertical stretch by a factor of 3.

y
y = 3 cos 2x
3
2
y = cos 2x
1
0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π 5π
__ 3π 7π
__ 4πx
2 2 2 2
-1
-2
-3
Finally, reflect the graph of y = 3 cos 2x in the x-axis.

y
y = 3 cos 2x y = -3 cos 2x
3
0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π 5π
__ 3π 7π
__ 4πx
2 2 2 2
-1
-2
-3

Method 2: Graph Using Key Points
This method is based on the fact that one cycle of a cosine function
2π , includes two x-intercepts, two maximums,
y = cos bx, from 0 to _
|b|
and a minimum. These five points divide the period into quarters.
Compare y = -3 cos 2x to y = a cos bx.
Since a = -3, the amplitude is |-3|, or 3. Thus, the maximum value

is 3 and the minimum value is -3.
2π , or π. One cycle will start at x = 0 and

Since b = 2, the period is _
|2|
end at x = π. Divide this cycle into four equal segments using the
3π , and π for x.
π, _
π, _ How do you know where the
values 0, _ maximums or minimums will occur?
4 2 4
π, 0 , Why are there two
The key points are (0, -3), _
4( ) minimums instead of
π 3π two maximums?
( )( )
_ , 3 , _ , 0 , and (π, -3).
2 4
Connect the points in a smooth curve and sketch the graph through one
cycle. The graph of y = -3 cos 2x repeats every π units in either direction.
y
y = -3 cos 2x
3
0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π 5π
__ 3π 7π
__ 4π x
2 2 2 2
-1
-2
-3
b) The amplitude of y = -3 cos 2x is 3.

The period is π.
The maximum value is 3.
The minimum value is -3
The y-intercept is -3.
3π , _
π, _
The x-intercepts are _ 5π , _
7π or _
π +_ π n, n ∈ I.
4 4 4 4 4 2
The domain of the function is {x | x ∈ R}.
The range of the function is {y | -3 ≤ y ≤ 3, y ∈ R}.

Your Turn
a) Graph y = 3 sin 4x, showing at least two cycles.
b) Determine
• the amplitude
• the period
• the maximum and minimum values
• the x-intercepts and the y-intercept
Key Ideas
To sketch the graphs of y = sin θ and y = cos θ for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360° or 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π,

determine the coordinates of the key points representing the θ-intercepts,
maximum(s), and minimum(s).
y y
y = sin θ y = cos θ
1 1
0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π θ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π θ
2 2 2 2
-1 -1
The maximum value is +1. How are the characteristics

The minimum value is -1. different for y = cos θ?
The amplitude is 1.
The period is 2π.
The y-intercept is 0.
The θ-intercepts for the cycle shown are 0, π, and 2π.
The domain of y = sin θ is {θ | θ ∈ R}.
The range of y = sin θ is {y | -1 ≤ y ≤ 1, y ∈ R}.
Determine the amplitude and period of a sinusoidal function of

the form y = a sin bx or y = a cos bx by inspecting graphs or
directly from the sinusoidal function.
You can determine the amplitude using the formula How can you determine
the amplitude from
Amplitude = maximum
_______ value - minimum value .
the graph of the
2
sine function? cosine
The amplitude is given by |a|. function?
You can change the amplitude of a function by varying
the value of a.
The period is the horizontal length of one cycle on the graph How can you identify the
2π or _
360° . period on the graph of
of a function. It is given by _ a sine function? cosine
|b| |b|
function?
You can change the period of a function by varying the value of b.

Practise 5. State the period for each periodic

1. a) State the five key points for y = sin x function, in degrees and in radians.
that occur in one complete cycle from Sketch the graph of each function.
0 to 2π. a) y = sin 4θ
1
b) y = cos _ θ
3
b) Use the key points to sketch the graph of
2
c) y = sin _ x d) y = cos 6x
y = sin x for -2π ≤ x ≤ 2π. Indicate the 3
key points on your graph.
c) What are the x-intercepts of the graph? Apply
d) What is the y-intercept of the graph? 6. Match each function with its graph.
e) What is the maximum value of the a) y = 3 cos x

graph? the minimum value? b) y = cos 3x
2. a) State the five key points for y = cos x c) y = -sin x
that occur in one complete cycle from
d) y = -cos x
0 to 2π.
A y
b) Use the key points to sketch a graph of
y = cos x for -2π ≤ x ≤ 2π. Indicate 2
the key points on your graph.
0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π x
c) What are the x-intercepts of the graph?
2 2
-2
d) What is the y-intercept of the graph?
e) What is the maximum value of the
graph? the minimum value? B y
3. Copy and complete the table of 1
properties for y = sin x and y = cos x x
for all real numbers. 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π
2 2
Property y = sin x y = cos x -1
maximum
minimum C y
amplitude 1
period
domain 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π x
2 2
range -1
y-intercept
x-intercepts
D y
4. State the amplitude of each periodic 1

function. Sketch the graph of each function.
1 0 π
_ 2π
__ π 4π
__ x
a) y = 2 sin θ b) y = _ cos θ 3 3 3
2 -1
1
c) y = - _ sin x d) y = -6 cos x
3

7. Determine the amplitude of each function. 12. The points indicated on the graph
Then, use the language of transformations shown represent the x-intercepts and
to describe how each graph is related to the maximum and minimum values.
the graph of y = sin x. B F
a) y = 3 sin x b) y = -5 sin x
C
c) y = 0.15 sin x
2
d) y = - _ sin x A E x
3
8. Determine the period (in degrees) of D
each function. Then, use the language a) Determine the coordinates of points B,
of transformations to describe how C, D, and E if y = 3 sin 2x and A has
each graph is related to the graph of coordinates (0, 0).
y = cos x.
b) Determine the coordinates of points
a) y = cos 2x b) y = cos (-3x) C, D, E, and F if y = 2 cos x and B has
1
c) y = cos _ x
2
d) y = cos _ x coordinates (0, 2).
4 3
9. Without graphing, determine the amplitude c) Determine the coordinates of points
1 x and A has
B, C, D, and E if y = sin _
and period of each function. State the 2
period in degrees and in radians. coordinates (-4π, 0).
a) y = 2 sin x b) y = -4 cos 2x
13. The second harmonic in sound is given by
5 2 1
3 (
c) y = _ sin - _ x
3 ) d) y = 3 cos _ x
2
f (x) = sin 2x, while the third harmonic is
given by f (x) = sin 3x. Sketch the curves
10. a) Determine the period and the amplitude and compare the graphs of the second and
of each function in the graph. third harmonics for -2π ≤ x ≤ 2π.
y
A D i d You K n ow ?
2
A harmonic is a wave whose frequency is an
1 integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. The
B
fundamental frequency of a periodic wave is the
0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π 5π
__ 3π 7π
__ 4π x inverse of the period length.
2 2 2 2
-1
14. Sounds heard by the human ear are
-2
vibrations created by different air
pressures. Musical sounds are regular
b) Write an equation in the form or periodic vibrations. Pure tones
y = a sin bx or y = a cos bx for will produce single sine waves on an
each function. oscilloscope. Determine the amplitude
and period of each single sine wave
c) Explain your choice of either sine or
shown.
cosine for each function.
a) y
11. Sketch the graph of each function over the
interval [-360°, 360°]. For each function, 4
clearly label the maximum and minimum 2

values, the x-intercepts, the y-intercept, the
period, and the range. x
-π
_ 0 π
_ 2π
__ π 4π
__ 5π
__ 2π
a) y = 2 cos x b) y = -3 sin x 3 3 3 3 3
-2
1
c) y = _ sin x
3
d) y = - _ cos x
2 4 -4

b) y c) Draw a line radiating from the
4 centre of the circle to each mark.
d) Draw a vertical line to complete a
2
right triangle for each of the angles
that you measured.
x
-π
_ 0 π
_ 2π
__ π 4π
__ 5π
__ 2π
3 3 3 3 3
-2
-4
D id Yo u K n ow ?
Pure tone audiometry is a hearing test used to

measure the hearing threshold levels of a patient.
This test determines if there is hearing loss. Pure Step 2 Recall that the sine ratio is the length
tone audiometry relies on a patient’s response to of the opposite side divided by
pure tone stimuli.
the length of the hypotenuse. The
hypotenuse of each triangle is the
15. Systolic and diastolic pressures mark the radius of the circle. Measure the length
upper and lower limits in the changes in of the opposite side for each triangle
blood pressure that produce a pulse. The and complete a table similar to the
length of time between the peaks relates one shown.
to the period of the pulse. opposite
Angle,
sin x = __
Blood Pressure Variation x Opposite Hypotenuse hypotenuse
(in millimetres of mercury)
160 0°
Systolic
Pressure 15°
120
Pressure
30°
80 45°
Diastolic
Pressure
40
Step 3 Draw a coordinate grid on a sheet of

0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2
grid paper.
Time (in seconds)
a) Label the x-axis from 0° to 360° in
a) Determine the period and amplitude of increments of 15°.
the graph. b) Label the y-axis from -1 to +1.
b) Determine the pulse rate (number of c) Create a scatter plot of points from
beats per minute) for this person. your table. Join the dots with a
smooth curve.
16. MINI LAB Follow these steps Materials
to draw a sine curve. Step 4 Use one of the following methods to
• paper
complete one cycle of the sine graph:
Step 1 Draw a large circle. • protractor
• compass • complete the diagram from 180°
a) Mark the centre of
• ruler to 360°
the circle.
• grid paper • extend the table by measuring the
b) Use a protractor and
lengths of the sides of the triangle
mark every 15° from
0° to 180° along the • use the symmetry of the sine curve
circumference of the circle. to complete the cycle

_____
17. Sketch one cycle of a sinusoidal curve 23. Consider the function y = √sin x .
with the given amplitude and period and a) Use the graph of y = sin x to sketch a
passing through the given point. prediction
_____ for the shape of the graph of
a) amplitude 2, period 180°, point (0, 0) y = √sin x .
b) amplitude 1.5, period 540°, point (0, 0) b) Use graphing technology or grid paper
18. The graphs of y = sin θ and y = cos θ show and a table of values to check your
the coordinates of one point. Determine prediction. Resolve any differences.
the coordinates of four other points on the c) How do you think the graph of
_________
graph with the same y-coordinate as the y = √sin x + 1_____
will differ from the
point shown. Explain how you determined graph of y = √sin x ?
_________
the θ-coordinates. d) Graph y = √sin x + 1 and compare it to
a) y your prediction.
2
1 ( 3π 2
__ , __
4 2
) 24. Is the function f (x) = 5 cos x + 3 sin x
sinusoidal? If it is sinusoidal, state the
period of the function.
__ -π - π
-3π _ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π θ
2 2 2 2 D i d You K n ow ?
-1
In 1822, French mathematician Joseph Fourier

y discovered that any wave could be modelled as a
b)
2 combination of different types of sine waves. This
1
( π 3
_ , __
6 2
) model applies even to unusual waves such as square
waves and highly irregular waves such as human
speech. The discipline of reducing a complex wave to
__ -π - π
-3π _ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π θ a combination of sine waves is called Fourier analysis
2 2 2 2 and is fundamental to many of the sciences.
-1
Create Connections
19. Graph y = sin θ and y = cos θ on the same
set of axes for -2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π. C1 MINI LAB Explore the relationship between
the unit circle and the sine and cosine
a) How are the two graphs similar?
graphs with a graphing calculator.
b) How are they different?
Step 1 In the first list, enter the angle values
c) What transformation could you apply π . In
from 0 to 2π by increments of _
to make them the same graph? 12
the second and third lists, calculate
Extend the cosine and sine of the angles in
20. If y = f (x) has a period of 6, determine
the first list, respectively.
1x .
the period of y = f _
2 ( )
21. Determine the period, in radians, of each
function using two different methods.
a) y = -2 sin 3x
2 π
b) y = - _ cos _ x
3 6
22. If sin θ = 0.3, determine the value
of sin θ + sin (θ + 2π) + sin (θ + 4π).

Step 2 Graph the second and third lists for C4 Identify the regions that each of the
the unit circle. following characteristics fall into.
Step 3 Graph the first and third lists for the
sine curve. Sine
Sine and Cosine
Step 4 Graph the first and second lists for y = sin x y = cos x
Cosine
the cosine curve.
a) domain {x | x ∈ R}
b) range {y | -1 ≤ y ≤ 1, y ∈ R}
c) period is 2π
d) amplitude is 1
e) x-intercepts are n(180°), n ∈ I
f) x-intercepts are 90° + n(180°), n ∈ I
g) y-intercept is 1
Step 5 a) Use the trace feature on the
h) y-intercept is 0
graphing calculator and trace
around the unit circle. What do you i) passes through point (0, 1)
notice about the points that you j) passes through point (0, 0)
trace? What do they represent? k) a maximum value occurs at (360°, 1)
b) Move the cursor to trace the sine or l) a maximum value occurs at (90°, 1)
cosine curve. How do the points on
m) y
the graph of the sine or cosine curve
relate to the points on the unit
circle? Explain.
0 x
C2 The value of (cos θ)2 + (sin θ)2 appears
to be constant no matter the value of θ.
What is the value of the constant? Why
is the value constant? (Hint: Use the unit
n) y
circle and the Pythagorean theorem in
your explanation.)
C3 The graph of y = f (x) is sinusoidal with
a period of 40° passing through the 0 x
point (4, 0). Decide whether each of the
following can be determined from this
information, and justify your answer.
a) f (0) C5 a) Sketch the graph of y = |cos x| for
-2π ≤ x ≤ 2π. How does the graph
b) f (4)
compare to the graph of y = cos x?
c) f (84)
b) Sketch the graph of y = |sin x| for
-2π ≤ x ≤ 2π. How does the graph
compare to the graph of y = sin x?

5.2
Transformations of
Sinusoidal Functions
Focus on . . .
• graphing and transforming sinusoidal functions
• identifying the domain, range, phase shift, period,
amplitude, and vertical displacement of sinusoidal The pistons and connecting
functions Electric power and the rods of a steam train drive
• developing equations of sinusoidal functions, light waves it generates the wheels with a motion
expressed in radian and degree measure, from graphs are sinusoidal waveforms. that is sinusoidal.
and descriptions
• solving problems graphically that can be modelled using
sinusoidal functions
• recognizing that more than one equation can be used to
represent the graph of a sinusoidal function
The motion of a body attached to a

suspended spring, the motion of the plucked
string of a musical instrument, and the
pendulum of a clock produce oscillatory
motion that you can model with sinusoidal
functions. To use the functions y = sin x and
y = cos x in applied situations, such as these
and the ones in the images shown, you need Ocean waves created by the winds
to be able to transform the functions. may be modelled by sinusoidal curves.
Investigate Transformations of Sinusoidal Functions
Materials A: Graph y = sin θ + d or y = cos θ + d

• grid paper 1. On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of the following functions
• graphing technology for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360°.
y = sin θ
y = sin θ + 1
y = sin θ - 2
2. Using the language of transformations, compare the graphs of
y = sin θ + 1 and y = sin θ − 2 to the graph of y = sin θ.
3. Predict what the graphs of y = sin θ + 3 and y = sin θ - 4 will look
like. Justify your predictions.

Reflect and Respond
4. a) What effect does the parameter d in the function y = sin θ + d
have on the graph of y = sin θ when d > 0?
b) What effect does the parameter d in the function y = sin θ + d
have on the graph of y = sin θ when d < 0?
5. a) Predict the effect varying the parameter d in the function
y = cos θ + d has on the graph of y = cos θ.
b) Use a graph to verify your prediction.
B: Graph y = cos (θ - c) or y = sin (θ - c) Using Technology

6. On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of the following functions
for -π ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
y = cos θ
π
(
y = cos θ + _
2 )
y = cos (θ - π)
7. Using the language of transformations, compare the graphs of
π and y = cos (θ - π) to the graph of y = cos θ.
(
y = cos θ + _
2)
π 3π
( 2)
8. Predict what the graphs of y = cos θ - _ and y = cos θ + _( 2 )
will look like. Justify your predictions.
Reflect and Respond

9. a) What effect does the parameter c in the function y = cos (θ - c)
have on the graph of y = cos θ when c > 0?
b) What effect does the parameter c in the function y = cos (θ - c)
have on the graph of y = cos θ when c < 0?
10. a) Predict the effect varying the parameter c in the function
y = sin (θ - c) has on the graph of y = sin θ.
b) Use a graph to verify your prediction.
Link the Ideas
You can translate graphs of functions up or down or left or right and

stretch them vertically and/or horizontally. The rules that you have
applied to the transformations of functions also apply to transformations
of sinusoidal curves.
5.2 Transformations of Sinusoidal Functions • MHR 239

Example 1
Graph y = sin (x - c) + d
a) Sketch the graph of the function y = sin (x - 30°) + 3.
b) What are the domain and range of the function?
c) Use the language of transformations to compare your graph to the
graph of y = sin x.
Solution
a) y
4
0 60° 120° 180° 240° 300° 360° x

-1
b) Domain: {x | x ∈ R}
Range: {y | 2 ≤ y ≤ 4, y ∈ R}
vertical c) The graph has been translated 3 units up. This is the vertical
displacement displacement. The graph has also been translated 30° to
• the vertical translation the right. This is called the phase shift.
of the graph of a
periodic function
Your Turn
phase shift a) Sketch the graph of the function y = cos (x + 45°) − 2.
• the horizontal b) What are the domain and range of the function?
translation of the graph
c) Use the language of transformations to compare your graph
of a periodic function
to the graph of y = cos x.
Example 2
Graph y = a cos (θ − c) + d
a) Sketch the graph of the function y = −2 cos (θ + π) − 1 over
two cycles.
b) Use the language of transformations to compare your graph to the
graph of y = cos θ. Indicate which parameter is related to each
transformation.

Solution
a) y
1
0 π 2π 3π 4π θ
-1
-2
-3
b) Since a is −2, the graph has been reflected about the θ-axis and then D i d You K n ow?
stretched vertically by a factor of two. The d-value is −1, so the graph is
In this chapter,
translated 1 unit down. The sinusoidal axis is defined as y = −1. Finally, the parameters for
the c-value is -π. Therefore, the graph is translated π units to the left. horizontal and vertical
translations are
Your Turn represented by c and
π d, respectively.
(
a) Sketch the graph of the function y = 2 sin θ − _ + 2 over
2 )
two cycles.
b) Compare your graph to the graph of y = sin θ.
Example 3
Graph y = a sin b(x - c) + d
2π + 2 over two
(
Sketch the graph of the function y = 3 sin 2x - _
3 )
cycles. What are the vertical displacement, amplitude, period, phase
shift, domain, and range for the function?
Solution
First, rewrite the function in the standard form y = a sin b(x - c) + d.
π +2
(
y = 3 sin 2 x - _
3 )
Method 1: Graph Using Transformations
Step 1: Sketch the graph of y = sin x for one cycle. Apply the horizontal
and vertical stretches to obtain the graph of y = 3 sin 2x.
Compared to the graph of y = sin x, the graph of y = 3 sin 2x is a
1 and a vertical stretch by a factor of 3.
2
For the function y = 3 sin 2x, b = 2.
Period = _2π
|b|
=_ 2π
2
=π
So, the period is π.

For the function y = 3 sin 2x, |a| = 3.
So, the amplitude is 3.
y
y = 3 sin 2x
4
0 π 2π 3π x
-2
y = sin x
Step 2: Apply the horizontal translation to obtain the graph of

π .
(
y = 3 sin 2 x - _
3 )
The phase shift is determined by the value of parameter c for a function
in the standard form y = a sin b(x - c) + d.
π is
Compared to the graph of y = 3 sin 2x, the graph of y = 3 sin 2 x - _
π units to the right.
3 ( )
translated horizontally _
3
The phase shift is π
_ units to the right.
3
y
y = 3 sin 2x
4
(
y = 3 sin 2 x - π
_
3 )
2
0 π 2π 3π x
-2
Step 3: Apply the vertical translation to obtain the graph of

π + 2.
(
y = 3 sin 2 x - _
3 )
The vertical displacement is determined by the value of parameter d for a
function in the standard form y = a sin b(x - c) + d.
π , the graph of
Compared to the graph of y = 3 sin 2 x - _
3 ( )
π
(
y = 3 sin 2 x - _
3 )
+ 2 is translated up 2 units.
The vertical displacement is 2 units up.

y
6 (
y = 3 sin 2 x - π
_ +2
3 )
Would it matter if the order
4 (
y = 3 sin 2 x - π
_
3 ) of the transformations were
changed? Try a different order
2 for the transformations.
0 π 2π 3π 4π x
-2

π + 2 is
(
Compared to the graph of y = sin x, the graph of y = 3 sin 2 x - _
3 )
• horizontally stretched by a factor of 1
_
2
• vertically stretched by a factor of 3
• horizontally translated _π units to the right
3
• vertically translated 2 units up
The vertical displacement is 2 units up.
The amplitude is 3.
π units to the right.
The phase shift is _
3
The domain is {x | x ∈ R}.
The range is {y | -1 ≤ y ≤ 5, y ∈ R}.
Method 2: Graph Using Key Points
You can identify five key points to graph one cycle of the sine function.
The first, third, and fifth points indicate the start, the middle, and the
end of the cycle. The second and fourth points indicate the maximum
and minimum points.
π + 2 to y = a sin b(x - c) + d gives a = 3,
(
Comparing y = 3 sin 2 x - _
3 )
π , and d = 2.
b = 2, c = _
3
The amplitude is |a|, or 3.
2π , or π.
The period is _
|b|
The vertical displacement is d, or 2. Therefore, the equation of the
sinusoidal axis or mid-line is y = 2.
You can use the amplitude and vertical displacement to determine the
maximum and minimum values.
The maximum value is
d + |a| = 2 + 3
=5
The minimum value is
d - |a| = 2 - 3
= -1
Determine the values of x for the start and end of one cycle from the
function y = a sin b(x - c) + d by solving the compound inequality
0 ≤ b(x - c) ≤ 2π.
π ≤ 2π How does this inequality relate
(
0≤2x-_ )
3 to the period of the function?
0≤x-_≤π π
3
π ≤x≤_
_ 4π
3 3

π ≤x≤_
Divide the interval _ 4π into four equal segments. By doing this,
3 3
you can locate five key values of x along the sinusoidal axis.
7π , _
π, _
_ 5π , _
13π , _
4π y
3 12 6 12 3
6 (
y = 3 sin 2 x - π
3 )
_ +2
Use the above information to sketch

one cycle of the graph, and then a 4
second cycle.
2
Note the five key points and how
you can use them to sketch one 0 π 2π 3π x
cycle of the graph of the function.
π + 2,
For the graph of the function y = 3 sin 2 x - _
3 ( )
• the vertical displacement is 2 units up
• the amplitude is 3
π units to the right
• the phase shift is _
3
• the domain is {x | x ∈ R}
• the range is {y | -1 ≤ y ≤ 5, y ∈ R}
Your Turn
Sketch the graph of the function y = 2 cos 4(x + π) - 1 over two cycles.
What are the vertical displacement, amplitude, period, phase shift,
domain, and range for the function?
Example 4
Determine an Equation From a Graph
The graph shows the function y
y = f (x). 4
a) Write the equation of the
function in the form 2
y = a sin b(x - c) + d, a > 0.

x
b) Write the equation of the -π_ 0 π
_ 2π
__ π 4π
__ 5π
__ 2π
3 3 3 3 3
function in the form
y = a cos b(x - c) + d, a > 0.
c) Use technology to verify your solutions.
Solution
a) Determine the values of the y
parameters a, b, c, and d. 4
a=2
Locate the sinusoidal axis d=2
2
or mid-line. Its position
determines the value of d. x
-π
_ 0 π
_ 2π
__ π 4π
__ 5π
__ 2π
Thus, d = 2. 3 3 3 3 3

Use the sinusoidal axis from
the graph or use the formula How can you use the maximum and minimum
to determine the amplitude. values of the graph to find the value of d ?
Amplitude = maximum
_______ value - minimum value
2
a= 4
__- 0
2
a=2
The amplitude is 2.
Determine the period and the value of b.
Method 1: Count the Number of Method 2: Determine the

Cycles in 2π Period First
Determine the number of cycles in Locate the start and end of one
a distance of 2π. cycle of the sine curve.
In this function, there are three Recall that one cycle of y = sin x starts at
cycles. Therefore, the value of b is (0, 0). How is that point transformed? How
2π . could this information help you determine
3 and the period is _ the start for one cycle of this sine curve?
3
y Period The start of the first cycle of
4 the sine curve that is closest to
the y-axis is at x = _π and the
2 6
end is at x = _5π .
6
-π
_ 0 π_ 2π
__ π 4π __ 2πx
__ 5π
3 3 3 3 3 5π - _ 2π .
π , or _
-2 The period is _
First Second Third 6 6 3
Cycle Cycle Cycle
Solve the equation for b.
Period = _2π
|b|
2π = _
_ 2π
3 |b|
b = 3 Choose b to be positive.
Determine the phase shift, c.
Locate the start of the first cycle of the sine curve to the right of the
y-axis. Thus, c = _π.
6
Substitute the values of the parameters a = 2, b = 3, c = _ π,
6
and d = 2 into the equation y = a sin b(x - c) + d.
The equation of the function in the form y = a sin b(x - c) + d

π + 2.
(
is y = 2 sin 3 x - _
6 )

b) To write an equation in the form y = a cos b(x - c) + d, determine
the values of the parameters a, b, c, and d using steps similar to
what you did for the sine function in part a).
a=2
b=3
π
c=_
π
Why is c = _ ? Are there other possible values for c?
3 3
d=2
y
Period
4
-π
_ 0 π
_ 2π
__ π 4π
__ 5π
__ 2πx
3 3 3 3 3
-2
The equation of the function in the How do the two equations compare?
form y = a cos b(x - c) + d is Could other equations define the
π + 2. function y = f(x)?
(
y = 2 cos 3 x - _
3 )
c) Enter the functions on a graphing calculator. Compare the graphs to
the original and to each other.
The graphs confirm that the equations for the function are correct.
Your Turn
The graph shows the function y = f (x).
y
0 π
_ 2π
__ π x
3 3
-2
a) Write the equation of the function in the form y = a sin b(x - c) + d, a > 0.
b) Write the equation of the function in the form y = a cos b(x - c) + d, a > 0.
c) Use technology to verify your solutions.

Example 5
Interpret Graphs of Sinusoidal Functions
Prince Rupert, British Columbia, has the deepest natural harbour in
North America. The depth, d, in metres, of the berths for the ships can
be approximated by the equation d(t) = 8 cos _π t + 12, where t is the
6
time, in hours, after the first high tide.
a) Graph the function for two cycles.
b) What is the period of the tide?
c) An ocean liner requires a minimum of 13 m of water to dock safely.
From the graph, determine the number of hours per cycle the ocean
liner can safely dock.
d) If the minimum depth of the berth occurs at 6 h, determine the depth
of the water. At what other times is the water level at a minimum?
Explain your solution.
Solution
a) d Depth of Berths for Prince Rupert Harbour
20
16
Depth (m)
12
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 t
Time (h)
Why should you set the calculator to radian

mode when graphing sinusoidal functions
that represent real-world situations?
π
b) Use b = _ to determine the period.
6
2π
Period = _
|b|
_
Period = 2π
π
_
6 | |
Period = 12
The period for the tides is 12 h. What does the period of 12 h represent?

c) To determine the number of hours an ocean liner can dock safely,
draw the line y = 13 to represent the minimum depth of the berth.
Determine the points of intersection of the graphs of y = 13 and
π t + 12.
d(t) = 8 cos _
6
More precise answers can be

obtained using technology.
The points of intersection for the first cycle are approximately

(2.76, 13) and (9.26, 13).
The depth is greater than 13 m from 0 h to approximately 2.76 h

and from approximately 9.24 h to 12 h. The total time when the
depth is greater than 13 m is 2.76 + 2.76, or 5.52 h, or about
5 h 30 min per cycle.
d) To determine the berth depth at 6 h, substitute the value of t = 6 into

the equation.
π t + 12
d(t) = 8 cos _
6
d(6) = 8 cos _π (6) + 12
6
d(6) = 8 cos π + 12
d(6) = 8(-1) + 12
d(6) = 4 You can use the
graph to verify
the solution.
The berth depth at 6 h is 4 m. Add 12 h (the period) to 6 h to

determine the next time the berth depth is 4 m. Therefore, the
berth depth of 4 m occurs again at 18 h.
Your Turn
The depth, d, in metres, of the water in the harbour at New Westminster,
2π t + 3.7,
British Columbia, is approximated by the equation d(t) = 0.6 cos _
13
where t is the time, in hours, after the first high tide.
a) Graph the function for two cycles starting at t = 0.
b) What is the period of the tide?
c) If a boat requires a minimum of 3.5 m of water to launch safely, for
how many hours per cycle can the boat safely launch?
d) What is the depth of the water at 7 h? At what other times is the water
level at this depth? Explain your solution.

Key Ideas
You can determine the amplitude, period, phase shift, and vertical
displacement of sinusoidal functions when the equation of the function
is given in the form y = a sin b(x - c) + d or y = a cos b(x - c) + d.
For: y = a sin b(x - c) + d
How does changing each
y = a cos b(x - c) + d parameter affect the graph of
a function?
y
3 2π
__
|b|
2 a
c
1
d
-π
_ 0 π
_ π
_ 3π
__ π 5π
__ 3π
__ 7π
__ x
4 4 2 4 4 2 4
-1
Vertical stretch by a factor of |a|

• changes the amplitude to |a|
• reflected in the x-axis if a < 0
Horizontal stretch by a factor of _ 1
|b|
• changes the period to _ 2π (in radians)
360° (in degrees) or _
|b| |b|
• reflected in the y-axis if b < 0
Horizontal phase shift represented by c
• to right if c > 0
• to left if c < 0
Vertical displacement represented by d
• up if d > 0
• down if d < 0
maximum value + minimum value
d = _______
2
You can determine the equation of a sinusoidal function given its
properties or its graph.

Practise 4. Match each function with its description in

1. Determine the phase shift and the vertical the table.
displacement with respect to y = sin x a) y = -2 cos 2(x + 4) - 1
for each function. Sketch a graph of b) y = 2 sin 2(x - 4) - 1
each function.
c) y = 2 sin (2x - 4) - 1
a) y = sin (x - 50°) + 3
d) y = 3 sin (3x - 9) - 1
b) y = sin (x + π)
e) y = 3 sin (3x + π) - 1
2π
(
c) y = sin x + _ + 5
3 ) Phase Vertical
Amplitude Period Shift Displacement
d) y = 2 sin (x + 50°) - 10
2π
_
e) y = -3 sin (6x + 30°) - 3 3 3 right 1 down
A 3
1 π
2 (
f) y = 3 sin _ x - _ - 10
4 ) B 2 π 2 right 1 down
2. Determine the phase shift and the vertical C 2 π 4 right 1 down
displacement with respect to y = cos x D 2 π 4 left 1 down

for each function. Sketch a graph of 2π
_ π
_
3 left 1 down
each function. E 3 3
a) y = cos (x - 30°) + 12 5. Match each function with its graph.

π
( π
b) y = cos x - _
3)
a) y = sin x - _( 4)
5π π
y = sin (x + _
(
c) y = cos x + _ + 16 ) 4)
b)
6
d) y = 4 cos (x + 15°) + 3 c) y = sin x - 1
e) y = 4 cos (x - π) + 4 d) y = sin x + 1
π A y
(
f) y = 3 cos 2x - _ + 7
6 ) 2
3. a) Determine the range of each function.
π
2(
i) y = 3 cos x - _ + 5 ) -π
_
2
0 π
_
2
π 3π
__
2
2π x
ii) y = -2 sin (x + π) - 3 y
B
iii) y = 1.5 sin x + 4 2
2 3
iv) y = _ cos (x + 50°) + _ x
3 4 -π
_ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π
2 2 2
b) Describe how to determine the range -2
when given a function of the form
C y
y = a cos b(x - c) + d or
y = a sin b(x - c) + d. x
-π
_ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π
2 2 2
-2
D y
2
π 0 π π 3π 2π x
-_ _ __
2 2 2
-2

Apply 8. When white light shines through a prism,
6. Write the equation of the sine function in the white light is broken into the colours
the form y = a sin b(x - c) + d given its of the visible light spectrum. Each colour
characteristics. corresponds to a different wavelength of
π the electromagnetic spectrum. Arrange
a) amplitude 4, period π, phase shift _ to
2 the colours, in order from greatest to
the right, vertical displacement 6 units smallest period.
down
Blue
b) amplitude 0.5, period 4π, phase shift
π to the left, vertical displacement
_
6 Red
1 unit up
3 Green
c) amplitude _ , period 720°, no phase
4
shift, vertical displacement 5 units Indigo
down
7. The graph of y = cos x is transformed Violet
as described. Determine the values of
the parameters a, b, c, and d for the Orange
transformed function. Write the equation
for the transformed function in the form Yellow
y = a cos b(x - c) + d.
a) vertical stretch by a factor of 3 about the 9. The piston engine is the most commonly
x-axis, horizontal stretch by a factor of used engine in the world. The height of
2 about the y-axis, translated 2 units to the piston over time can be modelled by
the left and 3 units up a sine curve. Given the equation for a
1 sine curve, y = a sin b(x - c) + d, which
b) vertical stretch by a factor of _ about
2 parameter(s) would be affected as the
the x-axis, horizontal stretch by a factor piston moves faster?
1 about the y-axis, translated 3 units
of _ y
4 2
Height (cm)
to the right and 5 units down

3
c) vertical stretch by a factor of _ about
2 0 π
_ π
_ 3π
__ π 5π
__ __x
3π
4 2 4 4 2
the x-axis, horizontal stretch by a factor -2
Time (s)
of 3 about the y-axis, reflected in the
π units to the right
x-axis, translated _
4
and 1 unit down

10. Victor and Stewart determined 14. For each graph of a sinusoidal function, state
the phase shift for the function i) the amplitude
f (x) = 4 sin (2x - 6) + 12. Victor
ii) the period
said that the phase shift was 6 units
to the right, while Stewart claimed it iii) the phase shift
was 3 units to the right. iv) the vertical displacement
a) Which student was correct? Explain v) the domain and range
your reasoning. vi) the maximum value of y and the
b) Graph the function to verify your values of x for which it occurs
answer from part a). over the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
11. A family of sinusoidal graphs vii) the minimum value of y and the
with equations of the form values of x for which it occurs
y = a sin b(x - c) + d is created by over the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
changing only the vertical displacement a) a sine function
of the function. If the range of the original y
function is {y | -3 ≤ y ≤ 3, y ∈ R}, 3
determine the range of the function with 2
each given value of d.
1
a) d = 2
b) d = -3 x
__ -π - π
-3π _ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π
c) d = -10 2 2 2 2
-1
d) d = 8
-2
12. Sketch the graph of the curve that results
after applying each transformation to the -3
graph of the function f (x) = sin x.
b) a cosine function
π
(
a) f x - _
3 ) y
__ -π - π π x
π -3π _ 0 _ π 3π
__ 2π
(
b) f x + _
4 ) 2 2
-1
2 2
c) f (x) + 3
-2
d) f (x) - 4
13. The range of a trigonometric function -3
in the form y = a sin b(x - c) + d is -4

{y | -13 ≤ y ≤ 5, y ∈ R}. State the
values of a and d. c) a sine function
y
3
x
-π
_ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π 5π
__ 3π
2 2 2 2
-1

π
15. Determine an equation in the form (
17. a) Graph the function f (x) = cos x - _ .
2 )
y = a sin b(x - c) + d for each graph.
b) Consider the graph. Write an
a) y equation of the function in the
2 form y = a sin b(x - c) + d.
c) What conclusions can you make
-π 0 π x about the relationship between the
-2 two equations of the function?
18. Given the graph of the function
b) y f (x) = sin x, what transformation is
required so that the function g(x) = cos x
4
describes the graph of the image function?
2 19. For each start and end of one cycle
of a cosine function in the form
-π 0 π x y = 3 cos b(x - c),
-2
i) state the phase shift, period, and
x-intercepts
c) y ii) state the coordinates of the minimum
4 and maximum values
a) 30° ≤ x ≤ 390°
2
π 5π
b) _ ≤ x ≤ _
4 4
-π
_ 0 π
_ x
2 2 20. The Wave is a spectacular sandstone
formation on the slopes of the Coyote
16. For each graph, write an equation in Buttes of the Paria Canyon in Northern
the form y = a cos b(x - c) + d. Arizona. The Wave is made from
a) y 190 million-year-old sand dunes that
2 have turned to red rock. Assume that a
cycle of the Wave may be approximated
-π - π
_ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ x using a cosine curve. The maximum
2 2 2 height above sea level is 5100 ft and the
-2
minimum height is 5000 ft. The beginning
of the cycle is at the 1.75 mile mark of the
b) y canyon and the end of this cycle is at the
2 2.75 mile mark. Write an equation that
approximates the pattern of the Wave.
-π - π
_ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ x
2 2 2
-2
c) y
0 π 2π 3π 4π 5π x

21. Compare the graphs of the functions 24. After exercising for 5 min, a person has a
π (x - 2) - 1 and
y = 3 sin _ respiratory cycle for which the rate of air
3 flow, r, in litres per second, in the lungs is
π x-_ 7 - 1. Are the
y = 3 cos _
3 ( 2) approximated by r = 1.75 sin _ π t,
2
graphs equivalent? Support your
where t is the time, in seconds.
answer graphically.
a) Determine the time for one full
22. Noise-cancelling headphones are designed
respiratory cycle.
to give you maximum listening pleasure
by cancelling ambient noise and actively b) Determine the number of cycles per
creating their own sound waves. These minute.
waves mimic the incoming noise in every c) Sketch the graph of the rate of air flow
way, except that they are out of sync with function.
the intruding noise by 180°. d) Determine the rate of air flow at a time
sound waves of 30 s. Interpret this answer in the
created by context of the respiratory cycle.
headphones
e) Determine the rate of air flow at a time
noise created of 7.5 s. Interpret this answer in the
by outside context of the respiratory cycle.
source
combining the Extend

two sound waves
25. The frequency of a wave is the number
results in silence
of cycles that occur in 1 s. Adding two
Suppose that the amplitude and period sinusoidal functions with similar, but
for the sine waves created by the outside unequal, frequencies results in a function
π , respectively. Determine that pulsates, or exhibits beats. Piano
noise are 4 and _
2 tuners often use this phenomenon to help
the equation of the sound waves the them tune a piano.
headphones produce to effectively cancel
a) Graph the function y = cos x + cos 0.9x.
the ambient noise.
b) Determine the amplitude and the period
23. The overhang of the roof of a house is
of the resulting wave.
designed to shade the windows for cooling
in the summer and allow the Sun’s rays 26. a) Copy each equation. Fill in the missing
to enter the house for heating in the values to make the equation true.
winter. The Sun’s angle of elevation, i) 4 sin (x - 30°) = 4 cos (x - )
A, in degrees, at noon in Estevan, π
Saskatchewan, can be modelled by the ( )
ii) 2 sin x - _ = 2 cos (x - )
4
360 (x + 102) + 41, π
formula A = -23.5 sin _
365 ( )
iii) -3 cos x - _ = 3 sin (x + )
2
where x is the number of days elapsed iv) cos (-2x + 6π) = sin 2(x + )
beginning with January 1.
b) Choose one of the equations in part a)
a) Use technology to sketch the graph and explain how you got your answer.
showing the changes in the Sun’s angle
of elevation throughout the year.
b) Determine the Sun’s angle of elevation
at noon on February 12.
c) On what date is the angle of elevation
the greatest in Estevan?

27. Determine the equation of the sine C2 Sketch the graphs of y = -sin x and
function with y = sin (-x).
π a) Compare the two graphs. How are they
(
a) amplitude 3, maximum - _ , 5 , and
2 ) alike? different?
3π , 5
nearest maximum to the right at _
2 ( ) b) Explain why this happens.
π c) How would you expect the graphs of
b) amplitude 3, minimum _
4 ( )
, -2 , and
y = -cos x and y = cos (-x) to compare?
3π , 4
nearest maximum to the right at _
4 ( ) d) Check your hypothesis from part c). If
c) minimum (-π, 3) and nearest maximum it is incorrect, write a correct statement
to the right at (0, 7) about the cosine function.
d) minimum (90°, -6) and nearest D i d You K n ow ?
maximum to the right at (150°, 4)
An even function satisfies the property f(-x) = f(x)
28. The angle, P, in radians, between a
for all x in the domain of f(x).
pendulum and the vertical may be
modelled by the equation P = a cos bt, An odd function satisfies the property f(-x) = -f(x)
for all x in the domain of f(x).
where a represents the maximum angle
that the pendulum swings from the
vertical; b is the horizontal stretch factor; C3 Triangle ABC is inscribed between the
and t is time, in seconds. The period graphs of f (x) = 5 sin x and g(x) = 5 cos x.
of a pendulum may be approximated
__
Determine the area of
ABC.
L , where y C f(x) = 5 sin x
by the formula Period = 2π _ g√
L is the pendulum length and g is the
acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2).
a) Sketch the graph that models the A B
position of the pendulum in the 0 x
diagram from 0 ≤ t ≤ 5.
a g(x) = 5 cos x
20 cm
C4 The equation of a sine function can
be expressed in the form
y = a sin b(x - c) + d. Determine
the values of the parameters a, b, c,
8 cm
and/or d, where a > 0 and b > 0, for
b) Determine the position of the pendulum
each of the following to be true.
after 6 s. Express your answer to the
a) The period is greater than 2π.
nearest tenth of a centimetre.
b) The amplitude is greater than 1 unit.
Create Connections c) The graph passes through the origin.
C1 Consider a sinusoidal function of the d) The graph has no x-intercepts.
form y = a sin b(x - c) + d. Describe the
e) The graph has a y-intercept of a.
effect that each of the parameters a, b, c,
f) The length of one cycle is 120°.
and d has on the graph of the function.
Compare this to what you learned in
Chapter 1 Function Transformations.

5.3
The Tangent Function
Focus on . . .
• sketching the graph of y = tan x
• determining the amplitude, domain, range, and period of y = tan x
• determining the asymptotes and x-intercepts for the graph of y = tan x
• solving a problem by analysing the graph of the tangent function
You can derive the tangent of an angle from the

coordinates of a point on a line tangent to the unit circle
at point (1, 0). These values have been tabulated and
programmed into scientific calculators and computers.
This allows you to apply trigonometry to surveying,
engineering, and navigation problems.
Did Yo u Know ?
Tangent comes from the Latin word tangere, “to touch.”
Tangent was first mentioned in 1583 by T. Fincke, who introduced

the word tangens in Latin. E. Gunter (1624) used the notation tan,
and J.H. Lambert (1770) discovered the fractional representation of
this function.
Investigate the Tangent Function
Materials A: Graph the Tangent Function

• grid paper A tangent line to a curve is a line that touches a curve, or a graph of a
• ruler function, at a single point.
• protractor
• compass
1. On a piece of grid paper, draw and label the x-axis and y-axis. Draw
• graphing technology
a circle of radius 1 so that its centre is at the origin. Draw a tangent
to the circle at the point where the x-axis intersects the circle on the
right side.
2. To sketch the graph of the tangent function over the interval
0° ≤ θ ≤ 360°, you can draw angles in standard position on the unit
circle and extend the terminal arm to the right so that it intersects
the tangent line, as shown in the diagram. The y-coordinate of the
point of intersection represents the value of the tangent function. Plot
points represented by the coordinates (angle measure, y-coordinate of
point of intersection).

y y
1
θ
0 1 unit x 0 90° 180° 270° 360° θ
-1
a) Begin with an angle of 0°. Where does the extension of the

terminal arm intersect the tangent line?
b) Draw the terminal arm for an angle of 45°. Where does the
extension of the terminal arm intersect the tangent line?
What can you conclude
c) If the angle is 90°, where does the extension of the terminal arm about the value of
intersect the tangent line? tan 90°? How do you
show this on a graph?
d) Use a protractor to measure various angles for the terminal arm.
Determine the y-coordinate of the point where the terminal arm
intersects the tangent line. Plot the ordered pair (angle measure,
y-coordinate on tangent line) on a graph like the one shown above
on the right.
Angle Measure 0° 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360°
y-coordinate on
Tangent Line
3. Use graphing technology to verify the shape of your graph.
Reflect and Respond

4. When θ = 90° and θ = 270°, the tangent function is undefined. How
does this relate to the graph of the tangent function?
5. What is the period of the tangent function?
6. What is the amplitude of the tangent function? What does this mean?
7. Explain how a point P(x, y) on the unit circle relates to the sine,
cosine, and tangent ratios.
B: Connect the Tangent Function to the Slope of the Terminal Arm

8. The diagram shows an angle θ in standard position whose terminal
arm intersects the tangent AB at point B. Express the ratio of tan θ in
terms of the sides of
AOB.
y
B
θ A(1, 0)
0 1 unit x
5.3 The Tangent Function • MHR 257

9. Using your knowledge of special triangles, state the exact value
of tan 60°. If θ = 60° in the diagram, what is the length of line
segment AB?
10. Using the measurement of the length of line segment AB from step 9,
determine the slope of line segment OB.
11. How does the slope of line segment OB relate to the tangent of an
angle in standard position?
Reflect and Respond

12. How could you use the concept of slope to determine the tangent
ratio when θ = 0°? when θ = 90°?
13. Using a calculator, determine the values of tan θ as θ approaches 90°.
What is tan 90°?
14. Explain the relationship between the terminal arm of an angle θ and
the tangent of the line passing through the point (1, 0) when θ = 90°.
(Hint: Can the terminal arm intersect the tangent line?)
Link the Ideas
The value of the tangent of an angle θ is the slope of the line passing
through the origin and the point on the unit circle (cos θ, sin θ).
You can think of it as the slope of the terminal arm of angle θ in
standard position.
sin θ When sin θ = 0, what is tan θ? Explain.
tan θ = _ When cos θ = 0, what is tan θ? Explain.
cos θ
The tangent ratio is the length of the line segment tangent to the unit
circle at the point A(1, 0) from the x-axis to the terminal arm of angle
θ at point Q.
From the diagram, the distance AQ is equal to the y-coordinate of
point Q. Therefore, point Q has coordinates (1, tan θ).
y
P(cos θ, sin θ)
Q(1, tan θ)
How could you show
that the coordinates
θ A(1, 0) of Q are (1, tan θ)?
0 1 x

Example 1
Graph the Tangent Function
Graph the function y = tan θ for -2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π. Describe its
characteristics.
Solution
The function y = tan θ is known as the tangent function. Using the unit
circle, you can plot values of y against the corresponding values of θ.
Between asymptotes, the graph of y = tan θ passes through a point with
y-coordinate -1, a θ-intercept, and a point with y-coordinate 1.
y Period
8
3π -π π 0 π π 3π θ
- __ -_ _ __
2 2 2 2
-2
-4
-6
-8
You can observe the properties of the tangent function

from the graph.
3π ,
• The curve is not continuous. It breaks at θ = - _
2
π
_ _π
θ = - , θ = , and θ = _3π , where the function is undefined.
2 2 2
• tan θ = 0 when θ = -2π, θ = -π, θ = 0, θ = π,
and θ = 2π.
7π , θ = - _
• tan θ = 1 when θ = - _ 3π , θ = _ 5π .
π , and θ = _
4 4 4 4
• tan θ = -1 when θ = - _5π , θ = - _ 3π , and θ = _
π, θ = _ 7π .
4 4 4 4
• The graph of y = tan θ has no amplitude because it has no maximum or
minimum values.
• The range of y = tan θ is {y | y ∈ R}.

• As point P moves around the unit circle in For tangent graphs, the
either a clockwise or a counterclockwise distance between any
two consecutive vertical
direction, the tangent curve repeats for asymptotes represents one
every interval of π. The period for complete period.
y = tan θ is π.
• The tangent is undefined whenever cos θ = 0. Why is tan θ undefined for
π + nπ, n ∈ I. At these cos θ = 0?
This occurs when θ = _
2
points, the value of the tangent approaches
infinity and is undefined. When graphing the
tangent, use dashed lines to show where the
value of the tangent is undefined. These
vertical lines are called asymptotes.
π + nπ, θ ∈ R, n ∈ I .
{
• The domain of y = tan θ is θ | θ ≠ _
2 }
Your Turn
Graph the function y = tan θ, 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360°. Describe how the
characteristics are different from those in Example 1.
Example 2
Model a Problem Using the Tangent Function
A small plane is flying at a constant altitude of 6000 m Why is this
directly toward an observer. Assume that the ground is assumption
made?
flat in the region close to the observer.
a) Determine the relation between the horizontal distance,
in metres, from the observer to the plane and the angle, in
degrees, formed from the vertical to the plane.
b) Sketch the graph of the function.
c) Where are the asymptotes located in this graph? What do
they represent?
d) Explain what happens when the angle is equal to 0°.
Solution
Let d represent the horizontal distance from the observer to the plane.
Let θ represent the angle formed by the vertical and the line of sight to
the plane.
plane
d
6000 m
θ
observer
tan θ = _ d
6000
d = 6000 tan θ

b) The graph represents the horizontal distance between the plane and
the observer. As the plane flies toward the observer, that distance
decreases. As the plane moves from directly overhead to the observer’s
left, the distance values become negative. The domain of the function
is {θ | -90° < θ < 90°, θ ∈ R}.
d
16000
12000
8000
4000
d = 6000 tan θ
—90° —45° 0 45° 90° 135° θ

—4000
—8000
—12000
—16000
c) The asymptotes are located at θ = 90° and θ = -90°. They represent

when the plane is on the ground to the right or left of the observer,
which is impossible, because the plane is flying in a straight line at
a constant altitude of 6000 m.
d) When the angle is equal to 0°, the plane is directly over the head of
the observer. The horizontal distance is 0 m.
Your Turn
A small plane is flying at a constant altitude of 5000 m directly
toward an observer. Assume the ground is flat in the region close
to the observer.
a) Sketch the graph of the function that represents the relation between
the horizontal distance, in metres, from the observer to the plane and
the angle, in degrees, formed by the vertical and the line of sight to
the plane.
b) Use the characteristics of the tangent function to describe what
happens to the graph as the plane flies from the right of the observer
to the left of the observer.

Key Ideas
You can use asymptotes and three How can you y y = tan x
points to sketch one cycle of a tangent determine the
8
location of the
function. To graph y = tan x, draw one asymptotes for 6
asymptote; draw the points where the function
y = -1, y = 0, and y = 1; and then y = tan x? 4
draw another asymptote.
2
The tangent function y = tan x has the following
characteristics: x
-π
_ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π 5π
__
The period is π. 2 2 2 2
-2
The graph has no maximum or minimum values.
-4
The range is {y | y ∈ R}.
-6

π + nπ, n ∈ I.
Vertical asymptotes occur at x = _
2 -8
π
The domain is x | x ≠ _
{
2 }
+ nπ, x ∈ R, n ∈ I .
The x-intercepts occur at x = nπ, n ∈ I.
Practise c) y
1. For each diagram, determine tan θ and the
value of θ, in degrees. Express your answer
θ
to the nearest tenth, when necessary.
0 1 x
a) y
Q(1, 1)
θ Q(1, -1.7)
0 1 x
d) y
Q(1, 1)
θ
b) y
0 1 x
0 1 x
Q(1, -1.7)

2. Use the graph of the function y = tan θ to Apply
determine each value. 5. In the diagram,
PON and
QOA are
y similar triangles. Use the diagram to
justify the statement tan θ = _sin θ .
8
cos θ
6 y
Q(1, tan θ)
4 P
1
2 θ A(1, 0)
0 N x
-2π -3π
__ -π - π
_ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π θ
2 2 2 2
-2
-4
6. Point P(x, y) is plotted where the terminal
-6
arm of angle θ intersects the unit circle.
-8 a) Use P(x, y) to determine the slope of
the terminal arm.
π b) Explain how your result from part a)
a) tan _
2 is related to tan θ.
b) tan
3π
_ c) Write your results for the slope from
4
7π part a) in terms of sine and cosine.
(
c) tan - _
4 ) d) From your answer in part c), explain
d) tan 0 how you could determine tan θ when
the coordinates of point P are known.
e) tan π
7. Consider the unit circle shown.
5π
f) tan _ y
4
3. Does y = tan x have an amplitude? B(0,1)
P(x, y) = (cos θ, sin θ)
Explain.
1
4. Use graphing technology to graph y
A’(-1, 0) θ A(1, 0)
y = tan x using the following window
0 x M x
settings: x: [-360°, 360°, 30°] and
y: [-3, 3, 1]. Trace along the graph to
locate the value of tan x when x = 60°.
B’(0, -1)
Predict the other values of x that will
produce the same value for tan x within
the given domain. Verify your predictions. a) From
POM, write the ratio for tan θ.
b) Use cos θ and sin θ to write the ratio
for tan θ.
c) Explain how your answers from parts a)
and b) are related.

8. The graph of y = tan θ appears to be 10. A rotating light on top of a lighthouse
vertical as θ approaches 90°. sends out rays of light in opposite
a) Copy and complete the table. Use directions. As the beacon rotates, the ray
a calculator to record the tangent at angle θ makes a spot of light that moves
values as θ approaches 90°. along the shore. The lighthouse is located
500 m from the shoreline and makes one
θ tan θ
complete rotation every 2 min.
89.5°
89.9°
light
89.999° ray
d
89.999 999° lighthouse
beacon
b) What happens to the value of θ
tan θ as θ approaches 90°? 500 m
c) Predict what will happen as shore

θ approaches 90° from the
other direction.
θ tan θ a) Determine the equation that expresses
90.5° the distance, d, in metres, as a function
90.01°
of time, t, in minutes.
90.001° b) Graph the function in part a).
90.000 001° c) Explain the significance of the

asymptote in the graph at θ = 90°.
9. A security camera
security
scans a long d camera D i d You K n ow ?
straight fence that
5m The Fisgard Lighthouse was the first lighthouse built
encloses a section on Canada’s west coast. It was built in 1860 before
of a military base. midpoint Vancouver Island became part of Canada and is
The camera is fence of fence located at the entrance to Esquimalt harbour.
mounted on a post
that is located 5 m from the midpoint of
the fence. The camera makes one complete
rotation in 60 s.
a) Determine the tangent function that
represents the distance, d, in metres,
along the fence from its midpoint as a
function of time, t, in seconds, if the
camera is aimed at the midpoint of the
fence at t = 0.
b) Graph the function in the interval
-15 ≤ t ≤ 15.
c) What is the distance from the midpoint
of the fence at t = 10 s, to the nearest
tenth of a metre?
d) Describe what happens when t = 15 s.

11. A plane flying at an altitude of 10 km Extend
over level ground will pass directly 3
13. a) Graph the line y = _ x, where x > 0.
over a radar station. Let d be the ground 4
distance from the antenna to a point Mark an angle θ that represents the
directly under the plane. Let x represent angle formed by the line and the
the angle formed from the vertical at positive x-axis. Plot a point with
the radar station to the plane. Write d as integral coordinates on the line
y=_ 3 x.
a function of x and graph the function 4
over the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ _ π.
2 b) Use these coordinates to determine
12. Andrea uses a pole of known height, a tan θ.
piece of string, a measuring tape, and a c) Compare the equation of the line
calculator for an assignment. She places with your results in part b). Make a
the pole in a vertical position in the conjecture based on your findings.
school field and runs the string from the 14. Have you ever wondered how a calculator
top of the pole to the tip of the shadow or computer program evaluates the sine,
formed by the pole. Every 15 min, cosine, or tangent of a given angle?
Andrea measures the length of the The calculator or computer program
shadow and then calculates the slope of approximates these values using a power
the string and the measure of the angle. series. The terms of a power series contain
She records the data and graphs the slope ascending positive integral powers of a
as a function of the angle. variable. The more terms in the series,
the more accurate the approximation.
With a calculator in radian mode, verify
the following for small values of x, for
string example, x = 0.5.
pole x3 2x5 17x7
a) tan x = x + _ + _ + _
3 15 315
3 5
x x
b) sin x = x - _ + _ - _
x7
shadow 6 120 5040
θ
x2 x4
c) cos x = 1 - _ + _ - _
x6
a) What type of graph would you 2 24 720
expect Andrea to graph to represent
Create Connections
her data?
b) When the Sun is directly overhead C1 How does the domain of y = tan x
and no shadow results, state the slope differ from that of y = sin x and
of the string. How does Andrea’s y = cos x? Explain why.
graph represent this situation? C2 a) On the same set of axes, graph the
functions f (x) = cos x and g(x) = tan x.
Describe how the two functions
are related.
b) On the same set of axes, graph the
functions f (x) = sin x and g(x) = tan x.
Describe how the two functions
are related.
C3 Explain how the equation
tan (x + π) = tan x relates to
circular functions.

5.4
Equations and Graphs of
Trigonometric Functions
Focus on . . .
• using the graphs of trigonometric functions to solve equations
• analysing a trigonometric function to solve a problem
• determining a trigonometric function that models a problem
• using a model of a trigonometric function for a real-world
situation
One of the most useful characteristics of

trigonometric functions is their periodicity. For
example, the times of sunsets, sunrises, and comet
appearances; seasonal temperature changes; the
movement of waves in the ocean; and even the
quality of a musical sound can be described using
trigonometric functions. Mathematicians and
scientists use the periodic nature of trigonometric
functions to develop mathematical models to
predict many natural phenomena.
Investigate Trigonometric Equations
Materials Work with a partner.

• marker 1. On a sheet of centimetre grid paper, draw a circle of radius 8 cm.
• ruler
Draw a line tangent to the bottom of the circle.
• compass
• stop watch
• centimetre grid paper
Start
Distance

2. Place a marker at the three o’clock position on the circle. Move the Aim to complete one
revolution in 20 s. You
marker around the circle in a counterclockwise direction, measuring
may have to practice this
the time it takes to make one complete trip around the circle. several times to maintain
3. Move the marker around the circle a second time stopping at time a consistent speed.
intervals of 2 s. Measure the vertical distance from the marker to the
tangent line. Complete a table of times and distances.
Time (s) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Distance (cm) 8
4. Create a scatterplot of distance versus time. Draw a smooth curve D i d You K n ow?
connecting the points.
A scatter plot is the
5. Write a function for the resulting curve. result of plotting
6. a) From your initial starting position, move the marker around the data that can be
represented as
circle in a counterclockwise direction for 3 s. Measure the vertical
ordered pairs on
distance of the marker from the tangent line. Label this point on
a graph.
your graph.
b) Continue to move the marker around the circle to a point that is
the same distance as the distance you recorded in part a). Label
this point on your graph.
c) How do these two points relate to your function in step 5?
d) How do the measured and calculated distances compare?
7. Repeat step 6 for other positions on the circle.
Reflect and Respond

8. What is the connection between the circular pattern followed by your
marker and the graph of distance versus time?
9. Describe how the circle, the graph, and the function are related.
Link the Ideas
You can represent phenomena with periodic behaviour or wave

characteristics by trigonometric functions or model them approximately
with sinusoidal functions. You can identify a trend or pattern, determine
an appropriate mathematical model to describe the process, and use it to
make predictions (interpolate or extrapolate).
You can use graphs of trigonometric functions to solve trigonometric
equations that model periodic phenomena, such as the swing of a
pendulum, the motion of a piston in an engine, the motion of a Ferris
wheel, variations in blood pressure, the hours of daylight throughout a
year, and vibrations that create sounds.
5.4 Equations and Graphs of Trigonometric Functions • MHR 267

Example 1
Solve a Trigonometric Equation in Degrees
Determine the solutions for the trigonometric equation 2 cos2 x - 1 = 0
for the interval 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
Solution
Method 1: Solve Graphically
Graph the related function f(x) = 2 cos2x -1.
Use the graphing window [0, 360, 30] by [-2, 2, 1].
The solutions to the equation 2 cos2 x - 1 = 0 for the interval

0° ≤ x ≤ 360° are the x-intercepts of the graph of the related function.
The solutions for the interval 0° ≤ x ≤ 360° are x = 45°, 135°, 225°,
and 315°.
Method 2: Solve Algebraically
2 cos2 x - 1 = 0
2 cos2 x = 1
1
cos2 x = _
2 __
1
cos x = ± _
2 √ Why is the ± symbol used?
__
√2
1__ or _
For cos x = _ , the angles in the interval 0° ≤ x ≤ 360° that
√2 2
satisfy the equation are 45° and 315°.
__
1 , the angles in the interval 0° ≤ x ≤ 360° that satisfy the
√
For cos x = - _
2
equation are 135° and 225°.
The solutions for the interval 0° ≤ x ≤ 360° are x = 45°, 135°, 225°,
and 315°.
Your Turn
Determine the solutions for the trigonometric equation 4 sin2 x - 3 = 0
for the interval 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.

Example 2
Solve a Trigonometric Equation in Radians
Determine the general solutions for the trigonometric equation
π x + 14. Express your answers to the nearest hundredth.
16 = 6 cos _
6
Solution
Method 1: Determine the Zeros of the Function
Rearrange the equation 16 = 6 cos _π x + 14 so that one side is equal to 0.

6
πx - 2 = 0
6 cos _
6
π x - 2. Use the window [-1, 12, 1]
Graph the related function y = 6 cos _
6
by [-10, 10, 1].
Why should you set

the calculator to
radian mode?
The solutions to the equation 6 cos _ π x - 2 = 0 are the x-intercepts.

6
The x-intercepts are approximately x = 2.35 and x = 9.65. The period of
the function is 12 radians. So, the x-intercepts repeat in multiples of 12
radians from each of the original intercepts.
π x + 14 are
The general solutions to the equation 16 = 6 cos _
6
x ≈ 2.35 + 12n radians and x ≈ 9.65 + 12n radians, where n is
an integer.
Method 2: Determine the Points of Intersection
π x + 14 and y = 16 using a window
Graph the functions y = 6 cos _
6
[-1, 12, 1] by [-2, 22, 2].

The solution to the equation 16 = 6 cos _ π x + 14 is given by the points
6
π x + 14 and the line y = 16. In
of intersection of the curve y = 6 cos _
6
the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 12, the points of intersection occur at x ≈ 2.35 and
x ≈ 9.65.
The period of the function is 12 radians. The points of intersection repeat
in multiples of 12 radians from each of the original intercepts.
π x + 14 are
6
x ≈ 2.35 + 12n radians and x ≈ 9.65 + 12n radians, where n is
an integer.
π x + 14
16 = 6 cos _
6
π
_
2 = 6 cos x
6
2 = cos _
_ πx
6 6
1 = cos _
_ πx
3 6
1 π
cos ( )
-1 _
3
_
= x
6
1.2309… = xπ
_
6
x = 2.3509…
Did Yo u Know ? Since the cosine function is positive in quadrants I and IV, a second
possible value of x can be determined. In quadrant IV, the angle is
No matter in which
2π - _ π x.
quadrant θ falls,
6
-θ has the same 1 = cos 2π - _πx
reference angle and
_
3 ( 6 )
both θ and -θ are 1 π
located on the same
cos ( )
-1 _
3
_
= 2π - x
6
side of the y-axis. π x = 2π - cos-1 _ 1
Since cos θ is positive
_
6 ( )3
6 cos-1 _1
on the right side
of the y-axis and
x = 12 - _
π ( )3
negative on the left x = 9.6490…
side of the y-axis, π x + 14 are x ≈ 2.35 and
Two solutions to the equation 16 = 6 cos _
cos θ = cos (-θ). 6
y x ≈ 9.65.
II I
The period of the function is 12 radians, then the solutions repeat in
θ multiples of 12 radians from each original solution.
0 -θ x π x + 14 are
6
III IV x ≈ 2.35 + 12n radians and x ≈ 9.65 + 12n radians, where n is
an integer.
Your Turn
Determine the general solutions for the trigonometric equation
π x + 8.
10 = 6 sin _
4

Example 3
Model Electric Power
The electricity coming from power plants into
your house is alternating current (AC). This
means that the direction of current flowing in a
circuit is constantly switching back and forth.
In Canada, the current makes 60 complete cycles
each second.
The voltage can be modelled as a function of time using the sine D i d You K n ow?
function V = 170 sin 120πt.
Tidal power is a form
a) What is the period of the current in Canada? of hydroelectric power
b) Graph the voltage function over two cycles. Explain what the that converts the
scales on the axes represent. energy of tides into
c) Suppose you want to switch on a heat lamp for an outdoor patio. If electricity. Estimates
of Canada’s tidal
the heat lamp requires 110 V to start up, determine the time required
energy potential off
for the voltage to first reach 110 V.
the Canadian Pacific
coast are equivalent
Solution to approximately
half of the country’s
a) Since there are 60 complete cycles in each second, each cycle current electricity
takes _1 s. So, the period is _1. demands.
60 60
b) To graph the voltage function
over two cycles on a graphing
calculator, use the following
window settings:
x: [-0.001, 0.035, 0.01]
y: [-200, 200, 50] D i d You K n ow?
The y-axis represents the number The number of cycles

of volts. Each tick mark on the per second of a
periodic phenomenon
y-axis represents 50 V.
is called the frequency.
The x-axis represents the time passed. Each tick mark on the x-axis The hertz (Hz) is the
represents 0.01 s. SI unit of frequency. In
Canada, the frequency
c) Graph the line y = 110 and determine the first point of intersection standard for AC is
with the voltage function. It will take approximately 0.002 s for the 60 Hz.
voltage to first reach 110 V. Voltages are expressed

as root mean square
Your Turn (RMS) voltage. RMS is
the square root of the
In some Caribbean countries, the current makes 50 complete cycles each mean of the squares
second and the voltage is modelled by V = 170 sin 100πt. of the values. The
a) Graph the voltage function over two cycles. Explain what the scales RMS voltage is given
on the axes represent. peak voltage
by ___ __ . What
b) What is the period of the current in these countries? √2
c) How many times does the voltage reach 110 V in the first second? is the RMS voltage
for Canada?

Example 4
Model Hours of Daylight
Iqaluit is the territorial capital and the largest community of Nunavut.
Iqaluit is located at latitude 63° N. The table shows the number of hours
of daylight on the 21st day of each month as the day of the year on which
it occurs for the capital (based on a 365-day year).
Why is the 21st day of Hours of Daylight by Day of the Year for Iqaluit, Nunavut
each month chosen for
the data in the table?
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21
21 52 80 111 141 172 202 233 264 294 325 355
6.12 9.36 12.36 15.69 18.88 20.83 18.95 15.69 12.41 9.24 6.05 4.34
a) Draw a scatter plot for the number of hours of daylight, h, in

Iqaluit on the day of the year, t.
b) Which sinusoidal function will best fit the data without
requiring a phase shift: h(t) = sin t, h(t) = -sin t, h(t) = cos t,
or h(t) = -cos t? Explain.
c) Write the sinusoidal function that models the number of hours
of daylight.
d) Graph the function from part c).
e) Estimate the number of hours of daylight on each date.
i) March 15 (day 74) ii) July 10 (day 191) iii) December 5 (day 339)
Solution
a) Graph the data as a scatter plot.
b) Note that the data starts at a minimum value, climb to a

maximum value, and then decrease to the minimum value.
The function h(t) = -cos t exhibits this same behaviour.
c) The maximum value is 20.83, and the minimum value is 4.34. Use these
values to find the amplitude and the equation of the sinusoidal axis.
Amplitude = maximum
_______ value - minimum value
2
|a| = 20.83
___ - 4.34
2
|a| = 8.245

The sinusoidal axis lies halfway between the maximum and minimum
values. Its position will determine the value of d.
maximum value + minimum value
d = _______
2
20.83 + 4.34
d = ___
2
d = 12.585
Determine the value of b. You know that the period is 365 days.
Period = _ 2π Why is the period
|b| 365 days?
365 = _ 2π
|b|
b=_ 2π Choose b to be positive.
365
Determine the phase shift, the value of c. For h(t) = -cos t the
minimum value occurs at t = 0. For the daylight hours curve, the
actual minimum occurs at day 355, which represents a 10-day shift to
the left. Therefore, c = -10.
The number of hours of daylight, h, on the day of the year, t,
2π (t + 10) + 12.585.
is given by the function h(t) = -8.245 cos _(
365 )
d) Graph the function in the same window as your scatter plot.
e) Use the value feature of the calculator or substitute the values into
the equation of the function.
i) The number of hours of daylight on March 15 (day 74) is

approximately 11.56 h.
ii) The number of hours of daylight on July 10 (day 191) is
iii) The number of hours of daylight on December 5 (day 339) is

Your Turn
Windsor, Ontario, is located at latitude 42° N. The table shows the
number of hours of daylight on the 21st day of each month as the day
of the year on which it occurs for this city.
Hours of Daylight by Day of the Year for Windsor, Ontario

21 52 80 111 141 172 202 233 264 294 325 355
9.62 10.87 12.20 13.64 14.79 15.28 14.81 13.64 12.22 10.82 9.59 9.08
a) Draw a scatter plot for the number of hours of daylight, h, in Windsor,

Ontario on the day of the year, t.
b) Write the sinusoidal function that models the number of hours
of daylight.
c) Graph the function from part b).
d) Estimate the number of hours of daylight on each date.
i) March 10
ii) July 24
iii) December 3
e) Compare the graphs for Iqaluit and Windsor. What conclusions can
you draw about the number of hours of daylight for the two locations?
Key Ideas
You can use sinusoidal functions to model periodic phenomena that do

not involve angles as the independent variable.
You can adjust the amplitude, phase shift, period, and vertical
displacement of the basic trigonometric functions to fit the
characteristics of the real-world application being modelled.
You can use technology to create the graph modelling the application.
Use this graph to interpolate or extrapolate information required to solve
the problem.
You can solve trigonometric equations graphically. Use the graph of a
function to determine the x-intercepts or the points of intersection with a
given line. You can express your solutions over a specified interval or as
a general solution.

Practise 3. The partial graph of a sinusoidal function

1. a) Use the graph of y = sin x to determine y = 4 cos (2(x - 60°)) + 6 and the line
the solutions to the equation sin x = 0 y = 3 are shown below. From the graph
for the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. determine the approximate solutions to the
y
equation 4 cos (2(x - 60°)) + 6 = 3.
y = sin x y
1
y = 4 cos (2(x - 60°)) + 6
10
-π 0 π 2π x
8
-1
6
4
b) Determine the general solution for y=3
sin x = 0. 2
c) Determine the solutions for sin 3x = 0
in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. 0 60° 120° 180° 240° 300° 360° x
2. The partial sinusoidal graphs shown

below are intersected by the line y = 6. 4. Solve each of the following equations
Each point of intersection corresponds to graphically.
a value of x where y = 6. For each graph π
shown determine the approximate value of ( )
a) -2.8 sin _ (x - 12) + 16 = 16,
6
x where y = 6. 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
a) y b) 12 cos (2(x - 45°)) + 8 = 10,
0° ≤ x ≤ 360°
8
c) 7 cos (3x - 18) = 4,
4 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
d) 6.2 sin (4(x + 8°)) - 1 = 4,
-2 0 2 4 6 x
0° ≤ x ≤ 360°
-4
5. Solve each of the following equations.
π
b) y
(4 )
a) sin _ (x - 6) = 0.5, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
b) 4 cos (x - 45°) + 7 = 10, 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°

9
c) 8 cos (2x - 5) = 3, general solution in
6 radians
3 d) 5.2 sin (45(x + 8°)) - 1 = -3, general
solution in degrees
-2 0 2 4 6 x
-3

6. State a possible domain and range for Apply
the given functions, which represent 9. A point on an industrial flywheel
real-world applications. experiences a motion described by the
2π t + 15,
a) The population of a lakeside town
with large numbers of seasonal
function h(t) = 13 cos _(0.7 )
where h is the height, in metres, and t
residents is modelled by the function
is the time, in minutes.
P(t) = 6000 sin (t - 8) + 8000.
a) What is the maximum height of
b) The height of the tide on a given day
the point?
can be modelled using the function
h(t) = 6 sin (t - 5) + 7. b) After how many minutes is the
maximum height reached?
c) The height above the ground of a rider
on a Ferris wheel can be modelled by c) What is the minimum height of
h(t) = 6 sin 3(t - 30) + 12. the point?
d) The average daily temperature may d) After how many minutes is the
be modelled by the function minimum height reached?
h(t) = 9 cos _ 2π (t - 200) + 14. e) For how long, within one cycle, is
365 the point less than 6 m above the
7. A trick from Victorian times was to listen ground?
to the pitch of a fly’s buzz, reproduce the
f) Determine the height of the point if
musical note on the piano, and say how
the wheel is allowed to turn for 1 h
many times the fly’s wings had flapped
12 min.
in 1 s. If the fly’s wings flap 200 times in
one second, determine the period of the 10. Michelle is balancing the wheel on her
musical note. bicycle. She has marked a point on the
tire that when rotated can be modelled
8. Determine the period, the sinusoidal
by the function h(t) = 59 + 24 sin 125t,
axis, and the amplitude for each of
where h is the height, in centimetres, and
the following.
t is the time, in seconds. Determine the
a) The first maximum of a sine height of the mark, to the nearest tenth of a
function occurs at the point centimetre, when t = 17.5 s.
(30°, 24), and the first minimum
11. The typical voltage, V, in volts (V),
to the right of the maximum
supplied by an electrical outlet in Cuba
occurs at the point (80°, 6).
is a sinusoidal function that oscillates
b) The first maximum of a cosine between -155 V and +155 V and makes
function occurs at (0, 4), and the 60 complete cycles each second. Determine
first minimum to the right of the an equation for the voltage as a function of
2π , -16 .
maximum occurs at _ (3 ) time, t.
c) An electron oscillates back and

forth 50 times per second, and the
maximum and minimum values
occur at +10 and -10, respectively.

12. The University of Calgary’s Institute b) One of the main food sources for the
for Space Research is leading a project Arctic fox is the lemming. Suppose
to launch Cassiope, a hybrid space the population, L, of lemmings in the
satellite. Cassiope will follow a path region is modelled by the function
that may be modelled by the function L(t) = 5000 sin _ π (t - 12) + 10 000.
h(t) = 350 sin 28π(t - 25) + 400, where h 12
is the height, in kilometres, of the satellite Graph the function L(t) using the same
above Earth and t is the time, in days. set of axes as for F (t).
a) Determine the period of the satellite.

b) How many minutes will it take the
satellite to orbit Earth?
c) How many orbits per day will the
satellite make?
c) From the graph, determine the

maximum and minimum numbers of
foxes and lemmings and the months in
which these occur.
d) Describe the relationships between
the maximum, minimum, and mean
points of the two curves in terms of the
lifestyles of the foxes and lemmings.
List possible causes for the fluctuation
in populations.
14. Office towers are designed to sway with
13. The Arctic fox is common throughout the the wind blowing from a particular
Arctic tundra. Suppose the population, F, direction. In one situation, the horizontal
of foxes in a region of northern Manitoba sway, h, in centimetres, from vertical
is modelled by the function can be approximated by the function
F(t) = 500 sin _ π t + 1000, where t is the h = 40 sin 0.526t, where t is the time,
12 in seconds.
time, in months.
a) Graph the function using graphing
technology. Use the following window
settings: x: [0, 12, 1], y: [-40, 40, 5].
b) If a guest arrives on the top floor at
t = 0, how far will the guest have
swayed from the vertical after 2.034 s?
c) If a guest arrives on the top floor at
t = 0, how many seconds will have
elapsed before the guest has swayed
a) How many months would it take for the 20 cm from the vertical?
fox population to drop to 650? Round
your answer to the nearest month.

15. In Inuvik, Northwest Territories (latitude 16. The table shows the average monthly
68.3° N), the Sun does not set for 56 temperature in Winnipeg, Manitoba, in
days during the summer. The midnight degrees Celsius.
Sun sequence below illustrates the rise Average Monthly Temperatures for
and fall of the polar Sun during a day in Winnipeg, Manitoba (°C)
the summer. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
-16.5 -12.7 -5.6 3 11.3 17.3
Average Monthly Temperatures for

Winnipeg, Manitoba (°C)
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
19.7 18 12.5 4.5 -4.3 -11.7
a) Plot the data on a scatter plot.

b) Determine the temperature that is
halfway between the maximum
average monthly temperature and
the minimum average monthly
y temperature for Winnipeg.
Height of Sun Above the
c) Determine a sinusoidal function to

Horizon (Sun widths)
8
model the temperature for Winnipeg.
6
d) Graph your model. How well does
4 your model fit the data?
e) For how long in a 12-month period
2
does Winnipeg have a temperature
greater than or equal to 16 °C?
0 8 16 24 x
Elapsed Time (h) 17. An electric heater turns on and off on a
cyclic basis as it heats the water in a hot
a) Determine the maximum and minimum tub. The water temperature, T, in degrees
heights of the Sun above the horizon in Celsius, varies sinusoidally with time, t,
terms of Sun widths. in minutes. The heater turns on when the
temperature of the water reaches 34 °C
b) What is the period?
and turns off when the water temperature
c) Determine the sinusoidal equation that is 43 °C. Suppose the water temperature
models the midnight Sun. drops to 34 °C and the heater turns on.
After another 30 min the heater turns off,
D id Yo u Know ?
and then after another 30 min the heater
In 2010, a study showed that the Sun’s width, or starts again.
diameter, is a steady 1 500 000 km. The researchers
a) Write the equation that expresses
discovered over a 12-year period that the diameter
changed by less than 1 km. temperature as a function of time.
b) Determine the temperature 10 min
after the heater first turns on.

18. A mass attached to the end of a long c) Determine the amount of time that
spring is bouncing up and down. As it passes before a rider reaches a height
bounces, its distance from the floor varies of 18 m for the first time. Determine
sinusoidally with time. When the mass is one other time the rider will be at that
released, it takes 0.3 s to reach a high point height within the first cycle.
of 60 cm above the floor. It takes 1.8 s for 20. The Canadian National Historic
the mass to reach the first low point of Windpower Centre, at Etzikom, Alberta,
40 cm above the floor. has various styles of windmills on display.
The tip of the blade of one windmill
reaches its minimum height of 8 m above
the ground at a time of 2 s. Its maximum
height is 22 m above the ground. The tip
of the blade rotates 12 times per minute.
60 cm a) Write a sine or a cosine function to
40 cm
model the rotation of the tip of the blade.
b) What is the height of the tip of the
a) Sketch the graph of this sinusoidal
blade after 4 s?
function.
c) For how long is the tip of the blade
b) Determine the equation for the
above a height of 17 m in the first 10 s?
distance from the floor as a function
of time.
c) What is the distance from the floor
when the stopwatch reads 17.2 s?
d) What is the first positive value of
time when the mass is 59 cm above
the floor?
19. A Ferris wheel with a radius of 10 m
rotates once every 60 s. Passengers get on
board at a point 2 m above the ground at
the bottom of the Ferris wheel. A sketch
for the first 150 s is shown.
Height
0 Time
a) Write an equation to model the path of

a passenger on the Ferris wheel, where
the height is a function of time.
b) If Emily is at the bottom of the Ferris
wheel when it begins to move,
determine her height above the ground,
to the nearest tenth of a metre, when the
wheel has been in motion for 2.3 min.

21. In a 366-day year, the average daily 23. Golden, British Columbia, is one of the
maximum temperature in Vancouver, many locations for heliskiing in Western
British Columbia, follows a sinusoidal Canada. When skiing the open powder,
pattern with the highest value of 23.6 °C the skier leaves behind a trail, with two
on day 208, July 26, and the lowest value turns creating one cycle of the sinusoidal
of 4.2 °C on day 26, January 26. curve. On one section of the slope, a
a) Use a sine or a cosine function to model skier makes a total of 10 turns over a
the temperatures as a function of time, 20-s interval.
in days.
b) From your model, determine the
temperature for day 147, May 26.
c) How many days will have an expected
maximum temperature of 21.0 °C or
higher?
Extend
22. An investment company invests the money
it receives from investors on a collective
basis, and each investor shares in the
profits and losses. One company has an
annual cash flow that has fluctuated in
cycles of approximately 40 years since
1920, when it was at a high point. The
highs were approximately +20% of
the total assets, while the lows were
approximately -10% of the total assets. a) If the distance for a turn, to the left or
to the right, from the midline is 1.2 m,
a) Model this cash flow as a cosine
determine the function that models the
function of the time, in years,
path of the skier.
with t = 0 representing 1920.
b) How would the function change if the
b) Graph the function from part a).
skier made only eight turns in the same
c) Determine the cash flow for the 20-s interval?
company in 2008.
d) Based on your model, do you feel that Create Connections
this is a company you would invest C1 a) When is it best to use a sine function
with? Explain. as a model?
b) When is it best to use a cosine
function as a model?
C2 a) Which of the parameters in
y = a sin b(x - c) + d has the
greatest influence on the graph of the
function? Explain your reasoning.
b) Which of the parameters in
y = a cos b(x - c) + d has the
greatest influence on the graph of the
function? Explain your reasoning.

C3 The sinusoidal door by the architectural
firm Matharoo Associates is in the home of
a diamond merchant in Surat, India. The
door measures 5.2 m high and 1.7 m wide.
It is constructed from 40 sections of
254-mm-thick Burma teak. Each section
is carved so that the door integrates
160 pulleys, 80 ball bearings, a wire rope,
and a counterweight hidden within the
single pivot. When the door is in an open
position, the shape of it may be modelled
by a sinusoidal function.
a) Assuming the amplitude is half the
width of the door and there is one cycle
created within the height of the door,
determine a sinusoidal function that
could model the shape of the open door.
b) Sketch the graph of your model over
one period.
Project Corner Broadcasting
• Radio broadcasts, television productions,

and cell phone calls are examples of
electronic communication.
• A carrier waveform is used in broadcasting
the music and voices we hear on the
radio. The wave form, which is typically
sinusoidal, carries another electrical
waveform or message. In the case of AM
radio, the sounds (messages) are broadcast
through amplitude modulation.
• An NTSC (National Television System Committee)
mittee) television
transmission is comprised of video and sound signals broadcast using carrier
waveforms. The video signal is amplitude modulated, while the sound signal is
frequency modulated.
• Explain the difference between amplitude modulation and frequency modulation
with respect to transformations of functions.
• How are periodic functions involved in satellite radio broadcasting, satellite
television broadcasting, or cell phone transmissions?

Chapter 5 Review
5.1 Graphing Sine and Cosine Functions, C y
pages 222—237 0.5
1. Sketch the graph of y = sin x for

0 π 2π x
-360° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
-0.5
a) What are the x-intercepts?
b) What is the y-intercept?
D y
c) State the domain, range, and period
of the function. 1
d) What is the greatest value of y = sin x?

0 π 2π x
2. Sketch the graph of y = cos x for
-1
-360° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
a) What are the x-intercepts?
b) What is the y-intercept? 4. Without graphing, determine the amplitude
and period, in radians and degrees, of
c) State the domain, range, and period of
each function.
the function.
a) y = -3 sin 2x
d) What is the greatest value of y = cos x?
b) y = 4 cos 0.5x
3. Match each function with its correct graph.
1 5
c) y = _ sin _ x
a) y = sin x 3 6
b) y = sin 2x 3
d) y = -5 cos _ x
2
c) y = -sin x
5. a) Describe how you could distinguish
1
d) y = _ sin x between the graphs of y = sin x,
2
y
y = sin 2x, and y = 2 sin x. Graph each
A
function to check your predictions.
1
b) Describe how you could distinguish
0.5 between the graphs of y = sin x,
y = -sin x, and y = sin (-x). Graph
0 π 2π x each function to check your predictions.
-0.5 c) Describe how you could distinguish
-1 between the graphs of y = cos x,
y = -cos x, and y = cos (-x). Graph
each function to check your predictions.
B y 6. Write the equation of the cosine function
1 in the form y = a cos bx with the given
characteristics.
0.5
a) amplitude 3, period π
0 π 2π x b) amplitude 4, period 150°
-0.5 1
c) amplitude _ , period 720°
2
-1 3 π
d) amplitude _ , period _
4 6

7. Write the equation of the sine function 10. Write the equation for each graph in the
in the form y = a sin bx with the given form y = a sin b(x - c) + d and in the
characteristics. form y = a cos b(x - c) + d.
a) amplitude 8, period 180° a) y
b) amplitude 0.4, period 60° 4

3
c) amplitude _ , period 4π 2
2
2π
d) amplitude 2, period _
3 -90° 0 90° 180° 270° x
-2
5.2 Transformations of Sinusoidal Functions,

pages 238—255 b) y
2
8. Determine the amplitude, period, phase
shift, and vertical displacement with -135°-90° -45° 0 45° 90° 135° 180° x
respect to y = sin x or y = cos x for -2
each function. Sketch the graph of each
function for two cycles. -4
π
(
a) y = 2 cos 3 x - _ - 8
2 ) c) y
2
1 π
b) y = sin _
2
x-( _
4 )
+3
x
c) y = -4 cos 2(x - 30°) + 7 -π
_ 0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π 5π
__ 3π
2 2 2 2
-2
1 1
d) y = _ sin _ (x - 60°) - 1
3 4 -4
9. Sketch graphs of the functions
π and d) y
(
f (x) = cos 2 x - _
2 ) 4
π on the same
(
g(x) = cos 2x - _
2 ) 2
set of axes for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
a) State the period of each function. -π 0 π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π x
b) State the phase shift for each -2
function.
c) State the phase shift of the function 11. a) Write the equation of the sine function
y = cos b(x - π). with amplitude 4, period π, phase
d) State the phase shift of the function π units to the right, and vertical
shift _
y = cos (bx - π). 3
displacement 5 units down.
b) Write the equation of the cosine
function with amplitude 0.5, period
π units to the left, and
4π, phase shift _
6
vertical displacement 1 unit up.
c) Write the equation of the sine function
with amplitude _ 2 , period 540°, no
3
phase shift, and vertical displacement
5 units down.

12. Graph each function. State the domain, the 16. A point on the unit circle has coordinates
__
range, the maximum and minimum values,
and the x-intercepts and y-intercept.
P ( 2 2 ).
√3 _
_ , 1
a) y = 2 cos (x - 45°) + 3 a) Determine the exact coordinates of

π point Q.
( 3)
b) y = 4 sin 2 x - _ + 1
b) Describe the relationship between sin θ,
13. Using the language of transformations, cos θ, and tan θ.
describe how to obtain the graph of each c) Using the diagram, explain what
function from the graph of y = sin x or happens to tan θ as θ approaches 90°.
y = cos x.
π y
(
a) y = 3 sin 2 x - _ + 6
3 ) Q
1 π P
2 (
b) y = -2 cos _ x + _ - 3
4 ) θ A
3
c) y = _ cos 2(x - 30°) + 10
4 0 1 x
d) y = -sin 2(x + 45°) - 8

14. The sound that the horn of a cruise
ship makes as it approaches the dock is
different from the sound it makes when it d) What happens to tan θ when θ = 90°?
departs. The equation of the sound wave 17. a) Explain how cos θ relates to the
as the ship approaches is y = 2 sin 2θ, asymptotes of the graph of y = tan θ.
while the equation of the sound wave as it
1 θ. b) Explain how sin θ relates to the
departs is y = 2 sin _
2 x-intercepts of the graph of y = tan θ.
a) Compare the two sounds by sketching 18. Tan θ is sometimes used to measure the
the graphs of the sound waves as the lengths of shadows given the angle of
ship approaches and departs for the elevation of the Sun and the height of a
interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π. tree. Explain what happens to the shadow
b) How do the two graphs compare to the of the tree when the Sun is directly
graph of y = sin θ? overhead. How does this relate to the
graph of y = tan θ?
19. What is a vertical asymptote? How can
5.3 The Tangent Function, pages 256—265
you tell when a trigonometric function
15. a) Graph y = tan θ for -2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π and will have a vertical asymptote?
for -360° ≤ θ ≤ 360°.
b) Determine the following characteristics.
5.4 Equations and Graphs of Trigonometric
i) domain
Functions, pages 266—281
ii) range
20. Solve each of the following equations
iii) y-intercept
graphically.
iv) x-intercepts
a) 2 sin x - 1 = 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
v) equations of the asymptotes
b) 0 = 2 cos (x - 30°) + 5, 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°
π
( )
c) sin _ (x - 6) = 0.5, general solution
4
in radians
d) 4 cos (x - 45°) + 7 = 10, general
solution in degrees

21. The Royal British Columbia Museum, 22. The height, h, in metres, above the ground
home to the First Peoples Exhibit, of a rider on a Ferris wheel after t seconds
located in Victoria, British Columbia, can be modelled by the sine function
was founded in 1886. To preserve the h(t) = 12 sin _π (t - 30) + 15.
many artifacts, the air-conditioning 45
system in the building operates when a) Graph the function using graphing
the temperature in the building is greater technology.
than 22 °C. In the summer, the building’s b) Determine the maximum and minimum
temperature varies with the time of heights of the rider above the ground.
day and is modelled by the function c) Determine the time required for
T = 12 cos t + 19, where T represents the Ferris wheel to complete one
the temperature in degrees Celsius and t revolution.
represents the time, in hours.
d) Determine the height of the rider above
the ground after 45 s.
23. The number of hours of daylight, L, in
Lethbridge, Alberta, may be modelled
by a sinusoidal function of time, t. The
longest day of the year is June 21, with
15.7 h of daylight, and the shortest day
is December 21, with 8.3 h of daylight.
a) Determine a sinusoidal function to
model this situation.
b) How many hours of daylight are there
on April 3?
24. For several hundred years, astronomers
have kept track of the number of solar
flares, or sunspots, that occur on the
surface of the Sun. The number of
sunspots counted in a given year varies
periodically from a minimum of 10 per
a) Graph the function. year to a maximum of 110 per year.
b) Determine, to the nearest tenth of an There have been 18 complete cycles
hour, the amount of time in one day between the years 1750 and 1948.
that the air conditioning will operate. Assume that a maximum number of
c) Why is a model for temperature sunspots occurred in the year 1750.
variance important in this situation? a) How many sunspots would you expect
there were in the year 2000?
b) What is the first year after 2000 in
which the number of sunspots will
be about 35?
c) What is the first year after 2000
in which the number of sunspots
will be a maximum?

Multiple Choice 6. Monique makes the following statements
about a sine function of the form
y = a sin b(x - c) + d:
1. The range of the function y = 2 sin x + 1 is I The values of a and d affect the range
A {y | -1 ≤ y ≤ 3, y ∈ R} of the function.
B {y | -1 ≤ y ≤ 1, y ∈ R} II The values of c and d determine the
C {y | 1 ≤ y ≤ 3, y ∈ R} horizontal and vertical translations,
D {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 2, y ∈ R}
respectively.
2. What are the phase shift, period, and III The value of b determines the number
amplitude, respectively, for the function of cycles within the distance of 2π.
π + 1? IV The values of a and b are vertical and
(
f (x) = 3 sin 2 x - _
3 ) horizontal stretches.
A _π , 3, π π
B π, _ , 3
3 3 Monique’s correct statements are
C 3, , π
π
_ D
π
_ , π, 3 A I, II, III, and IV
3 3
3. Two functions are given as B I only
π and g(x) = cos (x - a).
(
f (x) = sin x - _
4) C I, II, and III only
Determine the smallest positive value for a D I, II, and IV only
so that the graphs are identical. 7. The graph shows how the height of a
π π 3π 5π
A _ B _ C _ D _ bicycle pedal changes as the bike is
4 2 4 4
pedalled at a constant speed. How would
4. A cosine curve has a maximum point at the graph change if the bicycle were
(3, 14). The nearest minimum point to pedalled at a greater constant speed?
the right of this maximum point is (8, 2).
Which of the following is a possible
equation for this curve? 50
Height of Pedal (cm)
2π
A y = 6 cos _ (x + 3) + 8
5 40
B y = 6 cos
2π
_ (x - 3) + 8 30
5
π
C y = 6 cos _ (x + 3) + 8 20
5
π
_
D y = 6 cos (x - 3) + 8 10
5
5. The graph of a sinusoidal function is 0 10 20 30
shown. A possible equation for the Time (s)
function is
y A The height of the function would
2 increase.
B The height of the function would
0 π
_ π 3π
__ 2π θ decrease.
2 2
-2
C The period of the function would
1 decrease.
A y = 2 cos _ θ B y = 2 sin 2θ
2 D The period of the function would
C y = 2 cos 2θ
1
D y = 2 sin _ θ
2 increase.

Short Answer 15. Suppose a mass suspended on a spring
8. What is the horizontal distance between
is bouncing up and down. The mass’s
two consecutive zeros of the function distance from the floor when it is at rest is
f (x) = sin 2x? 1 m. The maximum displacement is 10 cm
as it bounces. It takes 2 s to complete one
9. For the function y = tan θ, state the
bounce or cycle. Suppose the mass is at
asymptotes, domain, range, and period.
rest at t = 0 and that the spring bounces
10. What do the functions f (x) = -4 sin x and up first.
g(x) = -4 cos _1 x have in common?
2 a) Write a function to model the
11. An airplane’s electrical generator produces a displacement as a function of time.
time-varying output voltage described by the b) Graph the function to determine the
equation V(t) = 120 sin 2513t, where t is the approximate times when the mass is
time, in seconds, and V is in volts. What are 1.05 m above the floor in the first cycle.
the amplitude and period of this function? c) Verify your solutions to part b)
12. Suppose the depth, d, in metres, of the tide algebraically.
in a certain harbour can be modelled by 16. The graph of a sinusoidal function
d(t) = -3 cos _π t + 5, where t is the time, is shown.
6
y
in hours. Consider a day in which t = 0
represents the time 00:00. Determine the 2
time for the high and low tides and the
__ -π - π π x
depths of each. -3π _ 0 _ π 3π
__
2 2 2 2
13. Solve each of the following equations -2
graphically. -4
π
( )
a) sin _ (x - 1) = 0.5, general solution in
3
radians a) Determine a function for the graph in
b) 4 cos (15(x + 30°)) + 1 = -2, general the form y = a sin b(x - c) + d.
solution in degrees b) Determine a function for the graph in
the form y = a cos b(x - c) + d.
Extended Response 17. A student is investigating the effects of
14. Compare and contrast the two graphs of
changing the values of the parameters
sinusoidal functions. a, b, c, and d in the function
y = a sin b(x - c) + d. The student
I y
graphs the following functions:
2
A f (x) = sin x
B g(x) = 2 sin x
-2 -1 0 1 2x
-2 C h(x) = sin 2x
D k(x) = sin (2x + 2)
II y E m(x) = sin 2x + 2
2 a) Which graphs have the same

x x-intercepts?
-2 -1 0 1 2 b) Which graphs have the same period?
-2 c) Which graph has a different amplitude
than the others?
CHAPTER
6 Trigonometric
Identities
Trigonometric functions are used to model
behaviour in the physical world. You can
model projectile motion, such as the path of
a thrown javelin or a lobbed tennis ball with
trigonometry. Sometimes equivalent expressions
for trigonometric functions can be substituted to
allow scientists to analyse data or solve a problem
more efficiently. In this chapter, you will explore
equivalent trigonometric expressions.
Did Yo u Know ?
Elizabeth Gleadle, of
Vancouver, British Columbia,
holds the Canadian women’s
javelin record, with a distance
of 58.21 m thrown in
July 2009.
Key Terms
trigonometric identity

6.1
Reciprocal, Quotient,
and Pythagorean
Identities
Focus on…
• verifying a trigonometric identity numerically and
graphically using technology
• exploring reciprocal, quotient, and Pythagorean
identities
• determining non-permissible values of trigonometric
identities
• explaining the difference between a trigonometric
identity and a trigonometric equation
Digital music players store large sound

files by using trigonometry to compress
(store) and then decompress (play) the file
Engineer using
when needed. A large sound file can be stored an electronic
in a much smaller space using this technique. spin resonance
Electronics engineers have learned how to use spectroscope
the periodic nature of music to compress the

audio file into a smaller space.
Investigate Comparing Two Trigonometric Expressions
Materials 1. Graph the curves y = sin x and y = cos x tan x over the domain
• graphing technology -360° ≤ x < 360°. Graph the curves on separate grids using the
same range and scale. What do you notice?
2. Make and analyse a table of values for these functions in multiples of

30° over the domain -360° ≤ x < 360°. Describe your findings.
3. Use your knowledge of tan x to simplify the expression cos x tan x.

Reflect and Respond
4. a) Are the curves y = sin x and y = cos x tan x identical? Explain
your reasoning.
b) Why was it important to look at the graphs and at the table of values?
5. What are the non-permissible values of x in the equation
sin x = cos x tan x? Explain.
6. Are there any permissible values for x outside the domain in step 2
for which the expressions sin x and cos x tan x are not equal? Share
your response with a classmate.
Link the Ideas
The equation sin x = cos x tan x that you explored in the investigation
is an example of a trigonometric identity. Both sides of the equation trigonometric
have the same value for all permissible values of x. In other words, when identity
the expressions on either side of the equal sign are evaluated for any • a trigonometric
permissible value, the resulting values are equal. Trigonometric identities equation that is true
for all permissible
can be verified both numerically and graphically.
values of the variable
You are familiar with two groups of identities from your earlier work in the expressions
on both sides of the
with trigonometry: the reciprocal identities and the quotient identity. equation
Reciprocal Identities
1 1 1
csc x = _ sec x = _ cot x = _
sin x cos x tan x
Quotient Identities
sin x cos x
tan x = _ cot x = _
cos x sin x
Example 1
Verify a Potential Identity Numerically and Graphically
a) Determine the non-permissible values, in degrees, for the equation
tan θ .
sec θ = _
sin θ
π
b) Numerically verify that θ = 60° and θ = _ are solutions of the
4
equation.
c) Use technology to graphically decide whether the equation could be
an identity over the domain -360° < θ ≤ 360°.
Solution
a) To determine the non-permissible values, assess each trigonometric
function in the equation individually and examine expressions that may
have non-permissible values. Visualize the graphs of y = sin x, y = cos x
and y = tan x to help you determine the non-permissible values.
6.1 Reciprocal, Quotient, and Pythagorean Identities • MHR 291

First consider the left side, sec θ:
sec θ = _ 1 , and cos θ = 0 when θ = 90°, 270°,….
cos θ
So, the non-permissible values for sec θ are θ ≠ 90° + 180°n, where n ∈ I.
Now consider the right side, _ tan θ :
sin θ
Why must these values be
tan θ is not defined when θ = 90°, 270°,…. excluded?
So, the non-permissible values for tan θ are How do these non-permissible
θ ≠ 90° + 180°n, where n ∈ I. values compare to the ones
found for the left side?
tan θ is undefined when sin θ = 0.
Also, the expression _
sin θ
sin θ = 0 when θ = 0°, 180°,….
So, further non-permissible values Are these non-permissible
tan θ are θ ≠ 180°n, where n ∈ I. values included in the ones
for _ already found?
sin θ
tan θ
The three sets of non-permissible values for the equation sec θ = _
sin θ
can be expressed as a single restriction, θ ≠ 90°n, where n ∈ I.
b) Substitute θ = 60°.
Left Side = sec θ tan θ
Right Side = _
sin θ
= sec 60° Why does substituting
tan
= __ 60°
= __ 1 60° in both sides
cos 60° sin 60° of the equation not
__
1 √3
_ prove that the identity
=_ = __
is true?
0.5 √3
_
=2 2
=2
Left Side = Right Side
The equation sec θ = _ tan θ is true for θ = 60°.
sin θ
π
Substitute θ = _ .
4
Left Side = sec θ Right Side = _ tan θ
π sin θ
= sec _ π
4 tan _
__ 4
= __ 1 = π
π sin _
cos _ 4
4
_ 1
=_ 1 =
_1__
_1__
√2
√2
__ __
= √2 = √2
tan θ is true for θ = _
The equation sec θ = _ π.
sin θ 4

c) Use technology, with domain -360° < x ≤ 360°, to graph y = sec θ
and y = _tan θ . The graphs look identical, so sec θ = _

tan θ could be
sin θ sin θ
an identity.
How do these Does graphing the

graphs show related functions
that there are on each side of the
non-permissible equation prove that
values for this the identity is true?
identity? Explain.
Your Turn
a) Determine the non-permissible values, in degrees, for the equation
cot x = _cos x .
sin x
π
b) Verify that x = 45° and x = _ are solutions to the equation.
6
c) Use technology to graphically decide whether the equation could be
an identity over the domain -360° < x ≤ 360°.
Example 2
Use Identities to Simplify Expressions
a) Determine the non-permissible values, in radians, of the variable in
the expression ___cot x
csc x cos x .
b) Simplify the expression.
Solution
a) The trigonometric functions cot x and csc x both have non-permissible
values in their domains.
For cot x, x ≠ πn, where n ∈ I. Why are these the non-permissible
For csc x, x ≠ πn, where n ∈ I. values for both reciprocal functions?
Also, the denominator of ___ cot x

csc x cos x cannot equal zero. In other
words, csc x cos x ≠ 0.
There are no values of x that result in csc x = 0.
π + πn, where n ∈ I.
However, for cos x, x ≠ _
2
Combined, the non-permissible values Why can you write this
cot x π single general restriction?
for ___ _
csc x cos x are x ≠ 2 n, where n ∈ I.

b) To simplify the expression, use reciprocal and quotient identities to
write trigonometric functions in terms of cosine and sine.
cos x
_
___cot x ___ sin x
csc x cos x = _ 1 cos x
sin x
cos
_ x
= __
sin
cos x
x Simplify the fraction.
_
sin x
=1
Your Turn
a) Determine the non-permissible values, in radians, of the variable in
sec x .
the expression _
tan x
b) Simplify the expression.
Pythagorean Identity
Recall that point P on the terminal arm of an angle θ in standard position
has coordinates (cos θ, sin θ). Consider a right triangle with a hypotenuse
of 1 and legs of cos θ and sin θ.
P(cos θ, sin θ)
θ
0 1 x
The hypotenuse is 1 because it is the radius of the unit circle. Apply the
Pythagorean theorem in the right triangle to establish the Pythagorean
identity:
x2 + y 2 = 12
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1

Example
\ 3
Use the Pythagorean Identity
π
a) Verify that the equation cot2 x + 1 = csc2 x is true when x = _ .
6
b) Use quotient identities to express the Pythagorean identity
cos2 x + sin2 x = 1 as the equivalent identity cot2 x + 1 = csc2 x.
Solution
π
a) Substitute x = _ .
6
2
Left Side = cot x + 1 Right Side = csc2 x
= cot2 _ π +1 = csc2 _π
6 6
= __ 1 = __ 1
tan π + 1
2 _
sin2 _ π
6 6
= __ 1 +1 = _ 1
__1__ 1 2
_
(√3 )2 2 ( )
__ 2
2
= (√3 ) + 1 = 2
=4 =4
The equation cot2 x + 1 = csc2 x is true when x = _ π.
6
b) cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
Since this identity is true for all permissible values of x, you can
multiply both sides by __ 1 , x ≠ πn, where n ∈ I.
sin2 x
1 1 1 Why multiply both sides
sin x )
( __2
cos2
x + __(
sin2 x ) (
sin2 x = __
sin2 x
1 ) by
__ 1
? How else could
sin2 x
cos2 x + 1 = __
__ 1 you simplify this equation?
sin2 x sin2 x
cot2 x + 1 = csc2 x
Your Turn
3π
a) Verify the equation 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x numerically for x = _ .
4
b) Express the Pythagorean identity cos2 x + sin2 x = 1 as the equivalent
identity 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x.
The three forms of the Pythagorean identity are

cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1 cot2 θ + 1 = csc2 θ 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ

Key Ideas
A trigonometric identity is an equation involving trigonometric functions that

is true for all permissible values of the variable.
You can verify trigonometric identities
numerically by substituting specific values for the variable
graphically, using technology
Verifying that two sides of an equation are equal for given values, or that they appear
equal when graphed, is not sufficient to conclude that the equation is an identity.
You can use trigonometric identities to simplify more complicated
trigonometric expressions.
The reciprocal identities are
csc x = _ 1 sec x = _ 1 cot x = _ 1
sin x cos x tan x
The quotient identities are
sin x
tan x = _ cos x
cot x = _
cos x sin x
The Pythagorean identities are
cos2 x + sin2 x = 1 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x cot2 x + 1 = csc2 x
Practise 4. Simplify, and then rewrite each

1. Determine the non-permissible values of x, expression as one of the three reciprocal
in radians, for each expression. trigonometric functions, csc x, sec x, or
cos x sin x cot x.
a) _ b) _
sin x tan x cos x tan x
c) __
cot x d) __
tan x (
a) _ _ )(
tan x sin x)
1 - sin x cos x + 1 b) csc x cot x sec x sin x
2. Why do some identities have non- c) __
cos x
permissible values? 1 - sin2 x
3. Simplify each expression to one of the 5. a) Verify that the equation
___ sec x = sin x is true
three primary trigonometric functions,
tan x + cot x
sin x, cos x or tan x. For part a), verify π.
for x = 30° and for x = _
graphically, using technology, that the 4
given expression is equivalent to its b) What are the non-permissible values
simplified form. of the equation in the domain
0° ≤ x < 360°?
a) sec x sin x
b) sec x cot x sin2 x
cos x
c) _
cot x

__________
6. Consider the equation 8. Compare y = sin x and y = √1 - cos2 x by
sin
__ x cos x = 1__ - cos x . completing the following.
1 + cos x tan x __________
a) Verify that sin x = √1 - cos2 x for
a) What are the non-permissible values, in 5π , and x = π.
π, x = _
radians, for this equation? x=_
3 6 __________
b) Graph the two sides of the equation b) Graph y = sin x and y = √1 - cos2 x in
using technology, over the domain the same window.
__________
0 ≤ x < 2π. Could it be an identity? c) Determine whether sin x = √1 - cos2 x
c) Verify that the equation is true when is an identity. Explain your answer.
π . Use exact values for each
x=_ 9. Illuminance (E) is a measure of the
4
expression in the equation. amount of light coming from a light
source and falling onto a surface. If the
light is projected onto the surface at an
Apply
angle θ, measured from the perpendicular,
7. When a polarizing lens is rotated through
then a formula relating these values is
an angle θ over a second lens, the amount
sec θ = _ I , where I is a measure of the
of light passing through both lenses ER2
decreases by 1 - sin2 θ. luminous intensity and R is the distance
a) Determine an equivalent expression for between the light source and the surface.
this decrease using only cosine.
b) What fraction of light is lost when I
θ=_ π?
6
c) What percent of light is lost when R θ
θ = 60°?
a) Rewrite the formula so that E is isolated

and written in terms of cos θ.
I cot θ is equivalent to
b) Show that E = __
2
R csc θ
your equation from part a).
Fibre optic cable

csc x
10. Simplify ___ to one of the three
tan x + cot x
primary trigonometric ratios. What are
the non-permissible values of the original
expression in the domain 0 ≤ x < 2π?

11. a) Determine graphically, using 17. Determine an expression for m that
technology, whether the expression makes 2__- cos2 x = m + sin x
csc
___
2
x - cot2 x appears to be equivalent sin x
cos x an identity.
to csc x or sec x.
b) What are the non-permissible values, in Create Connections
radians, for the identity from part a)? C1 Explain how a student who does not
csc2 x - cot2 x as the single
c) Express ___ know the cot2 x + 1 = csc2 x form of the
cos x
Pythagorean identity could simplify an
reciprocal trigonometric ratio that you
expression that contained the expression
identified in part a).
sin2 x .
cot2 x + 1 using the fact that 1 = __
π
12. a) Substitute x = _ into the equation sin2 x
4
cot x + sin x = csc x to determine
_ C2 For some trigonometric expressions,
sec x multiplying by a conjugate helps to
whether it could be an identity. Use simplify the expression. Simplify
exact values.
__ sin θ by multiplying the numerator
b) Algebraically confirm that the 1 + cos θ
expression on the left side simplifies and the denominator by the conjugate
to csc x. of the denominator, 1 - cos θ. Describe
13. Stan, Lina, and Giselle are working how this process helps to simplify the
together to try to determine whether the expression.
equation sin x + cos x = tan x + 1 is an C3 MINI LAB Explore the Materials
identity. effect of different domains • graphing
a) Stan substitutes x = 0 into each side of on apparent identities. calculator
the equation. What is the result? Step 1 Graph the two functions
π sin x
b) Lina substitutes x = _ into each side of
2 y = tan x and y = _ | |
cos x on the
the equation. What does she observe? same grid, using a domain of
c) Stan points out that Lina’s choice is not π . Is there graphical evidence
0≤x<_
permissible for this equation. Explain 2
sin x
why. that tan x = _ | |
cos x is an identity?
π
d) Giselle substitutes x = _ into each side Explain.
4
Step 2 Graph the two functions y = tan x and
of the equation. What does she find?
sin x
e) Do the three students have enough y= _ | |
cos x again, using the expanded
information to conclude whether or domain -2π < x ≤ 2π. Is the equation
sin x
not the given equation is an identity?
Explain.
tan x = _ | |
cos x an identity? Explain.
Step 3 Find and record a different
14. Simplify (sin x + cos x)2 + (sin x - cos x)2.
trigonometric equation that is true
over a restricted domain but is not an
Extend identity when all permissible values
15. Given csc2 x + sin2 x = 7.89, find the value are checked. Compare your answer
of __1 + __ 1 .
with that of a classmate.
csc2 x sin2 x
Step 4 How does this activity show the
16. Show algebraically that
1 1 weakness of using graphical and
__ + __ = 2 sec2 θ
1 + sin θ 1 - sin θ numerical methods for verifying
is an identity. potential identities?

6.2
Sum, Difference, and
Double-Angle Identities
Focus on…
• applying sum, difference, and double-angle identities to
verify the equivalence of trigonometric expressions
• verifying a trigonometric identity numerically and graphically
using technology Paris gold box
In addition to holograms and security threads,

paper money often includes special Guilloché
patterns in the design to prevent counterfeiting.
The sum and product of nested sinusoidal
functions are used to form the blueprint of some
of these patterns. Guilloché patterns have been
created since the sixteenth century, but their
origin is uncertain. They can be found carved in
wooden door frames and etched on the metallic
surfaces of objects such as vases.
We b Link
To learn
earn more about
ab Guilloché patterns, go to www.
mcgrawhill.ca/school/learningcentres and follow the links.
Investigate Expressions for sin (α + β) and cos (α + β)
1. a) Draw a large rectangle and label its vertices A, A B Materials

α
B, C, and D, where BC < 2AB. Mark a point E β • ruler
on BC. Join AE and use a protractor to draw EF • protractor
E
perpendicular to AE. Label all right angles on
1
your diagram. Label ∠BAE as α and ∠EAF as β.
b) Measure the angles α and β. Use the angle sum
of a triangle to determine the measures of all D F C
the remaining acute angles in your diagram.
Record their measures on the diagram.
2. a) Explain how you know that ∠CEF = α.
b) Determine an expression for each of the other acute angles in the
diagram in terms of α and β. Label each angle on your diagram.
6.2 Sum, Difference, and Double-Angle Identities • MHR 299

3. Suppose the hypotenuse AF of the inscribed right triangle has a
length of 1 unit. Explain why the length of AE can be represented as
cos β. Label AE as cos β.
4. Determine expressions for line segments AB, BE, EF, CE, CF, AD, and
DF in terms of sin α, cos α, sin β, and cos β. Label each side length
on your diagram using these sines and cosines. Note that AD equals
the sum of segments BE and EC, and DF equals AB minus CF.
5. Which angle in the diagram is equivalent to α + β? Determine
possible identities for sin (α + β) and cos (α + β) from ADF using
the sum or difference of lengths. Compare your results with those of
a classmate.
Reflect and Respond

6. a) Verify your possible identities numerically using the measures of α
and β from step 1. Compare your results with those of a classmate.
b) Does each identity apply to angles that are obtuse? Are there any
restrictions on the domain? Describe your findings.
7. Consider the special case where α = β. Write simplified equivalent
expressions for sin 2α and cos 2α.
Link the Ideas
In the investigation, you discovered the angle sum identities for sine and
cosine. These identities can be used to determine the angle sum identity
for tangent.
The sum identities are

sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B
tan A + tan B
tan (A + B) = ___
1 - tan A tan B
The angle sum identities for sine, cosine, and tangent can be used to
determine angle difference identities for sine, cosine, and tangent.
For sine,
sin (A - B) = sin (A + (-B))
= sin A cos (-B) + cos A sin (-B)
= sin A cos B + cos A (-sin B) Why is cos (-B) = cos B?
= sin A cos B - cos A sin B Why is sin (-B) = -sin B?
We b Link
To see a derivat
derivation The three angle difference identities are
of the difference
cos (A - B), go to
sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B
www.mcgrawhill.ca/ cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
school/learningcentres tan A - tan B
and follow the links.
tan (A - B) = ___
1 + tan A tan B

A special case occurs in the angle sum identities when A = B.
Substituting B = A results in the double-angle identities.
For example, sin 2A = sin (A + A)
= sin A cos A + cos A sin A
= 2 sin A cos A
Similarly, it can be shown that
cos 2A = cos2 A - sin2 A
tan 2A = __ 2 tan A
1 - tan2 A
The double-angle identities are

sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
tan 2A = __2 tan A
1 - tan2 A
Example 1
Simplify Expressions Using Sum, Difference, and Double-Angle
Identities
Write each expression as a single trigonometric function.
a) sin 48° cos 17° - cos 48° sin 17°
π π
b) cos2 _ - sin2 _
3 3
Solution
a) The expression sin 48° cos 17° - cos 48° sin 17° has the
same form as the right side of the difference identity for sine,
sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B.
Thus,
sin 48° cos 17° - cos 48° sin 17° = sin (48° - 17°)
= sin 31°
π π
b) The expression cos2 _ - sin2 _ has the same form as the right side of
3 3
the double-angle identity for cosine, cos 2A = cos2 A - sin2 A.
Therefore,
π - sin2 _
π = cos 2 _π
cos2 _
3 3 ( ( ))
3
How could you use technology
to verify these solutions?
= cos 2π
_
3
Your Turn
Write each expression as a single trigonometric function.
a) cos 88° cos 35° + sin 88° sin 35°
π
b) 2 sin _ cos _
π
12 12

Example 2
Determine Alternative Forms of the Double-Angle Identity for Cosine
Determine an identity for cos 2A that contains only the cosine ratio.
Solution
An identity for cos 2A is cos 2A = cos2 A - sin2 A.
Write an equivalent expression for the term containing sin A.
Use the Pythagorean identity, cos2 A + sin2 A = 1.
Substitute sin2 A = 1 - cos2 A to obtain another form of the double-angle
identity for cosine.
= cos2 A - (1 - cos2 A)
= cos2 A - 1 + cos2 A
= 2 cos2 A - 1
Your Turn
Determine an identity for cos 2A that contains only the sine ratio.
Example 3
Simplify Expressions Using Identities
Consider the expression 1 - cos 2x .
__
sin 2x
a) What are the permissible values for the expression?
b) Simplify the expression to one of the three primary trigonometric
functions.
c) Verify your answer from part b), in the interval [0, 2π), using
technology.
Solution
a) Identify any non-permissible values. The expression is undefined
when sin 2x = 0.
Method 1: Simplify the Double Angle
Use the double-angle identity for sine to simplify sin 2x first.
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
2 sin x cos x ≠ 0
So, sin x ≠ 0 and cos x ≠ 0.
sin x = 0 when x = πn, where n ∈ I.
cos x = 0 when x = _ π + πn, where n ∈ I.
2
When these two sets of non-permissible values are combined, the
permissible values for the expression are all real numbers except
x≠_ πn , where n ∈ I.
2

Method 2: Horizontal Transformation of sin x
First determine when sin x = 0. Then, stretch the domain horizontally
1.
by a factor of _
2
sin x = 0 when x = πn, where n ∈ I.
Therefore, sin 2x = 0 when x = _πn , where n ∈ I.
2
The permissible values of the expression 1
__- cos 2x are all real
sin 2x
numbers except x ≠ _ πn , where n ∈ I.
2
1 - cos 2x 1 - (1 - 2 sin2 x) Replace sin 2x in the denominator.

b) __ = ____
sin 2x 2 sin x cos x Replace cos 2x with the form of the
identity from Example 2 that will
= ___ 2 sin2 x simplify most fully.
2 sin x cos x
_sin x
= cos x
= tan x
The expression 1
__- cos 2x is equivalent to tan x.
sin 2x
1 - cos 2x
c) Use technology, with domain 0 ≤ x < 2π, to graph y = __
sin 2x
and y = tan x. The graphs look identical, which verifies, but does not
prove, the answer in part b).
Your Turn
Consider the expression __ sin 2x .
cos 2x + 1
a) What are the permissible values for the expression?
b) Simplify the expression to one of the three primary trigonometric
functions.
c) Verify your answer from part b), in the interval [0, 2π), using
technology.

Example 4
Determine Exact Trigonometric Values for Angles
Determine the exact value for each expression.
a) sin _
π
12
b) tan 105°
Solution
a) Use the difference identity for sine with two special angles.
For example, because _ π =_ 3π - _2π , use _π -_ π.
12 12 12 4 6
π π
π = sin _ π -_ π The special angles _ and _ could also
sin _
12 (4 6 ) be used.
3 4
π cos _ π - cos _ π
π sin _ Use sin (A - B)
= sin _ = sin A cos B - cos A sin B.
__
4 __ 6 __
4 6
√
( )( ) ( )( )
2
= _ _ - _ _
2
__
√
2
3
__
√ 2 1
2 2
√6 √2
=_-_
4__ 4__
√ 6 - √ 2 How could you verify this answer with
= __ a calculator?
4
b) Method 1: Use the Difference Identity for Tangent
Rewrite tan 105° as a difference of special angles.
tan 105° = tan (135° - 30°) Are there other ways of writing 105° as the
sum or difference of two special angles?
Use the tangent difference identity, tan (A - B) = ___ tan A - tan B .

1 + tan A tan B
tan 135° - tan 30°
tan (135° - 30°) = ____
1 + tan 135° tan 30°
-1 - _ 1__
√ 3
= ___
1__
1 + (-1) _ ( )
√3
-1 - _ 1__
__ √3
= Simplify.
1-_ 1__
√3
1__
(
-1 - _
)(
__
= __
_
1 - __
√3
1 - √
3
-√__
_
3 )Multiply
__ numerator and denominator
by -√3 .
√3
__
√ 3 + 1 How could you rationalize the
= __ __
denominator?
1- 3 √

Method 2: Use a Quotient Identity with Sine and Cosine
sin 105°
tan 105° = __
cos 105°
sin (60° + 45°) Use sum identities with
= ___ special angles. Could
cos (60° + 45°)
you use a difference of
sin 60° cos 45° + cos 60° sin 45°
= ______ angles identity here?
cos 60° cos 45° - sin 60° sin 45°
__ __ __
=
( )( ) ( )
2 2
√3
_
_____
__
(2) 2
__ __
√2
_ 1
+ _
√2
_
( 12 )( 22 ) - ( 23 )( 22 )
_ √
_ √
_ √
_
__ __
√6
_ √2
+_
4__
= __ 4__
√2
_ √6
_
-
4 4
__ __
= ( √6 + √2
__
4 )( __ 4 __
__
√2 - √6 )
__ __
√6 + √2
__ How could you verify that
= __ __
this is the same answer as in
√2 - √6
Method 1?
Your Turn
Use a sum or difference identity to find the exact values of
a) cos 165° b) tan _
11π
12
Key Ideas
You can use the sum and difference identities to simplify expressions and to
determine exact trigonometric values for some angles.
Sum Identities Difference Identities
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A + tan B tan A - tan B
tan (A + B) = ___ tan (A - B) = ___
1 - tan A tan B 1 + tan A tan B
The double-angle identities are special cases of the sum identities when the
two angles are equal. The double-angle identity for cosine can be expressed
in three forms using the Pythagorean identity, cos2 A + sin2 A = 1.
Double-Angle Identities
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A cos 2A = cos2 A - sin2 A 2 tan A
tan 2A = __
1 - tan2 A
cos 2A = 2 cos2 A - 1
cos 2A = 1 - 2 sin2 A

Practise 7. Simplify cos (90° - x) using a difference

1. Write each expression as a single identity.
trigonometric function. 8. Determine the exact value of each
a) cos 43° cos 27° - sin 43° sin 27° trigonometric expression.
b) sin 15° cos 20° + cos 15° sin 20° a) cos 75° b) tan 165°
c) cos2 19° - sin2 19° 7π
c) sin _ d) cos 195°
12
3π 5π 3π
d) sin _ cos _ - cos _ sin _
5π
π π
2 4 2 4 e) csc _
12 (
f) sin - _
12 )
e) 8 sin
π
_ cos _π
3 3
2. Simplify and then give an exact value
Apply
for each expression.
a) cos 40° cos 20° - sin 40° sin 20°
b) sin 20° cos 25° + cos 20° sin 25°
π π
c) cos2 _ - sin2 _
6 6
π π π π
d) cos _ cos _ - sin _ sin _
2 3 2 3
3. Using only one substitution, which form
of the double-angle identity for cosine
will simplify the expression 1 - cos 2x
to one term? Show how this happens.
4. Write each expression as a single
trigonometric function.
π π Yukon River at Whitehorse
a) 2 sin _ cos _
4 4
9. On the winter solstice, December 21 or 22,
b) (6 cos2 24° - 6 sin2 24°) tan 48°
the power, P, in watts, received from the
2 tan 76°
c) ___ sun on each square metre of Earth can be
1 - tan2 76°
determined using the equation
π
d) 2 cos2 _ - 1
6 P = 1000 (sin x cos 113.5° + cos x sin 113.5°),
π where x is the latitude of the location in
e) 1 - 2 cos2 _
12 the northern hemisphere.
5. Simplify each expression to a single a) Use an identity to write the equation in
primary trigonometric function. a more useful form.
sin 2θ
a) __ b) Determine the amount of power
2 cos θ
received at each location.
b) cos 2x cos x + sin 2x sin x
cos 2θ + 1 i) Whitehorse, Yukon, at 60.7° N
c) __
2 cos θ ii) Victoria, British Columbia, at 48.4° N
d) ___
cos3 x
iii) Igloolik, Nunavut, at 69.4° N
cos 2x + sin2 x
6. Show using a counterexample that c) Explain the answer for part iii) above.
the following is not an identity: At what latitude is the power received
sin (x - y) = sin x - sin y. from the sun zero?

10. Simplify cos (π + x) + cos (π - x). 14. If (sin x + cos x)2 = k, then what is the
11. Angle θ is in quadrant II and value of sin 2x in terms of k?
sin θ = _5 . Determine an exact 15. Show that each expression can be
13 simplified to cos 2x.
value for each of the following.
a) cos4 x - sin4 x
a) cos 2θ 2
csc x - 2
b) __
b) sin 2θ 2
csc x
π
(
c) sin θ + _
2) 16. Simplify each expression to the equivalent
expression shown.
12. The double-angle identity for tangent
1 - cos 2x
a) __ sin2 x
in terms of the tangent function is 2
tan 2x = __ 2 tan x . 4 - 8 sin2 x
b) ___ __ 4
1 - tan2 x tan 2x
2 sin x cos x
a) Verify numerically that this equation is 17. If the point (2, 5) lies on the terminal arm
true for x = _π.
of angle x in standard position, what is the
6
b) The expression tan 2x can also be value of cos (π + x)?
written using the quotient identity for 18. What value of k makes the equation
tangent: tan 2x = __sin 2x . Verify this sin 5x cos x + cos 5x sin x = 2 sin kx cos kx
cos 2x true?
equation numerically when x = _ π.
6 3
19. a) If cos θ = _ and 0 < θ < 2π, determine
sin 2x 5
c) The expression __ from part b) π .
cos 2x
2 sin x cos x
(
the value(s) of sin θ + _
6 )
can be expressed as ___ 2 3π
cos2 x - sin2 x _
b) If sin θ = - and _ < θ < 2π,
using double-angle identities. Show 3 2
π .
how the expression for tan 2x used (
determine the value(s) of cos θ + _
3 )
in part a) can also be rewritten in the
2 sin x cos x . 20. If ∠A and ∠B are both in quadrant I, and
form ___ 4 and cos B = _
12 , evaluate each
cos2 x - sin2 x sin A = _
5 13
13. The horizontal distance, d, in metres, of the following,
travelled by a ball that is kicked at an a) cos (A - B)
angle, θ, with the ground is modelled by
b) sin (A + B)
2(v0)2 sin θ cos θ
the formula d = ___ g , where v0 c) cos 2A
is the initial velocity of the ball, in metres d) sin 2A
per second, and g is the force of gravity
(9.8 m/s2). Extend
a) Rewrite the formula using a 21. Determine the missing primary
double-angle identity. trigonometric ratio that is required for the
b) Determine the angle θ ∈ (0°, 90°) that
sin 2x to simplify to
expression ___
2 - 2 cos2 x
would result in a maximum distance
a) cos x
for an initial velocity v0.
b) 1
c) Explain why it might be easier to
answer part b) with the double-angle 22. Use a double-angle identity for cosine
version of the formula that you to determine the half-angle formula for
__________
x = ± __1 + cos x
determined in part a). cosine, cos _
2 √ 2
.

23. a) Graph the curve y = 4 sin x - 3 cos x. C2 a) Graph the function f(x) = 6 sin x cos x
Notice that it resembles a sine function. over the interval 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
b) What are the approximate values b) The function can be written as a sine
of a and c for the curve in the form function in the form f(x) = a sin bx.
y = a sin (x - c), where 0 < c < 90°? Compare how to determine this sine
c) Use the difference identity for function from the graph versus using
sine to rewrite the curve for the double-angle identity for sine.
y = 4 sin x - 3 cos x in the form C3 a) Over the domain 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°, sketch
y = a sin (x - c). the graphs of y1 = sin2 x and y2 = cos2 x.
24. Write the following equation in the form
How do these graphs compare?
y = A sin Bx + D, where A, B, and D are b) Predict what the graph of y1 + y2 looks
constants: like. Explain your prediction. Graph to
y = 6 sin x cos3 x + 6 sin3 x cos x - 3 test your prediction.
c) Graph the difference of the two
Create Connections functions: y1 - y2. Describe how the two
C1 a) Determine the value of sin 2x if functions interact with each other in the
3π using
5 and π < x < _ new function.
cos x = - _
13 2 d) The new function from part c) is
i) transformations
sinusoidal. Determine the function in
ii) a double-angle identity the form f(x) = a cos bx. Explain how
b) Which method do you prefer? Explain. you determined the expression.
Project Corner Mach Numbers
• In aeronautics, the Mach number, M, of an aircraft is the ratio of its speed as

it moves through air to the speed of sound in air. An aircraft breaks the sound
barrier when its speed is greater than the speed of sound in dry air at 20 °C.
• When an aircraft exceeds Mach 1, M > 1, a shock
wave forms a cone that spreads backward and outward from θ
the aircraft. The angle at the vertex of a cross-section of the
cone is related to the Mach number by _ 1 = sin _θ.
M 2
• How could you use the half-angle identity,
__________
θ 1 - cos θ ,
_
sin = ±
2 √__
2
to express the Mach number, M, as a function of θ?
• If plane A is travelling twice as fast as plane B,
how are the angles of the cones formed by the
planes related?

6.3
Proving Identities
Focus on…
• proving trigonometric identities algebraically
• understanding the difference between verifying and proving an identity
• showing that verifying that the two sides of a potential identity are equal for a given
value is insufficient to prove the identity
Many formulas in science contain trigonometric functions. In physics,

torque (τ), work (W ), and magnetic forces (FB) can be calculated using
the following formulas:
τ = rF sin θ W = Fδr cos θ FB = qvB sin θ
In dynamics, which is the branch of mechanics that deals with motion,
trigonometric functions may be required to calculate horizontal and
vertical components. Skills with identities reduce the time it takes to θ
work with formulas involving trigonometric functions.
Investigate the Equivalence of Two Trigonometric Expressions
Two physics students are investigating the horizontal distance, d, Materials

travelled by a model rocket. The rocket is launched with an angle of • graphing calculator
elevation θ. Katie has found a formula to model this situation:
(v0)2 sin 2θ
d = __ g , where g represents the force of gravity and v0 represents
the initial velocity. Sergey has found a different formula:
2(v0)2
d=_ g (tan θ - tan θ sin θ).
2
(v0)2 sin 2θ 2(v0)2

1. Are the two expressions, __ g and _ 2
g (tan θ - tan θ sin θ),
equivalent? Use graphical and numerical methods to explain your
answer. The initial velocity, v0, of the rocket is 14 m/s and g is
9.8 m/s2, so first substitute these values and simplify each expression.
2. Which parts are common to both formulas?
3. Write an identity with the parts of the formulas that are not common.
Use your knowledge of identities to rewrite each side and show that
they are equivalent.
4. Compare your reasoning with that of a classmate.
Reflect and Respond

5. How does this algebraic method for verifying an identity compare to
verifying an identity graphically or numerically? Why do numerical
and graphical verification fail to prove that an identity is true?
6.3 Proving Identities • MHR 309

Link the Ideas
To prove that an identity is true for all permissible values, it is necessary

to express both sides of the identity in equivalent forms. One or both
sides of the identity must be algebraically manipulated into an equivalent
form to match the other side.
You cannot perform operations across the equal sign when proving a
potential identity. Simplify the expressions on each side of the identity
independently.
Example 1
Verify Versus Prove That an Equation Is an Identity
a) Verify that 1 - sin2 x = sin x cos x cot x for some values of x.
Determine the non-permissible values for x. Work in degrees.
b) Prove that 1 - sin2 x = sin x cos x cot x for all permissible values of x.
Solution
a) First, determine the non-permissible values.
The only function in the equation that has non-permissible values in
its domain is cot x.
Recall that cot x is undefined when sin x = 0.
Therefore, x ≠ 180°n, where n ∈ I.
Verify the identity graphically and numerically.
Method 1: Verify Graphically
Use technology to graph y = 1 - sin2 x and y = sin x cos x cot x
over the domain -360° ≤ x ≤ 360°. The graphs appear to be the
same. So, graphically, it seems that 1 - sin2 x = sin x cos x cot x
is an identity.
Why are the

non-permissible
values not apparent
from these graphs?

Method 2: Verify Numerically
Use x = 30°. Why is 30° a good choice?
Left Side = 1 - sin2 x Right Side = sin x cos x cot x

2
= 1 - sin 30° = sin 30°__ cos __
30° cot 30°
2
=1- 1
( )
_
2
= ( )( )( )
1
_
2 2
√3 _
_ √3
1
=1- 1
_ 3
4 =_
4
=_3
4
The equation 1 - sin2 x = sin x cos x cot x is verified for x = 30°.
b) To prove the identity algebraically, examine both sides of the equation

and simplify each side to a common expression.
Left Side = 1 - sin2 x Right Side = sin x cos x cot x
= cos2 x Why is cos x
this true?
(
= sin x cos x _
sin x )
= cos2 x
Therefore, 1 - sin2 x = sin x cos x cot x is an identity for x ≠ 180°n,
where n ∈ I.
Your Turn
a) Determine the non-permissible values for the equation
tan
___ x cos x = 1 - cos2 x.
csc x
b) Verify that the equation may be an identity, either graphically using
technology or by choosing one value for x.
c) Prove that the identity is true for all permissible values of x.
Example 2
Prove an Identity Using Double-Angle Identities
Prove that tan x = 1
__- cos 2x is an identity for all permissible values of x.
sin 2x
Solution
Left Side = tan x Right Side = 1__ - cos 2x
sin 2x
- (1 - 2 sin2 x) Recall the
1____
= double-angle
2 sin x cos x identities.
= ___ 2 sin2 x
2 sin x cos x
_sin x
= cos Remove common
x factors.
= tan x
Therefore, tan x = - cos 2x is an identity for all permissible values of x.
1
__
sin 2x
Your Turn
Prove that __sin 2x = tan x is an identity for all permissible values of x.
cos 2x + 1

In the previous example, you did not need to simplify the left side of
the identity. However, tan x could have been expressed as _ sin x
cos x using
the quotient identity for tangent. In this case, the right side of the proof
would have ended one step earlier, at _ sin x
cos x . Sometimes it is advisable to
convert all trigonometric functions to expressions of sine or cosine.
Example 3
Prove More Complicated Identities
Prove that 1 - cos x = __
__ sin x is an identity for all permissible
sin x 1 + cos x
values of x.
Solution
Left Side = 1__- cos x
sin x
Right Side = __ sin x
1 + cos x
sin x How does multiplying by 1 - cos x,
= __ × 1__- cos x
1 + cos x 1 - cos x which is the conjugate of 1 + cos x,
sin x (1 - cos x) let you express the denominator in
= ____ terms of sin x?
1 - cos2 x
sin x (1 - cos x)
= ____
sin2 x
= 1__- cos x
sin x
Therefore, 1 - cos x = __
__ sin x is an identity for all permissible
sin x 1 + cos x
values of x.
Your Turn
Prove that __ 1 = sec x - sin x sec x is an identity for all
____
cos x
1 + sin x
permissible values of x.

Example 4
Prove an Identity That Requires Factoring
Prove the identity cot x - csc x = cos

___ 2x - cos x for all permissible
sin 2x + sin x
values of x.
Solution
Left Side = cot x - csc x Right Side = cos
___ 2x - cos x
cos x - _ 1 sin 2x + sin x
=_ (2 cos2 x - 1) - cos x Why is 2 cos2 x - 1
sin x sin x = ____ substituted for
2 sin x cos x + sin x
= cos
__ x-1 cos 2x?
sin x cos2 x - cos x - 1
= 2____
sin x (2 cos x + 1)
(2 cos x + 1)(cos x - 1)
= _____
sin x (2 cos x + 1)
cos
= __ x-1
sin x
Therefore, cot x - csc x = cos
___ 2x - cos x is an identity for all
sin 2x + sin x
Your Turn
2
2x - cos x = sin x cos x + cos3 x
Prove the identity sin
___
2
____ for all
4 sin x - 1 2 sin x + 1
Key Ideas
Verifying an identity using a specific value validates that it is true for that value
only. Proving an identity is done algebraically and validates the identity for all
permissible values of the variable.
To prove a trigonometric identity algebraically, separately simplify both sides of
the identity into identical expressions.
It is usually easier to make a complicated expression simpler than it is to make a
simple expression more complicated.
Some strategies that may help you prove identities include:
Use known identities to make substitutions.
If quadratics are present, the Pythagorean identity or one of its alternate forms
can often be used.
Rewrite the expression using sine and cosine only.
Multiply the numerator and the denominator by the conjugate of an expression.
Factor to simplify expressions.

Practise Apply
1. Factor and simplify each rational 8. As the first step of proving the
trigonometric expression. identity cos
__ 2x - 1 = -tan x, Hanna chose
sin 2x
sin x - sin x cos2 x
a) ____ to substitute cos 2x = 1 - 2 sin2 x, while
sin2 x
2 Chloe chose cos 2x = 2 cos2 x - 1. Which
cos x - cos x - 2
b) ____
6 cos x - 12 choice leads to a shorter proof? Explain.
sin
____ x cos x - sin x Prove the identity.
c)
cos2 x - 1 9. The distance, d, in metres, that a golf ball
2
tan x - 3 tan x - 4
d) ____ travels when struck by a golf club is given
sin x tan x + sin x
(v0)2 sin 2θ
2. Use factoring to help to prove each identity by the formula d = __ g , where v0
for all permissible values of x. is the initial velocity of the ball, θ is the
a) cos x + cos x tan2 x = sec x angle between the ground and the initial
2
sin x - cos x 2 path of the ball, and g is the acceleration
b) ___ = sin x - cos x
sin x + cos x due to gravity (9.8 m/s2).
c)
sin
____x cos x - sin x = 1 - cos x
__
cos2 x - 1 sin x
____ 1 - sin2
x 1 + sin x
d) = ___
1 + 2 sin x - 3 sin2 x 1 + 3 sin x
3. Use a common denominator to express the
rational expressions as a single term.
a) _
sin x
cos x + sec x
1
b) __ + __
1
sin x - 1 sin x + 1
sin x
c) __ + _
cos x
1 + cos x sin x a) What distance, in metres, does the ball
cos x cos x travel if its initial velocity is 21 m/s and
d) __ + __
sec x - 1 sec x + 1 the angle θ is 55°?
sec x - cos x
4. a) Rewrite the expression ___ in b) Prove the identity
tan x (v )2 sin 2θ 2(v )2(1 - cos2 θ)
terms of sine and cosine functions only. __
0
= ____
0
.
g g tan θ
b) Simplify the expression to one of the 10. Verify each potential identity by graphing,
primary trigonometric functions. and then prove the identity.
sin 2x
5. Verify graphically that cos x = __ csc x
2 sin x a) __ = csc 2x
2 cos x
could be an identity. Then, prove the sin x cos x 1 - cos x
identity. Determine any non-permissible b) __ = __
1 + cos x tan x
values. sin x + tan x
c) ___ = sin 2x
__
6. Expand and simplify the expression 1 + cos x 2 cos2 x
(sec x - tan x)(sin x + 1) to a primary 11. Prove each identity.
trigonometric function. sin 2x cos 2x
a) __ + __ = csc x
cos x sin x
7. Prove each identity.
csc x b) csc2 x + sec2 x = csc2 x sec2 x
a) __ = csc 2x cot x - 1 csc x
2 cos x c) __ = _
b) sin x + cos x cot x = csc x 1 - tan x sec x

12. Prove each identity. b) Under certain conditions, a
a) sin (90° + θ) = sin (90° - θ) Fresnel equation to find the
fraction, R, of light reflected is
b) sin (2π - θ) = -sin θ
n1 cos θi - n2 cos θt 2
13. Prove that
2 cos x cos y = cos (x + y) + cos (x - y).
R = ____(
n1 cos θi + n2 cos θt
. )
14. Consider the equation Use identities to prove that this
cos 2x = 2 sin x cos x. can be written as __________ 2
a) Graph each side of the equation.
Could the equation be an identity?
(
n1 cos θi - n2 √1 - sin2 θt
R = _____ __________ .
n1 cos θi + n2 √1 - sin2 θt )
b) Either prove that the equation is an c) Use your work from part a) to prove that
__________
identity or find a counterexample to 2
show that it is not an identity.

sin 2x
15. Consider the equation __ = cot x.
( n1 cos θi - n2 √1 - sin2 θt
_____ __________
n1 cos θi + n2 √1 - sin2 θt
_______________
)
1 - cos 2x n 2
2
(
n1 cos θi - n2 1 - _ √ ( )
)
1 2
a) Determine the non-permissible values n2 sin θi
= ______ _______________
for x.
n 2
b) Prove that the equation is an identity
for all permissible values of x.
1 i 2 √ (n )
n cos θ + n 1 - _1 sin2 θ
2
i
D i d You K n ow ?
Extend Fresnel equations were developed by French
16. Use double-angle identities to prove the physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1788—1827). A
identity tan x = ___sin 4x - sin 2x . Fresnel lens is also named for him, and is a common
cos 4x + cos 2x lens in lights used for movies, TV, and live theatre.
A new use for Fresnel lenses is to focus light
17. Verify graphically and then prove the
in a solar array to allow for much more efficient
identity __ sin 2x = 2 csc 2x - tan x. collection of solar energy.
1 - cos 2x
18. Prove the identity
- sin2 x - 2 cos x = __
1____ 1 . Create Connections
cos2 x - cos x - 2 1 + sec x
19. When a ray of light hits a lens at angle of C1 Why is verifying, either numerically or
incidence θi , some of the light is refracted graphically, that both sides of an equation
(bent) as it passes through the lens, and some seem to be equal not sufficient to prove
is reflected by the lens. In the diagram, θr is that the equation is an identity?
the angle of reflection and θt is the angle of C2 Use the difference identity for cosine to
refraction. Fresnel equations describe the π - x = sin x.
behaviour of light in this situation.
prove the identity cos _
2 ( )
C3 Consider the equation
__________
light source lens
cos x = √1 - sin2 x .
a) What are the non-permissible values for
θi x in this equation?
θr θt b) What is a value for x that makes this
equation true?
c) What is a value for x that does not work
in this equation and provides evidence
a) Snells’s law states that n1 sin θi = n2 sin θt,
that this equation is not an identity?
where n1 and n2 are the refractive
d) Explain the difference between an
indices of the mediums. Isolate sin θt in
this equation. identity and an equation.

6.4
Solving Trigonometric
Equations Using Identities
Focus on…
• solving trigonometric equations algebraically using known identities
• determining exact solutions for trigonometric equations where possible
• determining the general solution for trigonometric equations
• identifying and correcting errors in a solution for a trigonometric equation
Sound from a musical instrument is composed of sine waves.

Technicians often fade the sound near the end of a song. To create
this effect, the sound equipment is programmed to use mathematical
damping techniques. The technicians have three choices: a linear fade,
a logarithmic fade, or an inverse logarithmic fade. You will explore
logarithmic functions in Chapter 8.
Knowledge of trigonometric identities can help to simplify the expressions
involved in the trigonometric equations of sound waves in music.
Did Yo u Know ?
The musical instrument with the purest sound wave is

the flute. The most complex musical sound wave can
be created with a cymbal.
Investigate Solving Trigonometric Equations
Materials 1. Graph the function y = sin 2x - sin x over the domain

• graphing technology -720° < x ≤ 720°. Make a sketch of the graph and describe
it in words.
2. From the graph, determine an expression for the zeros of the function
y = sin 2x - sin x over the domain of all real numbers.
3. Algebraically solve the equation sin 2x - sin x = 0 over the domain
of all real numbers. Compare your answer and method with those of a
classmate.
Reflect and Respond

4. Which method, graphic or algebraic, do you prefer to solve the
equation sin 2x - sin x = 0? Explain.

Link the Ideas
To solve some trigonometric equations, you need to make substitutions

using the trigonometric identities that you have studied in this chapter.
This often involves ensuring that the equation is expressed in terms of
one trigonometric function.
Example 1
Solve by Substituting Trigonometric Identities and Factoring
Solve each equation algebraically over the domain 0 ≤ x < 2π.
a) cos 2x + 1 - cos x = 0
b) 1 - cos2 x = 3 sin x - 2
Solution
a) cos 2x + 1 - cos x = 0 Why is this version of the identity for
(2 cos2 x - 1) + 1 - cos x = 0 cos 2x chosen?
2
2 cos x - cos x = 0 Simplify.
cos x (2 cos x - 1) = 0 Factor.
cos x = 0 or 2 cos x - 1 = 0 Use the zero
π
_ 3π
_ 1
_ product property.
x= or x = or cos x =
2 2 2
x=_ π or x = _ 5π
3 3
There are no non-permissible values for the original equation, so the
solutions over the domain 0 ≤ x < 2π are x = _ π, x = _ π, x = _ 3π , and
3 2 2
x=_ 5π .
3
b) 1 - cos2 x = 3 sin x - 2
sin2 x = 3 sin x - 2 Use the Pythagorean identity.
2
sin x - 3 sin x + 2 = 0
(sin x - 1)(sin x - 2) = 0 Use the zero product property.
sin x - 1 = 0 or sin x - 2 = 0
sin x = 1 sin x = 2
x=_ π sin x = 2 has no solution.
2
Why is there no solution for sin x = 2?
There are no non-permissible values for the original equation, so the

solution over the domain 0 ≤ x < 2π is x = _π.
2
Your Turn
Solve each equation algebraically over the domain 0 ≤ x < 2π.
a) sin 2x - cos x = 0
b) 2 cos x + 1 - sin2 x = 3
6.4 Solving Trigonometric Equations Using Identities • MHR 317

Example 2
Solve an Equation With a Quotient Identity Substitution
a) Solve the equation cos2 x = cot x sin x algebraically in the domain
0° ≤ x < 360°.
b) Verify your answer graphically.
Solution
a) cos2 x = cot x sin x What is the quotient identity for cot x?
cos x sin x
(
cos2 x = _
sin x)
cos2 x = cos x Why is it incorrect to divide by cos x here?
cos2 x - cos x = 0
cos x (cos x - 1) = 0 Factor.
cos x = 0 or cos x = 1 Apply the zero product property.
For cos x = 0, x = 90° and x = 270°.

For cos x = 1, x = 0°.
Check whether there are any non-permissible values for the
initial equation.
For cot x, the domain has the restriction sin x ≠ 0, which gives the
non-permissible values x ≠ 0° and x ≠ 180°.
Therefore, the solution for cos2 x = cot x sin x is limited to x = 90°
and x = 270°.
b) Graph y = cos2 x and y = cot x sin x over the domain 0° ≤ x < 360°.
Determine the points of intersection of the two functions.
It appears from the graph that a solution is x = 0. What solutions are

Note that y = cot x sin x is not defined at x = 0 confirmed by the graph?
because it is a non-permissible value for cot x.
Your Turn
1
a) Solve the equation sin2 x = _ tan x cos x algebraically
2
over the domain 0° ≤ x < 360°.
b) Verify your answer graphically.

Example 3
Determine the General Solution for a Trigonometric Equation
__
Solve the equation sin 2x = √2 cos x algebraically. Give the general
solution expressed in radians.
Solution __
sin 2x 2 cos x
= √__
2 sin __
x cos x = √2 cos x Use the double-angle identity for sin 2x.
2 sin x cos x - √2 cos__x =0
cos x (2 sin x - √2 ) =0 Why is it incorrect to divide by cos x here?
__
Then, cos x = 0 or 2 sin x - √2 =0
__
√2
sin x = _
2
For cos x = 0, x = _ π + πn, where n ∈ I.
2
__
√ 2 π + 2πn and x = _3π + 2πn, where n ∈ I.
For sin x = _ , x = _
2 4 4
Since there are no non-permissible values for the original equation, the
solution is x = _ π + πn, x = _
π + 2πn, and x = _3π + 2πn, where n ∈ I.
2 4 4
Your Turn
Algebraically solve cos 2x = cos x. Give general solutions expressed
in radians.
Example 4
Determine the General Solution Using Reciprocal Identities
Algebraically solve 2 sin x = 7 - 3 csc x. Give general solutions
expressed in radians.
Solution
2 sin x = 7 - 3 csc x
2 sin x = 7 - _ 3 Use the reciprocal identity for cosecant.
sin x
3
sin x (2 sin x) = sin x 7 - _(
sin x ) Why multiply both sides by sin x?
2 sin2 x = 7 sin x - 3
2
2 sin x - 7 sin x + 3 = 0
(2 sin x - 1)(sin x - 3) = 0 Factor.
For 2 sin x - 1 = 0, Use the zero product property.
sin x = 1
_
2
x=_ π + 2πn and x = _5π + 2πn
6 6
For sin x - 3 = 0,
sin x = 3 Why is there no solution for sin x = 3?
There is no solution for sin x = 3.

The restriction on the original equation is sin x ≠ 0 because of the
presence of csc x.
Since sin x = 0 does not occur in the solution, all determined solutions
are permissible.
5π + 2πn, where n ∈ I.
π + 2πn and x = _
6 6
Your Turn
Algebraically solve 3 cos x + 2 = 5 sec x. Give general solutions
expressed in radians.
Key Ideas
Reciprocal, quotient, Pythagorean, and double-angle identities can be used to

help solve a trigonometric equation algebraically.
The algebraic solution for a trigonometric equation can be verified
graphically.
Check that solutions for an equation do not include non-permissible values
from the original equation.
Unless the domain is restricted, give general solutions. For example, for
π + 2πn and x = _
2 cos x = 1, the general solution is x = _ 5π + 2πn, where
3 3
n ∈ I. If the domain is specified as 0° ≤ x < 360°, then the solutions are
60° and 300°.
Practise 3. Rewrite each equation in terms of sine

1. Solve each equation algebraically over the only. Then, solve algebraically for
domain 0 ≤ x < 2π. 0 ≤ x < 2π.
a) tan2 x - tan x = 0 a) cos 2x - 3 sin x = 2
b) sin 2x - sin x = 0 b) 2 cos2 x - 3 sin x - 3 = 0
c) sin2 x - 4 sin x = 5 c) 3 csc x - sin x = 2
d) cos 2x = sin x d) tan2 x + 2 = 0
2. Solve each equation algebraically over the 4. Solve 4 sin2 x = 1 algebraically over the
domain 0° ≤ x < 360°. Verify your solution domain -180° ≤ x < 180°.
graphically. 5. Solve 2 tan2 x + 3 tan x - 2 = 0
a) cos x - cos 2x = 0 algebraically over the domain 0 ≤ x < 2π.
b) sin2 x - 3 sin x = 4
c) tan x cos x sin x - 1 = 0
__
d) tan2 x + √3 tan x = 0

Apply 16. Solve sec x + tan2 x - 3 cos x = 2
6. Determine the mistake that Sanesh made algebraically. Give the general solution
in the following work. Then, complete a expressed in radians.
correct solution.
__
Solve 2 cos2 x = √3 cos x. Express your Extend
answer(s) in degrees. 17. Solve 4 sin2 x = 3 tan2 x - 1
algebraically. Give the general
Solution:
_ 1 __
_ 1 solution expressed in radians.
cos x (2 cos x) = (√3 cos x) cos x
2
__ 1 - sin2 x - 2 cos x = - _
18. Solve ____
1
2 cos x = √3__ cos2 x - cos x - 2 3
√3 algebraically over the domain -π ≤ x ≤ π.
cos x = _
2 19. Find the general solution for the equation
x = 30° + 360°n and x = 330° + 360°n 2
4(16cos x) = 26 cos x. Give your answer in
7. a) Solve algebraically sin 2x = 0.5, radians.
0 ≤ x < 2π. 20. For some angles α and β,
b) Solve the equation from part a) using a sin2 α + cos2 β = m2 and
different method. cos2 α + sin2 β = m. Find the
8. Solve sin2 x = cos2 x + 1 algebraically possible value(s) for m.
for all values of x. Give your answer(s)
Create Connections
in radians.
9. Solve cos x sin 2x - 2 sin x = -2 C1 Refer to the equation sin x - cos 2x = 0 to
algebraically over the domain of real answer the following.
numbers. Give your answer(s) in radians. a) Which identity would you use to
10. How many solutions does the equation express the equation in terms of one
2
(7 sin x + 2)(3 cos x + 3)(tan x - 2) = 0 trigonometric function?
have over the interval 0° < x ≤ 360°? b) How can you solve the resulting
Explain your reasoning. equation by factoring?
__
11. Solve √3cos x csc x = -2 cos x for c) What is the solution for the domain
x over the domain 0 ≤ x < 2π. 0° ≤ x < 360°?
2 1
12. If cos x = _ and cos x = - _ are d) Verify your solution by graphing.
3 3
the solutions for a trigonometric C2 Refer to the equation
equation, what are the values of 3 cos2 x + cos x - 1 = 0 to answer
B and C if the equation is of the the following.
form 9 cos2 x + B cos x + C = 0? a) Why is not possible to factor the left
13. Create a trigonometric equation side of the equation?
that includes sin 2x and that can be b) Solve the equation using the quadratic
solved by factoring. Then, solve it. formula.
14. Solve sin 2x = 2 cos x cos 2x c) What is the solution over the domain
algebraically. Give the general 0° ≤ x < 720°?
solution expressed in radians.
C3 Use the double-angle identity for sine to
15. Algebraically determine the number create an equation that is not an identity.
of solutions for the equation Solve the equation and explain why it is
cos 2x cos x - sin 2x sin x = 0 over not an identity.
the domain -360° < x ≤ 360°.

Chapter 6 Review
6.1 Reciprocal, Quotient, and Pythagorean 6.2 Sum, Difference, and Double-Angle
Identities, pages 290—298 Identities, pages 299—308
1. Determine the non-permissible values, in 6. A Fourier series is an infinite series in
radians, for each expression. which the terms are made up of sine and
3 sin x cosine ratios. A finite number of terms
a) __
cos x from a Fourier series is often used to
b)
cos
_ x approximate the behaviour of waves.
tan x
y
c) ___
sin x f(x) = sin x + cos x + sin 2x + cos 2x
1 - 2 cos x 4
d) __
cos x
sin2 x - 1 2
2. Simplify each expression to one of the

-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
three primary trigonometric functions.
-2
sin x
a) _
tan x sawtooth wave
-4
sec x
_
b) csc x
sin x + tan x The first four terms of the Fourier series
c) ___
1 + cos x approximation for a sawtooth wave are
csc x - sin x
d) ___ f (x) = sin x + cos x + sin 2x + cos 2x.
cot x
π
3. Rewrite each trigonometric expression
a) Determine the value of f (0) and of f _ .
6 ( )
in terms of sine or cosine or both. Then, b) Prove that f(x) can be written as
simplify. f (x) = sin x + cos x + 2 sin x cos x
a) tan x cot x - 2 sin2 x + 1.
1 + __
1 c) Is it possible to rewrite this Fourier
b) __2 2
csc x sec x series using only sine or only cosine?
c) sec2 x - tan2 x Justify your answer.
4. a) Verify that the potential identity d) Use the pattern in the first four
cos x = 1
__ __+ sin x
is true for terms to write f (x) with more terms.
1 - sin x cos x Graph y = f (x) using technology,
x = 30° and for x = _π.
4 for x ∈ [-4π, 4π]. How many terms
b) What are the non-permissible values are needed to arrive at a good
for the equation over the domain approximation of a sawtooth wave?
0° ≤ x < 360°? 7. Write each expression as a single
5. a) Determine two__________
values of x that satisfy trigonometric function, and then evaluate.
the equation √tan2 x + 1 = sec x. a) sin 25° cos 65° + cos 25° sin 65°
b) Use technology
__________ to graph b) sin 54° cos 24° - cos 54° sin 24°
y = √tan2 x + 1 and y = sec x over the π π π π
c) cos _ cos _ + sin _ sin _
domain - _ 3π . Compare the
π ≤x<_ 4 12 4 12
2 2 π π π π
two graphs. d) cos _ cos _ - sin _ sin _
6 12 6 12
c) Explain, using your graph in part b),
__________
how you know that √tan2 x + 1 = sec x
is not an identity.

8. Use sum or difference identities to find 15. Prove each identity.
the exact value of each trigonometric cos x + cot x
a) ___ = cos x cot x
expression. sec x + tan x
a) sin 15° cos x
b) sec x + tan x = __
1 - sin x
π
(
b) cos - _
12 ) 16. Consider the equation
cos 2x = 2 sin x sec x.
c) tan 165°
5π a) Describe two methods that can be used
d) sin _ to determine whether this equation
12
5 π could be an identity.
9. If cos A = - _ , where _ ≤ A < π,
13 2 b) Use one of the methods to show that the
evaluate each of the following.
equation is not an identity.
π
(
a) cos A - _
4 )
π
(
b) sin A + _
3 ) 6.4 Solving Trigonometric Equations Using
Identities, pages 316—321
c) sin 2A
17. Solve each equation algebraically over the
10. What is the exact value of
domain 0 ≤ x < 2π.
(sin _π8 + cos _π8 ) ?
2
a) sin 2x + sin x = 0
2 __
cos x - cos 2x
11. Simplify the expression ___ b) cot x + √3 = 0
0.5 sin 2x
to one of the primary trigonometric ratios. c) 2 sin2 x - 3 sin x - 2 = 0
d) sin2 x = cos x - cos 2x
6.3 Proving Identities, pages 309—315 18. Solve each equation algebraically over the
domain 0° ≤ x < 360°. Verify your solution
12. Factor and simplify each expression.
2 graphically.
1 - sin x
a) ____
cos x sin x - cos x a) 2 sin 2x = 1
b) tan2 x - cos2 x tan2 x b) sin2 x = 1 + cos2 x
13. Prove that each identity holds for all c) 2 cos2 x = sin x + 1
permissible values of x. d) cos x tan x - sin2 x = 0
2 2
a) 1 + cot x = csc x
19. Algebraically determine the general
b) tan x = csc 2x - cot 2x solution to the equation 4 cos2 x - 1 = 0.
cos x
c) sec x + tan x = __ Give your answer in radians.
1 - sin x
20. If 0° ≤ x < 360°, what is the value of cos x
1 1
d) __ + __ = 2 csc2 x
1 + cos x 1 - cos x in the equation 2 cos2 x + sin2 x = _41 ?
25
2 tan x .
14. Consider the equation sin 2x = __ 2 21. Use an algebraic approach to find the
1 + tan x
a) Verify that the equation is true when solution of 2 sin x cos x = 3 sin x over the
π . Does this mean that the equation domain -2π ≤ x ≤ 2π.
x=_
4
is an identity? Why or why not?
b) What are the non-permissible values for
the equation?
c) Prove that the equation is an identity
for all permissible values of x.

Multiple Choice 9. In physics, two students are doing a report
on the intensity of light passing through a
filter. After some research, they each find a
1. Which expression is equivalent different formula for the situation. In each
to cos
__ 2x - 1 ? formula, I is the intensity of light passing
sin 2x through the filter, I0 is the initial light
A -tan x B -cot x shining on the filter, θ is the angle between
C tan x D cot x the axes of polarization.
2. Which expression is equivalent to Theo’s formula: I = I0 cos2 θ
cot θ + tan θ? I0
Sany’s formula: I = I0 - __
cos θ + sin θ csc2 θ
1
A __ B ___
sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ Prove that the two formulas are equivalent.
C 1 D 2 10. Determine the general solution, in radians,
3. Which expression is equivalent to for each equation.
2 1 ?
tan θ csc θ + _ a) sec A + 2 = 0
sin θ
A sec3 θ B csc3 θ b) 2 sin B = 3 tan2 B
C csc2 θ sec θ D sec2 θ csc θ c) sin 2θ sin θ + cos2 θ = 1

4. Which single trigonometric function is 11. Solve the equation sin 2x + 2 cos x = 0
π cos _
equivalent to cos _ π - sin _
π sin _
π? algebraically. Give the general solution in
5 6 5 6 radians.
π
A cos _ B sin _
π
30 30 4
12. If sin θ = - _ and θ is in quadrant III,
5
11π
C sin _ D cos _
11π determine the exact value(s) of
30 30 π .
5. Simplified, 4 cos2 x - 2 is equivalent to (
cos θ - _
6)
A 2 cos 2x B 4 cos 2x 13. Solve 2 tan x cos2 x = 1 algebraically over
C 2 cos 4x D 4 cos x the domain 0 ≤ x < 2π.
π
6. If sin θ = c and 0 ≤ θ < _ , which
2 Extended Response
expression is equivalent to cos (π + θ)?
14. Solve sin2 x + cos 2 x - cos x = 0 over the
A 1-c B c-1 domain 0° ≤ x < 360°. Verify your solution
______ ______
C √1 - c2 D -√1 - c2 graphically.
Short Answer cot x csc x + 1
a) __ = __
7. Determine the exact value of each csc x - 1 cot x
trigonometric ratio. b) sin (x + y) sin (x - y) = sin2 x - sin2 y
5π 16. Algebraically find the general solution
a) cos 105° b) sin _
12 for 2 cos2 x + 3 sin x - 3 = 0. Give your
8. Prove the identity cot θ - tan θ = 2 cot 2θ. answer in radians.
Determine the non-permissible value(s),
if any.

Chapter 4 Trigonometry and the Unit Circle 8. Determine the exact value of each
trigonometric ratio.
1. Draw each angle in standard position. 4π
Write an expression for all angles that are a) sin _ b) cos 300°
3
coterminal with each given angle. c) tan (-570°) d) csc 135°
7π 3π 23π
a) _
3
b) -100° (
e) sec - _
2) f) cot _
6
2. Convert each radian measure to degrees. 9. The terminal arm of an angle θ in standard
Express your answers to the nearest degree. position passes through the point P(-9, 12).
-5π a) Draw the angle in standard position.
a) 4 b) _
3
b) Determine the exact values of the six
3. Convert each degree measure to radians.
trigonometric ratios.
Express your answers as exact values.
c) Determine the approximate measure of
a) 210° b) -500°
all possible values of θ, to the nearest
4. A Ferris wheel that is 175 ft in diameter has hundredth of a degree.
42 gondolas.
10. Determine the exact roots for each equation.
a) Determine the arc length, to the nearest
1
a) sin θ = - _ , -2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π
tenth of a foot, between each gondola. 2__
b) When the first gondola rotates through 2√3
b) sec θ = _ , -180° ≤ θ ≤ 180°
70°, determine the distance it travels, to 3
c) tan θ = -1, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
the nearest tenth of a foot.
11. Determine the general solution, in radians,
5. Determine the equation of a circle centred
at the origin for each equation.
__
√2
a) with a radius of 5 a) cos θ = - _ b) csc θ = 1
__ 2
b) if the point P(3, √7 ) is on the circle c) cot θ = 0
6. P(θ) is the point where the terminal arm of 12. Solve each equation over the domain
an angle θ intersects
__
the unit circle. If 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π. Express your answers as
( 1 √ 3
)
P(θ) = - _ , - _ , complete the following.
2 2
exact values.
a) sin θ = sin θ tan θ
a) In which quadrant does θ terminate?
b) Determine all measures for θ in the b) 2 cos2 θ + 5 cos θ + 2 = 0
interval -2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π. 13. Solve for θ, where 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360°. Give your
π answers as approximate measures, to the
(
c) What are the coordinates of P θ + _ ?
2 ) nearest degree.
Explain how you know.
d) What are the coordinates of P(θ - π)? a) 4 tan2 θ - 1 = 0
Explain how you know. b) 3 sin2 θ - 2 sin θ = 1
7. P(θ) is the point where the terminal arm of
an angle θ intersects the unit circle. Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions and
Graphs
a) Determine the coordinates of P(-45°)
and P(45°). How are the answers related? 14. Write the equation of the sine function with
b) Determine the coordinates of P(675°) and
amplitude 3, period 4π, and phase shift
π units to the left.
_
P(765°). How are the answers related? 4

15. Determine the amplitude, period, phase Chapter 6 Trigonometric Identities
shift, and vertical displacement with
20. Determine the non-permissible values
respect to y = sin θ or y = cos θ for each
for each expression. Then, simplify the
function. Sketch the graph of each function
expression.
for two cycles.
1 - cos2 θ
a) __ b) sec x csc x tan x
a) y = 3 cos 2θ cos2 θ
b) y = -2 sin (3θ + 60°) 21. Use a sum or difference identity to
1
c) y = _ cos (θ + π) - 4 determine the exact values of each
2 trigonometric expression.
1 π
d) y = sin _ θ - _(2(
4
+1 )) a) sin 195° (
b) cos - _
5π
)
16. Write an equation for each graph in the 12
form y = a sin b(x - c) + d and in the 22. Write each expression as a single
form y = a cos b(x - c) + d. trigonometric ratio and then evaluate.
3π
a) 2 cos2 _ - 1
a) y 8
4 b) sin 10° cos 80° + cos 10° sin 80°
5π + tan _
tan _ 23π
2
c) ____
12 12
1 - tan 5π
_ 23π
tan _
0 60° 120° 180° 240° 300° 360° x 12 12
23. a) Verify the equation
b) y
sin2 A + cos2 A + tan2 A = sec2 A
for A = 30°.
-π
_ 0 π
_ 2π
__ π 4π
__ 5π
__ 2πx
3 3 3 3 3 b) Prove that the equation in part a) is an
-1
identity.
-2
24. Consider the equation
17. Write the equation of the cosine function
1 + tan x
__ = sin x + cos x.
sec x
with amplitude 4, period 300°, phase shift a) Verify graphically that the equation
of 30° to the left, and vertical displacement could be an identity.
3 units down.
b) Prove that the equation is an identity
18. a) Graph y = tan θ for -2π ≤ θ ≤ 0. for all permissible values of x.
b) State the equations of the asymptotes 25. Prove the identity
for the graph in part a). cos
___ θ - sin θ = __cos 2θ algebraically.
19. A Ferris wheel has a radius of 25 m. The cos θ + sin θ 1 + sin 2θ
centre of the wheel is 26 m above the 26. Solve each equation. Give the general
ground. The wheel rotates twice in 22 min. solution in radians.
a) Determine the equation of the a) sec2 x = 4 tan2 x
sinusoidal function, h(x), that models b) sin 2x + cos x = 0
the height of a passenger on the ride as
27. a) Solve (sin θ + cos θ)2 - sin 2θ = 1.
a function of time.
Give the general solution in degrees.
b) If a passenger gets on at the bottom of
b) Is the equation
the wheel, when is the passenger 30 m
(sin θ + cos θ)2 - sin 2θ = 1
above the ground? Express the answer
an identity? Explain.
to the nearest tenth of a minute.

Unit 2 Test
Multiple Choice 6. The function y = tan x, where x is in
degrees, is
A defined for all values of x
3
1. If tan θ = _ and cos θ < 0, then the value
2 B undefined when x = ±1°
of cos 2θ is C undefined when x = 180°n, n ∈ I
A _
1 B -_
5
13 13 D undefined when x = 90° + 180°n, n ∈ I
C _
5 D 1 sin θ + tan θ
13 7. The expression ___ is
1 + cos θ
2. If the point (3, -5) lies on the terminal equivalent to
arm of an angle θ in standard position, the A sin θ
value of sin (π - θ) is
B cos θ
A _
3
___ B -_
3
___
√34 √34 C tan θ
C _
5
___ D -_
5
___ D cot θ
√34 √34
8. Which of the following is not an identity?
3. The function y = a sin b(x - c) + d has a sec
__ θ csc θ = sec θ
A
range of {y | -2 ≤ y ≤ 6, y ∈ R}. What are cot θ
the values of the parameters a and d? B tan2 θ - sin2 θ = sin2 θ tan2 θ
A a = -2 and d = 8 1 - cos 2θ
C __ = sin2 θ
2
B a = 2 and d = 4 tan 2
θ = sin2 θ
D __
C a = 4 and d = 2 1 + tan2 θ
D a = 8 and d = -2
Numerical Response
4. What are the period and phase shift for the
π ? Copy and complete the statements in #9 to #13.
(
function f(x) = 3 cos 4x + _
2 ) 17π
9. The exact value of sin _ is .
π π
A period = _ , phase shift = _ units to __ 3
the left
2 2
( √5
)
10. Point P x, _ is on the unit circle. The
3
π
B period = 4, phase shift = _ units to
8 possible values of x are and .
the left -5 π
π π 11. If cos θ = _ and _ ≤ θ ≤ π, then the
C period = _ , phase shift = _ units to 13 2
2 8 π is .
the left exact value of sin θ + _(
4 )
π
D period = 4, phase shift = _ units to
2 12. An arc of a circle subtends a central
the left angle θ. The length of the arc is 6 cm and
5. Which sinusoidal function has a graph the radius is 4 cm. The measures of θ in
equivalent to the graph of y = 3 sin x? radians and in degrees, to the nearest tenth
π of a unit, are and .
(
A y = 3 cos x + _
2) 6 cm
π
(
B y = 3 cos x - _
2) 4 cm
θ
π
(
C y = 3 cos x - _
4)
π
(
D y = 3 cos x + _
4)

__
13. The solutions to √3 sec θ - 2 = 0 for 18. a) Use technology to graph
-2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π, as exact values, are , , , f(θ) = 2 cot θ sin2 θ
and . over the domain 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
b) Determine an equation equivalent to f (θ)
Written Response in the form g(θ) = a sin [b(θ - c)] + d,
5π
14. Consider the angle θ = - _ . where a, b, c, and d are constants.
3
c) Prove algebraically that f(θ) = g(θ).
a) Draw the angle in standard position.
19. Consider the equation
b) Convert the angle measure to degrees.
tan x + _ 1 =_ sec x .
c) Write an expression for all angles that tan x sin x
are coterminal with θ, in radians. a) Verify that the equation is true for
10π
d) Is _ coterminal with θ? Justify your 2π .
x=_
3 3
answer. b) What are the non-permissible values for
15. Solve 5 sin2 θ + 3 sin θ - 2 = 0, the equation?
0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π, algebraically. Give your c) Prove that the equation is an identity
answers to the nearest thousandth of for all permissible values of x.
a radian.
20. The predicted height, h, in metres, of
16. Pat solved the equation 4 sin2 x = 3, the tides at Prince Rupert, British
0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, as follows: Columbia, for one day in February is
4 sin2 x = 3 __ approximated by the function
2 sin x = √3__ h(t) = 2.962 sin (0.508t - 0.107) + 3.876,
√3
sin x = _ where t is the time, in hours, since
2 midnight.
π _
_ 2π
x= ,
3 3 a) Predict the maximum height of the tide
Sam checks the answer graphically and on this day.
says that there are four zeros in the given
b) Determine the period of the sinusoidal
domain. Who is correct? Identify the error
function.
that the other person made.
c) Predict the height of the tide at 12 noon
17. a) Sketch the graph of the function
on this day.
1 (x + 60°) - 1
f(x) = 3 sin _
2 We b Link
for -360° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
b) State the range of the function. To search
earch for data
da on predicted heights and times
of tides at various locations across Canada, go to
c) Identify the amplitude, period, phase www.mcgrawhill.ca/school/learningcentres and
shift, and vertical displacement for follow the links.
the function.
d) Determine the roots of the equation
1 (x + 60°) - 1 = 0. Give your
3 sin _
2
answers to the nearest degree.
Marina at Prince Rupert

CHAPTER
7 Exponential
Functions
In the 1920s, watch companies produced
glow-in-the-dark dials by using
radioluminescent paint, which was made
of zinc sulphide mixed with radioactive
radium salts. Today, a material called tritium
is used in wristwatches and other equipment
such as aircraft instruments. In commercial
use, the tritium gas is put into tiny vials of
borosilicate glass that are placed on the hands
and hour markers of a watch dial.
Both radium and tritium are radioactive

materials that decay into other elements by
emitting different types of radiation. The rate
at which radioactive materials decay can
be modelled using exponential functions.
Exponential functions can also be used to
model situations where there is geometric
growth, such as in bacterial colonies and
financial investments.
In this chapter, you will study exponential

functions and use them to solve a variety
of problems.
Did Yo u Know ?
Radium was once an additive in toothpaste, hair creams,

and even food items due to its supposed curative powers.
Once it was discovered that radium is over one million
times as radioactive as the same mass of uranium, these
products were prohibited because of their serious adverse
health effects.
Key Terms
exponential function half-life
exponential growth exponential equation
exponential decay

7.1
Characteristics of
Exponential Functions
Focus on…
• analysing graphs of exponential functions
• solving problems that involve exponential
growth or decay
The following ancient fable from India has several variations, but
Amount of
each makes the same point. Rice on
32nd Square
When the creator of the game of chess showed his invention to the ruler
of the country, the ruler was so pleased that he gave the inventor the
right to name his prize for the invention. The man, who was very wise,
asked the king that he be given one grain of rice for the first square of the 4.7 m
chessboard, two for the second one, four for the third one, and so on. The
ruler quickly accepted the inventor’s offer, believing the man had made a
mistake in not asking for more.
By the time he was compensated for half the chessboard, the man owned all of 8m
the rice in the country, and, by the sixty-fourth square, the ruler owed him almost
20 000 000 000 000 000 000 grains of rice.
The final amount of rice is approximately equal to the volume of a

mountain 140 times as tall as Mount Everest. This is an example of
how things grow exponentially. What exponential function can be used
to model this situation?
Investigate Characteristics of Exponential Functions
Materials Explore functions of the form y = cx.

• graphing technology 1. Consider the function y = 2x.
a) Graph the function.
b) Describe the shape of the graph.
2. Determine the following and justify your reasoning.
a) the domain and the range of the function y = 2x
b) the y-intercept
c) the x-intercept
d) the equation of the horizontal line (asymptote) that the graph
approaches as the values of x get very small

3. Select at least two different values for c in y = cx that are greater
than 2. Graph your functions. Compare each graph to the graph
of y = 2x. Describe how the graphs are similar and how they
are different.
4. Select at least two different values for c in y = cx that are between
0 and 1. Graph your functions. How have the graphs changed
compared to those from steps 2 and 3?
5. Predict what the graph will look like if c < 0. Confirm your
prediction using a table of values and a graph.
Reflect and Respond

6. a) Summarize how the value of c affects the shape and
characteristics of the graph of y = cx.
b) Predict what will happen when c = 1. Explain.
Link the Ideas
The graph of an exponential function, such as y = c x, is increasing for exponential

c > 1, decreasing for 0 < c < 1, and neither increasing nor decreasing function
for c = 1. From the graph, you can determine characteristics such as • a function of the form
domain and range, any intercepts, and any asymptotes. y = c x , where c is a
constant (c > 0) and
x is a variable
y y
y = c x, y = c x,
c>1 0<c<1
Why is the definition of an
exponential function restricted
(0, 1) to positive values of c?
(0, 1)
0 x 0 x
Increasing Decreasing
D id Yo u K n ow?
Any letter can be used to represent the base in an exponential function.

Some other common forms are y = a x and y = b x. In this chapter, you will
use the letter c. This is to avoid any confusion with the transformation
parameters, a, b, h, and k, that you will apply in Section 7.2.
7.1 Characteristics of Exponential Functions • MHR 335

Example 1
Analyse the Graph of an Exponential Function
Graph each exponential function. Then identify the following:
• the x-intercept and y-intercept, if they exist
• whether the graph represents an increasing or a decreasing function
• the equation of the horizontal asymptote
a) y = 4x
x
1
b) f(x) = _( )
2
Solution
a) Method 1: Use Paper and Pencil
Use a table of values to graph the function.
Select integral values of x that make it easy to calculate the
corresponding values of y for y = 4x.
y
x y
1
_ 18
-2
16
(2, 16)
1
_ 16
-1
4
y = 4x
0 1 14
1 4 12
2 16
10
6
(1, 4)
4
(-2, 16_1 ) (-1, 14_ )

2
(0, 1)
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x

Use a graphing calculator to graph y = 4x.

The function is defined for all values of x. Therefore, the domain
is {x | x ∈ R}.
The function has only positive values for y. Therefore, the range
is {y | y > 0, y ∈ R}.
The graph never intersects the x-axis, so there is no x-intercept.
The graph crosses the y-axis at y = 1, so the y-intercept is 1.
The graph rises to the right throughout its domain, indicating that the
values of y increase as the values of x increase. Therefore, the function
is increasing over its domain.
Since the graph approaches the line y = 0 as the values of x get very
small, y = 0 is the equation of the horizontal asymptote.
b) Method 1: Use Paper and Pencil

Use a table of values to graph the function.
Select integral values of x that make it easy to calculate the
x
1 .
corresponding values of y for f (x) = _
2 ( )
f(x)
x f (x)
( )
x
-3 8
10 f(x) = 1
_
2
-2 4 8
(-3, 8)
-1 2
6
0 1
1 4
1 _ (-2, 4)
2
2
1
_
4
(-1, 2)
2 (1, 12_ ) (2, 14_ )
(0, 1)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x

x
1 .
Use a graphing calculator to graph f (x) = _
2 ( )

The function is defined for all values of x. Therefore, the domain
is {x | x ∈ R}.
The function has only positive values for y. Therefore, the range
is {y | y > 0, y ∈ R}.
The graph never intersects the x-axis, so there is no x-intercept.
The graph crosses the y-axis at y = 1, so the Why do the graphs
y-intercept is 1. of these exponential
functions have a
The graph falls to the right throughout its y-intercept of 1?
domain, indicating that the values of y decrease
as the values of x increase. Therefore, the function
is decreasing over its domain.
Since the graph approaches the line y = 0 as the values of x get very
large, y = 0 is the equation of the horizontal asymptote.
Your Turn
Graph the exponential function y = 3x without technology. Identify the
following:
• the x-intercept and the y-intercept, if they exist
• whether the graph represents an increasing or a decreasing function
• the equation of the horizontal asymptote
Verify your results using graphing technology.
Example 2
Write the Exponential Function Given Its Graph
What function of the form y = cx can be used to describe the graph shown?
y
(-2, 16)
16
12
4
(-1, 4)
(0, 1)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x

Solution
Look for a pattern in the ordered pairs from the graph.
x y
-2 16
-1 4
0 1
As the value of x increases by 1 unit, the value of y decreases by a

1 . Therefore, for this function, c = _
factor of _ 1.
4 4
Choose a point other than (0, 1) to substitute into Why should you not
x use the point (0, 1)
1 to verify that the function is
the function y = _
4 ( ) to verify that the
correct. Try the point (-2, 16). function is correct?
Check:
Left Side Right Side
x
1
y ( )
_
4
= 16 1 -2
( )
= _
4 ()
Why is the power with a negative exponent, _ ,
1 -2
4
= 12
_
equivalent to the reciprocal of the power with a
1
( )
_
4
1
positive exponent, _2 ?
1
4 2 ()_
= ( )
_
1
4
= 16
The right side equals the left side, so the function that describes the
x
1 .
graph is y = _
4 ( ) What is another way of expressing
this exponential function?
Your Turn
What function of the form y = cx can be used to describe the graph
shown?
y
30
(2, 25)
20
10
(1, 5)
(0, 1)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x

Exponential functions of the form y = cx, where c > 1, can be used to
exponential growth model exponential growth. Exponential functions with 0 < c < 1 can be
• an increasing pattern used to model exponential decay.
of values that can be
modelled by a function
of the form y = c x ,
where c > 1 Example 3
exponential decay Application of an Exponential Function
• a decreasing pattern
A radioactive sample of radium (Ra-225) m
of values that can be
Mass of Ra-225 Remaining (g)

modelled by a function has a half-life of 15 days. The mass, m, 1.0
of the form y = c x , in grams, of Ra-225 remaining over time,
where 0 < c < 1 t, in 15-day intervals, can be modelled 0.8
half-life using the exponential graph shown. 0.6

a) What is the initial mass of Ra-225 (1, 0.5)
• the length of time for
in the sample? What value does the 0.4
an unstable element to
spontaneously decay mass of Ra-225 remaining approach (2, 0.25)
0.2
to one half its original as time passes? (3, 0.125)
mass
b) What are the domain and range of
0 2 4 6 8 t
this function? Time (15-day intervals)
c) Write the exponential decay model
that relates the mass of Ra-225
remaining to time, in 15-day intervals.
1
d) Estimate how many days it would take for Ra-225 to decay to _ of its
30
original mass.
Solution
a) From the graph, the m-intercept is 1. So, the initial mass of Ra-225 in
the sample is 1 g.
The graph is decreasing by a constant factor over time, representing
exponential decay. It appears to approach m = 0 or 0 g of Ra-225
remaining in the sample.
b) From the graph, the domain of the function is {t | t ≥ 0, t ∈ R}, and the
range of the function is {m | 0 < m ≤ 1, m ∈ R}.
c) The exponential decay model that relates the Why is the base
mass of Ra-225 remaining to time, in 15-day of the exponential
1
1 t. function _ ?
( )
intervals, is the function m(t) = _
2
2

d) Method 1: Use the Graph of the Function
1 of 1 g is equivalent to 0.0333… or
_ m
Mass of Ra-225 Remaining (g)

30
approximately 0.03 g. Locate this 1.0
approximate value on the vertical
0.8
axis of the graph and draw a
horizontal line until it intersects the 0.6
(1, 0.5)
graph of the exponential function.
0.4
The horizontal line appears to (2, 0.25)
0.2
intersect the graph at the point (3, 0.125)
(5, 0.03)
(5, 0.03). Therefore, it takes
0 2 4 6 8 t
approximately five 15-day
Time (15-day intervals)
intervals, or 75 days, for Ra-225 to
decay to _ 1 of its original mass.
30
Method 2: Use a Table of Values
1 of 1 g is equivalent to _
_ 1 g or approximately 0.0333 g.
30 30
1 t.
( )
Create a table of values for m(t) = _
2 t m
The table shows that the number of 15-day 1 0.5
intervals is between 4 and 5. You can 2 0.25

determine a better estimate by looking at 3 0.125
values between these numbers. 4 0.0625
Since 0.0333 is much closer to 0.031 25, 5 0.031 25

1 4.8 ≈ 0.0359. This is greater than
( )
try 4.8: _
2
6 0.015 625
0.0333.
1 4.9 ≈ 0.0335.
( )
Try 4.9: _
2
Therefore, it will take approximately 4.9 15-day intervals, or
73.5 days, for Ra-225 to decay to _1 of its original mass.
30
D i d You K n ow?
Your Turn Exponential functions
can be used to model
Under ideal circumstances, a certain bacteria B
situations involving
population triples every week. This is 16
Number of Bacteria
continuous or discrete
modelled by the following exponential graph. data. For example,
12 problems involving
a) What are the domain and range of this radioactive decay are
(2, 9)
function? 8 based on continuous
data, while those
b) Write the exponential growth model that
4 involving populations
relates the number, B, of bacteria to the (1, 3)
are based on discrete
(0, 1)
time, t, in weeks. data. In the case of
0 1 2 3 t
discrete data, the
c) Determine approximately how many days Time (weeks) continuous model will
it would take for the number of bacteria only be valid for a
to increase to eight times the quantity on restricted domain.
day 1.

Key Ideas
An exponential function of the form y y

y = cx, c > 0, 8 8
y = 2x
()
x
is increasing for c > 1 y= 1
_
6 6 2
is decreasing for 0 < c < 1
4 4
is neither increasing nor decreasing
for c = 1 2 2
has a domain of {x | x ∈ R}
-2 0 2 4 x -2 0 2 4 x
has a range of {y | y > 0, y ∈ R}
has a y-intercept of 1
has no x-intercept
has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0
Practise 3. Match each exponential function to its

1. Decide whether each of the following corresponding graph.
functions is exponential. Explain how a) y = 5x
x
you can tell. 1
a) y = x3
b) y = _ (4)
x
2
y = (_
3)
x c)
b) y = 6
1
_
c) y = x 2 A y
d) y = 0.75 x 4
2. Consider the following exponential 2

functions:
• f (x) = 4x -4 -2 0 2 4 x
x
1
• g(x) = _ ( )
4
• h(x) = 2x B y
4
a) Which is greatest when x = 5?
b) Which is greatest when x = -5? 2
c) For which value of x do all three

-4 -2 0 2 4 x
functions have the same value?
What is this value?
C y
-2 0 2 4 6 x

4. Write the function equation for each graph 7. A flu virus is spreading through the
of an exponential function. student population of a school according
a) y to the function N = 2t, where N is the
(2, 9) number of people infected and t is the
8
time, in days.
6 a) Graph the function. Explain why the
4 function is exponential.
(1, 3)
b) How many people have the virus at
2
(0, 1) each time?
i) at the start when t = 0
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
ii) after 1 day
iii) after 4 days
b) y
(-2, 25)
iv) after 10 days
20
10
(-1, 5) (0, 1)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
5. Sketch the graph of each exponential

function. Identify the domain and range,
the y-intercept, whether the function is
increasing or decreasing, and the equation
of the horizontal asymptote.
a) g(x) = 6x
b) h(x) = 3.2x
x
1
( 10 )
c) f(x) = _ 8. If a given population has a constant growth
3
x rate over time and is never limited by
d) k(x) = ( _ )
4 food or disease, it exhibits exponential
growth. In this situation, the growth rate
Apply alone controls how quickly (or slowly) the
6. Each of the following situations can be population grows. If a population, P, of
modelled using an exponential function. fish, in hundreds, experiences exponential
Indicate which situations require a value growth at a rate of 10% per year, it can be
of c > 1 (growth) and which require a modelled by the exponential function
value of 0 < c < 1 (decay). Explain your P(t) = 1.1t, where t is time, in years.
choices. a) Why is the base for the exponential
a) Bacteria in a Petri dish double their function that models this situation 1.1?
number every hour. b) Graph the function P(t) = 1.1t. What are
b) The half-life of the radioactive isotope the domain and range of the function?
actinium-225 is 10 days. c) If the same population of fish decreased
c) As light passes through every 1-m depth at a rate of 5% per year, how would the
of water in a pond, the amount of light base of the exponential model change?
available decreases by 20%. d) Graph the new function from part c).
d) The population of an insect colony What are the domain and range of
triples every day. this function?

9. Scuba divers know that the deeper they 11. Money in a savings account earns
dive, the more light is absorbed by the compound interest at a rate of 1.75%
water above them. On a dive, Petra’s light per year. The amount, A, of money in
meter shows that the amount of light an account can be modelled by the
available decreases by 10% for every 10 m exponential function A = P(1.0175)n,
that she descends. where P is the amount of money first
deposited into the savings account and n
is the number of years the money remains
in the account.
a) Graph this function using a value of
P = $1 as the initial deposit.
b) Approximately how long will it take for
the deposit to triple in value?
c) Does the amount of time it takes for a
deposit to triple depend on the value of
a) Write the exponential function that the initial deposit? Explain.
relates the amount, L, as a percent d) In finance, the rule of 72 is a method
expressed as a decimal, of light available of estimating an investment’s doubling
to the depth, d, in 10-m increments. time when interest is compounded
b) Graph the function. annually. The number 72 is divided by
c) What are the domain and range of the the annual interest rate to obtain the
function for this situation? approximate number of years required
for doubling. Use your graph and the
d) What percent of light will reach Petra if
rule of 72 to approximate the doubling
she dives to a depth of 25 m?
time for this investment.
10. The CANDU (CANada Deuterium
12. Statistics indicate that the world
Uranium) reactor is a Canadian-invented
population since 1995 has been growing
pressurized heavy-water reactor that uses
at a rate of about 1.27% per year. United
uranium-235 (U-235) fuel with a half-life
Nations records estimate that the world
of approximately 700 million years.
population in 2011 was approximately
a) What exponential function can be
7 billion. Assuming the same exponential
used to represent the radioactive growth rate, when will the population of
decay of 1 kg of U-235? Define the the world be 9 billion?
variables you use.
b) Graph the function. Extend
c) How long will it take for 1 kg of U-235 13. a) On the same set of axes, sketch the
to decay to 0.125 kg? graph of the function y = 5x, and then
d) Will the sample in part c) decay to sketch the graph of the inverse of the
0 kg? Explain. function by reflecting its graph in the
line y = x.
D id Yo u Know?
b) How do the characteristics of the graph
Canada is one of the world’s leading uranium of the inverse of the function relate to
producers, accounting for 18% of world primary the characteristics of the graph of the
production. All of the uranium produced in Canada
comes from Saskatchewan mines. The energy
original exponential function?
potential of Saskatchewan’s uranium reserves is c) Express the equation of the inverse of
approximately equivalent to 4.5 billion tonnes of
the exponential function in terms of y.
coal or 17.5 billion barrels of oil.
That is, write x = F(y).

14. The Krumbein phi scale is used in geology b) Use graphing technology to estimate the
to classify sediments such as silt, sand, doubling period using the compound
and gravel by particle size. The scale is interest formula A = P(1 + i )n.
modelled by the function D(φ) = 2−φ, c) How do the results in parts a) and b)
where D is the diameter of the particle, compare? Which method results in a
in millimetres, and φ is the Krumbein shorter doubling period?
scale value. Fine sand has a Krumbein
scale value of approximately 3. Coarse D i d You K n ow ?
gravel has a Krumbein scale value of The number e is irrational because it cannot be
approximately -5. expressed as a ratio of integers. It is sometimes
called Euler’s number after the Swiss mathematician
Leonhard Euler (pronounced “oiler”).
Create Connections
C1 Consider the functions f(x) = 3x, g(x) = x3,
and h(x) = 3x.
a) Graph each function.
b) List the key features for each function:
domain and range, intercepts, and
equations of any asymptotes.
c) Identify key features that are common
to each function.
A sampler showing
grains sorted from silt to very coarse sand. d) Identify key features that are different
for each function.
a) Why would a coarse material have a
C2 Consider the function f(x) = (-2)x.
negative scale value?
a) Copy and complete the table of values.
b) How does the diameter of fine sand
compare with the diameter of coarse x f (x)
gravel? 0
15. Typically, compound interest for a savings 1
account is calculated every month and 2
deposited into the account at that time. The
3
interest could also be calculated daily, or
4
hourly, or even by the second. When the
period of time is infinitesimally small, the 5
interest calculation is called continuous b) Plot the ordered pairs.
compounding. The exponential function
c) Do the points form a smooth curve?
that models this situation is A(t) = Pert,
Explain.
where P is the amount of the initial deposit,
1
r is the annual rate of interest as a decimal d) Use technology to try to evaluate f _ (2)
value, t is the number of years, and e is the 5 . Use numerical reasoning to
base (approximately equal to 2.7183). and f _
2 ( )
a) Use graphing technology to estimate the explain why these values are undefined.
doubling period, assuming an annual e) Use these results to explain why
interest rate of 2% and continuous exponential functions are defined to
compounding. only include positive bases.

7.2
Transformations of
Exponential Functions
Focus on…
• applying translations, stretches, and reflections to the graphs
of exponential functions
• representing these transformations in the equations of
exponential functions
• solving problems that involve exponential growth or decay
Transformations of exponential functions are used

to model situations such as population growth,
carbon dating of samples found at archaeological Taking a sample for carbon dating
digs, the physics of nuclear chain reactions, and
the processing power of computers.
In this section, you will examine transformations
of exponential functions and the impact the
transformations have on the corresponding graph.
Did Yo u Know ?
Moore’s law describes a trend in the history of computing

hardware. It states that the number of transistors that can
be placed on an integrated circuit will double approximately
every 2 years. The trend has continued for over half a
century. D-wave wafer processor
Investigate Transforming an Exponential Function
Materials Apply your prior knowledge of transformations to predict the effects of

• graphing technology translations, stretches, and reflections on exponential functions of the
form f(x) = a(c)b(x − h) + k and their associated graphs.
A: The Effects of Parameters h and k on the Function
f(x) = a(c)b(x − h) + k
1. a) Graph each set of functions on one set of coordinate axes. Sketch
the graphs in your notebook.
Set A Set B
x
i) f(x) = 3 i) f (x) = 2x
ii) f(x) = 3x + 2 ii) f (x) = 2x − 3
iii) f(x) = 3x - 4 iii) f(x) = 2x + 1

b) Compare the graphs in set A. For any constant k, describe the
relationship between the graphs of f(x) = 3x and f (x) = 3x + k.
c) Compare the graphs in set B. For any constant h, describe the
relationship between the graphs of f(x) = 2x and f (x) = 2x − h.
Reflect and Respond

2. Describe the roles of the parameters h and k in functions of the form
f(x) = a(c)b(x − h) + k.
B: The Effects of Parameters a and b on the Function

f (x) = a(c)b(x − h) + k
3. a) Graph each set of functions on one set of coordinate axes. Sketch
the graphs in your notebook.
Set C Set D
x
1
i) f(x) = ( )_
2
i) f(x) = 2x
x
ii) f(x) = ( )
3 _1 ii) f(x) = 23x
2
x 1x
3 _
iii) f(x) = ( )
_ 1 _
iii) f(x) = 23
4 2
x What effect does the negative
1
iv) f(x) = ( )
-4 _
2
iv) f(x) = 2-2x sign have on the graph?
x 2x
1 1
v) f(x) = ( )
-_ _
3 2
v) f(x) = 2
-_
3
b) Compare the graphs in set C. For any real value a, describe the
x x
1 and f (x) = a _ 1 .
relationship between the graphs of f(x) = _
2 ( ) 2 ( )
c) Compare the graphs in set D. For any real value b, describe the
relationship between the graphs of f(x) = 2x and f (x) = 2bx.
Reflect and Respond

4. Describe the roles of the parameters a and b in functions of the
form f(x) = a(c)b(x − h) + k.
7.2 Transformations of Exponential Functions • MHR 347

Link the Ideas
The graph of a function of the form f(x) = a(c)b(x − h) + k is obtained by

applying transformations to the graph of the base function y = cx, where
c > 0.
Parameter Transformation Example

a • Vertical stretch about the x-axis by a y
factor of |a| y = 3x
4
• For a < 0, reflection in the x-axis y = 4(3) x
• (x, y) → (x, ay) 2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
y = -2(3)x
-4
b • Horizontal stretch about the y-axis by y

1
a factor of _ y = 23x y = 2x
|b| 4
• For b < 0, reflection in the y-axis
x 2
( )
• (x, y) → _ , y
b
y = 2-0.5x
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
k • Vertical translation up or down y

• (x, y) → (x, y + k)
4
y = 4x + 2
2
y = 4x
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
y = 4x - 3
-4
h • Horizontal translation left or right y

• (x, y) → (x + h, y)
4
y = 6x + 2 y = 6x
2
y = 6x - 3
-4 -2 0 2 4 x

An accurate sketch of a transformed graph is How does this
obtained by applying the transformations compare to your
past experience with
represented by a and b before the transformations transformations?
represented by h and k.
Example 1
Apply Transformations to Sketch a Graph
Consider the base function y = 3x. For each transformed function,
i) state the parameters and describe the corresponding transformations
ii) create a table to show what happens to the given points under
each transformation
y = 3x
(-1, 31 )
_
(0, 1)
(1, 3)
(2, 9)
(3, 27)
iii) sketch the graph of the base function and the transformed function
iv) describe the effects on the domain, range, equation of the horizontal
asymptote, and intercepts
a) y = 2(3)x − 4
1x
1
b) y = - _ (3) 5 - 5
_
2
Solution
a) i) Compare the function y = 2(3)x − 4 to y = a(c)b(x − h) + k to determine
the values of the parameters.
• b = 1 corresponds to no horizontal stretch.
• a = 2 corresponds to a vertical stretch of factor 2. Multiply the
y-coordinates of the points in column 1 by 2.
• h = 4 corresponds to a translation of 4 units to the right. Add 4
to the x-coordinates of the points in column 2.
• k = 0 corresponds to no vertical translation.
ii) Add columns to the table representing the transformations.
y = 3x y = 2(3)x y = 2(3)x − 4
(-1, 31 )
_
(-1, 32 )
_
(3, 32 )
_
(0, 1) (0, 2) (4, 2)

(1, 3) (1, 6) (5, 6)
(2, 9) (2, 18) (6, 18)
(3, 27) (3, 54) (7, 54)

iii) To sketch the graph, plot the points from column 3 and draw a
smooth curve through them.
y
y = 3x y = 2(3)x - 4
60
(7, 54)
50
40
30
20
(6, 18)
10
(5, 6)
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
-10 ( ) 2 (4, 2)
3, _
3
iv) The domain remains the same: {x | x ∈ R}.
The range also remains unchanged: {y | y > 0, y ∈ R}.

The equation of the asymptote remains as y = 0.
There is still no x-intercept, but the y-intercept changes to _2 or

81
approximately 0.025.
b)
1 _1 x
i) Compare the function y = - _ (3) 5 - 5 to y = a(c)b(x − h) + k to
2
determine the values of the parameters.
•b=_ 1 corresponds to a horizontal stretch of factor 5. Multiply
5
the x-coordinates of the points in column 1 by 5.
• a = -_ 1 and
1 corresponds to a vertical stretch of factor _
2 2
a reflection in the x-axis. Multiply the y-coordinates of the
points in column 2 by - _ 1.
2
• h = 0 corresponds to no horizontal translation.
• k = -5 corresponds to a translation of 5 units down. Subtract 5
from the y-coordinates of the points in column 3.

ii) Add columns to the table representing the transformations.
1 1 1
y = 3x y = 35
_
x 1 (3) 5
y = -_
_
x 1 (3) 5 - 5
y = -_
_
x
2 2
(-1, 31 )
_
(-5, 31 )
_
(-5, - 61 )
_
(-5, - 316 )
_
(0, 1) (0, 1) (0, - 21 )

_
(0, - 112 )
_
(1, 3) (5, 3) (5, - 23 )

_
(5, - 132 )
_
(2, 9) (10, 9) (10, - 29 )

_
(10, - 192 )
_
(3, 27) (15, 27) (15, - 272 )

_
(15, - 372 )
_
iii) To sketch the graph, plot y

the points from column 4 24
and draw a smooth curve
20
through them.
16
y = 3x
12
Why do the exponential 4

curves have different
horizontal asymptotes?
-8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 20 x
-4
(
5, - 13
_
2 )
(-5, -31
_
6 ) -8 (10, -19_2)
-12
(0, -11_2)
-16
(15, -37_2)
-20
1
_x
y = -1
_ (3) 5 - 5
-24 2
iv) The domain remains the same: {x | x ∈ R}.
The range changes to {y | y < -5, y ∈ R} because the graph of the

transformed function only exists below the line y = -5.
The equation of the asymptote changes to y = -5.
11
There is still no x-intercept, but the y-intercept changes to - _
2
or -5.5.
Your Turn
Transform the graph of y = 4x to sketch the graph of y = 4-2(x + 5) - 3.
Describe the effects on the domain, range, equation of the horizontal
asymptote, and intercepts.

Example 2
Use Transformations of an Exponential Function to Model a Situation
A cup of water is heated to 100 °C T
and then allowed to cool in a room 100
with an air temperature of 20 °C. The
Temperature (°C)
temperature, T, in degrees Celsius, is 80
measured every minute as a function 60
of time, m, in minutes, and these
points are plotted on a coordinate 40
grid. It is found that the temperature
20
of the water decreases exponentially at
a rate of 25% every 5 min. A smooth
0 20 40 60 80 100 m
curve is drawn through the points, Time (min)
resulting in the graph shown.
a) What is the transformed exponential function in the form
y = a(c)b(x − h) + k that can be used to represent this situation?
b) Describe how each of the parameters in the transformed function
relates to the information provided.
Solution
a) Since the water temperature decreases by 25% Why is the base of the
3
for each 5-min time interval, the base function exponential function _
4
3 t, where T is the
must be T(t) = _
4 ( ) when the temperature is
reduced by 25%?
temperature and t is the time, in 5-min
intervals.
What is the value of
The exponent t can be replaced by the rational m
the exponent _ when
exponent _m , where m represents the number 5
5 m = 5? How does this
m
3 _5 . relate to the exponent t
of minutes: T(m) = _
4 ( ) in the first version of the
function?
The asymptote at T = 20 means that the function has been translated

vertically upward 20 units. This is represented in the function as
m
_
3
T(m) = _
4( ) 5
+ 20.
The T-intercept of the graph occurs at (0, 100). So, there must be a
vertical stretch factor, a. Use the coordinates of the T-intercept to
determine a.
m
3 _5 + 20
( )
T(m) = a _
4
0
3 _
100 = a ( )_
4
5 + 20
100 = a(1) + 20
80 = a
m
3 _5 + 20.
Substitute a = 80 into the function: T(m) = 80 _
4 ( )

Check: Substitute m = 20 into the function. Compare the result to
the graph.
m
3 _5 + 20
(
T(m) = 80 _
4 )
20
3 _
T(20) = 80(_
4 )
5 + 20
3 4 + 20
(
= 80 _
4 )
= 80 81 + 20
(_
)
256
= 45.3125
From the graph, the value of T when m = 20 is approximately 45.
This matches the calculated value. Therefore, the transformed
function that models the water temperature as it cools is
m
3 _5 + 20.
( )
T(m) = 80 _
4
b) Based on the function y = a(c)b(x − h) + k, the parameters of the
transformed function are
•b=_ 1 , representing the interval of time, 5 min, over which a 25%
5
decrease in temperature of the water occurs
• a = 80, representing the difference between the initial temperature
of the heated cup of water and the air temperature of the room
• h = 0, representing the start time of the cooling process
• k = 20, representing the air temperature of the room
Your Turn
The radioactive element americium (Am) is used in household
smoke detectors. Am-241 has a half-life of approximately 432 years.
The average smoke detector contains 200 μg of Am-241.
A D i d You K n ow?
200
Amount of Am-241 (µg)
In SI units, the symbol

“μg” represents a
160
microgram, or one
millionth of a gram. In
120
the medical field, the
symbol “mcg” is used
80
to avoid any confusion
with milligrams (mg)
40
in written prescriptions.
0 900 1800 2700 t

Time (years)
a) What is the transformed exponential function that models the graph

showing the radioactive decay of 200 μg of Am-241?
b) Identify how each of the parameters of the function relates to the
transformed graph.

Key Ideas
To sketch the graph of an exponential function of the form y = a(c)b(x − h) + k,

apply transformations to the graph of y = cx, where c > 0. The transformations
represented by a and b may be applied in any order before the transformations
represented by h and k.
The parameters a, b, h, and k in exponential functions of the form
y = a(c)b(x − h) + k correspond to the following transformations:
a corresponds to a vertical stretch about the x-axis by a factor of |a| and, if
a < 0, a reflection in the x-axis.
b corresponds to a horizontal stretch about the y-axis by a factor of _ 1 and,
|b|
if b < 0, a reflection in the y-axis.
h corresponds to a horizontal translation left or right.
k corresponds to a vertical translation up or down.
Transformed exponential functions can be used to model real-world
applications of exponential growth or decay.
Practise 3. For each function, identify the

1. Match each function with the parameters a, b, h, and k and the type
corresponding transformation of y = 3 . x of transformation that corresponds to
a) y = 2(3)x b) y = 3x − 2 each parameter.
x
c) y = 3x + 4 d) y = 3 5
_
a) f(x) = 2(3)x - 4
A translation up b) g(x) = 6x − 2 + 3
B horizontal stretch c) m(x) = -4(3)x + 5

3(x - 1)
1
C vertical stretch d) y = _ (2)
D translation right 1
e) n(x) = - _ (5)2(x − 4) + 3
2. Match each function with the 2
x 2x - 2
3 . 2
corresponding transformation of y = _
x
5 ( ) f) y = - _(3)
3 x+1 3
a) y = _
5( ) b) y = - _
5( ) g) y = 1.5(0.75)
x-4
_
2
5
-_
2
-x x
3 3
c) y = _
5( ) ( )
d) y = _ - 2
5
A reflection in the x-axis
B reflection in the y-axis
C translation down
D translation left

4. Without using technology, match each 5. The graph of y = 4x is transformed to
graph with the corresponding function. 1 (4)−(x − 3) + 2.
obtain the graph of y = _
Justify your choice. 2
a) What are the parameters and
a) y
corresponding transformations?
4
b) Copy and complete the table.
2 _
1 _
1
y = 4x y = 4−x y = 2 (4) y = (4)−(x − 3) + 2
−x
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
(-2, 161 )
_
-2
-4
(-1, 41 )
_
(0, 1)
(1, 4)
b) y
(2, 16)
4
1
c) Sketch the graph of y = _ (4)−(x − 3) + 2.
2
2
d) Identify the domain, range, equation
of the horizontal asymptote, and any
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
intercepts for the function
-2 1 (4)−(x − 3) + 2.
y=_
2
-4
6. For each function,
i) state the parameters a, b, h, and k
c) y ii) describe the transformation that
4 corresponds to each parameter
iii) sketch the graph of the function
2
iv) identify the domain, range, equation
-4 -2 0 2 4 x of the horizontal asymptote, and any
-2 intercepts
a) y = 2(3)x + 4
-4
b) m(r) = -(2)r − 3 + 2
1
c) y = _ (4)x + 1 + 1
d) y 3
1s
1 1 _
4 d) n(s) = - _ _
2 3 ( ) 4 -3
2
Apply
-4 -2 0 2 4 x 7. Describe the transformations that must be
-2
applied to the graph of each exponential
function f(x) to obtain the transformed
-4 function. Write each transformed function
in the form y = a(c)b(x − h) + k.
x
1
A y = 32(x − 1) - 2
2( )
a) f(x) = _ , y = f (x - 2) + 1
x−2
B y=2 +1 b) f(x) = 5x, y = -0.5f (x - 3)
1x
1 _
C y=- _ (2) 2 +2 1
x
( )
c) f(x) = _ , y = -f (3x) + 1
4
1 (x + 1)
1
D y = - _ (4) 2
_
1
2
+2 (
d) f(x) = 4x, y = 2f - _ (x - 1) - 5
3 )
8. For each pair of exponential functions in 11. A biologist places agar, a gel made from
#7, sketch the original and transformed seaweed, in a Petri dish and infects it with
functions on the same set of coordinate bacteria. She uses the measurement of
axes. Explain your procedure. the growth ring to estimate the number of
9. The persistence of drugs in the bacteria present. The biologist finds that
human body can be modelled using the bacteria increase in population at an
an exponential function. Suppose exponential rate of 20% every 2 days.
a new drug follows the model a) If the culture starts with a population
h
_
M(h) = M0(0.79) 3 , where M is the mass, of 5000 bacteria, what is the
in milligrams, of drug remaining in the transformed exponential function in
body; M0 is the mass, in milligrams, of the form P = a(c)bx that represents the
the dose taken; and h is the time, in population, P, of the bacteria over time,
hours, since the dose was taken. x, in days?
a) Explain the roles of the numbers 0.79 b) Describe the parameters used to create
1. the transformed exponential function.
and _
3 c) Graph the transformed function and
b) A standard dose is 100 mg. Sketch use it to predict the bacteria population
the graph showing the mass of the after 9 days.
drug remaining in the body for the
first 48 h.
c) What does the M-intercept
represent in this situation?
d) What are the domain and range of
this function?
10. The rate at which liquids cool can
be modelled by an approximation
of Newton’s law of cooling,
t
_
T(t) = (Ti - Tf )(0.9) 5 + Tf , where Tf
12. Living organisms contain carbon-12 (C-12),
represents the final temperature, in
which does not decay, and carbon-14
degrees Celsius; Ti represents the initial
(C-14), which does. When an organism
temperature, in degrees Celsius; and t
dies, the amount of C-14 in its tissues
represents the elapsed time, in minutes.
decreases exponentially with a half-life of
Suppose a cup of coffee is at an initial
about 5730 years.
temperature of 95 °C and cools to a
temperature of 20 °C. a) What is the transformed exponential
function that represents the percent, P,
a) State the parameters a, b, h, and
of C-14 remaining after t years?
k for this situation. Describe the
transformation that corresponds to b) Graph the function and use it to
each parameter. determine the approximate age of a
dead organism that has 20% of the
b) Sketch a graph showing the
original C-14 present in its tissues.
temperature of the coffee over a
period of 200 min. D i d You K n ow ?
c) What is the approximate temperature of
Carbon dating can only be used to date organic
the coffee after 100 min? material, or material from once-living things. It is
d) What does the horizontal asymptote of only effective in dating organisms that lived up to
about 60 000 years ago.
the graph represent?

Extend b) What is one factor that might slow the
13. On Monday morning, Julia found that growth rate to less than exponential?
a colony of bacteria covered an area of Is exponential growth healthy for a
100 cm2 on the agar. After 10 h, she found population? Why or why not?
that the area had increased to 200 cm2.
Assume that the growth is exponential.
Create Connections
a) By Tuesday morning (24 h later), what C1 The graph of an exponential function
area do the bacteria cover? of the form y = cx does not have an
x-intercept. Explain why this occurs using
b) Consider Earth to be a sphere with
an example of your own.
radius 6378 km. How long would
these bacteria take to cover the surface C2 a) Which parameters of an exponential
of Earth? function affect the x-intercept of the
graph of the function? Explain.
14. Fifteen years ago, the fox population of a
national park was 325 foxes. Today, it is b) Which parameters of an exponential
650 foxes. Assume that the population has function affect the y-intercept of the
experienced exponential growth. graph of the function? Explain.
a) Project the fox population in 20 years.
Project Corner Modelling a Curve
It is not easy to determine the best

mathematical model for real data. In
many situations, one model works
best for a limited period of time, and
then another model is better. Work
with a partner. Let x represent the
time, in weeks, and let y represent
the cumulative box office revenue, in
millions of dollars.
• The curves for Avatar and Dark
Knight appear to have a horizontal
asymptote. What do you think this
represents in this context? Do you
think the curve for Titanic will eventually exhibit this characteristic as well? Explain.
• Consider the curve for Titanic.
If the vertex is located at (22, 573), determine a quadratic function of the form
y = a(x - h)2 + k that might model this portion of the curve.
Suppose that the curve has a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 600.
Determine an exponential function of the form y = -35(0.65)0.3(x - h) + k that might
model the curve.
Which type of function do you think better models this curve? Explain.

7.3
Solving Exponential Equations
Focus on…
• determining the solution of an exponential equation in which the bases are
powers of one another
• solving problems that involve exponential growth or decay
• solving problems that involve the application of exponential equations to loans,
mortgages, and investments
Banks, credit unions, and investment firms often have financial

calculators on their Web sites. These calculators use a variety
of formulas, some based on exponential functions, to help users
calculate amounts such as annuity values or compound interest in D i d You K n ow ?
savings accounts. For compound interest calculators, users must In 1935, the first
input the dollar amount of the initial deposit; the amount of time Franco-Albertan credit
union was established
the money is deposited, called the term; and the interest rate the
in Calgary.
financial institution offers.
Investigate the Different Ways to Express Exponential Expressions
Materials 1. a) Copy the table into your notebook and complete it by

• graphing technology • substituting the value of n into each exponential expression
• using your knowledge of exponent laws to rewrite each
expression as an equivalent expression with base 2
n
n (_12 ) 2n 4n
-2
-2 ( 12 )
_
= (2-1)-2
= 22
-1
0
1
42 = (22)2
2
= 24
b) What patterns do you observe in the equivalent expressions?

Discuss your findings with a partner.

2. For each exponential expression in the column for 2n, identify the
equivalent exponential expressions with different bases in the other
expression columns.
Reflect and Respond

3. a) Explain how to rewrite the exponential equation 2x = 8x − 1 so that exponential equation
the bases are the same. • an equation that has a
b) Describe how you could use this information to solve for x. variable in an exponent
Then, solve for x.

c) Graph the exponential functions on both sides of the equation
in part a) on the same set of axes. Explain how the point of
intersection of the two graphs relates to the solution you
determined in part b).
4. a) Consider the exponential equation 3x = 42x − 1. Can this equation be
solved in the same way as the one in step 3a)? Explain.
b) What are the limitations when solving exponential equations that
have terms with different bases?
Link the Ideas
Exponential expressions can be written in different ways. It is often

useful to rewrite an exponential expression using a different base
than the one that is given. This is helpful when solving exponential
equations because the exponents of exponential expressions with the
same base can be equated to each other. For example,
42x = 8x + 1
(2 ) = (23)x + 1
2 2x Express the base on each side as a power of 2.
24x = 23x + 3
Since the bases on both sides
Is this statement true
of the equation are now for all bases? Explain.
the same, the exponents
must be equal.
4x = 3x + 3 Equate exponents.
x=3
This method of solving an exponential equation is based on the property
that if c x = c y, then x = y, for c ≠ -1, 0, 1.
7.3 Solving Exponential Equations • MHR 359

Example 1
Change the Base of Powers
Rewrite each expression as a power with a base of 3.
1
_ 3
___ 2
a) 27 b) 92 c) 27 3 ( √81 )
Solution
a) 27 = 33 27 is the third power of 3.
b) 92 = (32)2 Write 9 as 32.

= 34 Apply the power of a power law.
1 ___ 1 2
c) 27 3 ( √81 ) = 27 3 (81 3 )
_ 3 2 _ _
Write the radical in exponential form.
1
_ 2
_
3 3 4 3
= (3 ) (3 ) Express the bases as powers of 3.
8
= 31(3 3 )
_
Apply the power of a power law.
8
1+ _
=3 3 Apply the product of powers law.
11
_
=3 3 Simplify.
Your Turn
Write each expression as a power with base 2.
1 2
_ ___ 3
a) 43 b) _ c) 8 3 (√16 )
8
Example 2
Solve an Equation by Changing the Base
Solve each equation.
a) 4x + 2 = 64x b) 42x = 82x − 3
Solution
a) Method 1: Apply a Change of Base
4x + 2 = 64x
4x + 2 = (43)x Express the base on the right side as a power with base 4.
4x + 2 = 43x Apply the power of a power law.
Since both sides are single powers of the same base, the exponents
must be equal.
Equate the exponents.
x + 2 = 3x
2 = 2x Isolate the term containing x.
x=1

Check:
4x + 2 64x
1+2
=4 = 641
= 43 = 64
= 64
The solution is x = 1.

Enter the left side of the equation as one function and the right side
as another function. Identify where the graphs intersect using the
intersection feature.
You may have to adjust the window settings to view the point
of intersection.
The graphs intersect at the point (1, 64).

b) 42x 82x − 3
=
2 2x
(2 ) (23)2x − 3
= Express the bases on both sides as powers of 2.
24x 26x − 9
= Apply the power of a power law.
4x 6x - 9
= Equate the exponents.
-2x -9 = Isolate the term containing x.
9
x=_ Solve for x.
2
Check:
42x 82x - 3
9 9 -3
= 4 (2) = 8 (2)
2 _ 2 _
= 49 = 89 - 3
= 262 144 = 86
= 262 144
9.
2
Your Turn
Solve. Check your answers using graphing technology.
a) 24x = 4x + 3 b) 94x = 27x − 1

Example 3
Solve Problems Involving Exponential Equations With Different Bases
Christina plans to buy a car. She has saved $5000. The car
she wants costs $5900. How long will Christina have to
invest her money in a term deposit that pays 6.12% per
year, compounded quarterly, before she has enough to buy
the car?
Solution
The formula for compound interest is A = P(1 + i)n,
where A is the amount of money at the end of the
investment; P is the principal amount deposited; i is the
interest rate per compounding period, expressed as a
decimal; and n is the number of compounding periods.
In this problem:
A = 5900
P = 5000
i = 0.0612 ÷ 4 or 0.0153 Divide the interest rate by 4
because interest is paid quarterly
or four times a year.
Substitute the known values into the formula.

A = P(1 + r)n
5900 = 5000(1 + 0.0153)n You will learn how to solve equations like this
1.18 = 1.0153n algebraically when you study logarithms in Chapter 8.
The exponential equation consists of bases that cannot be changed into

the same form without using more advanced mathematics.
Method 1: Use Systematic Trial

Use systematic trial to find the approximate value of n that satisfies
this equation.
Substitute an initial guess into the equation and evaluate the result.
Adjust the estimated solution according to whether the result is too
high or too low.
Try n = 10. Why choose whole numbers for n?
1.015310 = 1.1639…, which is less than 1.18.
The result is less than the left side of the equation, so try a value of n = 14.
1.015314 = 1.2368…, which is greater than 1.18.
The result is more than the left side of the equation, so try a value of n = 11.
1.015311 = 1.1817…, which is approximately equal to 1.18.
The number of compounding periods is approximately 11.
Since interest is paid quarterly, there are four compounding periods
in each year. Therefore, it will take approximately _11 or 2.75 years for
4
Christina’s investment to reach a value of $5900.

Enter the single function How is this similar to graphing the left
y = 1.0153x - 1.18 and identify where side and right side of the equation
and determining where the two
the graph intersects the x-axis. graphs intersect?
You may have to adjust the window settings to view the point
of intersection.
Use the features of the graphing calculator to show that the zero of the
function is approximately 11.
Since interest is paid quarterly, there are four compounding periods
in each year. Therefore, it will take approximately _11 or 2.75 years for
4
Christina’s investment to reach a value of $5900.
Your Turn
Determine how long $1000 needs to be invested in an account that earns
8.3% compounded semi-annually before it increases in value to $1490.
Key Ideas
Some exponential equations can be solved directly if the terms on either side of the
equal sign have the same base or can be rewritten so that they have the same base.
If the bases are the same, then equate the exponents and solve for the variable.
If the bases are different but can be rewritten with the same base, use the
exponent laws, and then equate the exponents and solve for the variable.
Exponential equations that have terms with bases that you cannot rewrite using a
common base can be solved approximately. You can use either of the following methods:
Use systematic trial. First substitute a reasonable estimate for the solution into
the equation, evaluate the result, and adjust the next estimate according to
whether the result is too high or too low. Repeat this process until the sides of
the equation are approximately equal.
Graph the functions that correspond to the expressions on each side of the
equal sign, and then identify the value of x at the point of intersection, or graph
as a single function and find the x-intercept.

Practise Apply
1. Write each expression with base 2. 8. If seafood is not kept frozen (below 0 °C),
a) 46 b) 83 it will spoil due to bacterial growth. The
2 relative rate of spoilage increases with
c) ( _18 ) d) 16 temperature according to the model
T
_
2. Rewrite the expressions in each pair so R = 100(2.7) 8 , where T is the temperature,
that they have the same base. in degrees Celsius, and R is the relative
a) 23 and 42 spoilage rate.
b) 9x and 27 a) Sketch a graph of the relative spoilage
2x x-1 rate R versus the temperature T from
c) ( _12 ) 1
and _
4 ( ) 0 °C to 25 °C.
x-2
1
d) ( _ ) and 16x b) Use your graph to predict the
8 temperature at which the relative
3. Write each expression as a single power spoilage rate doubles to 200.
of 4. c) What is the relative spoilage rate at 15 °C?
___ 2 3
___
a) (√16 ) b) √16 d) If the maximum acceptable relative
___
3
___ 2 __ 8 __ 4
c) √16 ( √64 )
4
d) (√2 ) ( √4 ) spoilage rate is 500, what is the
4. Solve. Check your answers using maximum storage temperature?
substitution.
D i d You K n ow ?
a) 24x = 4x + 3 b) 25x − 1 = 53x
The relative rate of spoilage for seafood is defined
c) 3w + 1 = 9w − 1 d) 363m − 1 = 62m + 5 as the shelf life at 0° C divided by the shelf life at
5. Solve. Check your answers using graphing temperature T, in degrees Celsius.
technology.
a) 43x = 8x − 3 b) 27x = 9x − 2 9. A bacterial culture starts with 2000 bacteria
and doubles every 0.75 h. After how many
c) 1252y − 1 = 25y + 4 d) 162k − 3 = 32k + 3
hours will the bacteria count be 32 000?
6. Solve for x using systematic trial. Check
10. Simionie needs $7000 to buy a
your answers using graphing technology.
snowmobile, but only has $6000. His bank
Round answers to one decimal place.
offers a GIC that pays an annual interest
a) 2 = 1.07x b) 3 = 1.1x rate of 3.93%, compounded annually. How
c) 0.5 = 1.2x − 1 d) 5 = 1.08x + 2 long would Simionie have to invest his
7. Solve for t graphically. Round answers to money in the GIC to have enough money
two decimal places, if necessary. to buy the snowmobile?
2t
1
a) 100 = 10(1.04)t b) 10 = _ (2) D i d You K n ow ?
t t
1 _
1 _
c) 12 = _ (4) 3 d) 100 = 25 _ (2) 4 A Guaranteed Investment Certificate (GIC) is a secure
investment that guarantees 100% of the original
e) 2t = 3t − 1 f) 5t − 2 = 4t amount that is invested. The investment earns
interest, at either a fixed or a variable rate, based
g) 8t + 1 = 3t − 1 h) 72t + 1 = 4t − 2 on a predetermined formula.

11. A $1000 investment earns interest at a rate Extend
of 8% per year, compounded quarterly. 15. a) Solve each inequality.
a) Write an equation for the value of the i) 23x > 4x + 1 ii) 81x < 272x + 1
investment as a function of time, in years. b) Use a sketch to help you explain how
b) Determine the value of the investment you can use graphing technology to
after 4 years. check your answers.
c) How long will it take for the investment c) Create an inequality involving an
to double in value? exponential expression. Solve the
12. Cobalt-60 (Co-60) has a half-life of inequality graphically.
approximately 5.3 years. 16. Does the equation 42x + 2(4x) - 3 = 0 have
a) Write an exponential function to model any real solutions? Explain your answer.
this situation. 17. If 4x - 4x − 1 = 24, what is the value of (2x)x?
b) What fraction of a sample of Co-60 will 18. The formula for calculating the monthly
remain after 26.5 years? mortgage payment, PMT, for a property
i
c) How long will it take for a sample
of Co-60 to decay to _1 of its
is PMT = PV ___ [
1 - (1 + i)-n ]
, where PV
512 is the present value of the mortgage; i is
original mass? the interest rate per compounding period,
13. A savings bond offers interest at a rate of as a decimal; and n is the number of
6.6% per year, compounded semi-annually. payment periods. To buy a house, Tyseer
Suppose that you buy a $500 bond. takes out a mortgage worth $150 000 at an
a) Write an equation for the value of the equivalent monthly interest rate of 0.25%.
investment as a function of time, in years. He can afford monthly mortgage payments
of $831.90. Assuming the interest rate
b) Determine the value of the investment
and monthly payments stay the same,
after 5 years.
how long will it take Tyseer to pay off
c) How long will it take for the bond to
the mortgage?
triple in value?
14. Glenn and Arlene plan to invest money Create Connections
for their newborn grandson so that he has
C1 a) Explain how you can write 162 with
$20 000 available for his education on his
base 4.
18th birthday. Assuming a growth rate of
7% per year, compounded semi-annually, b) Explain how you can write 162 with two
how much will Glenn and Arlene need to other, different, bases.
invest today? C2 The steps for solving the equation
162x = 8x − 3 are shown below, but in a
D id Yo u K n ow ? jumbled order.
When the principal, P, needed to generate a 28x = 23x - 9
future amount is unknown, you can rearrange
162x = 8x - 3
the compound interest formula to isolate P:
P = A(1 + i )−n. In this form, the principal is referred x = -_ 9
to as the present value and the amount is referred 5
to as the future value. Then, you can calculate
8x = 3x - 9
the present value, PV, the amount that must be (2 ) = (23)x - 3
4 2x
invested or borrowed today to result in a specific 5x = -9

future value, FV, using the formula PV = FV(1 + i)−n,
where i is the interest rate per compounding period, a) Copy the steps into your notebook,
expressed as a decimal value, and n is the number of rearranged in the correct order.
compounding periods.
b) Write a brief explanation beside each step.

Chapter 7 Review
7.1 Characteristics of Exponential Functions, 3. What exponential function in the form
pages 334—345 y = cx is represented by the graph shown?
y
1. Match each item in set A with its graph
(-2, 16)
from set B. 16
Set A 12
a) The population of a country, in millions,
8
grows at a rate of 1.5% per year.
b) y = 10x 4
(-1, 4)
(0, 1)
c) Tungsten-187 is a radioactive isotope
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
that has a half-life of 1 day.
d) y = 0.2x
4. The value, v, of a dollar invested for t years
Set B at an annual interest rate of 3.25% is given
A y by v = 1.0325t.
4 a) Explain why the base of the exponential
function is 1.0325.
2
b) What will be the value of $1 if it is
-2 0 2 4 6 x invested for 10 years?
c) How long will it take for the value of
B y the dollar invested to reach $2?
8
4 7.2 Transformations of Exponential

Functions, page 346—357
0 40 80 120 160 x 5. The graph of y = 4x is transformed to
obtain the graph of y = -2(4)3(x − 1) + 2.
C y
a) What are the parameters and
4
corresponding transformations?
2 b) Copy and complete the table.
-2 0 2 4 6 x Parameter Function
Transformation Value Equation
D y horizontal stretch
20 vertical stretch
translation left/right
10
translation up/down
-4 -2 0 2 4 x c) Sketch the graph of y = -2(4)3(x − 1) + 2.

d) Identify the domain, range, equation
2. Consider the exponential function y = 0.3x. of the horizontal asymptote, and
a) Make a table of values and sketch the any intercepts for the function
graph of the function. y = -2(4)3(x − 1) + 2.
b) Identify the domain, range, intercepts,
and intervals of increase or decrease, as
well as any asymptotes.

1t
1 _
6. Identify the transformation(s) used in each
x
8. The function T = 190 _ (2) 10 can be used
case to transform the base function y = 3 . to determine the length of time, t, in
a) y hours, that milk of a certain fat content
y = 3x will remain fresh. T is the storage
6
temperature, in degrees Celsius.
4
a) Describe how each of the parameters
(4, 3)
2 in the function transforms the base
(3, 1) 1 t.
-2 0 2 4 6 x
function T = _
2 ( )
-2 ( )
2, 1
_
3
b) Graph the transformed function.
c) What are the domain and range for
b) y this situation?
y = 3x
4 d) How long will milk keep fresh at
22 °C?
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x 7.3 Solving Exponential Equations,

(1, -1)
(-1, 11_3) -2 (0, -3) pages 358—365
-4 9. Write each as a power of 6.
a) 36
1
b) _
c) y
36
y=3 x ____
5
4 c)
3
(√ 216 )
(-2, 5
_
3 ) 2 10. Solve each equation. Check your answers
(-1, 1) using graphing technology.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x a) 35x = 27x − 1
(0, -1)
-2 2x + 1
b) ( _18 ) = 32x − 3
-4
11. Solve for x. Round answers to two
decimal places.
7. Write the equation of the function that a) 3x − 2 = 5x
results from each set of transformations, b) 2x − 2 = 3x + 1
and then sketch the graph of the function.
12. Nickel-65 (Ni-65) has a half-life of 2.5 h.
a) f(x) = 5x is stretched vertically by a
a) Write an exponential function to model
factor of 4, stretched horizontally by
1 , reflected in the y-axis, this situation.
a factor of _
2 b) What fraction of a sample of Ni-65 will
and translated 1 unit up and 4 units to remain after 10 h?
the left.
x c) How long will it take for a sample
1
2( )
b) g(x) = _ is stretched horizontally
of Ni-65 to decay to _1 of its
1024
by a factor of _ 1 , stretched vertically
4 original mass?
by a factor of 3, reflected in the x-axis,
and translated 2 units to the right and
1 unit down.

9
2 expressed as a power of 2?
4. What is _
Multiple Choice 3 2
(4 )
For #1 to #5, choose the best answer. A 2-3
B 23
1. Consider the exponential functions
x
2 , and y = 7x. Which value C 21
y = 2x, y = _
3 ( ) D 2−1
of x results in the same y-value for each?
5. The intensity, I, in lumens, of light passing
A -1
through the glass of a pair of sunglasses
B 0 is given by the function I(x) = I0(0.8)x,
C 1 where x is the thickness of the glass, in
D There is no such value of x. millimetres, and I0 is the intensity of
light entering the glasses. Approximately
2. Which statement describes how to
how thick should the glass be so that
transform the function y = 3x into
1 (x - 5)
_
it will block 25% of the light entering
y = 34 - 2? the sunglasses?
1
A stretch vertically by a factor of _ A 0.7 mm
4
and translate 5 units to the left and B 0.8 mm
2 units up C 1.1 mm
1
B stretch horizontally by a factor of _ and D 1.3 mm
4
translate 2 units to the right and 5 units
down Short Answer
C stretch horizontally by a factor of 4 and 6. Determine the function that represents
translate 5 units to the right and 2 units each transformed graph.
down a) y
D stretch horizontally by a factor of 4 and 30
(-1, 27) y = 5x
translate 2 units to the left and 5 units up
20
3. An antique automobile was found to
double in value every 10 years. If the (-2, 7) 10
(-3, 3) y=2
current value is $100 000, what was the
value of the vehicle 20 years ago? -4 -2 0 2 4 x
A $50 000 B $25 000

C $12 500 D $5000 b) y
6
y = 2x
4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4
( 2)
1, - 9
_
y = -4
(2, -5)
(3, -6)
-6

7. Sketch and label the graph of each 12. The measure of the acidity of a solution
exponential function. is called its pH. The pH of swimming
1 pools needs to be checked regularly. This
a) y = _ (3)x + 2
2 is done by measuring the concentration
3 x-1 - 2
b) y = -2 _ ( )
2
of hydrogen ions (H+) in the water. The
relationship between the hydrogen ion
2(x + 3)
c) y = 3 -4 concentration, H, in moles per litre
8. Consider the function g(x) = 2(3)x + 3 - 4. 1 P, where P is
a) Determine the base function for g(x) and
(mol/L), is H(P) = _
10 ( )
the pH.
describe the transformations needed to
transform the base function to g(x).
pH Scale
b) Graph the function g(x).
Hydrogen ion
concentration 10 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12
-1
c) Identify the domain, the range,

and the equation of the horizontal pH Scale 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
asymptote for g(x). Acidic Basic
9. Solve for x. Neutral

1 (x - 4)
_
a) 32x = 9 2
b) 27x − 4 = 9x + 3 a) Sketch the graph of this function.
c) 10242x − 1 = 16x + 4 b) Water with a pH of less than 7.0 is

acidic. What is the hydrogen ion
10. Solve each equation using graphing
concentration for a pH of 7.0?
technology. Round answers to one
decimal place. c) Water in a swimming pool should
have a pH of between 7.0 and 7.6.
a) 3 = 1.12x
What is the equivalent range of
b) 2.7 = 0.32x − 1 hydrogen ion concentration?
13. Lucas is hoping to take a vacation after
Extended Response he finishes university. To do this, he
11. According to a Statistics Canada report estimates he needs $5000. Lucas is
released in 2010, Saskatoon had the able to finish his last year of university
fastest-growing population in Canada, with $3500 in an investment that pays
with an annual growth rate of 2.77%. 8.4% per year, compounded quarterly.
a) If the growth rate remained constant, by How long will Lucas have to wait
what factor would the population have before he has enough money to take the
been multiplied after 1 year? vacation he wants?
b) What function could be used to model 14. A computer, originally purchased for
this situation? $3000, depreciates in value according to
1 _3t , where V is
c) What are the domain and range of the the function V(t) = 3000 _
2 ( )
function for this situation? the value, in dollars, of the computer at
d) At this rate, approximately how long any time, t, in years. Approximately how
would it take for Saskatoon’s population long will it take for the computer to be
to grow by 25%? worth 10% of its purchase price?

CHAPTER
8 Logarithmic
Functions
Logarithms were developed over 400 years ago,
and they still have numerous applications in
the modern world. Logarithms allow you to
solve any exponential equation. Logarithmic
scales use manageable numbers to represent
quantities in science that vary over vast ranges,
such as the energy of an earthquake or the pH
of a solution. Logarithmic spirals model the
spiral arms of a galaxy, the curve of animal
horns, the shape of a snail, the growth of
certain plants, the arms of a hurricane, and
the approach of a hawk to its prey.
In this chapter, you will learn what logarithms

are, how to represent them, and how to use
them to model situations and solve problems.
Did Yo u Know ?
Logarithms were developed

independently by John Napier
(1550—1617), from Scotland,
and Jobst Bürgi (1552—1632),
from Switzerland. Since Napier
published his work first, he is
given the credit. Napier was
also the first to use the
decimal point in its
modern context.
Logarithms were developed
before exponents were used.
It was not until the end of
the seventeenth century that
mathematicians recognized that
logarithms are exponents.
Key Terms
logarithmic function common logarithm
logarithm logarithmic equation

8.1
Understanding Logarithms
Focus on…
• demonstrating that a logarithmic function is the inverse of an
exponential function
• sketching the graph of y = logc x, c > 0, c ≠ 1
• determining the characteristics of the graph of y = logc x, c > 0, c ≠ 1
• explaining the relationship between logarithms and exponents
• expressing a logarithmic function as an exponential function and
vice versa
• evaluating logarithms using a variety of methods
Do you have a favourite social networking site?

Some social networking sites can be modelled by an
exponential function, where the number of users is a
function of time. You can use the exponential function
to predict the number of users accessing the site at a
certain time.
What if you wanted to predict the length of time
required for a social networking site to be accessed by
a certain number of users? In this type of relationship,
the length of time is a function of the number of users.
This situation can be modelled by using the inverse of
an exponential function.
Investigate Logarithms
Materials 1. Use a calculator to determine the decimal approximation of the

• grid paper exponent, x, in each equation, to one decimal place.
a) 10x = 0.5 b) 10x = 4 c) 10x = 8
2. a) Copy and complete the table of values for the exponential
function y = 10x and then draw the graph of the function.
x -1 0 1
y 0.5 4 8
b) Identify the following characteristics of the graph.

i) the domain
ii) the range
iii) the x-intercept, if it exists
iv) the y-intercept, if it exists
v) the equation of any asymptotes

3. a) Copy and complete the table of values for x = 10y, which is the
inverse of y = 10x. Then, draw the graph of the inverse function.
x 0.5 4 8
y -1 0 1
b) Identify the following characteristics of the inverse graph.

i) the domain
ii) the range
iii) the x-intercept, if it exists
iv) the y-intercept, if it exists
v) the equation of the asymptote
4. Use the log function on a calculator to find the decimal
approximation of each expression, to three decimal places. What do
you notice about these values?
a) log 0.5
b) log 4
c) log 8
Reflect and Respond

5. Explain how the graph of the exponential function y = 10x and its
inverse graph are related.
6. Does the inverse graph represent a function? Explain.
7. Points on the inverse graph are of the form (x, log x). Explain the
meaning of log x.
Link the Ideas
For the exponential function y = c x, the inverse is x = c y. This inverse

logarithmic
is also a function and is called a logarithmic function. It is written as
function
y = logc x, where c is a positive number other than 1.
• a function of the form
y = logc x, where
Logarithmic Form Exponential Form
c > 0 and c ≠ 1, that
exponent is the inverse of the
exponential function
logc x = y cy = x y = cx
base logarithm
• an exponent
Since our number system is based on powers of 10, logarithms with
• in x = c y, y is called the
base 10 are widely used and are called common logarithms. When
logarithm to base c of x
you write a common logarithm, you do not need to write the base.
For example, log 3 means log10 3. common logarithm
• a logarithm with
base 10
8.1 Understanding Logarithms • MHR 373

Example 1
Evaluating a Logarithm
Evaluate.
__
a) log7 49 b) log6 1 c) log 0.001 d) log2 √8
Solution
a) The logarithm is the exponent that must be applied to base 7 to obtain 49.
Determine the value by inspection.
Since 72 = 49, the value of the logarithm is 2.
Therefore, log7 49 = 2.
Did Yo u Know ? b) The logarithm is the exponent that must be applied to base 6 to
obtain 1.
The input value What is the value of
Since, 60 = 1, the value of the logarithm is 0.
for a logarithm is any logarithm with an
called an argument. Therefore, log6 1 = 0. argument of 1? Why?
For example, in the
expression log6 1, c) This is a common logarithm. You need to find the exponent that must
the argument is 1. be applied to base 10 to obtain 0.001.
Let log10 0.001 = x. Express in exponential form.
10x = 0.001
10x = _ 1
1000
10x = _ 1
103
10x = 10-3
x = -3
Therefore, log 0.001 = -3.
d) The logarithm
__
is the __
exponent that must be applied to base 2 to
obtain __√8 . Let log2 √8 = x. Express in exponential form.
2x = √__
8
2x = √23
1
_
2x = (23) 2 Express the radical as a power with a rational exponent.
3
_
2x = 2 2
x=_ 3
2 __
Therefore, log2 √8 3.
=_
2
Your Turn
Evaluate.
5
___
a) log2 32 b) log9 √81__
c) log 1 000 000 d) log3 9 √3

If c > 0 and c ≠ 1, then Why does c have these restrictions?
• logc 1 = 0 since in exponential form c 0 = 1
• logc c = 1 since in exponential form c 1 = c
• logc c x = x since in exponential form c x = c x
• clog x = x, x > 0, since in logarithmic form logc x = logc x
c
The last two results are sometimes called the inverse properties, since
logarithms and powers are inverse mathematical operations that undo
each other. In logc c x = x, the logarithm of a power with the same base
equals the exponent, x. In clog x = x, a power raised to the logarithm of a
c
number with the same base equals that number, x.
Example 2
Determine an Unknown in an Expression in Logarithmic Form
Determine the value of x.
a) log5 x = -3
b) logx 36 = 2
2
c) log64 x = _
3
Solution
a) log5 x = -3
5-3 = x Express in exponential form.
_1
=x
125
b) logx 36 = 2
x2 = 36 ___ Express in exponential form.
x = ± √36
Since the base of a logarithm must be greater than zero,
x = –6 is not an acceptable answer. So, x = 6.
2
c) log64 x = _
3
2
_
64 3
___
= x Express in exponential form.
3
( 64 )2
√ = x
42 = x
16 = x
Your Turn
Determine the value of x.
a) log4 x = -2
1
b) log16 x = - _
4
2
c) logx 9 = _
3

Example 3
Graph the Inverse of an Exponential Function
a) State the inverse of f (x) = 3x.
b) Sketch the graph of the inverse. Identify the following characteristics
of the inverse graph:
• the x-intercept, if it exists
• the y-intercept, if it exists
• the equations of any asymptotes
Solution
a) The inverse of y = f(x) = 3x is x = 3y or,
expressed in logarithmic form, y = log3 x. Since the

How do you know
inverse is a function, it can be written in function that y = log3 x is
notation as f -1(x) = log3 x. a function?
b) Set up tables of values for both the exponential function, f(x), and its
inverse, f -1(x). Plot the points and join them with a smooth curve.
f (x) = 3x f -1(x) = log3 x

x y x y
1
_ 1
_
-3 -3
27 27
1
_ _1
-2 -2
9 9
1
_ 1
_
-1 -1
3 3
0 1 1 0
1 3 3 1
2 9 9 2
3 27 27 3
y
f(x) = 3x
8
2
How are the values of
x and y related in these
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x two functions? Explain.
-2
f -1(x) = log3 x
-4
y=x
-6

The graph of the inverse, f -1(x) = log3 x, is a reflection of the graph
of f(x) = 3x about the line y = x. For f -1(x) = log3 x,

• the domain is {x | x > 0, x ∈ R} and the range is {y | y ∈ R}
• the x-intercept is 1
• there is no y-intercept
• the vertical asymptote, the y-axis, has How do the characteristics of
equation x = 0; there is no horizontal f -1(x) = log3 x compare to the
characteristics of f(x) = 3x?
asymptote
Your Turn
x
1
(2)
a) Write the inverse of f (x) = _ .
b) Sketch the graphs of f(x) and its inverse. Identify the following
characteristics of the inverse graph:
Example 4
Estimate the Value of a Logarithm
Without using technology, estimate the value of log2 14, to one decimal
place.
Solution
The logarithm is the exponent that must be applied to base 2 to obtain 14.
Since 23 = 8, log2 8 = 3.
Also, 24 = 16, so log2 16 = 4.
Since 14 is closer to 16 than to 8, try an estimate of 3.7.
Then, 23.7 ≈ 13, so log2 13 ≈ 3.7. This is less than log2 14.
Try 3.8. Then, 23.8 ≈ 14, so log2 14 ≈ 3.8.
Your Turn
Without using technology, estimate the value of log3 50, to one decimal
place.

Example 5
An Application of Logarithms
In 1935, American seismologist
Charles R. Richter developed a
scale formula for measuring
the magnitude of earthquakes.
The Richter magnitude, M, of
an earthquake is defined as
M = log _A , where A is the
A0
amplitude of the ground
motion, usually in microns,
measured by a sensitive
Did Yo u Know ? seismometer, and A0 is the amplitude,
litude Naikoon
N ik P
Provincial
i i lP Park,
k HHaida
id GGwaiiii
corrected for the distance to the actual
A “standard”
earthquake, that would be expected for a “standard” earthquake.
earthquake has
amplitude of 1 micron, a) In 1946, an earthquake struck Vancouver Island off the coast of British
or 0.0001 cm, and Columbia. It had an amplitude that was 107.3 times A0. What was the
magnitude 0. Each earthquake’s magnitude on the Richter scale?
increase of 1 unit
on the Richter scale b) The strongest recorded earthquake in Canada struck Haida Gwaii, off
is equivalent to a the coast of British Columbia, in 1949. It had a Richter reading of 8.1.
tenfold increase in How many times as great as A0 was its amplitude?
the intensity of an
earthquake.
c) Compare the seismic shaking of the 1949 Haida Gwaii earthquake
with that of the earthquake that struck Vancouver Island in 1946.
Solution
a) Since the amplitude of the Vancouver Island earthquake was 107.3
A.
times A0, substitute 107.3A0 for A in the formula M = log _
1
A 0
107.3A0
M = log (
__
A0
1
)
M = log 107.3
M = 7.3 logcc x = x, since in exponential form c x = c x.
The Vancouver Island earthquake had magnitude of 7.3 on the Richter
scale.
A
b) Substitute 8.1 for M in the formula M = log _ and express A in
A0
terms of A0.
A
8.1 = log _
A0
108.1 = _A Write in exponential form.
A0
108.1A0 = A
125 892 541A0 ≈ A
The amplitude of the Haida Gwaii earthquake was approximately
126 million times the amplitude of a standard earthquake.

c) Compare the amplitudes of the two earthquakes.
1
amplitude of Haida Gwaii earthquake
________ 108.1A0
= __
amplitude of Vancouver Island earthquake 107.3A0
1
=_
108.1
107.3
≈ 6.3
The Haida Gwaii earthquake created shaking 6.3 times as great in

amplitude as the Vancouver Island earthquake.
Your Turn
The largest measured earthquake struck Chile in 1960. It measured 9.5
on the Richter scale. How many times as great was the seismic shaking
of the Chilean earthquake than the 1949 Haida Gwaii earthquake, which
measured 8.1 on the Richter scale?
Key Ideas
A logarithm is an exponent.
Equations in exponential form can be written in logarithmic form and
vice versa.
Exponential Form Logarithmic Form
x = cy y = logc x
The inverse of the exponential function y = c x, c > 0, c ≠ 1, is
x = c y or, in logarithmic form, y = logc x. Conversely, the inverse of
the logarithmic function y = logc x, c > 0, c ≠ 1, is x = logc y or, in
exponential form, y = c x.
The graphs of an exponential function and its inverse y y = 2x
logarithmic function are reflections of each other in the 4
line y = x, as shown.
2
For the logarithmic function y = logc x, c > 0, c ≠ 1,
the domain is {x | x > 0, x ∈ R} -4 -2 0 2 4 x
y = log2 x
the range is {y | y ∈ R} -2
y=x
the x-intercept is 1 -4
the vertical asymptote is x = 0, or the y-axis
A common logarithm has base 10. It is not necessary to write the base
for common logarithms:
log10 x = log x

Practise 4. Use the definition of a logarithm to

1. For each exponential graph, evaluate.
i) copy the graph on grid paper, and then a) log5 125
sketch the graph of the inverse on the b) log 1
__
same grid 3
c) log4 √4
ii) write the equation of the inverse d) log _1 27
iii) determine the following characteristics 3
5. Without using technology, find two
of the inverse graph:
consecutive whole numbers, a and b,
such that a < log2 28 < b.
• the y-intercept, if it exists 6. State a value of x so that log3 x is
• the equation of the asymptote a) a positive integer
a) y b) a negative integer
y = 2x c) zero
8
d) a rational number
6
7. The base of a logarithm can be any positive
4 real number except 1. Use examples to
2
illustrate why the base of a logarithm
cannot be
-4 -2 0 2 4 x a) 0
b) 1
b) y c) negative
( )
x
1
y= _ 8 8. a) If f(x) = 5x, state the equation of the
3
inverse, f -1(x).
6
b) Sketch the graph of f(x) and its inverse.
4 Identify the following characteristics of
2 the inverse graph:
-4 -2 0 2 4 x • the x-intercept, if it exists
2. Express in logarithmic form.
1
_ 9. a) If g(x) = log _1 x, state the equation of the
a) 122 = 144 b) 8 3 = 2 4
c) 10 -5
= 0.000 01 d) 72x
=y+3 inverse, g-1(x).
3. Express in exponential form. b) Sketch the graph of g(x) and its inverse.
Identify the following characteristics of
a) log5 25 = 2
the inverse graph:
2
b) log8 4 = _ • the domain and range
3
c) log 1 000 000 = 6
d) log11 (x + 3) = y • the equations of any asymptotes

Apply 19. The formula for the Richter magnitude, M,
10. Explain the relationship between the of an earthquake is M = log _A , where
characteristics of the functions y = 7x A0
and y = log7 x. A is the amplitude of the ground motion
and A0 is the amplitude of a standard
11. Graph y = log2 x and y = log _1 x on the
2 earthquake. In 1985, an earthquake with
same coordinate grid. Describe the ways magnitude 6.9 on the Richter scale was
the graphs are recorded in the Nahanni region of the
a) alike Northwest Territories. The largest recorded
b) different earthquake in Saskatchewan occurred in
1982 near the town of Big Beaver. It had a
12. Determine the value of x in each.
magnitude of 3.9 on the Richter scale. How
a) log6 x = 3 many times as great as the seismic shaking
1
b) logx 9 = _ of the Saskatchewan earthquake was that
2 of the Nahanni earthquake?
c) log _1 x = -3
4
4 D i d You K n ow ?
d) logx 16 = _
3
Scientists at the Geological Survey of Canada office,
13. Evaluate each expression. near Sidney, British Columbia, record and locate
a) 5m, where m = log5 7 earthquakes every day. Of the approximately 1000
earthquakes each year in Western Canada, fewer
b) 8n, where n = log8 6 than 50 are strong enough to be felt by humans.
14. Evaluate. In Canada, there have been no casualties directly
related to earthquakes. A tsunami triggered by a
a) log2 (log3 (log4 64)) major earthquake off the coast of California could be
b) log4 (log2 (log 1016)) hazardous to the British Columbia coast.
15. Determine the x-intercept of

20. If log5 x = 2, then determine log5 125x.
y = log7 (x + 2).
1
( )
16. The point _ , -3 is on the graph of the
8 Extend
logarithmic function f (x) = logc x, and the 21. If log3 (m - n) = 0 and log3 (m + n) = 3,
point (4, k) is on the graph of the inverse, determine the values of m and n.
y = f -1(x). Determine the value of k. 22. If log3 m = n, then determine log3 m4, in
17. The growth of a new social networking terms of n.
site can be modelled by the exponential 23. Determine the equation of the inverse of
function N(t) = 1.1t, where N is the y = log2 (log3 x).
number of users after t days.
24. If m = log2 n and 2m + 1 = log2 16n,
a) Write the equation of the inverse. determine the values of m and n.
b) How long will it take, to the nearest
day, for the number of users to exceed Create Connections
1 000 000?
C1 Graph y = |log2 x|. Describe how the graph
18. The Palermo Technical Impact Hazard of y = |log2 x| is related to the graph of
scale was developed to rate the potential y = log2 x.
hazard impact of a near-Earth object. The
C2 Create a mind map to summarize
Palermo scale, P, is defined as P = log R,
everything you know about the graph of
where R is the relative risk. Compare the
the logarithmic function y = logc x, where
relative risks of two asteroids, one with a
c > 0 and c ≠ 1. Enhance your mind map
Palermo scale value of -1.66 and the other
by sharing ideas with classmates.
with a Palermo scale value of -4.83.

C3 MINI LAB Recall that an irrational number Step 3 The shell of the chambered nautilus is
a, a logarithmic spiral. Other real-world
cannot be expressed in the form _
b examples of logarithmic spirals are
where a and b are integers and b ≠ 0. the horns of wild sheep, the curve of
Irrational numbers cannot be expressed as elephant tusks, the approach of a hawk to
a terminating or a repeating decimal. The its prey, and the arms of spiral galaxies.
number π is irrational. Another special
irrational number is represented by the
letter e. Its existence was implied by John
Napier, the inventor of logarithms, but it was
later studied by the Swiss mathematician
Leonhard Euler. Euler was the first to use
the letter e to represent it, and, as a result,
e is sometimes called Euler’s number.
Step 1 The number e can be approximated in
a variety of ways.
a) Use the e or ex key on a calculator A logarithmic spiral can be formed
to find the decimal approximation by starting at point P(1, 0) and then
of e to nine decimal places. rotating point P counterclockwise an
b) You can obtain a better angle of θ, in radians, such that the
approximation of the number e distance, r, from point P to the origin
by substituting larger values for x is always r = e0.14θ.
x
1 y
(
in the expression 1 + _ x . )
6
x
x (1 + x )
1
_
4
10 2.593 742 460
2
100 2.704 813 829 P
1 000 2.716 923 932 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
10 000 2.718 145 927 -2
As a power of 10, what is the -4

minimum value of x needed to
approximate e correctly to nine -6
decimal places?
Step 2 a) Graph the inverse of the a) Determine the distance, r, from
exponential function y = ex. point P to the origin after the point
Identify the following characteristics has rotated 2π. Round your answer
of the inverse graph: to two decimal places.
b) The spiral is logarithmic because
the relationship between r and θ
may be expressed using logarithms.
• the equation of the asymptote
i) Express r = e0.14θ in logarithmic
b) A logarithm to base e is called a
form.
natural logarithm. The natural
logarithm of any positive real ii) Determine the angle, θ, of rotation
number x is denoted by loge x or that corresponds to a value for r
ln x. What is the inverse of the of 12. Give your answer in radians
exponential function y = ex? to two decimal places.

8.2
Transformations of
Logarithmic Functions
Focus on…
• explaining the effects of the parameters a, b, h, and k in y = a logc (b(x - h)) + k on
the graph of y = logc x, where c > 1
• sketching the graph of a logarithmic function by applying a set of transformations to
the graph of y = logc x, where c > 1, and stating the characteristics of the graph
In some situations people are less sensitive to differences in the magnitude y Brightness
of a stimulus as the intensity of the stimulus increases. For example, if you
Subjective Magnitude
compare a 50-W light bulb to a 100-W light bulb, the 100-W light bulb seems
much brighter. However, if you compare a 150-W light bulb to a 200-W light
bulb, they appear almost the same. In 1860, Gustav Fechner, the founder of
psychophysics, proposed a logarithmic curve to describe this relationship.
Stimulus Magnitude x
Describe another situation that might be modelled by a logarithmic curve.
Investigate Transformations of Logarithmic Functions
1. The graphs show how y = log x is transformed into y Graph 1

y = a log (b(x - h)) + k by changing one parameter at a 2
y = log x
time. Graph 1 shows y = log x and the effect of changing
one parameter. The effect on one key point is shown at 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
each step. For graphs 1 to 4, describe the effect of the
parameter introduced and write the equation of y Graph 2
4
the transformed function.
2. Suppose that before the first transformation, y = log x is 2
reflected in an axis. Describe the effect on the equation if

0 2 4 6 8 10 x
the reflection is in
a) the x-axis y Graph 3
b) the y-axis
4
Reflect and Respond x

0 2 4 6 8 10
3. In general, describe how the parameters a, b, h, and k in
the logarithmic function y = a logc (b(x - h)) + k affect y Graph 4
the following characteristics of y = logc x. 4
a) the domain
2
b) the range
c) the vertical asymptote 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
8.2 Transformations of Logarithmic Functions • MHR 383

Link the Ideas
The graph of the logarithmic function y = a logc (b(x - h)) + k can be

obtained by transforming the graph of y = logc x. The table below uses
mapping notation to show how each parameter affects the point (x, y) on
the graph of y = logc x.
Parameter Transformation
a (x, y) → (x, ay)
x How would you describe the
b ( )
(x, y) → _ , y
b effects of each parameter?
h (x, y) → (x + h, y)
k (x, y) → (x, y + k)
Example 1
Translations of a Logarithmic Function
a) Use transformations to sketch the graph of the function
y = log3 (x + 9) + 2.
b) Identify the following characteristics of the graph of the function.
i) the equation of the asymptote ii) the domain and range
iii) the y-intercept, if it exists iv) the x-intercept, if it exists
Solution
a) To sketch the graph of y = log3 (x + 9) + 2, translate the graph of
y = log3 x to the left 9 units and up 2 units.
Choose some key points to sketch the base function, y = log3 x.

Examine how the coordinates of key points and the position of
the asymptote change. Each point (x, y) on the graph of y = log3 x
is translated to become the point (x - 9, y + 2) on the graph of
y = log3 (x + 9) + 2.
In mapping notation, (x, y) → (x - 9, y + 2).

y = log3 x y = log3 (x + 9) + 2
(1, 0) (-8, 2)
(3, 1) (-6, 3)
(9, 2) (0, 4)
4 y = log3 (x + 9) + 2
2
y = log3 x
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x
-2

b) i) For y = log3 x, the asymptote is the y-axis, that is, the equation
x = 0. For y = log3 (x + 9) + 2, the equation of the asymptote
occurs when x + 9 = 0. Therefore, the equation of the vertical
asymptote is x = -9.
ii) The domain is {x | x > -9, x ∈ R} and the range is {y | y ∈ R}.
iii) To determine the y-intercept, substitute x = 0. Then, solve for y.
y = log3 (0 + 9) + 2
y = log3 9 + 2
y=2+2
y=4
iv) To determine the x-intercept, substitute y = 0. Then, solve for x.
0 = log3 (x + 9) + 2
-2 = log3 (x + 9)
3-2 = x + 9
_1 =x+9
9
- 80
_ =x
9
The x-intercept is - _80 or approximately -8.9.
9
Your Turn
y = log (x - 10) - 1.
i) the equation of the asymptote
ii) the domain and range
iii) the y-intercept, if it exists
iv) the x-intercept, if it exists
Example 2
Reflections, Stretches, and Translations of a Logarithmic Function
y = -log2 (2x + 6).
i) the equation of the asymptote
ii) the domain and range
iii) the y-intercept, if it exists
iv) the x-intercept, if it exists
Solution
a) Factor the expression 2x + 6 to identify the horizontal translation.
y = -log2 (2x + 6)
y = -log2 (2(x + 3))

To sketch the graph of y = -log2 (2(x + 3)) from the graph of
y = log2 x,
1
• horizontally stretch about the y-axis by a factor of _
2
• reflect in the x-axis
• horizontally translate 3 units to the left
1.
Start by horizontally stretching about the y-axis by a factor of _
2
Key points on the graph of y = log2 x change as shown.
1 x, y .
In mapping notation, (x, y) → _
2 ( )
y = log2 x y = log2 2x y
y = log2 2x
(1, 0) (0.5, 0) 4
(2, 1) (1, 1)
2
y = log2 x
(4, 2) (2, 2)
(8, 3) (4, 3) -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x
-2
At this stage, the asymptote
remains unchanged: it is -4
the vertical line x = 0.
Next, reflect in the x-axis. The key points change as shown.
In mapping notation, (x, y) → (x, -y).
y = log2 2x y = -log2 2x y
y = log2 2x
(0.5, 0) (0.5, 0) 4
(1, 1) (1, -1) 2

(2, 2) (2, -2)
(4, 3) (4, -3) -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x
-2
The asymptote is still x = 0
at this stage. -4 y = -log2 2x
Lastly, translate horizontally 3 units to the left. The key points change
as shown.
In mapping notation, (x, y) → (x - 3, y).

y
y = -log2 2x y = -log2 (2(x + 3))
(0.5, 0) (-2.5, 0) 4
(1, -1) (-2, -1) 2

(2, -2) (-1, -2)
(4, -3) (1, -3) -2 0 2 4 6 8 x
-2
y = -log2 2x
The asymptote is now shifted 3 units
to the left to become the vertical -4
line x = -3. y = -log2 (2(x + 3))

b) i) From the equation of the function, y = -log2 (2x + 6), the equation
of the vertical asymptote occurs when 2x + 6 = 0. Therefore, the
equation of the vertical asymptote is x = -3.
ii) The domain is {x | x > -3, x ∈ R} and the range is {y | y ∈ R}.
iii) To determine the y-intercept from the equation of the function,
substitute x = 0. Then, solve for y.
y = -log2 (2(0) + 6)
y = -log2 6 Use a calculator to determine the approximate value.
y ≈ -2.6
The y-intercept is approximately -2.6.
iv) To determine the x-intercept from the equation of the function,
substitute y = 0. Then, solve for x.
0 = -log2 (2x + 6)
0 = log2 (2x + 6)
20 = 2x + 6
1 = 2x + 6
-5 = 2x
-_5 =x
2
The x-intercept is - _5 or -2.5.
2
Your Turn
y = 2 log3 (-x + 1).
b) Identify the following characteristics.
i) the equation of the asymptote ii) the domain and range
iii) the y-intercept, if it exists iv) the x-intercept, if it exists
Example 3
Determine the Equation of a Logarithmic Function Given Its Graph
The red graph can be generated by stretching the y
2
blue graph of y = log4 x. Write the equation that
describes the red graph.
0 2 4 x
y = log4 x
-2
Solution
The red graph has been horizontally stretched since a vertical stretch
does not change the x-intercept.
Method 1: Compare With the Graph of y = log4 x
The key point (4, 1) on the graph of y = log4 x has become the image
point (1, 1) on the red graph. Thus, the red graph can be generated by
horizontally stretching the graph of y = log4 x about the y-axis by a factor
1 . The red graph can be described by the equation y = log 4x.
of _
4 4

Method 2: Use Points and Substitution
The equation of the red graph is of the form y = log4 bx. Substitute the
coordinates of a point on the red graph, such as (4, 2), into the equation.
Solve for b.
y = log4 bx
2 = log4 4b Which other point could you have used?
42 = 4b
4=b
The red graph can be described by the equation y = log4 4x.
Your Turn y
The red graph can be generated by stretching 2 y = log4 x

and reflecting the graph of y = log4 x. Write the
0 2 4 6 x
equation that describes the red graph.
-2
-4
Example 4
An Application Involving a Logarithmic Function
Welding is the most common way to permanently join metal parts
together. Welders wear helmets fitted with a filter shade to protect
their eyes from the intense light and radiation produced by a
welding light. The filter shade number, N, is defined by the function
7(-log T )
N = __ + 1, where T is the fraction of visible light that passes
3
through the filter. Shade numbers range from 2 to 14, with a lens shade
number of 14 allowing the least amount of light to pass through.
The correct filter shade depends on the type of welding. A shade number
12 is suggested for arc welding. What fraction of visible light is passed
through the filter to the welder, as a percent to the nearest ten thousandth?
Solution
Substitute 12 for N and solve for T.
12 = - _7 log T + 1
3 10
7
11 = - _ log10 T
3
3 = log T
( )
11 - _
7 10
-_33 = log T
7 10
33
-_
10 7 = T
0.000 019 ≈ T
A filter shade number 12 allows approximately 0.000 019, or 0.0019%, of
the visible light to pass through the filter.

There is a logarithmic relationship
Eighty-seven different
between butterflies and flowers. In one species of butterfly
study, scientists found that the relationship have been seen in
between the number, F, of flower species that Nunavut. Northern
butterflies survive
a butterfly feeds on and the number, B, of the winters in a
butterflies observed can be modelled by larval stage and
the function F = -2.641 + 8.958 log B. manufacture their
own antifreeze to
Predict the number of butterfly keep from freezing.
They manage the cool
observations in a region with 25 flower species.
summer temperatures
by angling their wings
Arctic butterfly, oeneis chryxus to catch the sun’s rays.
Key Ideas
To represent real-life situations, you may need to transform the basic

logarithmic function y = logb x by applying reflections, stretches, and
translations. These transformations should be performed in the same
manner as those applied to any other function.
The effects of the parameters a, b, h, and k in y = a logc (b(x - h)) + k
on the graph of the logarithmic function y = logc x are shown below.
Vertically stretch by a factor of |a| about the Vertically translate k units.
x-axis. Reflect in the x-axis if a < 0.
y = a logc (b(x - h)) + k
| |
1
Horizontally stretch by a factor of _ about the
b Horizontally translate h units.
y-axis. Reflect in the y-axis if b < 0.
Only parameter h changes the vertical asymptote and the domain. None of the
parameters change the range.
Practise 2. a) Sketch the graph of y = log3 x, and then

1. Describe how the graph of each logarithmic apply, in order, each of the following
function can be obtained from the graph of transformations.
y = log5 x. • Stretch vertically by a factor of 2
about the x-axis.
a) y = log5 (x - 1) + 6
• Translate 3 units to the left.
b) y = -4 log5 3x
b) Write the equation of the final
1
c) y = _ log5 (-x) + 7
2 transformed image.

3. a) Sketch the graph of y = log2 x, and then d) y
apply, in order, each of the following y = log4 x
2
transformations.
• Reflect in the y-axis. 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
• Translate vertically 5 units up. -2
b) Write the equation of the final
transformed image.
7. Describe, in order, a series of
4. Sketch the graph of each function. transformations that could be applied
a) y = log2 (x + 4) - 3 to the graph of y = log7 x to obtain the
b) y = -log3 (x + 1) + 2 graph of each function.
c) y = log4 (-2(x - 8)) a) y = log7 (4(x + 5)) + 6
1
5. Identify the following characteristics of the
graph of each function.
(
b) y = 2 log7 - _ (x - 1) - 4
3 )
i) the equation of the asymptote Apply
ii) the domain and range 8. The graph of y = log3 x has been
transformed to y = a log3 (b(x - h)) + k.
iii) the y-intercept, to one decimal place if
Find the values of a, b, h, and k for each
necessary
set of transformations. Write the equation
iv) the x-intercept, to one decimal place if of the transformed function.
necessary
a) a reflection in the x-axis and a
a) y = -5 log3 (x + 3) translation of 6 units left and 3 units up
b) y = log6 (4(x + 9)) b) a vertical stretch by a factor of 5 about
c) y = log5 (x + 3) - 2 the x-axis and a horizontal stretch about
d) y = -3 log2 (x + 1) - 6 the y-axis by a factor of _1
3
6. In each, the red graph is a stretch of the blue c) a vertical stretch about the x-axis by a
graph. Write the equation of each red graph. 3 , a horizontal stretch about
factor of _
a) y
4
the y-axis by a factor of 4, a reflection
4 in the y-axis, and a translation of
2 2 units right and 5 units down
y = log x
9. Describe how the graph of each logarithmic
0 2 4 6 8 10 x function could be obtained from the graph
of y = log3 x.
b) y
a) y = 5 log3 (-4x + 12) - 2
2 1
b) y = - _ log3 (6 - x) + 1
4
0 2 4 6 8 10 x 10. a) Only a vertical translation has been
y = log8 x
-2 applied to the graph of y = log3 x so that
the graph of the transformed image passes
y
through the point (9, -4). Determine the
c) y = log2 x
equation of the transformed image.
2
b) Only a horizontal stretch has been
x applied to the graph of y = log2 x so that
0 2 4 6 8 10
the graph of the transformed image passes
-2
through the point (8, 1). Determine the
equation of the transformed image.

11. Explain how the graph of 16. Determine the equation of the transformed
1 (y + 2) = log (x - 4) can be generated by
_ image after the transformations described
3 6
are applied to the given graph.
transforming the graph of y = log6 x.
a) The graph of y = 2 log5 x - 7 is reflected
12. The equivalent amount of energy, E, in
in the x-axis and translated 6 units up.
kilowatt-hours (kWh), released for an
earthquake with a Richter magnitude b) The graph of y = log (6(x - 3)) is
of R is determined by the function stretched horizontally about the y-axis by
R = 0.67 log 0.36E + 1.46. a factor of 3 and translated 9 units left.
a) Describe how the function is 17. The graph of f(x) = log2 x has been
transformed from R = log E. transformed to g(x) = a log2 x + k. The
b) The strongest earthquake in Eastern transformed image passes through the
1 , -9 and (16, -6). Determine the
Canada occurred in 1963 at Charlevoix, points _(
4 )
Québec. It had a Richter magnitude of values of a and k.
7.0. What was the equivalent amount
of energy released, to the nearest Create Connections
kilowatt-hour?
C1 The graph of f(x) = 5x is
13. In a study, doctors found that in young
• reflected in the line y = x
people the arterial blood pressure, P, • vertically stretched about the x-axis by a
in millimetres of mercury (mmHg), 1
factor of _
is related to the vessel volume, V, 4
in microlitres (µL), of the radial • horizontally stretched about the y-axis by
artery by the logarithmic function a factor of 3
V = 0.23 + 0.35 log (P - 56.1), P > 56.1. • translated 4 units right and 1 unit down
a) To the nearest tenth of a microlitre, If the equation of the transformed
predict the vessel volume when the image is written in the form
arterial blood pressure is 110 mmHg. g(x) = a logc (b(x - h)) + k, determine
b) To the nearest millimetre of mercury, the values of a, b, h, and k. Write the
predict the arterial blood pressure when equation of the function g(x).
the vessel volume is 0.7 µL. C2 a) Given f (x) = log2 x, write the equations
14. According to the Ehrenberg relation, for the functions y = -f(x), y = f(-x),
the average measurements of heights, and y = f -1(x).
h, in centimetres, and masses, m, in b) Sketch the graphs of the four functions
kilograms, of children between the ages in part a). Describe how each
of 5 and 13 are related by the function transformed graph can be obtained
log m = 0.008h + 0.4. from the graph of f(x) = log2 x.
a) Predict the height of a 10-year-old child C3 a) The graph of y = 3(72x - 1) + 5 is
with a mass of 60 kg, to the nearest reflected in the line y = x. What is the
centimetre. equation of the transformed image?
b) Predict the mass of a 12-year-old child b) If f(x) = 2 log3 (x - 1) + 8, find the
with a height of 150 cm, to the nearest equation of f -1 (x).
kilogram. C4 Create a poster, digital presentation,
or video to illustrate the different
Extend transformations you studied in this
15. The graph of f(x) = log8 x can also be section.
described by the equation g(x) = a log2 x.
Find the value of a.

8.3
Laws of Logarithms
Focus on…
• developing the laws of logarithms
• determining an equivalent form of a logarithmic expression using the
he
laws of logarithms
• applying the laws of logarithms to logarithmic scales
Today you probably take hand-held calculators for

granted. But John Napier, the inventor of logarithms,
lived in a time when scientists, especially astronomers,
rs,
spent much time performing tedious arithmetic
calculations on paper. Logarithms revolutionized
mathematics and science by simplifying these
calculations. Using the laws of logarithms, you can
convert multiplication to addition and division to
subtraction. The French mathematician and astronomer er
Pierre-Simon Laplace claimed that logarithms, “by
”
shortening the labours, doubled the life of the astronomer.”
This allowed scientists to be more productive. Many of the advances in science
would not have been possible without the invention of logarithms.
The laws that made logarithms so useful as a calculation tool are still important.
They can be used to simplify logarithmic functions and expressions and in
solving both exponential and logarithmic equations.
Did Yo u Know ?
The world’s first hand-held scientific calculator was the

Hewlett-Packard HP-35, so called because it had 35 keys.
Introduced in 1972, it retailed for approximately U.S. $395. Market
research at the time warned that the demand for a pocket-sized
calculator was too small. Hewlett-Packard estimated that they
needed to sell 10 000 calculators in the first year to break even.
They ended up selling 10 times that. By the time it was
discontinued in 1975, sales of the HP-35 exceeded 300 000.
Investigate the Laws of Logarithms
1. a) Show that log (1000 × 100) ≠ (log 1000)(log 100).

b) Use a calculator to find the approximate value of each expression,
to four decimal places.
i) log 6 + log 5 ii) log 21
iii) log 11 + log 9 iv) log 99
v) log 7 + log 3 vi) log 30

c) Based on the results in part b), suggest a possible law for
log M + log N, where M and N are positive real numbers.
d) Use your conjecture from part c) to express log 1000 + log 100 as
a single logarithm.
1000 log 1000
2. a) Show that log _ ≠ __ .
100 log 100
i) log 12 ii) log 35 - log 5
iii) log 36 iv) log 72 - log 2
v) log 48 - log 4 vi) log 7
c) Based on the results in part b), suggest a possible law for
log M - log N, where M and N are positive real numbers.
d) Use your conjecture from part c) to express log 1000 - log 100 as
a single logarithm.
3. a) Show that log 10002 ≠ (log 1000)2.
i) 3 log 5 ii) log 49
iii) log 125 iv) log 16
v) 4 log 2 vi) 2 log 7
c) Based on the results in part b), suggest a possible law for P log M,
where M is a positive real number and P is any real number.
d) Use your conjecture from part c) to express 2 log 1000 as a
logarithm without a coefficient.
Reflect and Respond

4. The laws of common logarithms are also true for any logarithm
with a base that is a positive real number other than 1. Without
using technology, evaluate each of the following.
a) log6 18 + log6 2
b) log2 40 - log2 5
c) 4 log9 3
5. Each of the three laws of logarithms corresponds to one of the
three laws of powers:
• product law of powers: (c x)(c y) = c x + y
c x = c x - y, c ≠ 0
• quotient law of powers: _
cy
• power of a power law: (c x)y = c xy
Explain how the laws of logarithms are related to the laws
of powers.
8.3 Laws of Logarithms • MHR 393

Link the Ideas
Since logarithms are exponents, the laws of logarithms are related to the
laws of powers.
Product Law of Logarithms
The logarithm of a product of numbers can be expressed as the sum of
the logarithms of the numbers.
logc MN = logc M + logc N
Proof
Let logc M = x and logc N = y, where M, N, and c are positive real
numbers with c ≠ 1.
Write the equations in exponential form as M = c x and N = c y:
MN = (c x)(c y)
MN = cx + y Apply the product law of powers.
logc MN = x+y Write in logarithmic form.
logc MN = logc M + logc N Substitute for x and y.
Quotient Law of Logarithms

The logarithm of a quotient of numbers can be expressed as the
difference of the logarithms of the dividend and the divisor.
M = log M - log N
logc _ c c
N
Proof
Let logc M = x and logc N = y, where M, N, and c are positive real
Write the equations in exponential form as M = c x and N = c y:
M =_
_ cx
N cy
M = cx-y
_ Apply the quotient law of powers.
N
M =x-y
logc _ Write in logarithmic form.
N
M = log M - log N
logc _ Substitute for x and y.
c c
N
Power Law of Logarithms

The logarithm of a power of a number can be expressed as the exponent
times the logarithm of the number.
logc MP = P logc M How could you prove the quotient law
using the product law and the power law?
Proof
Let logc M = x, where M and c are positive real
Write the equation in exponential form as M = c x.

Let P be a real number.
M = cx
MP = (c x)P
MP = c xP Simplify the exponents.
logc M P = xP Write in logarithmic form.
logc M P = (logc M )P Substitute for x.
logc M P = P logc M
The laws of logarithms can be applied to logarithmic functions,
expressions, and equations.
Example 1
Use the Laws of Logarithms to Expand Expressions
Write each expression in terms of individual logarithms of x, y, and z.
xy
a) log5 _z
3 __
b) log7 √x
1
c) log6 _2
x
d) log _
x3__
y √z
Solution
xy
a) log5 _z = log5 xy - log5 z
= log5 x + log5 y - log5 z
3 __ 1
_
b) log7 x = log7 x 3
√
=_1 log x
3 7
1
c) log6 _2 = log6 x-2 You could also start by applying the quotient law to
x the original expression. Try this. You should arrive at
= -2 log6 x the same answer.
3
x __ = log x3 - log y √z __
d) log _
y √z 1
(
= log x3 - log y + log z 2
_
)
1 log z
= 3 log x - log y - _
2
Your Turn
Write each expression in terms of individual logarithms of x, y, and z.
x
a) log6 _
y
___
b) log5 √xy
c) log3 _
9__
3
√x2
x5y
d) log7 _ __
√z

Example 2
Use the Laws of Logarithms to Evaluate Expressions
Use the laws of logarithms to simplify and evaluate each expression.
a) log6 8 + log6 9 - log6 2
__
b) log7 7√7
1
(
c) 2 log2 12 - log2 6 + _ log2 27
3 )
Solution
a) log6 8 + log6 9 - log6 2
= 8×9
log6 __
2
= log6 36
= log6 62
= 2
__
b) log7 7√7
1
= log7 (7 × 7 2 )
_
1
_
= log7 7 + log7 7 2 How can you use your knowledge of exponents to
1 log 7 evaluate this expression using only the power law
= log7 7 + _ for logarithms?
2 7
1
_
= 1 + (1)
2
= _3
2
1 log 27
c) 2 log2 12 - log2 6 + _
3 ( 2 )
1
(
= log2 122 - log2 6 + log2 27 3
___
_
)
3
= log2 144 - (log2 6 + log2 √27 )
= log2 144 - (log2 6 + log2 3)
= log2 144 - log2 (6 × 3)
144
= log2 _
18
= log2 8
=3
Your Turn
Use the laws of logarithms to simplify and evaluate each expression.
__
a) log3 9 √3
b) log5 1000 - log5 4 - log5 2
1
c) 2 log3 6 - _ log3 64 + log3 2
2

Example 3
Use the Laws of Logarithms to Simplify Expressions
Write each expression as a single logarithm in simplest form. State the
restrictions on the variable.
5 log7 x
a) log7 x2 + log7 x - __
2
b) log5 (2x - 2) - log5 (x2 + 2x - 3)
Solution
5 log7 x
__
a) log7 x2 + log7 x -
2
5 log x
= log7 x + log7 x - _
2
2 7
_5
2
= log7 x + log7 x - log7 x 2
(x2)(x)
= log7 __ 5
_
x2
2+1-_ 5
= log7 x 2
1
_
= log7 x 2
=_1 log x, x > 0 The logarithmic expression is written as
2 7
a single logarithm that cannot be further
simplified by the laws of logarithms.
b) log5 (2x - 2) - log5 (x2 + 2x - 3)
= log5 ___ 2x - 2
x2 + 2x - 3
1
2(x - 1)
= log5 ___
(x + 3)(x - 1)
1
2
= log5 __
x+3
For the original expression to be defined, both logarithmic terms must
be defined.
2x - 2 > 0 x2 + 2x - 3 > 0 What other methods could
2x > 2 (x + 3)(x - 1) > 0 you have used to solve this
quadratic inequality?
x > 1 and x < -3 or x > 1
The conditions x > 1 and x < -3 or x > 1 are both satisfied when x > 1.
Hence, the variable x needs to be restricted to x > 1 for the original

expression to be defined and then written as a single logarithm.
2 , x > 1.
Therefore, log5 (2x - 2) - log5 (x2 + 2x - 3) = log5 __
x+3
Your Turn
Write each expression as a single logarithm in simplest form. State the
restrictions on the variable.
1
a) 4 log3 x - _ (log3 x + 5 log3 x)
2
b) log2 (x2 - 9) - log2 (x2 - x - 6)

Example 4
Did Yo u Know ? Solve a Problem Involving a Logarithmic Scale
The unit used to The human ear is sensitive to a large range of sound intensities.
measure the intensity Scientists have found that the sensation of loudness can be described
of sound is the using a logarithmic scale. The intensity level, β, in decibels, of a sound
decibel (dB), named
I , where I is the intensity of the sound, in watts
is defined as β = 10 log _
after Alexander
Graham Bell, the
I0
inventor of the per square metre (W/m2), and I0 is 10-12 W/m2,
telephone. Bell was corresponding to the faintest sound
born in Scotland but
that can be heard by a person
lived most of his life
in Canada. of normal hearing.
a) Audiologists recommend
that people should wear
hearing protection if the
sound level exceeds 85 dB.
The sound level of a
chainsaw is about 85 dB.
The maximum volume
setting of a portable media
player with headphones is about 110 dB. How many times as intense
as the sound of the chainsaw is the maximum volume setting of the
portable media player?
b) Sounds that are at most 100 000 times as intense as a whisper are
considered safe, no matter how long or how often you hear them.
The sound level of a whisper is about 20 dB. What sound level, in
decibels, is considered safe no matter how long it lasts?
Solution
Decibel Scale
a) Let the decibel levels of two sounds be
I I 0 dB Threshold for human hearing
β1 = 10 log _1 and β2 = 10 log _2 . 10 dB
I0 I0
20 dB Whisper
Then, compare the two intensities.
30 dB Quiet library
I I
β2 - β1 = 10 log _2 - 10 log _1 40 dB Quiet conversation
I0 I0
50 dB
I_2 I_1
(
β2 - β1 = 10 log
I0
- log
I0) 60 dB
70 dB
Normal conversation
Hair dryer
80 dB
( ( I
I0
I
β2 - β1 = 10 log _2 ÷ _1
I0 ))
1
Apply the
quotient
law of
90 dB
100 dB
Lawnmower
logarithms.
( ( I I
β2 - β1 = 10 log _2 × 0
I0 I1
_
)) 110 dB
120 dB
Car horn
Rock concert
1
150 dB Jet engine up close
I
( )
β2 - β1 = 10 log _2
I1 For each increase of 10 on the
decibel scale, there is a tenfold
increase in the intensity of sound.

I
Substitute β2 = 110 and β1 = 85 into the equation β2 - β1 = 10 log _2 .
I1
I_2
110 - 85 = 10 log
I1
I
25 = 10 log _2
I1
I_2
2.5 = log
I1
I
102.5 = _2 Write in exponential form.
I1
I I2
316 ≈ _2 What is another approach you could have used to find the ratio _ ?
I
I1 1
The ratio of these two intensities is approximately 316. Hence, the We b Link
maximum volume level of the portable media player is approximately
Some
me studies suggest
su
316 times as intense as the sound of a chainsaw. that people exposed
to excessive noise
b) The ratio of the intensity of sounds considered safe to the intensity from leisure activities
I tend to develop
of a whisper is 100 000 to 1. In the equation β2 - β1 = 10 log _2 , hearing loss. The
I1
I2
_
risk of noise-induced
substitute β1 = 20 and = 100 000. hearing loss depends
I1
on the sound level
β2 - 20 = 10 log 100 000 and the duration of
β2 = 10 log 100 000 + 20 the exposure. For
more information,
β2 = 10 log 105 + 20 go to www.
β2 = 10(5) + 20 mcgrawhill.ca/school/
β2 = 70 learningcentres and
follow the links.
Sounds that are 70 dB or less pose no known risk of hearing loss, no
matter how long they last.
Your Turn
The pH scale is used to measure the acidity 0
or alkalinity of a solution. The pH of a 1 Battery Acid
+
solution is defined as pH = -log [H ], Increasing 2 Lemon Juice
Acidity
where [H+] is the hydrogen ion 3 Vinegar
concentration in moles per litre (mol/L). A 4
neutral solution, such as pure water, has a 5
pH of 7. Solutions with a pH of less than 7 6
Milk
are acidic and solutions with a pH of greater Neutral 7
than 7 are basic or alkaline. The closer the 8
Baking Soda
pH is to 0, the more acidic the solution is. 9
a) A common ingredient in cola drinks is 10 Milk of
phosphoric acid, the same ingredient 11 Magnesia
Increasing
found in many rust removers. A cola Alkalinity 12 Ammonia
drink has a pH of 2.5. Milk has a pH of 13 Lye
6.6. How many times as acidic as milk is 14
a cola drink?
b) An apple is 5 times as acidic as a pear. If a pear has a pH of 3.8, then
what is the pH of an apple?

Key Ideas
Let P be any real number, and M, N, and c be positive real numbers with c ≠ 1.
Then, the following laws of logarithms are valid.
Name Law Description

The logarithm of a product of numbers is the sum of the
Product logc MN = logc M + logc N
logarithms of the numbers.
M The logarithm of a quotient of numbers is the difference

Quotient logc _ = logc M - logc N
N of the logarithms of the dividend and divisor.
The logarithm of a power of a number is the exponent
Power logc MP = P logc M
times the logarithm of the number.
Many quantities in science are measured using a logarithmic scale. Two

commonly used logarithmic scales are the decibel scale and the pH scale.
Practise 4. The original use of logarithms was

1. Write each expression in terms of to simplify calculations. Use the
individual logarithms of x, y, and z. approximations shown on the right and
__ the laws of logarithms to perform each
a) log7 xy3√z
calculation using only paper and pencil.
b) log5 (xyz)8
2 a) 1.44 × 1.2 log 1.44 ≈ 0.158 36
x
c) log _
3 __ b) 1.728 ÷ 1.2 log 1.2 ≈ 0.079 18
y √z__ _____
y c) √1.44 log 1.728 ≈ 0.237 54
d) log3 x _√
z
5. Evaluate.
2. Use the laws of logarithms to simplify and
a) 3k, where k = log2 40 - log2 5
evaluate each expression.
b) 7n, where n = 3 log8 4
a) log12 24 - log12 6 + log12 36
1
b) 3 log5 10 - _ log5 64
2 Apply
__
c) log3 27√3 6. To obtain the graph of y = log2 8x, you
1 can either stretch or translate the graph
d) log2 72 - _ (log2 3 + log2 27)
2 of y = log2 x.
3. Write each expression as a single logarithm a) Describe the stretch you need to apply
in simplest form. to the graph of y = log2 x to result in the
a) log9 x - log9 y + 4 log9 z graph of y = log2 8x.
log x b) Describe the translation you need to
b) __ - 2 log3 y
3
2 apply to the graph of y = log2 x to result
1
c) log6 x - _ (log6 x + 2 log6 y)
5 in the graph of y = log2 8x.
log x log y
d) _ + _
3 3

7. Decide whether each equation is true or 13. Sound intensity, β, in decibels is
I , where I is
false. Justify your answer. Assume c, x, and
y are positive real numbers and c ≠ 1.
defined as β = 10 log _
()
I0
logc x the intensity of the sound measured
a) __ = logc x - logc y in watts per square metre (W/m2)
logc y
and I0 is 10-12 W/m2, the threshold
b) logc (x + y) = logc x + logc y
of hearing.
c) logc cn = n
a) The sound intensity of a hairdryer is
d) (logc x)n = n logc x 0.000 01 W/m2. Find its decibel level.
1 = log x
e) -logc _ x( ) c b) A fire truck siren has a decibel level of
118 dB. City traffic has a decibel level
8. If log 3 = P and log 5 = Q, write an
of 85 dB. How many times as loud as
algebraic expression in terms of P and Q
city traffic is the fire truck siren?
for each of the following.
a) log _
3
5
b) log 15
__
c) log 3√5
25
d) log _
9
9. If log2 7 = K, write an algebraic expression
in terms of K for each of the following.
a) log2 76
b) log2 14
c) log2 (49 × 4)
5
__
√7
d) log2 _
8
10. Write each expression as a single logarithm
in simplest form. State any restrictions on c) The sound of Elly’s farm tractor is
the variable. 63 times as intense as the sound of her
__
a) log5 x + log5 √x3 - 2 log5 x car. If the decibel level of the car is
__
x__ + log √x5 - _
7 log x 80 dB, what is the decibel level of the
b) log11 _ farm tractor?
√ x 11 311
11. Write each expression as a single logarithm 14. Abdi incorrectly states, “A noise of 20 dB
in simplest form. State any restrictions on is twice as loud as a noise of 10 dB.”
the variable. Explain the error in Abdi’s reasoning.
a) log2 (x2 - 25) - log2 (3x - 15) 15. The term decibel is also used in
b) log7 (x2 - 16) - log7 (x2 - 2x - 8) electronics for current and voltage ratios.
c) 2 log8 (x + 3) - log8 (x2 + x - 6)
Gain is defined as the ratio between the
signal coming in and the signal going
12. Show that each equation is true for c > 0
out. The gain, G, in decibels, of an
and c ≠ 1. V,
amplifier is defined as G = 20 log _
a) logc 48 - (logc 3 + logc 2) = logc 8 Vi
b) 7 logc 4 = 14 logc 2 where V is the voltage output and Vi
1 __ is the voltage input. If the gain of an
c) _ (logc 2 + logc 6) = logc 2 + logc √3 amplifier is 24 dB when the voltage
2
d) logc (5c)2 = 2(logc 5 + 1) input is 0.2 V, find the voltage output, V.
Answer to the nearest tenth of a volt.

16. The logarithmic scale used to express the Extend
pH of a solution is pH = -log [H+], where 18. Graph the functions y = log x2 and
[H+] is the hydrogen ion concentration, in y = 2 log x on the same coordinate grid.
moles per litre (mol/L). a) How are the graphs alike? How are they
a) Lactic acidosis is medical condition different?
characterized by elevated lactates b) Explain why the graphs are not identical.
and a blood pH of less than 7.35. A
c) Although the functions y = log x2
patient is severely ill when his or her
and y = 2 log x are not the same, the
blood pH is 7.0. Find the hydrogen ion
equation log x2 = 2 log x is true. This is
concentration in a patient with a blood
because the variable x in the equation
pH of 7.0.
is restricted to values for which both
b) Acid rain is caused when compounds
logarithms are defined. What is the
from combustion react with water in restriction on x in the equation?
the atmosphere to produce acids. It is
19. a) Prove the change of base formula,
generally accepted that rain is acidic if
logd x
its pH is less than 5.3. The average pH logc x = __ , where c and d are
logd c
of rain in some regions of Ontario is
about 4.5. How many times as acidic as positive real numbers other than 1.
normal rain with a pH of 5.6 is acid rain b) Apply the change of base formula
with a pH of 4.5? for base d = 10 to find the
c) The hair conditioner that Alana uses is approximate value of log2 9.5 using
500 times as acidic as the shampoo she common logarithms. Answer to four
uses. If the shampoo has a pH of 6.1, decimal places.
find the pH of the conditioner. c) The Krumbein phi (φ) scale is used in
17. The change in velocity, Δv, in kilometres geology to classify the particle size of
per second, of a rocket with an exhaust natural sediments such as sand and
velocity of 3.1 km/s can be found gravel. The formula for the φ-value may
using the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation be expressed as φ = -log2 D, where
3.1 (log m - log m ), where m D is the diameter of the particle, in
Δv = __
0.434 0 f 0 millimetres. The φ-value can also be
is the initial total mass and mf is the defined using a common logarithm.
final total mass, in kilograms, after a fuel Express the formula for the φ-value as a
burn. Find the change in the velocity of common logarithm.
m0
the rocket if the mass ratio, _ mf , is 1.06. d) How many times the diameter of
medium sand with a φ-value of 2 is the
Answer to the nearest hundredth of a
diameter of a pebble with a φ-value of
kilometre per second.
-5.7? Determine the answer using both
versions of the φ-value formula from
part c).
a) logq3 p3 = logq p
1 1 p
b) __ - __ = log2 _
q
log 2
p
log 2 q
1 1 1
c) __ + __ = __
logq p logq p logq2 p
d) log _1 p = logq _
1
q
p

Create Connections C4 Copy the Frayer Model template shown
for each law of logarithms. In the
C1 Describe how you could obtain the
appropriate space, give the name of the
graph of each function from the graph
law, an algebraic representation, a written
of y = log x.
description, an example, and common
a) y = log x3 errors.
b) y = log (x + 2)5 Written Description
Algebraic Representation
1
c) y = log _
x
d) y = log __
1
______
√x -6
π 3π
( ) (
C2 Evaluate log2 sin _ + log2 sin _ .
4 4 ) Name of Law
C3 a) What is the common difference,
d, in the arithmetic series
log 2 + log 4 + log 8 + log 16 + log 32?
b) Express the sum of the series as a Example Common Errors
multiple of the common difference.
Project Corner Modelling Data
The table shows box office receipts for a popular Cumulative Box Office
new movie. Week Revenue (millions of dollars)
• Determine the equation of a logarithmic 1 70
function of the form y = 20 log1.3 (x - h) + k 2 144
that fits the data. 3 191
• Determine the equation of an exponential 4 229
function of the form y = -104(0.74)x - h + k 5 256

that fits the data. 6 275
7 291
• Compare the logarithmic function to the
8 304
exponential function. Is one model better
than the other? Explain. 9 313
10 320
11 325
12 328
13 330
14 332
15 334
16 335
17 335
18 336
19 337

8.4
Logarithmic and Exponential
Equations
Focus on…
• solving a logarithmic equation and verifying the solution
• explaining why a value obtained in solving a logarithmic equation may be extraneous
• solving an exponential equation in which the bases are not powers of one another
• solving a problem that involves exponential growth or decay
• solving a problem that involves the application of exponential equations to loans,
mortgages, and investments
• solving a problem by modelling a situation with an exponential or logarithmic
equation
Change is taking place in our world at a pace that is

unprecedented in human history. Think of situations in your life
that show exponential growth.
Imagine you purchase a computer with 1 TB (terabyte) of available disk space.
One terabyte equals 1 048 576 MB (megabytes). On the first day you store
1 MB (megabyte) of data on the disk space. On each successive day you store
twice the data stored on the previous day. Predict on what day you will run out
of disk space.
The table below shows how the disk space fills up. On what day will you realise
that you are running out of
Computer Disk Space disk space?
Data Space Space Percent Percent
Day Stored (MB) Used (MB) Unused (MB) Used Unused
1 1 1 1048575 0.0 100.0 Notice that the amount
2 2 3 1048573 0.0 100.0 stored on any given day,
3 4 7 1048569 0.0 100.0 after the first day, exceeds
4 8 15 1048561 0.0 100.0 the total amount stored on
5 16 31 1048545 0.0 100.0 all the previous days.
6 32 63 1048513 0.0 100.0
7 64 127 1048449 0.0 100.0
8 128 255 1048321 0.0 100.0
9 256 511 1048065 0.0 100.0
10 512 1023 1047553 0.1 99.9
11 1024 2047 1046529 0.2 99.8
12 2048 4095 1044481 0.4 99.6
13 4096 8191 1040385 0.8 99.2
14 8192 16383 1032193 1.6 98.4
15 16384 32767 1015809 3.1 96.9
Suppose you purchase an
16 32768 65535 983041 6.2 93.8
external hard drive with
17 65536 131071 917505 12.5 87.5
an additional 15 TB of disk
18 131072 262143 786433 25.0 75.0
storage space. For how long
19 262144 524287 524289 50.0 50.0
can you continue doubling
20 524288 1048575 1 100.0 0.0
the amount stored?

You can find the amount of data stored on a certain day by using
logarithms to solve an exponential equation. Solving problems involving
exponential and logarithmic equations helps us to understand and shape
our ever-changing world.
Investigate Logarithmic and Exponential Equations
Part A: Explore Logarithmic Equations

Consider the logarithmic equation 2 log x = log 36. logarithmic
equation
1. Use the following steps to solve the equation.
• an equation containing
a) Apply one of the laws of logarithms to the left side of the equation. the logarithm of a
variable
b) Describe how you might solve the resulting equation.
c) Determine two values of x that satisfy the rewritten equation in
part a).
2. a) Describe how you could solve the original equation graphically.
b) Use your description to solve the original equation graphically.
Reflect and Respond

3. What value or values of x satisfy the original equation? Explain.
Part B: Explore Exponential Equations

Adam and Sarah are asked to solve the exponential equation
2(25x + 1) = 250. Each person uses a different method.
Adam’s Method Sarah’s Method

2(25x + 1) = 250 2(25x + 1) = 250
Step 1 25x + 1 = 125 25x + 1 = 125
Step 2 (52)x + 1 = 53 log 25x + 1 = log 125
Step 3 52(x + 1) = 53 (x + 1) log 25 = log 125
Step 4 2(x + 1) = 3 x log 25 + log 25 = log 125
2x + 2 = 3 x log 25 = log 125 - log 25
2x = 1 125
x = 0.5 25
__
log _ ( )
x=
log 25
log 5
= __2
log 5
1
log 5
= __
2 log 5
1
1
_
=
2
4. Explain each step in each student’s work.

5. What is another way that Adam could have completed step 4 of
his work? Show another way Sarah could have completed step 4
of her work.
8.4 Logarithmic and Exponential Equations • MHR 405

Reflect and Respond
6. Which person’s method do you prefer? Explain why.
7. What types of exponential equations could be solved using Adam’s
method? What types of exponential equations could not be solved
using Adam’s method and must be solved using Sarah’s method?
Explain.
8. Sarah used common logarithms in step 2 of her work. Could she
instead have used logarithms to another base? Justify your answer.
Link the Ideas
The following equality statements are useful when solving an

exponential equation or a logarithmic equation.
Given c, L, R > 0 and c ≠ 1,
• if logc L = logc R, then L = R
• if L = R, then logc L = logc R
Proof
Let logc L = logc R.
clogc R = L Write in exponential form.
R=L Apply the inverse property of logarithms, clogc x = x,
where x > 0.
When solving a logarithmic equation, identify whether any roots are

extraneous by substituting into the original equation and determining
whether all the logarithms are defined. The logarithm of zero or a
negative number is undefined.
Example 1
Solve Logarithmic Equations
Solve.
a) log6 (2x - 1) = log6 11 b) log (8x + 4) = 1 + log (x + 1)
2
c) log2 (x + 3) = 4
Solution
a) Method 1: Solve Algebraically
The following statement is true for c, L, R > 0 and c ≠ 1.
If logc L = logc R, then L = R.
Hence,
log6 (2x - 1) = log6 11
2x - 1 = 11
2x = 12
x = 6

The equation log6 (2x - 1) = log6 11 is defined when 2x - 1 > 0.
This occurs when x > _ 1 . Since the value of x satisfies this
2
restriction, the solution is x = 6.
Check x = 6 in the original equation, log6 (2x - 1) = log611.
log6 (2x - 1) log6 11
= log6 (2(6) - 1)
= log6 11

Find the graphical solution to
the system of equations:
How could you have used
y = log6 (2x - 1) the graph of
y = log6 11 y = log6 (2x - 1) - log6 11
The x-coordinate at the point of to solve the equation?
intersection of the graphs of the

functions is the solution, x = 6.
b) log (8x + 4) = 1 + log (x + 1)

log10 (8x + 4) = 1 + log10 (x + 1)
log10 (8x + 4) - log10 (x + 1) = 1 Isolate the logarithmic terms on one
side of the equation.
8x + 4
log10 __ = 1 Apply the quotient law for logarithms.
x+1
Select a strategy to solve for x.
Method 1: Express Both Sides of the Equation as Logarithms

8x + 4
log10 __ = 1
x+1
8x + 4
__ Use the property logb bn = n to substitute
log10 = log10 101
x+1 log10 101 for 1.
8x + 4
__ = 10 Use the property that if logc L = logc R, then L = R.
x+1
Multiply both sides of the equation by x + 1, the
8x + 4 = 10(x + 1) lowest common denominator (LCD).
8x + 4 = 10x + 10
-6 = 2x Solve the linear equation.
-3 = x
Method 2: Convert to Exponential Form
8x + 4
log10 __ = 1
x+1
8x
__ +4
= 101 Write in exponential form.
x+1
8x + 4 = 10(x + 1) Multiply both sides of the equation by the LCD, x + 1.
8x + 4 = 10x + 10
-6 = 2x Solve the linear equation.
-3 = x
The solution x = -3 is extraneous. When -3 is substituted for x in Why is the logarithm
the original equation, both log (8x + 4) and log (x + 1) are undefined. of a negative number
undefined?
Hence, there is no solution to the equation.

c) log2 (x + 3)2 = 4
(x + 3)2 = 24 If the power law of logarithms was used, how would this
affect the solution?
2
x + 6x + 9 = 16
x2 + 6x - 7 = 0
(x + 7)(x - 1) = 0
x = -7 or x=1
When either -7 or 1 is substituted for x in the original equation,
log2 (x + 3)2 is defined.
Check:
Substitute x = -7 and x = 1 in the original equation, log2 (x + 3)2 = 4.
When x = -7: When x = 1:
log2 (x + 3)2 4 log2 (x + 3)2 4
= log2 (-7 + 3)2 = log2 (1 + 3) 2
= log2 (-4)2 = log2 (4)2

= log2 16 = log2 16
=4 =4
Left Side = Right Side Left Side = Right Side
Your Turn
Solve.
a) log7 x + log7 4 = log7 12
b) log2 (x - 6) = 3 - log2 (x - 4)
c) log3 (x2 - 8x)5 = 10
Example 2
Solve Exponential Equations Using Logarithms
Solve. Round your answers to two decimal places.
a) 4x = 605
b) 8(32x) = 568
c) 42x - 1 = 3x + 2
Solution
a) Method 1: Take Common Logarithms of Both Sides
4x = 605
log 4x = log 605
x log 4 = log 605
log 605
x = __
log 4
x ≈ 4.62

Method 2: Convert to Logarithmic Form
4x = 605
log4 605 = x
4.62 ≈ x
Which method do you
prefer? Explain why.
Check x ≈ 4.62 in the original

equation, 4x = 605.
44.62 605
≈ 605
Left Side ≈ Right Side
b) 8(32x) =568 Explain why 8(32x) cannot be expressed as 242x.

32x =71
log 32x =log 71 Explain the steps in this solution. How else could you
2x(log 3) =log 71 have used logarithms to solve for x?
log 71
x = __
2 log 3
x ≈ 1.94
Check x ≈ 1.94 in the original equation,
8(32x) = 568.
2(1.94)
8(3 ) 568
≈ 568
c) 42x - 1 = 3x + 2
log 42x - 1 = log 3x + 2
(2x - 1) log 4 = (x + 2) log 3
2x log 4 - log 4 = x log 3 + 2 log 3
2x log 4 - x log 3 = 2 log 3 + log 4
x(2 log 4 - log 3) = 2 log 3 + log 4
2 log 3 + log 4
x = ___
2 log 4 - log 3
x ≈ 2.14
Check x ≈ 2.14 in the original equation, 42x - 1 = 3x + 2.
Left Side Right Side What is another way you

can verify the solution?
42(2.14) - 1 32.14 + 2
≈ 94 ≈ 94
Your Turn
Solve. Round answers to two decimal places.
a) 2x = 2500 b) 5x - 3 = 1700 c) 63x + 1 = 8x + 3

Example 3
Model a Situation Using a Logarithmic Equation
Palaeontologists can estimate the size of a dinosaur from incomplete
skeletal remains. For a carnivorous dinosaur, the relationship
between the length, s, in metres, of the skull and the body mass,
m, in kilograms, can be expressed using the logarithmic equation
3.6022 log s = log m - 3.4444. Determine the body mass, to the nearest
kilogram, of an Albertosaurus with a skull length of 0.78 m.
Did Yo u Know ?
Albertosaurus was
the top predator in
the semi-tropical
Cretaceous Albertosaurus display, Royal Tyrrell Museum, Drumheller, Alberta
ecosystem, more
than 70 million years
ago. It was smaller Solution
than its close relative
Tyrannosaurus Substitute s = 0.78 into the equation 3.6022 log s = log m - 3.4444.
rex, which lived a
few million years
3.6022 log10 0.78 = log10 m - 3.4444
later. The first 3.6022 log10 0.78 + 3.4444 = log10 m
Albertosaurus 3.0557 ≈ log10 m
was discovered by
103.0557 ≈ m
Joseph B. Tyrrell, a
geologist searching 1137 ≈ m
for coal deposits in
the Red Deer River The mass of the Albertosaurus was approximately 1137 kg.
valley, in 1884. Since
then, more than Your Turn
30 Albertosauruses
have been discovered To the nearest hundredth of a metre, what was the skull length of a
in western North Tyrannosaurus rex with an estimated body mass of 5500 kg?
America.

Example 4
Solve a Problem Involving Exponential Growth and Decay
When an animal dies, the amount D i d You K n ow?
of radioactive carbon-14 (C-14) in its
bones decreases. Archaeologists use First Nations hunters
used a variety of
this fact to determine the age of a strategies to harvest
fossil based on the amount of C-14 the largest land
remaining. mammal in North
America, the buffalo.
The half-life of C-14 is 5730 years. The most effective
method for securing
Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump in
large quantities
southwestern Alberta is recognized of food was the
as the best example of a buffalo jump buffalo jump. The
Buffalo skull display, Head-Smashed-In buffalo extraordinary amount
in North America. The oldest bones Jump Visitor Centre, near Fort McLeod, Alberta of work required
unearthed at the site had 49.5% of to plan, coordinate,
the C-14 left. How old were the bones when they were found? and implement a
successful harvest
demonstrates First
Solution
Nations Peoples’
Carbon-14 decays by one half for each 5730-year interval. The mass, m, ingenuity, communal
t cooperation, and
1 _
remaining at time t can be found using the relationship m(t) = m0 _
2
5730 ,
( ) organizational
skills that enabled
where m0 is the original mass.
them to utilize this
Since 49.5% of the C-14 remains after t years, substitute 0.495m0 for m(t) primary resource in a
1 __ t sustainable manner
in the formula m(t) = m0 _ ( )
2
5730 .
for millennia.
t
1 _
0.495m0 = m0 ( )
_
2
5730
Instead of taking the common
_ t logarithm of both sides, you
0.495 = 0.5 5730 t could have converted from
_
log 0.495 = log 0.5 5730 exponential form to logarithmic
_ t form. Try this. Which approach do
log 0.495 = log 0.5 you prefer? Why?
5730
5730 log
___ = t 0.495
log 0.5
5813 ≈ t
The oldest buffalo bones found at Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump date to
about 5813 years ago. The site has been used for at least 6000 years.
Your Turn
The rate at which an organism duplicates is called its doubling period.
t
_
The general equation is N(t) = N0(2) d , where N is the number present
after time t, N0 is the original number, and d is the doubling period.
E. coli is a rod-shaped bacterium commonly found in the intestinal tract
of warm-blooded animals. Some strains of E. coli can cause serious
food poisoning in humans. Suppose a biologist originally estimates the
number of E. coli bacteria in a culture to be 1000. After 90 min, the
estimated count is 19 500 bacteria. What is the doubling period of the
E. coli bacteria, to the nearest minute?

Key Ideas
When solving a logarithmic equation algebraically, start by applying the

laws of logarithms to express one side or both sides of the equation as a
single logarithm.
Some useful properties are listed below, where c, L, R > 0 and c ≠ 1.
If logc L = logc R, then L = R.
The equation logc L = R can be written with logarithms on both sides of the
equation as logc L = logc cR.
The equation logc L = R can be written in exponential form as L = cR.
The logarithm of zero or a negative number is undefined. To identify whether
a root is extraneous, substitute the root into the original equation and check
whether all of the logarithms are defined.
You can solve an exponential equation algebraically by taking logarithms of
both sides of the equation. If L = R, then logc L = logc R, where c, L, R > 0 and
c ≠ 1. Then, apply the power law for logarithms to solve for an unknown.
You can solve an exponential equation or a logarithmic equation using
graphical methods.
Many real-world situations can be modelled with an exponential or a
logarithmic equation. A general model for many problems involving
exponential growth or decay is
final quantity = initial quantity × (change factor)number of changes.
Practise 3. Hamdi algebraically solved the equation

1. Solve. Give exact answers. log3 (x - 8) - log3 (x - 6) = 1 and found
a) 15 = 12 + log x
x = 5 as a possible solution. The following
shows Hamdi’s check for x = 5.
b) log5 (2x - 3) = 2
c) 4 log3 x = log3 81
x-8
d) 2 = log (x - 8) log 3 _ 1
x-6
5-8
2. Solve for x. Give your answers to two = log 3 _
5-6
decimal places. = log 3 3
a) 4(7x) = 92 =1
x
_ Left Side = Right Side
b) 2 3 = 11
Do you agree with Hamdi’s check? Explain
c) 6x - 1 = 271
why or why not.
d) 42x + 1 = 54

4. Determine whether the possible roots 7. Determine the value of x. Round your
listed are extraneous to the logarithmic answers to two decimal places.
equation given. a) 72x = 2x + 3
a) log7 x + log7 (x - 1) = log7 4x b) 1.6x - 4 = 53x
possible roots: x = 0, x = 5
c) 92x - 1 = 71x + 2
b) log6 (x2 - 24) - log6 x = log6 5
d) 4(7x + 2) = 92x - 3
possible roots: x = 3, x = -8
8. Solve for x.
c) log3 (x + 3) + log3 (x + 5) = 1
possible roots: x = -2, x = -6 a) log5 (x - 18) - log5 x = log5 7
d) log2 (x - 2) = 2 - log2 (x - 5) b) log2 (x - 6) + log2 (x - 8) = 3

possible roots: x = 1, x = 6 c) 2 log4 (x + 4) - log4 (x + 12) = 1
5. Solve for x. d) log3 (2x - 1) = 2 - log3 (x + 1)
_______
a) 2 log3 x = log3 32 + log3 2 5
e) log2 √x2 + 4x = _
3 2
b) _ log7 x = log7 125
2 9. The apparent magnitude of a celestial
c) log2 x - log2 3 = 5 object is how bright it appears from Earth.
d) log6 x = 2 - log6 4 The absolute magnitude is its brightness
as it would seem from a reference distance
of 10 parsecs (pc). The difference between
Apply
the apparent magnitude, m, and the
6. Three students each attempted to solve a
absolute magnitude, M, of a celestial
different logarithmic equation. Identify and
object can be found using the equation
describe any error in each person’s work,
m - M = 5 log d - 5, where d is the
and then correctly solve the equation.
distance to the celestial object, in parsecs.
a) Rubina’s work: Sirius, the brightest star visible at night,
log 6 (2x + 1) - log 6 (x - 1) = log 6 5 has an apparent magnitude of -1.44 and
log 6 (x + 2) = log 6 5 an absolute magnitude of 1.45.
x+2=5 a) How far is Sirius from Earth in parsecs?
x=3 b) Given that 1 pc is approximately
The solution is x = 3. 3.26 light years, what is the distance
b) Ahmed’s work: in part a) in light years?
2 log 5 (x + 3) = log 5 9 10. Small animal characters in animated
features are often portrayed with big
log 5 (x + 3)2 = log 5 9
endearing eyes. In reality, the eye size
(x + 3)2 = 9
of many vertebrates is related to body
x + 6x + 9 = 9
2
mass by the logarithmic equation
x(x + 6) = 0
log E = log 10.61 + 0.1964 log m, where
x = 0 or x = -6
E is the eye axial length, in millimetres,
There is no solution.
and m is the body mass, in kilograms. To
c) Jennifer’s work: the nearest kilogram, predict the mass of a
log 2 x + log 2 (x + 2) = 3 mountain goat with an eye axial length of
log 2 (x(x + 2)) = 3 24 mm.
x(x + 2) = 3
x + 2x - 3
2
= 0
(x + 3)(x - 1) = 0
x = -3 or x = 1

11. A remote lake that previously contained no b) Linda used a credit card to purchase
northern pike is stocked with these fish. a $1200 laptop computer. The
The population, P, of northern pike after rate of interest charged on the
t years can be determined by the equation overdue balance is 28% per year,
P = 10 000(1.035)t. compounded daily. How many days
a) How many northern pike were put into is Linda’s payment overdue if the
the lake when it was stocked? amount shown on her credit card
b) What is the annual growth rate, as a statement is $1241.18?
percent? c) How long will it take for money
c) How long will it take for the number of invested at 5.5%, compounded
northern pike in the lake to double? semi-annually, to triple in value?
14. A mortgage is a long-term loan secured by
property. A mortgage with a present value
of $250 000 at a 7.4% annual percentage
rate requires semi-annual payments of
$10 429.01 at the end of every 6 months.
The formula for the present value, PV, of
R[1 - (1 + i)-n]
the mortgage is PV = ___ ,
i
12. The German astronomer Johannes Kepler where n is the number of equal periodic
developed three major laws of planetary payments of R dollars and i is the interest
motion. His third law can be expressed rate per compounding period, as a decimal.
by the equation log T = _ 3 log d - 3.263, After how many years will the mortgage be
2
where T is the time, in Earth years, for completely paid off?
the planet to revolve around the sun and 15. Swedish researchers report that they have
d is the average distance, in millions of discovered the world’s oldest living tree.
kilometres, from the sun. The spruce tree’s roots were radiocarbon
a) Pluto is on average 5906 million dated and found to have 31.5% of their
kilometres from the sun. To the nearest carbon-14 (C-14) left. The half-life of C-14
Earth year, how long does it take Pluto is 5730 years. How old was the tree when
to revolve around the sun? it was discovered?
b) Mars revolves around the sun in
1.88 Earth years. How far is Mars
from the sun, to the nearest million
kilometres?
13. The compound interest formula is
A = P(1 + i)n, where A is the future
amount, P is the present amount or
principal, i is the interest rate per
compounding period expressed as
a decimal, and n is the number of
compounding periods. All interest rates
are annual percentage rates (APR).
a) David inherits $10 000 and invests in
a guaranteed investment certificate
(GIC) that earns 6%, compounded
semi-annually. How long will it take
for the GIC to be worth $11 000? Norway spruce, Dalarna, Sweden

16. Radioisotopes are used to diagnose various 22. Determine the values of x that satisfy the
illnesses. Iodine-131 (I-131) is administered equation (x2 + 3x - 9)2x - 8 = 1.
to a patient to diagnose thyroid gland
activity. The original dosage contains Create Connections
280 MBq of I-131. If none is lost from the C1 Fatima started to solve the equation
body, then after 6 h there are 274 MBq of 8(2x) = 512, as shown.
I-131 in the patient’s thyroid. What is the 8(2x) = 512
half-life of I-131, to the nearest day?
log 8(2x) = log 512
D id Yo u K n ow ? log 8 + log 2x = log 512
The SI unit used to measure radioactivity is the a) Copy and complete the solution using
becquerel (Bq), which is one particle emitted per Fatima’s approach.
second from a radioactive source. Commonly used
multiples are kilobecquerel (kBq), for 103 Bq, and b) Suggest another approach Fatima
megabecquerel (MBq), for 106 Bq. could have used to solve the equation.
Compare the different approaches
17. The largest lake lying entirely within among classmates.
Canada is Great Bear Lake, in the Northwest c) Which approach do you prefer? Explain
Territories. On a summer day, divers find that why.
the light intensity is reduced by 4% for every C2 The general term, tn, of a geometric
metre below the water surface. To the nearest sequence is tn = t1r n - 1, where t1 is the first
tenth of a metre, at what depth is the light term of the sequence, n is the number
intensity 25% of the intensity at the surface? of terms, and r is the common ratio.
18. If log3 81 = x - y and log2 32 = x + y, Determine the number of terms in the
determine the values of x and y. geometric sequence 4, 12, 36, …, 708 588.
C3 The sum, Sn, of the first n terms of a
Extend geometric series can be found using the
19. Find the error in each. t1(r n - 1)
formula Sn = __ , r ≠ 1, where
a) log 0.1 < 3 log 0.1 r-1
t1 is the first term and r is the common
Since 3 log 0.1 = log 0.13, ratio. The sum of the first n terms in the
log 0.1 < log 0.13 geometric series 8192 + 4096 + 2048 +
log 0.1 < log 0.001 is 16 383. Determine the value of n.
Therefore, 0.1 < 0.001.
C4 Solve for x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
b)
1 >_
_ 1
5 25 a) 2 log2 (cos x) + 1 = 0
1 > log _
log _ 1 b) log (sin x) + log (2 sin x - 1) = 0
5 25
1 > log _1 2 C5 Copy the concept chart. Provide worked
log _
5 5 ( ) examples in the last row.
1
log > 2 log _
_ 1
5 5 Equations
Therefore, 1 > 2.
20. Solve for x.
2
_
Exponential Logarithmic
a) x log x = x b) log xlog x = 4
c) (log x)2 = log x2 Bases are Bases are Logarithms Logarithms
powers of not powers on both on only one
21. Solve for x. one another of one another sides side
a) log4 x + log2 x = 6
Example Example Example Example
4
b) log3 x - log27 x = _
3

Chapter 8 Review
8.1 Understanding Logarithms, 5. The formula for the Richter magnitude, M,
pages 372—382 of an earthquake is M = log _ A , where A is
A0
1. A graph of f(x) = 0.2x is shown.
the amplitude of the ground motion and A0
y is the amplitude of a standard earthquake.
25 In 2011, an earthquake with a Richter
magnitude of 9.0 struck off the east coast of
20
Japan. In the aftermath of the earthquake,
15 a 10-m-tall tsunami swept across the
country. Hundreds of aftershocks came
10
in the days that followed, some with
5 magnitudes as great as 7.4 on the Richter
y = f(x)
scale. How many times as great as the
-2 0 2 4 x seismic shaking of the large aftershock was
-5 the shaking of the initial earthquake?
a) Make a copy of the graph and on 8.2 Transformations of Logarithmic

the same grid sketch the graph of Functions, pages 383—391
y = f -1(x). 6. The graph of y = log4 x is
b) Determine the following characteristics • stretched horizontally about the y-axis
-1
of y = f (x). 1
by a factor of _
2
i) the domain and range • reflected in the x-axis
ii) the x-intercept, if it exists • translated 5 units down
iii) the y-intercept, if it exists a) Sketch the graph of the transformed
iv) the equation of the asymptote image.
c) State the equation of f -1(x). b) If the equation of the transformed
image is written in the form
2. The point (2, 16) is on the graph of the
y = a logc (b(x - h)) + k, determine
inverse of y = logc x. What is the value
the values of a, b, c, h, and k.
of c?
7. The red graph is a stretch of the blue
3. Explain why the value of log2 24 must
graph. Determine the equation of the
be between 4 and 5.
red graph.
4. Determine the value of x.
y
2
a) log125 x = _
3 6
b) log9 _1 =x 4 y = log2 x
81 __
c) log3 27√3 = x 2
d) logx 8 = _ 3
4 0 2 4 6 8 x
e) 6 log x
= _1
-2
36

8. Describe, in order, a series of 14. Use the laws of logarithms to simplify and
transformations that could be applied to then evaluate each expression.
the graph of y = log5 x to draw the graph a) log6 18 - log6 2 + log6 4
of each function. ___ __ ___
b) log4 √12 + log4 √9 - log4 √27
a) y = -log5 (3(x - 12)) + 2
15. The pH of a solution is defined as
log5 (6 - x) pH = -log [H+], where [H+] is the
b) y + 7 = ___
4 hydrogen ion concentration, in moles per
9. Identity the following characteristics of the litre (mol/L). How many times as acidic
graph of the function y = 3 log2 (x + 8) + 6. is the blueberry, with a pH of 3.2, as a
a) the equation of the asymptote saskatoon berry, with a pH of 4.0?
b) the domain and range
c) the y-intercept
d) the x-intercept
10. Starting at the music note A, with a
frequency of 440 Hz, the frequency of the
other musical notes can be determined
f
using the function n = 12 log2 _ , where
440
n is the number of notes away from A.
a) Describe how the function is Saskatoon berries
transformed from n = log2 f. D i d You K n ow ?

b) How many notes above A is the note D, The saskatoon berry is a shrub native to Western
if D has a frequency of 587.36 Hz? Canada and the northern plains of the United States.
It produces a dark purple, berry-like fruit. The Plains
c) Find the frequency of F, located eight
Cree called the berry “misaskwatomin,” meaning
notes above A. Answer to the nearest “fruit of the tree of many branches.” This berry is
hundredth of a hertz. called “okonok” by the Blackfoot and “k’injíe” by
the Dene tha’.
8.3 Laws of Logarithms, pages 392—403 16. The apparent magnitude, m, of a celestial
object is a measure of how bright it
11. Write each expression in terms of the
appears to an observer on Earth. The
individual logarithms of x, y, and z.
brighter the object, the lower the value of
a) log5 _
x5
3 __ its magnitude. The difference between the
y____
√z
apparent magnitudes, m2 and m1, of two
xy2
√
b) log _ z celestial objects can be found using the
F
in simplest form.
equation m2 - m1 = -2.5 log _2 , where
F1 ()
2 F1 and F2 are measures of the brightness
a) log x - 3 log y + _ log z
3 of the two celestial objects, in watts per
1
b) log x - _ (log y + 3 log z) square metre, and m2 < m1. The apparent
2
magnitude of the Sun is -26.74 and the
average apparent magnitude of the full
in simplest form. State any restrictions.
__ moon is -12.74. How many times brighter
a) 2 log x + 3 log √x - log x3 does the sun appear than the full moon, to
b) log (x2 - 25) - 2 log (x + 5) an observer on Earth?

17. The sound intensity, β, in decibels, is 21. According to Kleiber’s law, a
defined as β = 10 log _ I , where I is the mammal’s resting metabolic rate, R, in
I0 kilocalories per day, is related to its
intensity of the sound, in watts per square mass, m, in kilograms, by the equation
metre (W/m2), and I0, the threshold of log R = log 73.3 + 0.75 log m. Predict the
hearing, is 10-12 W/m2. In some cities, mass of a wolf with a resting metabolic
police can issue a fine to the operator rate of 1050 kCal/day. Answer to the
of a motorcycle when the sound while nearest kilogram.
idling is 20 times as intense as the
sound of an automobile. If the decibel
level of an automobile is 80 dB, at what
decibel level can police issue a fine to a
motorcycle operator?
22. Technetium-99m (Tc-99m) is the most

widely used radioactive isotope for
radiographic scanning. It is used to
Device used to measure motorcycle noise levels evaluate the medical condition of internal
organs. It has a short half-life of only 6 h.
A patient is administered an 800-MBq dose
8.4 Logarithmic and Exponential Equations, of Tc-99m. If none is lost from the body,
pages 404—415 when will the radioactivity of the Tc-99m
18. Determine the value of x, to two decimal in the patient’s body be 600 MBq? Answer
places. to the nearest tenth of an hour.
a) 32x + 1 = 75 23. a) Mahal invests $500 in an account with
an annual percentage rate (APR) of 5%,
b) 7x + 1 = 42x - 1
compounded quarterly. How long will
19. Determine x. it take for Mahal’s single investment to
a) 2 log5 (x - 3) = log5 (4) double in value?
1
b) log4 (x + 2) - log4 (x - 4) = _ b) Mahal invests $500 at the end of every
2 3 months in an account with an APR
c) log2 (3x + 1) = 2 - log2 (x - 1) of 4.8%, compounded quarterly. How
_________
d) log √x2 - 21x = 1 long will it take for Mahal’s investment
20. A computer depreciates 32% per year. to be worth $100 000? Use the formula
After how many years will a computer R[(1 + i)n - 1]
FV = ___ , where FV is the
bought for $1200 be worth less i
than $100? future value, n is the number of equal
periodic payments of R dollars, and i
is the interest rate per compounding
period expressed as a decimal.

Multiple Choice 2. The exponential form of k = -logh 5 is
1
A hk = _ B hk = -5
For #1 to #6, choose the best answer. 5
1. Which graph represents the inverse of C kh = _
1 D kh = -5
x 5
1 ?
y= _
4 ( ) 3. The effect on the graph of y = log3 x if it
______
A y is transformed to y = log3 √x + 7 can be
4
described as
A a vertical stretch about the x-axis by a
2 1 and a vertical translation of
factor of _
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x 7 units up
-2 B a vertical stretch about the x-axis by a
1 and a horizontal translation
factor of _
-4 2
of 7 units left
C a horizontal stretch about the y-axis by
B y
1 and a vertical translation
a factor of _
4 2
of 7 units up
2
D a horizontal stretch about the y-axis
1 and a horizontal
by a factor of _
-4 -2 0 2 4 x 2
-2 translation of 7 units left
xp
4. The logarithm log3 _q is equal to
-4 x
p
A (p - q) log3 x B _ q
C y
p
4 C p-q D _ q log3 x
__
2 5. If x = log2 3, then log2 8√3 can be
represented as an algebraic expression, in
-4 -2 0 2 4 x terms of x, as
-2 1
A _x + 8 B 2x + 8
2
-4 1
C _x + 3 D 2x + 3
2
6. The pH of a solution is defined as
D y
pH = -log [H+], where [H+] is the
4 hydrogen ion concentration, in moles
2
per litre (mol/L). Acetic acid has a
pH of 2.9. Formic acid is 4 times as
-4 -2 0 2 4 x concentrated as acetic acid. What is
the pH of formic acid?
-2
A 1.1 B 2.3
-4
C 3.5 D 6.9

Short Answer 14. The exchange of free energy, ΔG, in
7. Determine the value of x.
calories (Cal), to transport a mole of a
substance across a human cell wall is
a) log9 x = -2
3
b) logx 125 = _
2 described as ΔG = 1427.6(log C2 - log C1),
c) log3 (logx 125) = 1 d) 7log 7
3
=x where C1 is the concentration inside the
e) log2 8x - 3 = 4 cell and C2 is the concentration outside
the cell. If the exchange of free energy to
8. If 5m + n = 125 and logm - n 8 = 3, determine
transport a mole of glucose is 4200 Cal,
the values of m and n.
how many times as great is the glucose
9. Describe a series of transformations that concentration outside the cell as inside
could be applied to the graph of y = log2 x the cell?
to obtain the graph of y = -5 log2 8(x - 1).
15. The sound intensity, β, in decibels is
What other series of transformations could
defined as β = 10 log _ I , where I is the
be used? I0
10. Identity the following characteristics of the intensity of the sound, in watts per square
graph of the function y = 2 log5 (x + 5) + 6. metre (W/m2), and I0, the threshold of
a) the equation of the asymptote hearing, is 10-12 W/m2. A refrigerator in the
b) the domain and range kitchen of a restaurant has a decibel level
of 45 dB. The owner would like to install
c) the y-intercept
a second such refrigerator so that the two
d) the x-intercept run side by side. She is concerned that the
11. Determine the value of x. noise of the two refrigerators will be too
a) log2 (x - 4) - log2 (x + 2) = 4 loud. Should she be concerned? Justify
your answer.
b) log2 (x - 4) = 4 - log2 (x + 2)
16. Ethanol is a high-octane renewable
c) log2 (x2 - 2x)7 = 21
fuel derived from crops such as corn
12. Solve for x. Express answers to two and wheat. Through the process of
decimal places. fermentation, yeast cells duplicate in a
a) 32x + 1 = 75 b) 12x - 2 = 32x + 1 bioreactor and convert carbohydrates
into ethanol. Researchers start with a
Extended Response yeast-cell concentration of 4.0 g/L in a
bioreactor. Eight hours later, the yeast-cell
13. Holly wins $1 000 000 in a lottery and
concentration is 12.8 g/L. What is the
invests the entire amount in an annuity
doubling time of the yeast cells, to the
with an annual interest rate of 6%,
nearest tenth of an hour?
compounded semi-annually. Holly plans
to make a withdrawal of $35 000 at the 17. The Consumer Price Index (CPI) measures
end of every 6 months. For how many changes in consumer prices by comparing,
years can she make the semi-annual through time, the cost of a fixed basket of
withdrawals? Use the formula commodities. The CPI compares prices in
R[1 - (1 + i)-n] a given year to prices in 1992. The 1992
PV = ___ , where PV is the
i price of the basket is 100%. The 2006 price
present value, n is the number of equal of the basket was 129.9%, that is, 129.9%
periodic payments of R dollars, and i is of the 1992 price. If the CPI continues to
the interest rate per compounding period grow at the same rate, in what year will the
expressed as a decimal. price of the basket be twice the 1992 price?

Chapter 7 Exponential Functions 3. The number, B, of bacteria in a culture
t
after t hours is given by B(t) = 1000(2 3 ).
_
1. Consider the exponential functions y = 4x
1x.
and y = _ a) How many bacteria were there initially?
4
b) What is the doubling period, in hours?
a) Sketch the graph of each function.
c) How many bacteria are present after
b) Compare the domain, range, intercepts,
24 h?
and equations of the asymptotes.
d) When will there be 128 000 bacteria?
c) Is each function increasing or
decreasing? Explain. 4. The graph of f(x) = 3x is transformed to
obtain the graph of g(x) = 2(3x + 4) + 1.
2. Match each equation with its graph.
1 x+5 a) Describe the transformations.
a) y = 5(2x) + 1 (2)
b) y = _
b) Sketch the graph of g(x).
-x
c) y + 1 = 2 5-x 1
d) y = 5( _ ) c) Identify the changes in the domain,
2
A y range, equations of the asymptotes,
32
and any intercepts due to the
transformations.
24
5. Write the expressions in each pair so that
16 they have the same base.
2x
1
8
a) 23x + 6 and 8x - 5 b) 274 - x and _(9)
6. Solve for x algebraically.
x+3
0 2 4 6 x a) 5 = 2x + 4 - 3
25
b) __ = 1252x + 7
x-4
625
B y 7. Solve for x graphically. Round your
answers to two decimal places.
8
a) 3(2x + 1) = 6-x
4
b) 42x = 3x - 1 + 5
-4 -2 0 2 x 8. A pump reduces the air pressure in a tank

by 17% each second. Thus, the percent
C air pressure, p, is given by p = 100(0.83t),
8 where t is the time, in seconds.
a) Determine the percent air pressure in
4
the tank after 5 s.
x b) When will the air pressure be 50% of
-4 -2 0 2
the starting pressure?
D y
Chapter 8 Logarithmic Functions
12
9. Express in logarithmic form.
8
a) y = 3x b) m = 2a + 1
4
10. Express in exponential form.
x a) logx 3 = 4 b) loga (x + 5) = b
-8 -4 0 4

11. Evaluate. 16. Write each expression as a single logarithm
a) log3 _
1 in simplest form. State any restrictions on
81 the variables.
1 __
b) log2 √8 + _ log2 512 a) 2 log m - (log √n
__
+ 3 log p)
3__
c) log2 (log5 5 )
√ 1 __
b) _ (loga x - loga√x ) + log 3x2
k 3 a
d) 7 , where k = log7 49
c) 2 log (x + 1) + log (x - 1) - log (x2 - 1)
12. Solve for x.
d) log2 27x - log2 3x
a) logx 16 = 4
17. Zack attempts to solve a logarithmic
b) log2 x = 5 equation as shown. Identify and describe
c) 5log 5
x
=_1 any errors, and then correctly solve
125 the equation.
1___
d) logx (log3 √27 ) = _ log3 (x - 4)2 = 4
5
13. Describe how the graph of 34 = (x - 4)2
log6 (2x - 8) 81 = x2 - 8x + 16
y = ___ + 5 can be obtained by 0 = x2 - 8x - 65
3
transforming the graph of y = log6 x. x = -13 or x = 5
14. Determine the equation of the transformed 18. Determine the value of x. Round your
image of the logarithmic function y = log x answers to two decimal places if necessary.
after each set of transformations is applied. a) 42x + 1 = 9(41 − x)
a) a vertical stretch about the x-axis by a b) log3 x + 3 log3 x2 = 14
factor of 3 and a horizontal translation c) log (2x - 3) = log (4x - 3) - log x
of 5 units left d) log2 x + log2 (x + 6) = 4
b) a horizontal stretch about the y-axis by 19. The Richter magnitude, M, of
1 , a reflection in the x-axis,
a factor of _
2 an earthquake is related to the
and a vertical translation of 2 units energy, E, in joules, released by the
down earthquake according to the equation
15. The pH of a solution is defined as log E = 4.4 + 1.4M.
pH = -log [H+], where [H+] is the a) Determine the energy for earthquakes
hydrogen ion concentration, in moles per with magnitudes 4 and 5.
litre. The pH of a soil solution indicates b) For each increase in M of 1, by what
the nutrients, such as nitrogen and factor does E change?
potassium, that plants need in specific 20. At the end of each quarter year, Aaron
amounts to grow. makes a $625 payment into a mutual
a) Alfalfa grows best in soils with a pH of fund that earns an annual percentage
6.2 to 7.8. Determine the range of the rate of 6%, compounded quarterly. The
concentration of hydrogen ions that is future value, FV, of Aaron’s investment
best for alfalfa. R[(1 + i)n - 1]
is FV = ___ , where n is the
b) When the pH of the soil solution is i
number of equal periodic payments of
above 5.5, nitrogen is made available to
R dollars, and i is the interest rate per
plants. If the concentration of hydrogen
compounding period expressed as a
ions is 3.0 × 10-6 mol/L, is nitrogen
decimal. After how long will Aaron’s
available?
investment be worth $1 000 000?

Unit 3 Test
Multiple Choice 4. Which of the following is an equivalent
form for 2x = log3 (y - 1)?
For #1 to #7, select the best answer.
A y = 32x - 1
bx
1. The graph of the function y = a(2 ) is B y = 32x + 1
shown.
C y = 9x + 1
y
D y = 9x + 1
-4 0 4 8 x
5. The domain of f(x) = -log2 (x + 3) is
-4
(3, -6) A {x | x > -3, x ∈ R}
-8 B {x | x ≥ -3, x ∈ R}
(6, -12) C {x | x < 3, x ∈ R}
-12
D {x | x ∈ R}
-16 4
____
6. If log2 5 = x, then log2 √253 is equivalent
to
The value of a is 3x
A _
A 3 2
1 B
3x
_
B _ 8
3
C -_
1 3
_
C x2
3
3
_
D -3 D x8
2. The graph of the function y = bx, b > 1, 7. If log4 16 = x + 2y and log 0.0001 = x - y,
is transformed to y = 3(bx + 1) - 2. The then the value of y is
characteristics of the function that A -2
change are
B -_
1
A the domain and the range 2
C
1
_
B the range, the x-intercept, and the
2
y-intercept D 2
C the domain, the x-intercept, and the
y-intercept Numerical Response
D the domain, the range, the x-intercept,
Copy and complete the statements in #8 to #12.
and the y-intercept
x
1
3. The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years. If 8. The graph of the function f (x) = _( 4 ) is
a bone has lost 40% of its carbon-14, then transformed by a vertical stretch about the
an equation that can be used to determine x-axis by a factor of 2, a reflection about
its age is the x-axis, and a horizontal translation
t
1 _
(
A 60 = 100 _ 5730
2 ) of 3 units right. The equation of the
transformed function is .
5730
1 _
B 60 = 100 (_
2 )
t 1
_
9 2 expressed as a single
9. The quotient _
t 2
_
1 _
(
C 40 = 100 _ 5730
2 ) 27 3
power of 3 is .
5730
1 _
(
D 40 = 100 _ t
2 )

10. The point P(2, 1) is on the graph of the 18. The Richter magnitude, M, of an
A ,
logarithmic function y = log2 x. When
the function is reflected in the x-axis and
earthquake is defined as M = log _
( )
A0
translated 1 unit down, the coordinates of where A is the amplitude of the ground
the image of P are . motion and A0 is the amplitude,
corrected for the distance to the actual
11. The solution to the equation
earthquake, that would be expected for
log 10x = 0.001 is .
a standard earthquake. An earthquake
12. Evaluating log5 40 - 3 log5 10 results in . near Tofino, British Columbia, measures
5.6 on the Richter scale. An aftershock
Written Response 1 the amplitude of the original
is _
4
13. Consider f(x) = 3-x - 2. earthquake. Determine the magnitude
a) Sketch the graph of the function. of the aftershock on the Richter scale,
b) State the domain and the range. to the nearest tenth.
c) Determine the zeros of f (x), to one 19. The world population was
decimal place. approximately 6 billion in 2000.
Assume that the population grows
14. Solve for x and verify your solution.
1
_ 1
x
_ ____ at a rate of 1.3% per year.
a) 9 4 _ (3) 2 3
= √274 a) Write an equation to represent the
b) 5(2 x−1
) = 10 2x − 3 population of the world.
15. Let f(x) = 1 - log (x - 2). b) When will the population reach at
least 10 billion?
a) Determine the domain, range, and
equations of the asymptotes of f(x). 20. To save for a new highway tractor, a
truck company deposits $11 500 at the
b) Determine the equation of f -1(x).
end of every 6 months into an account
c) Determine the y-intercepts of f -1(x).
with an annual percentage rate of 5%,
16. Solve for x algebraically. compounded semi-annually. Determine
a) log 4 = log x + log (13 - 3x) the number of deposits needed so that
b) log3 (3x + 6) - log3 (x - 4) = 2 the account has at least $150 000. Use
R[(1 + i)n - 1]
17. The following shows how Giovanni the formula FV = ___ ,
i
attempted to solve the equation 2(3x) = 8. where FV is the future value, n is the
Identify, describe, and correct his errors. number of equal periodic payments
2(3x) = 8 of R dollars, and i is the interest rate
6x = 8 per compounding period expressed as
log 6x = log 8 a decimal.
x log 6 = log 8
log 8
x= _
log 6
x = log 8 - log 6
x ≈ 0.12
The solution is x ≈ 0.12.

CHAPTER
9 Rational
Functions
Why does the lens on a camera need to
move to focus on objects that are nearer
or farther away? What is the relationship
between the travel time for a plane and
the velocity of the wind in which it is
flying? How can you relate the amount of
light from a source to the distance from
the source? The mathematics behind
all of these situations involves rational
functions.
A simple rational function is used to

relate distance, time, and speed. More
complicated rational functions may be
used in a business to model average costs
of production or by a doctor to predict
the amount of medication remaining in
a patient’s bloodstream.
In this chapter, you will explore a variety

of rational functions. You have used
the term rational before, with rational
numbers and rational expressions, so what
is a rational function?
Key Terms
rational function point of discontinuity

9.1
Exploring Rational Functions
Using Transformations
Focus on…
• graphing, analysing, and comparing rational functions using transformations and using technology
• examining the behaviour of the graphs of rational functions near non-permissible values
The Trans Canada Trail is a system of 22 000 km of linked trails that passes
through every province and territory and connects the Pacific, Arctic,
and Atlantic Oceans. When completely developed, it will be the world’s
longest network of trails. Millions of people walk, run, cycle, hike, canoe,
horseback ride, snowmobile, and more on the trail.
If you cycle a 120-km section of the Trans Canada Trail, the time it takes
is related to your average speed. Cycling more quickly means it takes less
time; cycling more slowly means it takes more time. The relationship
between the time and the average speed can be expressed mathematically
with a rational function. What does the graph of this function look like? rational function
• a function that can be
written in the form
p(x)
f(x) = _ , where p(x)
q(x)
and q(x) are polynomial
expressions and q(x) ≠ 0
• some examples are
100 + 2n
20 , C(n) = __
y=_ ,
x n
3x + 4
2
and f (x) = __
x-5
Trans Canada Trail at Kettle

Valley, British Columbia
Did Yo u Know ? We b Link

Some sections of the Trans Canada Trail are based on long-established routes of travel, such To learn
earn more aabout
as the Dempster Highway in Northern Canada. This narrow gravel road is over 500 km long the Trans Canada
and connects Dawson City, Yukon Territory, with Inuvik, Norhwest Territories on the Mackenzie Trail, go to www.
River delta. The route is based on an old First Nations trading route dating back to the last ice mcgrawhill.ca/school/
age. This corridor was ice-free during that period and is believed by many to be a route used learningcentres and
by the first people in North America. follow the links.

Investigate Rational Functions
A: Relate Time and Speed Materials

1. a) Copy and complete the table of values giving the time to • graphing technology
cycle a 120-km stretch of the Trans Canada Trail for a variety
of average speeds.
Average
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 15 20 24 30 40
Speed (km/h)
Time (h)
b) What happens to the time as the average speed gets smaller and
smaller in value? larger and larger in value?
2. a) Write an equation to express the time, t, in hours, as a function of
the average speed, v, in kilometres per hour.
b) Is the value zero a part of the domain or the range in this
situation? Explain.
3. a) Graph the function.
b) How does the shape of the graph relate to your answer to step 2b)?
c) What does the graph show about the time to cycle a 120-km
stretch of the Trans Canada Trail as the average speed gets
closer to zero?
Reflect and Respond

4. a) How is the relationship between average speed and time
connected to the shape of the graph?
b) Does the graph of this function have endpoints? Explain.
a +k
B: The Effect of the Parameters a, h, and k on the Function y = __
x-h
5. a) Graph the functions y = _
1 4
_ _12
x , y = x , and y = x using technology.
b) Describe the behaviour of these functions as x approaches zero.
c) What happens to the values of these functions as |x| becomes
larger and larger?
d) Compare the graphs. For any real value a, describe the
relationship between the graphs of y = _ 1 a
_
x and y = x .
6. a) Graph the functions y = _
1 and y = _ 4 + 2.
x x-3
b) Compare the graphs. How do the numbers in the transformed
function equation affect the shape and position of its graph
1?
relative to the graph of the base function y = _
x
c) What function from step 5 has a graph that is congruent to the
graph of y = __ 4 + 2? Why do you think this is?
x-3
9.1 Exploring Rational Functions Using Transformations • MHR 431

12
7. a) Predict the effects of the parameters in the function y = - _ - 5.
x+1
Graph the function to check your predictions.
b) Which function from step 5 has a graph that is congruent
to the graph of this function? How are the equations and
graphs connected?
Reflect and Respond

8. Are the locations of the asymptotes of the function y = _
1
x affected if
a vertical stretch by a factor of a is applied to the function? Explain
your thinking.
9. a) Can you tell from the equation of the transformed rational
a + k where its graph has a vertical
function y = __
x-h
asymptote? Explain.
b) Describe how the values of a function change as x approaches a
non-permissible value.
c) What non-translated function has a graph that is congruent to
the graph of y = _8 + 6? How might you graph y = _8 +6
x-7 x-7
without technology using this relationship?
Link the Ideas
Did Yo u Know ? The rational function that relates speed to time for a given distance is
related to the base function y = _ 1
The equation of the x by a vertical stretch.
a a
function y = _x is The graph of a rational function of the form y = _
equivalent to xy = a. x represents a vertical
The equation xy = a 1
stretch by a factor of a of the graph of y = _ a
_
shows that for any x , because y = x can be
1 .
point on the graph,
the product of the
( )
written as y = a _x
x- and y-coordinates Graphs of rational functions of the form y = _ a
is always equal to a. x have two separate
branches that approach the asymptotes at x = 0 and y = 0.
Example 1
Graph a Rational Function Using a Table of Values
Analyse the function y = _ 10 using a table of values and a graph. Identify

x
characteristics of the graph, including the behaviour of the function for
its non-permissible value.

Solution
The equation of the function can be
Select values of x that make it easy to calculate rearranged to give xy = 10. How might this
10 . form be used to generate ordered pairs for
the corresponding values of y for y = _ x the table and points on the graph?
Why is the function undefined when x is zero?
x y y
As x approaches 0
-100 -0.1 10
from the right,
-20 -0.5 y > 0 and |y| is very large.
-10 -1
-5 -2 5
10
-2 -5 y = __
x
-1 -10
Why does |y| get larger
-0.5 -20 as the values of x
-10 -5 0 5 10 x approach zero?
-0.1 -100
0 undefined What happens to the
values of y as |x|
0.1 100 becomes very large?
0.5 20 -5
1 10
As x approaches 0
2 5 from the left,
5 2 y < 0 and |y| is very large.
-10
10 1
20 0.5
100 0.1
For this function, when 0 is substituted for the value of x, the denominator
has a value of 0. Since division by 0 is undefined, 0 is a non-permissible
value. This corresponds to the vertical asymptote in the graph at x = 0. As
the values of x approach zero, the absolute value of y gets very large.
Summarize the characteristics of the function using a table.
10
y= _
Characteristic x
Non-permissible value x=0
D i d You K n ow?
Behaviour near non-permissible value As x approaches 0, |y| becomes very large.
End behaviour As |x| becomes very large, y approaches 0. In Pre-Calculus 11,
you graphed and
Domain {x | x ≠ 0, x ∈ R} analysed rational
Range {y | y ≠ 0, y ∈ R} functions that are
reciprocals of linear or
Equation of vertical asymptote x=0 quadratic functions:
y=0 1
Equation of horizontal asymptote y = _ , where
f (x)
f (x) ≠ 0. In this chapter,
Your Turn you will explore
6 rational functions
Analyse the function y = _ x using a table of values and a graph. with numerators and
Identify characteristics of the graph, including the behaviour of denominators that are
monomials, binomials,
the function for its non-permissible value. or trinomials.

You can sometimes graph and analyse more complicated
rational functions by considering how they are related by
transformations to base rational functions.
To obtain the graph of a rational function of the form y = __ a + k from

x-h
the graph of y = _1 , apply a vertical stretch by a factor of a, followed by
x
translations of h units horizontally and k units vertically.
• The graph has a vertical asymptote at x = h.
• The graph has a horizontal asymptote at y = k.
• Knowing the location of the asymptotes and drawing them first
can help you graph and analyse the function.
Example 2
Graph a Rational Function Using Transformations
Sketch the graph of the function y = _ 6 - 3 using transformations,

x-2
and identify any important characteristics of the graph.
Solution
Compare the function y = _ 6 - 3 to the form y = __ a + k to
x-2 x-h
determine the values of the parameters: a = 6, h = 2, and k = -3.
To obtain the graph of y = _ 6 - 3 from the graph of y = _ 1 , apply a

x-2 x
vertical stretch by a factor of 6, and then a translation of 2 units to the
right and 3 units down.
The asymptotes of the graph of y = _ 6 - 3 translate in the same way

x-2
from their original locations of x = 0 and y = 0. Therefore, the vertical
asymptote is located 2 units to the right at x = 2, and the horizontal
asymptote is located 3 units down at y = -3.
y
y= 1
_
x 6 How can you use the
asymptotes to help you sketch
4 the graph?
2 6 How might considering ordered

y= _ 6 help you graph
x pairs for y = _
x
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x y = __ 6 - 3?
x-2
-2
What happens to |y| as the
y = -3 values of x approach 2?
-4
6
y = _____ - 3 What happens to the values of
x-2 -6 y as |x| becomes very large?
x=2
-8

Summarize the characteristics of the graph using a table:
6
Characteristic y = __ - 3
x-2
Non-permissible value x=2
Which of the characteristics
Behaviour near non-permissible value As x approaches 2, |y| becomes very large. listed are related to each
End behaviour As |x| becomes very large, y approaches -3. other?
Domain {x | x ≠ 2, x ∈ R} How is each of the

function’s characteristics
Range {y | y ≠ -3, y ∈ R}
related to the equation of
Equation of vertical asymptote x=2 the function?
Equation of horizontal asymptote y = -3
Your Turn
Sketch the graph of the function y = _ 4 + 5 using transformations,
x+1
and identify the important characteristics of the graph.
Example 3
Graph a Rational Function With Linear Expressions in the Numerator
and the Denominator
4x - 5 . Identify any asymptotes and intercepts.
Graph the function y = __
x-2
Solution
Method 1: Use Paper and Pencil
Determine the locations of the intercepts and asymptotes first, and then
use them as a guide to sketch the graph.
Find the y-intercept of the function by substituting 0 for x.
4x - 5
y = __
x-2
4(0) -5
y = __
0-2
y = 2.5
The y-intercept occurs at (0, 2.5).
Find the x-intercept of the function by solving for x when y = 0.

4x - 5
y = __
x-2
4x - 5
0 = __
x-2
4x - 5
(x - 2)(0) = (x - 2) __ (
x-2 )
0 = 4x - 5
x = 1.25
The x-intercept occurs at (1.25, 0).

Manipulate the equation of this function algebraically to obtain the form
y = __a + k, which reveals the location of both the vertical asymptote
x-h
and the horizontal asymptote.
4x - 5
y = __
x-2
4x -8+8-5
y = ___
x-2
4(x - 2) + 3
y = ___ Why is it necessary to change the numerator so
x-2 that it involves the expression (x - 2)?
4(x - 2) 3
y = __ + _
x-2 x-2
y=4+_ 3 How is this form related to polynomial division?
x-2
y=_ 3 +4
x-2
To obtain the graph of the function y = _ 3 + 4 from the graph of
x-2
y=_ 1 , apply a vertical stretch by a factor of 3, and then a translation of
x
2 units to the right and 4 units up.
Translate the asymptotes in the same way, to x = 2 and y = 4.
y
3 8
y = _____ + 4
x-2
6
How can considering the pattern
4 3 help you
of ordered pairs for y = _
y=4 x
(0, 2.5) locate the points shown in green?
2
How are these four green points
(1.25, 0)
related to the symmetry in
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
the graph?
-2
-4
x=2

4x - 5 using a graphing calculator. Adjust the
Graph the function y = __
x-2
dimensions of the window so that all of the important features of the
graph are visible.

Use the zero, value, trace and table features to verify the locations of the
intercepts and asymptotes. The graph of the function has
• a y-intercept of 2.5
• an x-intercept of 1.25
• a vertical asymptote at x = 2
• a horizontal asymptote at y = 4
Your Turn
2x + 2
Graph the function y = __ . Identify any asymptotes and intercepts.
x-4
Example 4
Compare Rational Functions
1 , g(x) = ___
Consider the functions f(x) = _ 3 , and
x2 x2 - 10x + 25
h(x) = 6 - __ 1 .
(x + 4)2
Graph each pair of functions.
• f (x) and g(x)
• f (x) and h(x)
Compare the characteristics of the graphs of the functions.
Solution
Graph the functions using a graphing calculator. Set the window
dimensions so that important features are visible.
Rewrite the functions g(x) and h(x) algebraically to reveal how they
1 . Then, use transformations to
are related to the base function f (x) = _
x2
explain some of the similarities in the graphs.

g(x) = ___ 3 h(x) = 6 - __ 1
x2 - 10x + 25 (x + 4)2
g(x) = __ 3 1
h(x) = - __ +6
(x - 5)2 (x + 4)2
1
(
g(x) = 3 __
(x - 5)2 ) h(x) = -f(x + 4) + 6
g(x) = 3f(x - 5) To obtain the graph of h(x)

from the graph of f(x), apply a
To obtain the graph of g(x) reflection in the x-axis and a
from the graph of f(x), apply translation of 4 units to the left
a vertical stretch by a factor and 6 units up.
of 3 and a translation of
5 units to the right.
Use the appropriate graphing technology features to verify the locations

of the asymptotes.
1 g(x) = ___ 3 h (x) = 6 - __ 1
Characteristic f(x) = _2
x x2 - 10x + 25 (x + 4)2
Non-permissible x=0 x=5 x = -4
value
Behaviour near As x approaches As x approaches 5, |y| As x approaches -4,
non-permissible 0, |y| becomes becomes very large. |y| becomes very large.
value very large.
End behaviour As |x| becomes As |x| becomes very large, As |x| becomes very
very large, y y approaches 0. large, y approaches 6.
approaches 0.
Domain {x | x ≠ 0, x ∈ R} {x | x ≠ 5, x ∈ R} {x | x ≠ -4, x ∈ R}
Range {y | y > 0, y ∈ R} {y | y > 0, y ∈ R} {y | y < 6, y ∈ R}
Equation of vertical x=0 x=5 x = -4
asymptote
Equation of y=0 y=0 y=6
horizontal
asymptote
The graphs have the following in common:

• Each function has a single non-permissible value.
• Each has a vertical asymptote and a horizontal asymptote.
• The domain of each function consists of all real numbers except for a
single value. The range of each function consists of a restricted set of
the real numbers.
• |y| becomes very large for each function when the values of x approach
the non-permissible value for the function.
Your Turn
Graph the functions f(x) = _1 , g(x) = __-1 , and
x2 (x - 3)2
h(x) = 2 + ___ 5 . Compare the characteristics of the graphs.
x2 + 2x + 1

Example 5
Apply Rational Functions
A mobile phone service provider offers several different prepaid
plans. One of the plans has a $10 monthly fee and a rate of 10¢
per text message sent or minute of talk time. Another plan has
a monthly fee of $5 and a rate of 15¢ per text message sent or
minute of talk time. Talk time is billed per whole minute.
a) Represent the average cost per text or minute of each plan
with a rational function.
b) Graph the functions.
c) What do the graphs show about the average cost per text
or minute for these two plans as the number of texts and
minutes changes?
d) Which plan is the better choice?
Solution
a) Write a function to represent each plan.
Let f1 and f2 represent the average cost per text sent or minute used
for the first and second plans, respectively.
Let x be the combined number of texts sent and minutes used. x is a
whole number.
Calculate the average cost per text or minute of each plan as
the quotient of the total cost and the combined number of texts
and minutes.
Determine expressions for the total cost of each plan.
Total cost = monthly fee + (rate per text or minute)(combined number
of texts and minutes)
Total cost = 10 + 0.1x for the first plan
or
Total cost = 5 + 0.15x for the second plan
Substitute each expression into the following formula:
Average cost = ________ total cost
combined number of texts and minutes
10 + 0.1x 5 + 0.15x
f1(x) = __ x and f2(x) = __ x Since x ≠ 0, the domain becomes
the set of natural numbers.
b) Graph the two functions using technology.
Why does the graph

show only quadrant I?

c) Both functions have a vertical asymptote at x = 0, corresponding to
the non-permissible value of each function.
Although the data is discrete, the function that models it is

continuous. Therefore, the average cost function is only valid in the
domain {x | x ∈ N). The average cost per text or minute is undefined
when x is exactly zero, but the average cost gets higher and higher
as the combined number of texts and minutes approaches the
non-permissible value of zero.
Both functions also appear to have a horizontal asymptote. The

average cost for each plan decreases as the combined number of texts
and minutes increases.
a +k
Rewrite the equations of the two functions in the form y = __
x-h
so you can analyse them using the locations of the asymptotes:
10 + 0.1x 5 + 0.15x
f1(x) = __ x f2(x) = __ x
10 + _
f1(x) = _ 0.1x 5 + __
f2(x) = _ 0.15x
x x x x
10
_
f1(x) = x + 0.1 5
_
f2(x) = x + 0.15
The horizontal asymptote of the function f1(x) is y = 0.1, and the

horizontal asymptote of the function f2(x) is y = 0.15. The monthly fee
is spread out over the combined number of texts and minutes used.
The greater the combined number of texts and minutes becomes, the
closer the average cost gets to the value of $0.10 or $0.15.
d) To decide how to make a choice between the two plans, determine

when they have the same cost. The two functions intersect when
x = 100. The plans have the same average cost for 100 combined texts
and minutes. The first plan is better for more than 100 combined
texts and minutes, while the second plan is better for fewer than
100 combined texts and minutes.

Your Turn
Marlysse is producing a tourism booklet for the town of Atlin, D i d You K n ow?
British Columbia, and its surrounding area. She is comparing the
cost of printing from two different companies. The first company Atlin is a remote
but spectacularly
charges a $50 setup fee and $2.50 per booklet. The second charges beautiful community
$80 for setup and $2.10 per booklet. in the northwest
a) Represent the average cost per booklet for each company as a corner of British
Columbia on the
function of the number of booklets printed. eastern shore of Atlin
b) Graph the two functions. Lake. The surrounding
c) Explain how the characteristics of the graphs are related to the area has been used by
the Taku River Tlingit
situation.
First Nations people
d) Give Marlysse advice about how she should choose a printing for many years, and
company. the name Atlin comes
from the Tlingit word
Aa Tlein, meaning
big water.
Atlin, British Columbia
Key Ideas
p(x)
Rational functions are functions of the form f(x) = _ , where p(x) and
q(x)
q(x) are polynomial expressions and q(x) ≠ 0.
Rational functions where p(x) and q(x) have no common factor other
than one have vertical asymptotes that correspond to the non-permissible
values of the function, if there are any.
You can sometimes use transformations to graph rational functions
and explain common characteristics and differences between them.
You can express the equations of some rational functions in an
equivalent form and use it to analyse and graph functions without
using technology.

Practise 2. Identify the appropriate base rational

1. The equations and graphs of four rational function, y = _1 _1
x or y = x2 , and then use
functions are shown. Which graph
transformations of its graph to sketch the
matches which function? Give reason(s) for
graph of each of the following functions.
each choice.
Identify the asymptotes.
2
A(x) = _ B(x) = _ 2
x -1 x+1 a) y = __
1 b) y = __
1
2 2 x+2 x-3
C(x) = _ D(x) = _
x +1 1 1
x-1 c) y = __2 d) y = __2
(x + 1) (x - 4)
a) y
3. Sketch the graph of each function using
4
transformations. Identify the domain and
2 range, intercepts, and asymptotes.
a) y = _
6
-4 -2 0 2 4 x x+1
-2 b) y = _
4
x +1
-4 2
c) y = _ - 5
x-4
8
d) y = - _ + 3
b) y x-2
2 4. Graph each function using technology and
identify any asymptotes and intercepts.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x 2x + 1
a) y = __
-2 x-4
3x
b) y = __
-2
-4 x+1
-4x + 3
c) y = __
x+2
c) y 2
__- 6x
d) y =
4
x-5
5. Write each function in the form
2 a + k. Determine the location
y = __
x-h
-4 -2 0 2 4 x of any asymptotes and intercepts.
-2 Then, confirm your answers by
graphing with technology.
11x + 12
y a) y = __ x
d)
4
b) y = _
x
x+8
2 -x -2
c) y = __
x+6
-4 -2 0 2 4 x 6. Graph the functions f(x) = _ 1,
x2
-2 -8 , and h(x) = ___ 4
g(x) = __ - 3.
(x + 6)2 x2 - 4x + 4
-4
Discuss the characteristics of the graphs
and identify any common features.

Apply 9. a) Write a possible equation in the form
7. Write the equation of each function in the p(x)
y = _ that has asymptotes at x = 2
a + k.
form y = __ q(x)
x-h and y = -3.
a) y
b) Sketch its graph and identify its domain
4 and range.
2 c) Is there only one possible function that
meets these criteria? Explain.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x 10. Mira uses algebra to rewrite the function
-2 2 - 3x in an equivalent form that she
y = __
x-7
-4 can graph by hand.
2 - 3x
y = __
x-7
b) y -3x + 2
__
y=
4
x-7
-3x
___ - 21 + 21 + 2
y=
2 x-7
-3(x
___ - 7) + 23
y=
x-7
-6 -4 -2 0 2 x
-3(x - 7) _
__ 23
-2 y= +
x-7 x-7
23
-4 y = -3 + _
x-7
23
y=_ -3
x-7
c) y
a) Identify and correct any errors in
8
Mira’s work.
4 b) How might Mira have discovered that
she had made an error without using
-8 -4 0 4 8 x
technology? How might she have done
-4 so with technology?
x-2
11. a) Write the function y = __ in the
2x + 4
d) y
form y = __ a + k.
x-h
-4 -2 0 2 4 x b) Sketch the graph of the function using
-4 transformations.
-8 12. Determine the locations of the intercepts
3x - 5 . Use a graph
of the function y = __
-12 2x + 3
of the function to help you determine
the asymptotes.
a
8. The rational function y = _ + k passes
x-7 13. The number, N, of buyers looking to buy a
through the points (10, 1) and (2, 9). home in a particular city is related to the
a) Determine the values of a and k. average price, p, of a home in that city by
the function N(p) = __500 000 . Explain how
b) Graph the function. p
the values of the function behave as the
value of p changes and what the behaviour
means in this situation.

14. A rectangle has a constant area of 24 cm2. 17. Ohm’s law relates the current, I, in
a) Write an equation to represent the amperes (A); the voltage, V, in volts
length, l, as a function of the width, w, (V); and the resistance, R, in ohms (Ω),
for this rectangle. Graph the function. in electrical circuits with the formula
I=_ V . Consider the electrical circuit in
b) Describe how the length changes as the
R
width varies.
the diagram.
15. The student council at a large high school
is having a fundraiser for a local charity. Battery:
12 V
The council president suggests that they
set a goal of raising $4000.
a) Let x represent the number of students
who contribute. Let y represent the
average amount required per student to
meet the goal. What function y in terms
Bulb: Variable resistor:
of x represents this situation? 15 Ω x ohms
b) Graph the function.
A variable resistor is used to control the
c) Explain what the behaviour of the
brightness of a small light bulb and can
function for various values of x means
be set anywhere from 0 Ω to 100 Ω. The
in this context.
total resistance in the circuit is the sum of
d) How would the equation and graph the resistances of the variable resistor and
of the function change if the student the bulb.
council also received a $1000 donation
a) Write an equation for the current,
from a local business?
I, in the circuit as a function of the
16. Hanna is shopping for a new deep freezer resistance of the variable resistor, x.
and is deciding between two models. One
b) What domain is appropriate for this
model costs $500 and has an estimated
situation? Does the graph of the
electricity cost of $100/year. A second
function have a vertical asymptote?
model that is more energy efficient costs
Explain.
$800 but has an estimated electricity cost
of $60/year. c) Graph the function. What setting is
needed on the variable resistor to
a) For each freezer, write an equation for
produce a current of exactly 0.2 A?
the average cost per year as a function
of the time, in years. d) How would the function change if the
circuit consisted of only the battery
b) Graph the functions for a reasonable
and the variable resistor? Explain the
domain.
significance of the vertical asymptote
c) Identify important characteristics of in this case.
each graph and explain what they show
about the situation.
d) How can the graph help Hanna decide
which model to choose?

18. Two stores rent bikes. One charges a fixed 21. For each rational function given, determine
fee of $20 plus $4/h, and the other charges the inverse function, f −1(x).
a fixed fee of $10 plus $5/h. x-3
a) f(x) = _
a) Write equations for the average cost x+1
b) f(x) = _ 2x + 4
per hour for each store as a function x-5
of the rental time, in hours. Graph 22. State the characteristics of the graph of the
the functions. x +_ x - 4.
function y = _
b) Identify key features of the graphs. x+2 x-2
What do the graphs show about how the
average cost changes for different rental Create Connections
times? C1 Would you say that using transformations
c) Is one store always the better choice? with rational functions is more difficult,
Explain. easier, or no different than using
transformations with other functions that
Extend you have studied? Give reasons for your
19. A truck leaves Regina and drives answer using specific examples.
eastbound. Due to road construction, the C2 The owners of a manufacturing plant are
truck takes 2 h to travel the first 80 km. trying to eliminate harmful emissions.
Once it leaves the construction zone, the 200 000p
truck travels at 100 km/h for the rest of They use the function C(p) = __
100 - p
the trip. to estimate the cost, C, in dollars, to
a) Let v represent the average speed, in eliminate p percent of the emissions
kilometres per hour, over the entire trip from the plant.
and t represent the time, in hours, since a) What domain is appropriate in this
leaving the construction zone. Write an situation? Why?
equation for v as a function of t. b) Graph the function. How is its shape
b) Graph the function for an appropriate related to the manufacturing context?
domain. c) Does it cost twice as much to eliminate
c) What are the equations of the 80% as it does to eliminate 40%?
asymptotes in this situation? Do they Explain.
have meaning in this situation? Explain. d) Is it possible to completely eliminate
d) How long will the truck have to drive all of the emissions according to this
before its average speed is 80 km/h? model? Justify your answer in terms of
e) Suppose your job is to develop GPS the characteristics of the graph.
technology. How could you use these C3 What are the similarities and differences
types of calculations to help travellers between graphing the functions
save fuel? y=_ 2 + 4 and y = 2 √______
x-3 +4
20. Determine the equation of a rational
x-3
without using technology?
ax + b
function of the form y = __ that has
cx + d
a vertical asymptote at x = 6, a horizontal
asymptote at y = -4, and an x-intercept
of -1.

9.2
Analysing Rational
Functions
Focus on…
• graphing, analysing, and comparing rational functions
• determining whether graphs of rational functions
have an asymptote or a point of discontinuity for a
non-permissible value
The speed at which an airplane travels

depends on the speed of the wind in which
it is flying. A plane’s airspeed is how fast it
travels in relation to the air around it, but its
ground speed is how fast it travels relative to
the ground. A plane’s ground speed is greater if it flies Near McClusky Lake, Wind River, Yukon
with a tailwind and less if it flies with a headwind.
Investigate Analysing Rational Functions
2
x -x-2
1. Consider the function y = __ .
Materials
x-2
• graphing technology a) What value of x is important to consider when analysing this
function? Predict the nature of the graph for this value of x.
b) Graph the function and display a table of values.
c) Are the pattern in the table and the shape of the graph what you
expected? Explain.
2. a) What are the restrictions on the domain of this function?
b) How can you simplify the function? What function is it
equivalent to?
c) Graph the simplified function and display a table of values. How
do these compare to those of the original function?
d) How could you sketch the graphs of these two functions so that
the difference between them is clear?
Reflect and Respond

2
x -x-2
3. a) How does the behaviour of the function y = __ near its
x-2
non-permissible value differ from the rational functions you have
looked at previously?
b) What aspect of the equation of the original function do you think
is the reason for this difference?

Link the Ideas
Graphs of rational functions can have a variety of shapes and different

features—vertical asymptotes are one such feature. A vertical asymptote
of the graph of a rational function corresponds to a non-permissible
value in the equation of the function, but not all non-permissible values
result in vertical asymptotes. Sometimes a non-permissible value instead
results in a point of discontinuity in the graph. point of
discontinuity
• a point, described by an
Example 1 ordered pair, at which
the graph of a function
Graph a Rational Function With a Point of Discontinuity is not continuous
x2 - 5x + 6 • occurs in a graph of
Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = ___ . Analyse its
x-3 a rational function
behaviour near its non-permissible value. when its function
can be simplified by
dividing the numerator
Solution and denominator by
You can sometimes analyse and graph rational functions more easily by a common factor that
includes a variable
simplifying the equation of the function algebraically. To simplify the
• results in a single point
equation of f (x), factor the numerator and the denominator:
missing from the graph,
x2 - 5x + 6 which is represented
f(x) = ___
x-3 using an open circle
1
(x - 2)(x - 3) • sometimes referred to
f(x) = ___
as a “hole in the graph”
(x - 3) As long as the restriction is
1 included, this simplified equation
f(x) = x - 2, x ≠ 3 represents the same function.
The graph of f(x) is the same as the graph of y = x - 2, except that f(x)
has a point of discontinuity at (3, y). To determine the y-coordinate of
the point of discontinuity, substitute x = 3 into the simplified function
equation.
y=x-2
y=3-2 What happens when x = 3 is substituted
y=1 into the original function?
The point of discontinuity occurs at (3, 1).

Graph a line with a y-intercept of -2 and a slope of 1. Plot an open
circle on the graph at (3, 1) to indicate that the function does not
exist at that point.
y x2 - 5x + 6
f(x) = __________
4 x-3
Why is the graph a

-2 0 2 4 6 x straight line when its
-2 equation looks quite
complex?
-4
9.2 Analysing Rational Functions • MHR 447

The function f(x) has a point of discontinuity at (3, 1) because the
numerator and the denominator have a common factor of x - 3. The
common factor does not affect the values of the function except at x = 3,
where f(x) does not exist.
A table of values for the function shows the behaviour of the function
near its non-permissible value x = 3:
x 2.5 2.8 2.9 2.99 2.999 3 3.001 3.01 3.1 3.2 3.5
f (x) 0.5 0.8 0.9 0.99 0.999 does not exist 1.001 1.01 1.1 1.2 1.5
From the table, it appears that the value of f(x) gets closer and closer to
1 as x gets closer to 3 from either side even though the function does not
exist when x is exactly 3.
Your Turn
x2 + 2x - 3
Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = ___ . Analyse its
x-1
behaviour near its non-permissible value.
Example 2
Rational Functions: Points of Discontinuity Versus Asymptotes
x2 - 2x
a) Compare the behaviour of the functions f (x) = __ and
4 - 2x
x2 + 2x
__
g(x) = near any non-permissible values.
4 - 2x
b) Explain any differences.
Solution
a) Use a graphing calculator to graph the functions.
Why are the graphs

so different when the
equations look so similar?
Did Yo u Know ?
In calculus, the term

“undefined” is used
for an asymptote,
while the term
“indeterminate” is
used for a point of
The non-permissible value for both functions is 2. However, the graph
discontinuity. on the left does not exist at (2, –1), whereas the the graph on the right
n is undefined at x = 2.
• _ is undefined.
0
0
• _ is indeterminate.
0

x2 - 2x x2 + 2x
Characteristic f (x) = __ g(x) = __
4 - 2x 4 - 2x
Non-permissible value x=2 x=2
Feature at non-permissible value point of discontinuity vertical asymptote
Behaviour near non-permissible As x approaches 2, As x approaches 2, |y|
value y approaches -1. becomes very large.
b) To explain the differences in the behaviour of the two functions near

x = 2, factor the numerator and denominator of each function.
x2 - 2x
f(x) = __
4 - 2x
1
x(x - 2)
f(x) = __
-2(x - 2)
1
1 x, x ≠ 2
f(x) = - _
2
f (x) has a point of discontinuity at (2, -1) because the numerator and
denominator have a common factor of x - 2.
x2 + 2x
g(x) = __
4 - 2x
x(x + 2)
g(x) = __ , x ≠ 2
-2(x - 2)
g(x) has a vertical asymptote at x = 2 because x - 2 is a factor of the
denominator but not the numerator.
Your Turn
x2 + 3x
x2 - 3x and g(x) = __
Compare the functions f(x) = __ and explain
2x + 6 2x + 6
any differences.
Example 3
Match Graphs and Equations for Rational Functions
Match the equation of each rational function with the most appropriate
graph. Give reasons for each choice.
x2 + 2x 2x + 4 2x
A(x) = __ B(x) = __ C(x) = __
x2 - 4 x2 + 1 x2 - 4
Graph 1 y Graph 2 y Graph 3 y
4 4 4
2 2 2
-4 -2 0 2 4x -4 -2 0 2 4 x -2 0 2 4 x
-2 -2 -2

Solution
To match the equations of the functions with their graphs, use the
locations of points of discontinuity, asymptotes, and intercepts. Write
each function in factored form to determine the factors of the numerator
and denominator and use them to predict the characteristics of each
graph.
x2 + 2x
A(x) = __ The graph of A(x) has How do the factors
x2 - 4 in the equation
x(x + 2) • a vertical asymptote at
A(x) = ___ reveal the features
(x - 2)(x + 2) x=2 of the graph?
• a point of discontinuity at
1
(-2, _
2 )
• an x-intercept of 0
Therefore, graph 2
represents A(x).
2x + 4
B(x) = __ The graph of B(x) has How can you tell
x2 + 1 that the graph
2(x + 2) • no vertical asymptotes
of B(x) will have
B(x) = __2 or points of discontinuity
x +1 no points of
• an x-intercept of -2 discontinuity or
Therefore, graph 3 vertical asymptotes?
represents B(x).
C (x) = __2x The graph of C(x) has How can you tell
x2 - 4 that the graph of
2x • vertical asymptotes at
C(x) = ___ C (x) will have two
(x - 2)(x + 2) x = -2 and x = 2 vertical asymptotes
• no points of discontinuity and one x-intercept,
• an x-intercept of 0 but no points of
Therefore, graph 1 discontinuity?
represents C(x).
Your Turn
Match the equation of each rational function with the most appropriate
graph. Explain your reasoning.
x2 + 2 x-1 x2 - 5x + 6
K (x) = __ L(x) = __ M(x) = ___
2
x -x-2 x2 - 1 3-x
Graph 1 y y Graph 2 Graph 3 y

4 4 4
2 2 2
-4 -2 0 2 4x -2 0 2 4 x -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2 -2 -2
-4 -4 -4

Key Ideas
The graph of a rational function

has either a vertical asymptote or a point of discontinuity corresponding to
each of its non-permissible values

has no vertical asymptotes or points of discontinuity
To find any x-intercepts, points of discontinuity, and vertical asymptotes of a

rational function, analyse the numerator and denominator.
A factor of only the numerator corresponds to an x-intercept.
A factor of only the denominator corresponds to a vertical asymptote.
A factor of both the numerator and the denominator corresponds to a
point of discontinuity.
To analyse the behaviour of a function near a non-permissible value, use a
table of values or the graph, even though the function is undefined or does
not exist at the non-permissible value itself.
Practise 2. Create a table of values for each

1. The graph of the rational function function for values near its non-
y = ___x-4 is shown. permissible value. Explain how
x2 - 6x + 8 your table shows whether a point of
y x -4 discontinuity or an asymptote occurs
y = __________
4 x2 - 6x + 8 in each case.
2
2
x - 3x
a) y = __x
2
x - 3x - 10
b) y = ___
-2 0 2 4 6 x
x-2
-2 2
3x + 4x - 4
c) y = ___
x+4
2
a) Copy and complete the table to summarize 5x
___ + 4x - 1
d) y =
5x - 1
the characteristics of the function. 2
x - 2x - 3
3. a) Graph the functions f(x) = ___
x-4 x+3
Characteristic y = ___
x2 - 6x + 8 x2 + 2x - 3
and g(x) = ___ and analyse
Non-permissible value(s) x+3
their characteristics.
Feature exhibited at each
non-permissible value b) Explain any differences in their
Behaviour near each behaviour near non-permissible
non-permissible value values.
Domain
Range
b) Explain the behaviour at each


4. For each function, predict the locations 6. Match the graph of each rational function
of any vertical asymptotes, points of with the most appropriate equation. Give
discontinuity, and intercepts. Then, graph reasons for each choice.
the function to verify your predictions. a) y
x2 + 4x 4
a) y = ___
x2 + 9x + 20
2
2x2 - 5x - 3
b) y = ___
x2 - 1
2 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
x + 2x - 8
c) y = ___
x2 - 2x - 8 -2
2x2 + 7x - 15
d) y = ___
9 - 4x2
b) y
5. Which graph matches each rational
4
function? Explain your choices.
2
x + 2x x-2 2
a) A(x) = __2
b) B(x) = __
2
x +4 x - 2x
x +2 2x -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
c) C(x) = __ d) D(x) = __
x2 - 4 x2 + 2x -2
A y
-4
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x c) y
-2 4
2
B y
4 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x d) y
-2 4
-4 2
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
C y
-2
2
-4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
2
x +x-2
D y A f(x) = ___
2
x + x - 20
2 x 2
- 5x + 4
B g(x) = ___
x2 - x - 2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x x2 - 5x + 6
C h(x) = ___
-2 x2 - 5x + 4
x2 + x - 12
D j(x) = ___
x2 - 3x - 10

Apply 10. What rational function is shown in the graph?
7. Write the equation for each rational y
function graphed below.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
a) y
-2
4
2
11. a) Predict the shape of the graph of
2x2 + 2
x
y = __ and explain your reasoning.
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x2 - 1
-2 b) Use graphing technology to confirm
your prediction.
b) y
c) How would the graph of each of the
following functions compare to the
6
one in part a)? Check using graphing
4 technology.
2x2 - 2 2x2 + 2
2 i) y = __2
ii) y = __
x -1 x2 + 1
12. A de Havilland Beaver is a small plane
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x
that is capable of an airspeed of about
-2 250 km/h in still air. Consider a situation
where this plane is flying 500 km from
8. Write the equation of a possible rational Lake Athabasca, Saskatchewan, to Great
function with each set of characteristics. Slave Lake, Northwest Territories.
a) Let w represent the speed of the wind,
a) vertical asymptotes at x = ±5 and
in kilometres per hour, where w is
x-intercepts of -10 and 4
positive for a tailwind and negative
b) a vertical asymptote at x = -4, a for a headwind, and t represent the
11 , 9 ,
point of discontinuity at - _
2 ( ) time, in hours, it takes to fly. What
and an x-intercept of 8 equation represents t as a function of w?
1 What is the non-permissible value for
c) a point of discontinuity at -2, _ ,
5 ( ) the function?
a vertical asymptote at x = 3, and an b) Graph the function for a domain that
x-intercept of -1 includes its non-permissible value.
d) vertical asymptotes at x = 3 and c) Explain what the behaviour of the
6 , and x-intercepts of - _
x=_ 1 and 0 function for various values of w means
7 4
in this context, including near its
9. Sydney noticed that the functions
f(x) = ___x-3 and g(x) = ___ x-3
x2 - 5x - 6 x2 - 5x + 6 d) Which part(s) of your graph are
have equations that are very similar. She actually realistic in this situation?
assumed that their graphs would also be Discuss this with a partner, and
very similar. explain your thoughts.
a) Predict whether or not Sydney is D i d You K n ow ?
correct. Give reasons for your answer.
Bush planes like the de Havilland Beaver have been
b) Graph the functions. Explain why your and still are critical to exploration and transportation
predictions were or were not accurate. in remote areas of Northern Canada where roads do
not exist.

13. Ryan and Kandra are kayaking near 14. Paul is a humanitarian aid worker. He uses
Lowe Inlet Marine Provincial Park on 500p
the function C(p) = __ to estimate
Grenville Channel, British Columbia. 100 - p
The current can flow in either direction the cost, C, in thousands of dollars, of
at up to 4 km/h depending on tidal vaccinating p percent of the population of
conditions. Ryan and Kandra are capable the country in which he is working.
of kayaking steadily at 4 km/h without a) Predict the nature of the graph for its
the current. non-permissible value. Give a reason for
a) What function relates the time, t, in your answer.
hours, it will take them to travel 4 km b) Graph the function for an appropriate
along the channel as a function of the domain. Explain what the graph shows
speed, w, in kilometres per hour, of the about the situation.
current? What domain is possible for w c) Do you think this is a good model for
in this context? the estimated cost of vaccinating the
b) Graph the function for an appropriate population? Explain.
domain. 6378v2
15. The function h(v) = __2 gives the
c) Explain the behaviour of the graph for 125 - v
values at and near its non-permissible maximum height, h, in kilometres, as
value and what the behaviour means in a function of the initial velocity, v, in
this situation. kilometres per second, for an object
launched upward from Earth’s surface, if
the object gets no additional propulsion
D id Yo u Know ? and air resistance is ignored.
The fastest navigable tidal currents in the world, a) Graph the function. What parts of the
which can have speeds of up to 30 km/h at their graph are applicable to this situation?
peak, occur in the Nakwakto Rapids, another narrow
channel on British Columbia’s coast. The name b) Explain what the graph indicates about
originates from the kwakwaka’wakw language how the maximum height is affected by
meaning “trembling rock.” the initial velocity.
c) The term escape velocity refers to
the initial speed required to break
free of a gravitational field. Describe
the nature of the graph for its
non-permissible value, and explain
why it represents the escape velocity
for the object.
16. Determine the equation of the rational
function shown without using technology.
y
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
-4

x+a
17. A convex lens focuses light rays from an 18. Consider the functions f(x) = _ ,
x+b
object to create an image, as shown in the x+a
g(x) = ___ , and
diagram. The image distance, I, is related (x + b)(x + c)
to the object distance, b, by the function (x + a)(x + c)
fb h(x) = ___ , where a, b, and c
I = _ , where the focal length, f, is a (x + b)(x + c)
b-f are different real numbers.
constant for the particular lens used based
a) Which pair of functions do you think
on its specific curvature. When the object
will have graphs that appear to be
is placed closer to the lens than the focal
most similar to each other? Explain
length of the lens, an image is perceived
your choice.
to be behind the lens and is called a
virtual image. b) What common characteristics will all
three graphs have? Give reasons for
focal length of lens
your answer.
x2 + bx + c
19. If the function y = ___ , where
4x2 + 29x + c
b and c are real numbers, has a point
11 , where
F F (
of discontinuity at -8, _
35 )
does it have x-intercept(s) and vertical
asymptote(s), if any?
object distance image distance Extend 2

2x - 4x , what is
20. Given f (x) = ___
2
x + 3x - 28
1 f [-(x - 3)] in
the equation of y = _
4
simplest form?
21. Write the equation of the rational
function shown in each graph. Leave
F F
your answers in factored form.
a) y
a) Graph I as a function of b for a lens 2

with a focal length of 4 cm.
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
b) How does the location of the image
change as the values of b change? -2
c) What type of behaviour does the graph -4

exhibit for its non-permissible value?
How is this connected to the situation?
b) y
D id Yo u K n ow ? 4
The image in your bathroom mirror is a virtual 2

image—you perceive the image to be behind the
mirror, even though the light rays do not actually
travel or focus behind the mirror. You cannot project -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
a virtual image on a screen. The study of images of -2
objects using lenses and mirrors is part of a branch
of physics called optics. -4

2
x +4
22. The functions f(x) = __
2
and b) How would you elaborate on Rohan’s
x -4
2
x - 4 are reciprocals of each other. explanation about what rational functions
g(x) = __
x2 + 4 are to make it more clear for Jeremy?
That is, f(x) = _1 and vice versa. Graph
C2 Consider the statement, “All
g(x)
the two functions on the same set of axes polynomial functions are rational
and explain how the shapes of the graphs functions.” Is this statement true?
support this fact. Explain your thinking.
23. Predict the location of any asymptotes and C3 MINI LAB Graphs of rational functions
points of discontinuity for each function. Then, can take on many shapes with a variety
use technology to check your predictions. of features. Work with a partner to
x+2 5 create your own classification system for
a) y = __ +_
x2 - 4 x+2 rational functions.
2x3 - 7x2 - 15x
b) y = ___ Step 1 Use technology to create graphs for
x2 - x - 20 rational functions. Try creating graphs
Create Connections with as many different general shapes
as you can by starting with a variety of
C1 Jeremy was absent the day his math class
types of equations. How many different
started learning about rational functions.
general shapes can you create?
His friend Rohan tells him that rational
functions are functions that have asymptotes Step 2 Group the rational functions you
and points of discontinuity, but Jeremy is not have created into categories or
sure what he means. classes. Consider the types of
features, aspects, and symmetries
a) Jeremy takes Rohan’s statement to
that the various graphs exhibit.
mean that all rational functions have
asymptotes and points of discontinuity. Step 3 Create a descriptive name for each
Is this statement true? Explain using of your categories.
several examples. Step 4 For each category, describe an
example function, including its
equation and graph.
Project Corner Visual Presentation
Create a video or slide presentation that demonstrates your

understanding of a topic in Unit 4.
• Once you have chosen a topic, write a script for your
movie or outline for your slide presentation.
• If you are making a video, choose your presenter and/or
cast and the location. Prepare any materials needed and
rehearse your presentation. Film your movie, edit it,
add sound, and create the title and credits.
• If you are making a slide presentation, collect or make
any digital images that you need; create title, contents,
and credits slides; add sound or music; and test the
presentation.

9.3
Connecting Graphs and
Rational Equations
Focus on…
• relating the roots of rational equations to the x-intercepts of the graphs of
rational functions
• determining approximate solutions to rational equations graphically
A wide range of illnesses and medical conditions can be

effectively treated with various medications. Pharmacists,
doctors, and other medical professionals need to understand
how the level of medication in a patient’s bloodstream
changes after its administration. For example, they may
need to know when the level will drop to a certain point.
How might they predict when this will occur?
D id Yo u Kn ow?
Only a small fraction of the amount of many medications taken orally actually makes it
into the bloodstream. The ratio of the amount of a medication in a patient’s bloodstream
to the amount given to the patient is called its bioavailability.
Investigate Solving Rational Equations
Work with a partner. Materials

A: Determine Medication Levels • graphing technology
1. The function C (t) = __

40t models the bloodstream concentration,
1.1t 2 + 0.3
C, in milligrams per decilitre (mg/dL), of a certain medication as a
function of the time, t, in hours, since it was taken orally.
a) Graph the function for a reasonable domain.
b) What does the graph show about the situation?
2. A doctor needs to know when a patient’s bloodstream concentration
drops to 10 mg/dL.
a) Why might a doctor need to know this?
b) Brainstorm a list of possible methods you could use to determine
the length of time it will take.
c) Use at least two of the methods you came up with to determine the
length of time. Explain the steps required in each of your methods.
d) Share your solution methods with other pairs in your class. Are
your methods similar? Explain.
9.3 Connecting Graphs and Rational Equations • MHR 457

Reflect and Respond
3. What are the strengths of each method you used? Which one do you
prefer? Why?
B: Solve a Rational Equation Graphically and Algebraically

x+2
Consider the rational equation _ = x - 6.
x-3
4. How can you solve the equation algebraically? Write a step-by-step
algebraic solution, including an explanation of each step. Is there a
restriction on the value of x?
5. How can you solve the equation graphically? Discuss possible
methods with your partner, and then choose one and use it to solve
the equation. Explain your process.
Reflect and Respond

6. Which method of solving this equation do you prefer, the algebraic
approach or the graphical one? Give reasons for your choice.
Link the Ideas
Just as with many other types of equations, rational equations can be

solved algebraically or graphically. Solving rational equations using
an algebraic approach will sometimes result in extraneous roots. For
example, an algebraic solution to the equation __ 8 +1= _ 1
x2 - 16 x-4
results in x-values of -3 and 4. Why is x = 4 not a valid solution?
Solving a rational equation graphically involves using technology to
graph the corresponding rational function and identify the x-intercepts
of the graph. The x-intercepts of the graph of the corresponding function
give the roots of the equation.
For example, a graphical solution to the equation __ 8 +1= _ 1
x2 - 16 x-4
shows one solution, x = -3.
Note that the extraneous solution

of x = 4, which was determined
algebraically, is not observed when
solving the equation graphically.

Example 1
Relate Roots and x-Intercepts
6
a) Determine the roots of the rational equation x + _ - 5 = 0
x+2
algebraically.
6
b) Graph the rational function y = x + _ - 5 and determine the
x+2
x-intercepts.
c) What is the connection between the roots of the equation and the
x-intercepts of the graph of the function?
Solution
a) Identify any restrictions on the variable before solving. The solution
cannot be a non-permissible value. This equation has a single
non-permissible value of -2.
To solve the rational equation algebraically, multiply each term
in the equation by the lowest common denominator and then
solve for x.
x+_ 6 -5=0
x+2
6 - 5 = (x + 2)(0)
(
(x + 2) x + _
x+2 )
1
6
(
(x + 2)(x) + (x + 2) _
x+2 ) - (x + 2)(5) = 0
1
x2 + 2x + 6 - 5x - 10 = 0
x2 - 3x - 4 = 0
(x + 1)(x - 4) = 0
x+1=0 or x - 4 = 0
x = -1 x=4
Neither -1 nor 4 is a non-permissible value of the original equation.
Check:
For x = -1, For x = 4,
x+ _ 6 -5 0 x+ _ 6 -5 0
x+2 x+2
6
= -1 + __ - 5 =4+_ -5 6
-1 + 2 4+2
= -1 + 6 - 5 =4+1-5
=0 =0
Left Side = Right Side Left Side = Right Side
The equation has two roots or solutions, x = -1 and x = 4.

b) Use a graphing calculator
to graph the function
y=x+_ 6 - 5 and
x+2
determine the x-intercepts.
The function has x-intercepts at
(-1, 0) and (4, 0).
c) The value of the function is 0 when the value of x is -1 or 4. The

x-intercepts of the graph of the corresponding function are the roots
of the equation.
Your Turn
a) Determine the roots of the equation _
14
x - x + 5 = 0 algebraically.
b) Determine the x-intercepts of the graph of the corresponding function
y=_ 14 - x + 5.
x
c) Explain the connection between the roots of the equation and the
x-intercepts of the graph of the corresponding function.
Example 2
Determine Approximate Solutions for Rational Equations
2
x - 3x - 7
a) Solve the equation ___ = x - 1 graphically. Express your
3 - 2x
answer to the nearest hundredth.
Solution
a) Method 1: Use a Single Function
Rearrange the rational equation so that one side is equal to zero:
2
x
___ - 3x - 7 = x - 1
3 - 2x
2
x
___- 3x - 7 - x + 1 = 0
3 - 2x
Graph the corresponding function,
2
y=x ___- 3x - 7 - x + 1, and
3 - 2x
determine the x-intercept(s) of
the graph.
The solution to the equation

is x ≈ -0.43 and x ≈ 3.10.

Method 2: Use a System of Two Functions
Write a function that corresponds to each side of the equation.
2
y1 = x
___- 3x - 7
3 - 2x
y2 = x - 1
Use graphing technology to
graph these functions and
determine the value(s) of x at
the point(s) of intersection, or
where y1 = y2.
The solution to the equation is

x ≈ -0.43 and x ≈ 3.10.
b) Determine any restrictions on the variable in this equation. To

determine non-permissible values, set the denominator equal to zero
and solve.
3 - 2x = 0
x = 1.5
The non-permissible value is x = 1.5.
Solve the equation by multiplying both sides by 3 - 2x:
2
x
___- 3x - 7 = x - 1
3 - 2x
1 2
(3 - 2x) x
___- 3x - 7 = (3 - 2x)(x - 1)
3 - 2x
1
x2 - 3x - 7 = 3x - 3 - 2x2 + 2x
3x2 - 8x - 4 = 0
________
-b ± √b2 - 4ac Why is the quadratic formula
x= ___
required here?
2a _______________
-(-8)
_____ ± √(-8)2 - 4(3)(-4)
x=
____ 2(3)
8
__± √112
x=
6 __
8 ± 4√7
__
x=
6 __
4
__± 2√7
x=
3
__ __
4 - 2√7 4 + 2 √7
x = __ or x = __ How can you tell if either of
3 3 these roots is extraneous?
x = -0.4305… x = 3.0971…
x ≈ -0.43 x ≈ 3.10
The algebraic method gives an exact solution. The approximate values
obtained algebraically, x ≈ -0.43 and x ≈ 3.10, are the same as the
values obtained graphically.

Your Turn
3x 1 + 4x - x2
a) Solve the equation 2 - _ = ___ graphically. Express your
2 4x + 10
answer to the nearest hundredth.
Example 3
Solve a Rational Equation With an Extraneous Root
x 8x + 15
a) Solve the equation __ + 2x = __ algebraically and
2x + 5 4x + 10
graphically.
b) Compare the solutions found using each method.
Solution
a) Factor the denominators to determine the non-permissible values.
x
__ 8x + 15
+ 2x = __
2x + 5 2(2x + 5)
The equation has one non-permissible value of - _5.
2
Multiply both sides of the equation by the lowest common
denominator, 2(2x + 5).
x 8x + 15
2(2x + 5) __ (
2x + 5 )
+ 2x = 2(2x + 5) __ (
2(2x + 5) )
1
x 1
8x + 15
(
2(2x + 5) __
2x + 5
1
)
+ 2(2x + 5)(2x) = 2(2x + 5) __ (
2(2x + 5)
1
)
2x + 8x2 + 20x = 8x + 15
8x2 + 14x - 15 = 0
(2x + 5)(4x - 3) = 0
2x + 5 = 0 or 4x - 3 = 0
5
x = -_ x=_ 3
2 4
However, - _5 is a non-permissible value for the original equation. It is
2
an extraneous root and must be rejected.
3.
Therefore, the solution is x = _
4
To solve the equation graphically, use two functions to represent the
two sides of the equation.
y1 = __ x + 2x
The curves appear to meet
2x + 5
at the top and bottom of
8x + 15
the graphing calculator y2 = __
screen. Do these represent 4x + 10
points of intersection? The graphs of the two functions
Explain.
intersect when x is 0.75.
The solution to the equation is
3.
x = 0.75, or _
4

b) The solutions obtained by both methods are the same. For this
equation, the algebraic solution produced two values, one of which
was rejected because it was extraneous. The graphical solution did not
produce the extraneous root. There is only one point of intersection
on the graph of the two functions.
Your Turn
x+3 x
a) Solve the equation __ = 2x - _ algebraically and graphically.
2x - 6 3-x
b) Compare the solutions found using each method.
Example 4
Solve a Problem Using a Rational Equation
In basketball, a player’s free-throw D i d You K n ow?
percentage is given by dividing
the total number of successful Basketball is one
of the sports
free-throw baskets by the total competitions included
number of attempts. So far this in the Canadian
year, Larry has attempted Francophone Games.
The Canadian
19 free-throws and has been Francophone Games
successful on 12 of them. If he is gives French speaking
successful on every attempt from youth from across
Canada a chance to
now on, how many more
demonstrate their
free-throws does he need to talents in the areas
attempt before his free-throw of art, leadership, and
percentage is 80%? sports.
Solution
Let x represent the number of
free-throws Larry takes from
now on.
Let P represent Larry’s new free-
throw percentage, as a decimal.
successes
P = __
attempts
12 + x Why is x used in both the
P= __
19 + x numerator and the denominator?
Since the number of free-throws is discrete data, the continuous model is

only valid in the domain {x | x ∈ W}.

Determine the value of x when P is 80%, or 0.8. Substitute 0.8 for P and
solve the resulting equation.
12 + x
P = __
19 + x
12 + x
__
0.8 =
19 + x
Graph two functions and determine the point of intersection.
12 + x
y1 = __
19 + x
y2 = 0.8
What domain is
appropriate for
this situation?
Larry will have a free-throw percentage of 80% after 16 more free-throw

attempts if he is successful on all of them.
Multiply both sides of the equation by 19 + x:
12 + x Is there a non-permissible
0.8 = __
19 + x value of x for this
12 + x
__ 1 situation? Explain.
0.8(19 + x) = (19 + x)
19 + x
1
15.2 + 0.8x = 12 + x
3.2 = 0.2x
x = 16
Larry will have a free-throw percentage of 80% after 16 more free-throw

attempts if he is successful on all of them.
Your Turn
Megan and her friends are organizing a fundraiser for the local children’s
hospital. They are asking local businesses to each donate a door prize. So
far, they have asked nine businesses, but only one has donated a prize.
Their goal was to have three quarters of the businesses donate. If they
succeed in getting every business to donate a prize from now on, how
many more businesses do they need to ask to reach their goal?

Key Ideas
You can solve rational equations algebraically or graphically.

The solutions or roots of a rational equation are equivalent to the x-intercepts
of the graph of the corresponding rational function. You can use either of the
following methods to solve rational equations graphically:
Manipulate the equation so that one side is equal to zero; then, graph the
corresponding function and identify the value(s) of the x-intercept(s).
Graph a system of functions that corresponds to the expressions on both sides
of the equal sign; then, identify the value(s) of x at the point(s) of intersection.
When solving rational equations algebraically, remember to check for extraneous
roots and to verify that the solution does not include any non-permissible values.
Practise 3. Solve each equation algebraically.

1. Match each equation to the single function 5x
a) __ = 7
that can be used to solve it graphically. 3x + 4
x b) 2 = __
20 - 3x
a) _ + 6 = x x
x-2 2
x x
c) _ = x - 6
b) 6 - x = _ + 2 x-2
x-2
x 2
d) 1 + _ = _
x
c) 6 - _ = x - 2 x x+3
x-2
d) x + 6 = _
x 4. Use a graphical method to solve each
x-2 equation. Then, use another method to
A y=_ +x-8
x verify your solution.
x-2
x 8 -4=x+3
a) _
B y=_ -x+6 x
x-2
x b) 2x = __
10x
C y=_ -x-6 2x - 1
x-2
D y=_ +x-4
x 3x2 + 4x - 15
c) ___ = 2x - 1
x-2 x+3
2. a) Determine the roots of the rational 3 x2 - 4x
d) __ + x = 1 + __
equation - _2 5x - 7 7 - 5x
x + x + 1 = 0 algebraically.
b) Graph the rational function
y = -_2 + x + 1 and determine
x
the x-intercepts.
c) Explain the connection between
the roots of the equation and the
x-intercepts of the graph of the function.

5. Determine the approximate solution to 8. Determine the solution to the
each rational equation graphically, to 2x + 1 2 -_ 3 using
equation __ = _
the nearest hundredth. Then, solve the x-1 x+2 2
two different methods.
equation algebraically.
1
9. Solve the equation 2 - _ = _ + 1
x
x+1
a) _ = x - 3 x+2 x+2
2x algebraically and graphically, and explain
2
x - 4x - 5
b) ___ = x + 3 how the results of both methods verify
2 - 5x
2 7x each other.
c) _ = 3 - _
x x-2 10. The intensity, I, of light, in watts per
5 x+1 square metre (W/m2), at a distance, d, in
d) 2 + _ = 1 - _
x+3 x metres, from the point source is given
6. Solve each equation algebraically and P , where P is the
by the formula I = _
graphically. Compare the solutions 4πd 2
found using each method. average power of the source, in watts.
3x x+4 How far away from a 500-W light source is
a) _ + 5x = _
x-2 x-2 intensity 5 W/m2?
2
3x + 14x + 8 11. A researcher is studying the effects of
b) 2x + 3 = ___
x+4 caffeine on the body. As part of her
6x
c) _ + 3x = _ - 5
2x2 research, she monitors the levels of
x-3 x-3
caffeine in a person’s bloodstream over
2x
d) __
- 1 +4= _ x
x-1 time after drinking coffee. The function
x2 - x
C(t) = __ 50t models the level of
1.2t 2 + 5
Apply caffeine in one particular person’s
7. Yunah is solving the equation bloodstream, where t is the time, in hours,
2+_ x2 = _ 1 graphically. She since drinking the coffee and C (t) is the
x-1 x-1
person’s bloodstream concentration of
uses the following steps and then
caffeine, in milligrams per litre. How long
enters the resulting function into her
after drinking coffee has the person’s level
graphing calculator.
dropped to 2 mg/L?
x2 1
2 +_ = _
x-1 x-1
2(x - 1) + x2 = 1
2(x - 1) + x2 - 1 = 0
Enter Y1 = 2(x - 1) + x2 - 1 and find the x-intercepts.
Is her approach correct? Explain.

12. The time it takes for two people working Extend
together to complete a job is given by the 15. Solution A has a concentration of
formula T = __ ab , where a and b are the 0.05 g/mL and solution B has a
a+b concentration of 0.01 g/mL. You start
times it takes for the two people to complete with 200 mL of solution A, and pour in
the same job individually. Sarah can set up x millilitres of solution B.
the auditorium for an assembly in 30 min,
a) Write an equation for the concentration,
but when she works with James they can
C(x), of the solution after x millilitres
set it up in 10 min. How long would it take
have been added.
James to set it up by himself?
b) You need to make a solution with a
13. In hockey, a player’s shooting percentage
concentration of 0.023 g/mL. How
is given by dividing the player’s total goals
can you use your function equation
scored by the player’s total shots taken on
to determine how many millilitres
goal. So far this season, Rachel has taken
need to be added?
28 shots on net but scored only 2 goals.
She has set a target of achieving a 30% x
16. Solve the equation _ - 3 = __
5x + x
x+2 x2 - 4
shooting percentage this season. graphically and algebraically.
a) Write a function for Rachel’s shooting
17. Solve each inequality.
percentage if x represents the number
x - 18
a) __ ≤ 5
of shots she takes from now on and she x-1
scores on half of them. 5 2x + 17
b) _ ≥ __
b) How many more shots will it take for x-2 x+6
her to bring her shooting percentage up Create Connections
to her target?
C1 Connor tells Brian that rational
14. The coefficient, C, in parts per million per
equations will always have at least
kelvin, of thermal expansion for copper
one solution. Is this correct? Use a
at a temperature, T, in kelvins, can be
graphical approach and support your
modelled with the function
answer with examples.
21.2T 2 - 877T + 9150
C(T) = _____ . 3x 6
T 2 + 23.6T + 760 C2 The rational equation _ = x - _
x + 2 ______x + 2
a) For what temperature is C(T) = 15
and the radical equation x = √x + 6
according to this model? both have an extraneous root. Compare
b) By how many kelvins does the and contrast why they occur in each of
temperature have to increase for these equations and how they can be
copper’s coefficient of thermal identified when solving.
expansion to increase from 10 to 17? C3 Which method for solving a rational
D id Yo u K n ow ? equation do you prefer to use: graphical,
algebraic, or a combination of both?
Most materials expand as the temperature increases, Discuss with a partner, and give reasons
but not all in the same way. The coefficient of
thermal expansion (CTE) for a given material is a for your choice.
measure of how much it will expand for each degree
of temperature change as it is heated up. The higher
the CTE, the more the material will expand per unit of
temperature. A material’s CTE value does not remain
constant, but varies based on temperature. It is a ratio
per unit of temperature, with units such as parts per
million per kelvin or percent per degree Celsius. One
part per million is equivalent to 0.0001%.

Chapter 9 Review
9.1 Exploring Rational Functions Using 9.2 Analysing Rational Functions,
Transformations, pages 430—445 pages 446—456
1. Sketch the graph of each function using 5. Graph and analyse each function,
transformations. Identify the domain and including the behaviour near any
range, intercepts, and asymptotes. non-permissible values.
8 x2 + 2x
a) y = _ a) y = __
x-1 x
b) y = _
3 2
x - 16
x +2 b) y = __
x-4
12
c) y = - _ - 5 2x2 - 3x - 5
x+4 c) y = ___
2x - 5
2. Graph each function, and identify any
6. Which rational function matches each
asymptotes and intercepts. graph? Give reasons for your choices.
a) y = _
x x-4
x+2 A(x) = ___
x2 - 5x + 4
2x + 5
b) y = __ x2 + 5x + 4
x-1 B(x) = ___
x2 + 1
c) y =
-5x
__ -3
x-1
C(x) = __
x-6
1 x2 - 4
3. Graph the functions f(x) = _2 , y
x Graph 1
g(x) = __ 6 + 2, and 4
(x - 3)2
h(x) = ___ -4 . Compare the 2
x2 + 12x + 36
characteristics of the graphs and
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
identify any common features.
4. A baseball league is planning to order new Graph 2 y
uniforms from a company that will charge
4
$500 plus $35 per uniform.
2
a) Represent the average cost per uniform
for the company as a function of the
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
number of uniforms ordered using an
equation and a graph. -2
b) Identify key features of the graph and -4

explain what the graph shows about how
the average cost changes for different
Graph 3 y
numbers of uniforms ordered.
4
c) The league needs to keep the cost per
uniform at $40. How many uniforms 2
does it have to order?
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
-4

7. A company uses the function 9. Determine the solution to each equation
40 000p graphically, and then verify algebraically.
C(p) = __ to estimate the cost of
100 - p 33
cleaning up a hazardous spill, where a) x - 8 = _ x
C is the cost, in dollars, and p is the x
__ - 10
b) =x-2
percent of the spill that is cleaned up. x-7
a) Graph the function for a domain 3x - 1
c) x = __ + 3
x+2
applicable to the situation.
d) 2x + 1 = __
13 - 4x
b) What does the shape of the graph show x-5
about the situation? 10. Solve each equation graphically, to the
c) According to this model, is it possible nearest hundredth.
to clean up the spill entirely? Justify x-4
a) __ = 3
your answer in terms of the features of 5 - 2x
the graph. x
b) 1.2x = __ + 3.9
x + 6.7
5x + 4
D id Yo u K n ow ? c) 3x + 2 = __
x+1
2
Environment Canada responds to approximately
d)
x___- 2x - 8 =_1x - 2
1000 hazardous spills each year. Given the location x+2 4
and quantity and type of substance spilled, the 11. The lever system shown is used to lift
scientists from Environment Canada’s National Spill
Modelling Team run spill models. Spill modelling a mass of m kilograms on a cable with
helps to minimize the environmental impact of a constant force applied 0.4 m from the
spills involving hazardous substances and provides fulcrum. The maximum mass that can
emergency teams with critical information.
be lifted depends on the position, d, in
metres, of the mass along the lever and is
given by the formula m = __ 20 .
d + 0.4
lifting force
0.4 m d
3m
fulcrum m
9.3 Connecting Graphs and Rational a) What is the domain in this situation if
the mass can be positioned at any point
Equations, pages 457—467
along the 3-m-long lever?
8. a) Determine the roots of the rational
b) Graph the function. What does it show
equation x + _ 4 -7=0
x-2 about this context?
algebraically. c) Describe the behaviour of the function
b) Graph the rational function for its non-permissible value, and
4 - 7 and determine
y=x+_ explain what the behaviour means in
x-2 this situation.
the x-intercepts.
d) How far from the fulcrum can the lever
c) Explain the connection between
support a maximum possible mass of
the roots of the equation and the
17.5 kg?
x-intercepts of the graph of the function.

x+2
Multiple Choice 4. The roots of 5 - x = __ can be
2x - 3
For #1 to #6, choose the best answer. determined using which of the following?
A the x-coordinates of the points of
1. Which function has a vertical asymptote
x+2
at x = 2? intersection of y = __ and y = x - 5
2x - 3
x-2 x+2
A y=_ x B y=_x B the x-intercepts of the function
x+2
C y= _ x x
D y=_
y = __ + x - 5
x-2 x+2 2x - 3
C the x-coordinates of the points of
x2 - 2x ?
2. Which graph represents y = ___ x+2
2
x - 5x + 6 intersection of y = __ and y = x + 5
2x - 3
A B
D the x-intercepts of the function
y y
x+2
4 4
y = __ - x + 5
2x - 3
5. Which function is equivalent to
2 2
6x - 5 ?
y = __
x+7
-2 0 2 4 x 0 2 4 6 x 37 37
A y=_ +6 B y = -_ + 6
-2 -2 x+7 x+7
C y=_ +6
47 47
D y = -_ + 6
-4 -4 x+7 x+7
6. Which statement about the function
y = __ x is true?
C D x2 - x
y y A It has an x-intercept of 0.
4 4 B It has a y-intercept of 0.
2 2 C It has a point of discontinuity at (0, -1).

D It has a vertical asymptote at x = 0.
-2 0 2 4 x 0 2 4 6 x
-2 -2 Short Answer
2
x
7. Solve the equation x - 6 = _
-4 -4
x+1
graphically and algebraically.
3. Which statement is true about the function 8. a) Sketch the graph of the function
4 ? y = -_ 6 - 3.
y = -_
x-2 x+4
A As x approaches -2, |y| becomes very b) Identify the domain and range, and
large. state the locations of any asymptotes
B As |x| becomes very large, y and intercepts.
approaches -4. 9. Determine the approximate solution(s) to
3 +4= _
_ 2 - 1 graphically. Give your
C As x approaches 2, |y| becomes very
x x+3
large. answer(s) to two decimal places.
D As |x| becomes very large, y 10. a) Sketch the graph of the function
approaches 4. 2
y=x ___- 2x - 8 .
x-4
b) Explain the behaviour of the function for
values of x near its non-permissible value.

11. Predict the locations of any vertical 14. Alex solved the equation
asymptotes, points of discontinuity, and x2 - 2 = __
_ 3x - 2 algebraically and
2x2 + 7x - 4 x-2 x-2
intercepts for the function y = ___ . found a solution that consisted of two
x2 + x - 12
Give a reason for each prediction. different values of x.
12. Match each rational function to its graph. a) Solve the equation algebraically
Give reasons for each choice. and explain what is incorrect about
x2 - 9x x2 Alex’s result.
a) A(x) = __ x b) B(x) = __
2
x -9 b) Use a graphical approach to solve the
2
x
c) C(x) = __
- 9 d) D(x) = __
x2 problem. Explain how this method can
2 2
x x - 9x help you avoid the error that Alex made.
A y 15. Jennifer is preparing for a golf tournament
2 by practising her putting. So far she has
been successful on 10 out of 31 putts.
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x a) If she tries x putts from now on and she is
-2 successful on half of them, what equation
represents A, her overall average putting
B y success rate as a function of x?
x b) Use a graphical approach to determine
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
how many putts it will take before her
-4
average is up to 40%.
-8 16. Jarek lives 20 km upstream from his friend
Edward on a river in which the water
C y
flows at 4 km/h. If Jarek travels by boat to
3 Edward’s house and back again, the total
time, t, in hours, for the round trip is given
-3 0 3 6 9 12 15 x 40v , where v is the
by the function t = __
-3 v2 - 16
boat’s speed, in kilometres per hour.
D y
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 x River current = 4 km/h

-3
-6
Jarek’s Edward’s
-9 house house
a) What is the domain if Jarek makes the
complete round trip? Explain.
Extended Response b) Graph the function and explain what it

shows about the situation.
13. Compare the graphs of the functions
2x - 3 and g(x) = __2x - 3 . c) Explain what the behaviour of the
f(x) = __ function near its non-permissible value
4x2 - 9 4x2 + 9
Explain any significant differences in represents in this context.
the graphs by comparing the function d) What boat speed does Jarek need to
equations. keep the trip to 45 min each way?

CHAPTER
10 Function
Operations
Throughout your mathematics courses,
you have learned methods of interpreting
a variety of functions. It is important
to understand functional relationships
between variables since they apply to the
fields of engineering, business, physical
sciences, and social sciences, to name
a few.
The relationships that exist between

variables can be complex and can involve
combining two or more functions. In
this chapter, you will learn how to use
various combinations of functions to
model real-world phenomena.
Did Yo u Know ?
Wave interference occurs when two or more waves

travel through the same medium at the same time.
The net amplitude at each point of the resulting
wave is the sum of the amplitudes of the individual
waves. For example, waves interfere in wave pools
and in noise-cancelling headphones.
Key Terms
composite function

10.1
Sums and Differences
of Functions
Focus on…
• sketching the graph of a function that is the sum or difference
of two functions
• determining the domain and range of a function that is the
sum or difference of two functions
• writing the equation of a function that is the sum or
difference of two functions
Physicists use ripple tanks to model wave motion. You know from previous
work that sinusoidal functions can be used to model single wave functions.
Waves are said to interfere with one another when they collide. Their collision
can be modelled by the addition or subtraction of two sine waves.
Investigate Sums and Differences of Functions
Materials 1. Consider the graphs of the functions y
• grid paper f(x), g(x), and h(x). 6

• computer with f(x)
4
spreadsheet software h(x)
(optional)
2
-2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
g(x)
a) Copy the table and use the graph of each function to complete
the columns.
x f(x) g(x) h(x)
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
b) What do you notice about the relationship between each value of

h(x) and the corresponding values of f (x) and g(x)?

2. a) Determine the equation, in slope-intercept form, of each function
graphed in step 1.
b) Using your equations, write the equation of a new function, s(x),
that represents the sum of the functions f(x) and g(x). Is this new
function related to h(x)? Explain.
3. a) What are the domain and range of the functions f (x) and g(x)?
b) State the domain and range of h(x). How do they relate to the
domains and ranges of f(x) and g(x)?
4. Add a fifth column to your table from step 1 using the heading
k(x) = f(x) - g(x), and fill in the values for the column.
5. a) Sketch the graphs of f(x), g(x), and k(x) on the same set of
coordinate axes.
b) State the domain and range of k(x). How do they relate to the
domains and ranges of f(x) and g(x)?
6. Using your equations from step 2, write the equation of a new
function, d(x), that represents the difference g(x) - f(x). Is this new
function related to k(x)? Explain.
Reflect and Respond

7. a) Choose two functions, f (x) and g(x), of your own. Sketch the
graphs of f(x) and g(x) on the same set of coordinate axes.
b) Explain how you can write the equation and produce the graph of
the sum of f(x) and g(x).
c) Explain how you can write the equation and produce the graph of
the difference function, g(x) - f(x).
8. Will your results of adding functions and subtracting functions apply
to every type of function? Explain your reasoning.
Link the Ideas
You can form new functions by performing operations with functions.
To combine two functions, f(x) and g(x), add or subtract as follows:

Sum of Functions Difference of Functions
h(x) = f(x) + g(x) h(x) = f(x) - g(x)
h(x) = (f + g)(x) h(x) = (f - g)(x)
10.1 Sums and Differences of Functions • MHR 475

Example 1
Determine the Sum of Two Functions
Consider the functions f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x 2.
a) Determine the equation of the function h(x) = (f + g)(x).
b) Sketch the graphs of f (x), g(x), and h(x) on the same set of
coordinate axes.
c) State the domain and range of h(x).
d) Determine the values of f (x), g(x), and h(x) when x = 4.
Solution
a) Add f(x) and g(x) to determine the equation of the
function h(x) = (f + g)(x).
h(x) = (f + g)(x) Is the function (f + g)(x) the same as
h(x) = f(x) + g(x) (g + f)(x)? Will this always be true?
h(x) = 2x + 1 + x 2
h(x) = x 2 + 2x + 1
x f(x) = 2x + 1 g(x) = x2 h(x) = x2 + 2x + 1

-2 -3 4 1 How could you
use the values
-1 -1 1 0
in the columns
0 1 0 1 for f(x) and g(x)
to determine the
1 3 1 4
values in the
2 5 4 9 column for h(x)?
y
8
6
h(x) = x2 + 2x + 1 How are the y-coordinates
4 of points on the graph of
g(x) = x2 h(x) related to those on the
2 graphs of f(x) and g(x)?
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
f(x) = 2x + 1

Method 2: Use a Spreadsheet
You can generate a table of values using a spreadsheet. From these
values, you can create a graph.
c) The function f(x) = 2x + 1 has domain {x | x ∈ R}.

The function g(x) = x 2 has domain {x | x ∈ R}.
The function h(x) = (f + g)(x) has domain {x | x ∈ R}, which consists
of all values that are in both the domain of f(x) and the domain of g(x).
The range of h(x) is {y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}.
d) Substitute x = 4 into f(x), g(x), and h(x).

f(x) = 2x + 1 g(x) = x 2 h(x) = x 2 + 2x + 1
f(4) = 2(4) + 1 g(4) = 42 h(4) = 42 + 2(4) + 1
f (4) = 8+1 g(4) = 16 h(4) = 16 + 8 + 1
f (4) = 9 h(4) = 25
Your Turn
Consider the functions f(x) = -4x - 3 and g(x) = 2x 2.
a) Determine the equation of the function h(x) = (f + g)(x).
b) Sketch the graphs of f(x), g(x), and h(x) on the same set of
coordinate axes.

Example 2
Determine the Difference of Two Functions
______
Consider the functions f(x) = √x - 1 and g(x) = x - 2.
a) Determine the equation of the function h(x) = (f - g)(x).
b) Sketch the graphs of f (x), g(x), and h(x) on the same set of
coordinate axes.
c) State the domain of h(x).
d) Use the graph to approximate the range of h(x).
Solution
a) Subtract g(x) from f (x) to determine the equation of the function
h(x) = (f - g)(x).
h(x) = (f - g)(x)
h(x) = f(x) - g(x)
______
h(x) x - 1 - (x - 2)
= √______
h(x) = √x - 1 - x + 2
b) Method 1: Use Paper and______

Pencil
For the function f(x) = √x - 1 , the value of the radicand must be
greater than or equal to zero: x - 1 ≥ 0 or x ≥ 1.
______ ______
Why is the function
x f(x) = √x - 1 g(x) = x - 2 h(x) = √x - 1 - x + 2
h(x) undefined
-2 undefined -4 undefined when x < 1?
-1 undefined -3 undefined How could you
0 undefined -2 undefined use the values
in the columns
1 0 -1 1
for f(x) and g(x)
2 1 0 1 to determine the
values in the
5 2 3 -1
column for h(x)?
10 3 8 -5
y
8
6
g(x) = x - 2
4
How could you use the
2 f(x) = x - 1 y-coordinates of points on
the graphs of f(x) and g(x)
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x to create the graph of h(x)?
-2
-4
h(x) = x - 1 - x + 2

Method 2: Use a Spreadsheet
You can generate a table of values using a spreadsheet. From these
values, you can create a graph.
______
c) The function f(x) = √x - 1 has domain {x | x ≥ 1, x ∈ R}.
The function g(x) = x - 2 has domain {x | x ∈ R}.
The function h(x) = (f - g)(x) has domain {x | x ≥ 1, x ∈ R}, which
consists of all values that are in both the domain of f(x) and the
domain of g(x).
Domain of
f(x) = x - 1 0 1 What values of x belong
Domain of to the domains of both
g(x) = x - 2 0 f(x) and g(x)?
Domain of
h(x) = f(x) - g(x) 0 1
d) From the graph, the range of h(x) appears to be approximately

{y | y ≤ 1.2, y ∈ R}.
How can you use a graphing
calculator to verify the range?
Your Turn
Consider the functions f(x) = |x| and g(x) = x - 5.
a) Determine the equation of the function h(x) = (f - g)(x).
coordinate axes.
d) Is (f - g)(x) equal to (g - f )(x)? If not, what are the similarities
and differences?

Example 3
Determine a Combined Function From Graphs
Sketch the graph of h(x) = (f + g)(x) given y
the graphs of f(x) and g(x). 4
f(x)
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4
g(x)
-6
Solution
Method 1: Add the y-Coordinates of Corresponding Points
Create a table of values from the graphs of f(x) and g(x).
Add the y-coordinates at each point to determine points on the
graph of h(x) = (f + g)(x). Plot these points and draw the graph of
h(x) = (f + g)(x).
x f(x) g(x) h(x) = (f + g)(x) y

-4 -3 1 -3 + 1 = -2 4
f(x)
-3 -2 0 -2 + 0 = -2
2
-2 -1 -1 -1 + (-1) = -2
-1 0 -2 0 + (-2) = -2 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
0 1 -3 1 + (-3) = -2 -2
h(x) = (f + g)(x)
1 2 -4 2 + (-4) = -2
-4
2 3 -5 3 + (-5) = -2
g(x)
-6
3 4 -6 4 + (-6) = -2
4 5 -7 5 + (-7) = -2
The result is a line with a slope of 0 and a y-intercept of -2.

Therefore, h(x) = -2.
Method 2: Determine the Equations
Did Yo u Know ? To determine h(x), you could first determine the equations of f (x)
and g(x).
When the order of
operands can be For the graph of f(x), the y-intercept is 1 and the slope is 1. So, the
reversed and still
produce the same equation is f (x) = x + 1.
result, the operation is What are the slope and
said to be commutative.
For g(x), the equation is g(x) = -x - 3. y-intercept of this line?
For example,
Determine the equation of h(x) algebraically.
(f + g)(x) = (g + f )(x)
h(x) = (f + g)(x)
h(x) = x + 1 + (-x - 3)
h(x) = -2
The graph of h(x) = -2 is a horizontal line.

You can verify your answer by graphing f(x) = x + 1, g(x) = -x - 3, and
h(x) = f(x) + g(x) using a graphing calculator.
Your Turn
Sketch the graph of m(x) = (f - g)(x) given the graphs of f (x) and g(x).
y
4
f(x)
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4
g(x)
-6
Example 4
Application of the Difference of Two Functions
Reach for the Top is an academic challenge program offered to students
across Canada. Suppose the cost of T-shirts for the program includes
$125 in fixed costs and $7.50 per T-shirt. The shirts are sold for
$12.00 each.
a) Write an equation to represent
• the total cost, C, as a function of the number, n, of T-shirts produced
• the revenue, R, as a function of the number, n, of T-shirts sold
b) Graph the total cost and revenue functions on the same set of axes.
What does the point of intersection represent?
c) Profit, P, is the difference between revenue and cost. Write a function
representing P in terms of n.
d) Identify the domain of the total cost, revenue, and profit functions in
the context of this problem.

Solution
a) The total cost of producing the T-shirts can be represented by the
function C (n) = 7.5n + 125.
The revenue can be represented by the function R(n) = 12n.
b) Graph the functions. y
The point of intersection represents 350

the point at which the total cost 300
equals the revenue, or the break-even Total Cost Revenue
point. Any further sales of T-shirts 250
Dollars
will result in profit.
200
150
100
50
0 10 20 30 40 n
Number of T-shirts
c) Profit can be represented by a combined function:

P(n) = R(n) - C (n)
P(n) = 12n - (7.5n + 125)
P(n) = 4.5n - 125
d) The domain of C(n) = 7.5n + 125 is {n | n ≥ 0, n ∈ W}.
The domain of R(n) = 12n is {n | n ≥ 0, n ∈ W}.

The domain of P(n) = 4.5n - 125 is {n | n ≥ 0, n ∈ W}.
Your Turn
Did Yo u Know ? Math Kangaroo is an international mathematics competition that is held
in over 40 countries, including Canada. Suppose the cost of preparing
Math Kangaroo or
Kangourou sans booklets for the Canadian version of the contest includes $675 in fixed
frontières originated costs and $3.50 per booklet. The booklets are sold for $30 each.
in France in 1991. a) Write an equation to represent
The first Canadian
edition of the • the total cost, C, as a function of the number, n, of booklets produced
competition was • the revenue, R, as a function of the number, n, of booklets sold
held in 2001. • the profit, P, the difference between revenue and total cost
b) Graph the total cost, revenue, and profit functions on the same set of
axes. How many booklets must be sold to make a profit?
c) Identify the domain of the total cost, revenue, and profit functions in
the context of this problem.

Key Ideas
You can add two functions, f(x) and g(x), to form the combined function h(x) = (f + g)(x).
You can subtract two functions, f(x) and g(x), to form the combined function
h(x) = (f - g)(x).
The domain of the combined function formed by the sum y
or difference of two functions is the domain common to h(x) = (f + g)(x)
4
the individual functions. For example,
f(x) g(x)
2
Domain of f(x): {x | x ≤ 3, x ∈ R}
Domain of g(x): {x | x ≥ -5, x ∈ R}
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
Domain of h(x): {x | -5 ≤ x ≤ 3, x ∈ R}
-2
The range of a combined function can be determined
using its graph.
To sketch the graph of a sum or difference of two functions given their graphs,
add or subtract the y-coordinates at each point.
______
Practise 4. Given f (x) = 3x 2 + 2, g(x) = √x + 4 , and
1. For each pair of functions, determine h(x) = 4x - 2, determine each combined
h(x) = f(x) + g(x). function and state its domain.
a) f(x) = |x - 3| and g(x) = 4 a) y = (f + g)(x) b) y = (h - g)(x)
b) f(x) = 3x - 5 and g(x) = -x + 2 c) y = (g - h)(x) d) y = (f + h)(x)

x
5. Let f(x) = 2 and g(x) = 1. Graph each of
c) f(x) = x 2 + 2x and g(x) = x 2 + x + 2
the following, stating its domain and range.
d) f(x) = -x - 5 and g(x) = (x + 3)2
a) y = (f + g)(x) b) y = (f - g)(x)
2. For each pair of functions, determine
c) y = (g - f )(x)
h(x) = f(x) - g(x).
6. Use the graphs of f(x) and g(x) to evaluate
a) f(x) = 6x and g(x) = x - 2
the following.
b) f(x) = -3x + 7 and g(x) = 3x 2 + x - 2 a) (f + g)(4) b) (f + g)(-4)
c) f(x) = 6 - x and g(x) = (x + 1)2 - 7 c) (f + g)(-5) d) (f + g)(-6)
d) f(x) = cos x and g(x) = 4 y
2
3. Consider f(x) = -6x + 1 and g(x) = x . 8
a) Determine h(x) = f(x) + g(x) and 6

find h(2). f(x)
4
b) Determine m(x) = f(x) - g(x) and
g(x)
find m(1). 2
c) Determine p(x) = g(x) - f(x) and

find p(1). -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2

7. Use the graphs of f(x) and g(x) to 8. Copy each graph. Add the sketch of the
determine which graph matches each graph of each combined function to the
combined function. same set of axes.
y a) y f(x)
f(x) 4
4
2
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-2
g(x)
g(x)
-4
-4
b) y
a) y = (f + g)(x) f(x)
4
b) y = (f - g)(x)
2
c) y = (g - f )(x) g(x)
A y -4 -2 0 2 4 x
6 -2
4 -4
2
i) y = (f + g)(x)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x ii) y = (f - g)(x)
-2 iii) y = (g - f )(x)
Apply
B y
9. Given f(x) = 3x 2 + 2, g(x) = 4x, and
2 h(x) = 7x - 1, determine each combined
function.
0 2 4 6 8 x a) y = f(x) + g(x) + h(x)
-2
b) y = f(x) + g(x) - h(x)
-4 c) y = f(x) - g(x) + h(x)
d) y = f(x) - g(x) - h(x)
-6
10. If h(x) = (f + g)(x) and f (x) = 5x + 2,
determine g(x).
C y
a) h(x) = x 2 + 5x + 2
______
2
b) h(x) = √x + 7 + 5x + 2
c) h(x) = 2x + 3
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
d) h(x) = 3x 2 + 4x - 2
-2
11. If h(x) = (f - g)(x) and f (x) = 5x + 2,
-4 determine g(x).
-6 a) h(x) = -x 2 + 5x + 3
______
b) h(x) = √x - 4 + 5x + 2
c) h(x) = -3x + 11
d) h(x) = -2x 2 + 16x + 8

12. An eco-friendly company produces a 15. Automobile mufflers are designed to
water bottle waist pack from recycled reduce exhaust noise in part by applying
plastic. The supply, S, in hundreds of wave interference. The resonating chamber
waist packs, is a function of the price, of a muffler contains a specific volume
p, in dollars, and is modelled by the of air and has a specific length that is
function S(p) = p + 4. The demand, calculated to produce a wave that cancels
D, for the waist packs is modelled by out a certain frequency of sound. Suppose
D(p) = -0.1(p + 8)(p - 10). the engine noise can be modelled by
a) Graph these functions on the same E(t) = 10 sin 480πt and the resonating
set of axes. What do the points of chamber produces a wave modelled by
intersection represent? Should both R(t) = 8 sin 480π(t - 0.002), where t is the
points be considered? Explain. time, in seconds.
outlet
b) Graph the function y = S(p) - D(p). resonating
Explain what it models. chamber
13. The daily costs for a hamburger

vendor are $135 per day plus $1.25 per
hamburger sold. He sells each burger
for $3.50, and the maximum number of
hamburgers he can sell in a day is 300.
inlet
a) Write equations to represent the
total cost, C, and the total revenue, a) Graph E(t) and R(t) using technology for
R, as functions of the number, n, of a time period of 0.02 s.
hamburgers sold. b) Describe the general relationship
between the locations of the maximum
b) Graph C (n) and R(n) on the same set
and minimum values of the two
of axes.
functions. Will this result in destructive
c) The break-even point is where interference or constructive interference?
C(n) = R(n). Identify this point.
c) Graph E(t) + R(t).
d) Develop an algebraic and a graphical
model for the profit function. D i d You K n ow ?
e) What is the maximum daily profit the Destructive interference occurs when the sum
vendor can earn? of two waves has a lesser amplitude than the
component waves.
14. Two waves are generated in a ripple tank. y sum of waves
Suppose the height, in centimetres, above wave B
the surface of the water, of the waves
0 x
can be modelled by f(x) = sin x and
g(x) = 3 sin x, where x is in radians. wave A
a) Graph f(x) and g(x) on the same set of Constructive interference occurs when the sum
of two waves has a greater amplitude than the
coordinate axes.
component waves.
b) Use your graph to sketch the graph of y sum of waves
h(x) = (f + g)(x).
wave B
c) What is the maximum height of the
resultant wave? 0 x
wave A

16. An alternating current–direct current 18. a) Use technology to graph f(x) = sin x
(AC-DC) voltage signal is made up of and g(x) = x, where x is in radians, on
the following two components, each the same graph.
measured in volts (V): VAC(t) = 10 sin t b) Predict the shape of h(x) = f (x) + g(x).
and VDC(t) = 15. Verify your prediction using graphing
a) Sketch the graphs of these two technology.
functions on the same set of axes.
Work in radians. Extend
b) Graph the combined function 19. A skier is skiing through a series of moguls
VAC(t) + VDC(t). down a course that is 200 m in length at
c) Identify the domain and range of a constant speed of 1 m/s. The constant
VAC(t) + VDC(t). slope of the hill is -1.
d) Use the range of the combined function

to determine the following values of
this voltage signal.
i) minimum
ii) maximum
17. During a race in the Sportsman category
of drag racing, it is common for cars
with different performance potentials
to race against each other while using a
handicap system. Suppose the distance,
d1, in metres, that the faster car travels is
given by d1(t) = 10t2, where t is the time, a) Write a function representing the skier’s
in seconds, after the driver starts. The distance, d, from the base of the hill
distance, d2, in metres, that the slower car versus time, t, in seconds (neglecting
travels is given by d2(t) = 5(t + 2)2, where the effects of the moguls).
t is the time, in seconds, after the driver of
b) If the height, m, of the skier through the
the faster car starts. Write a function, h(t),
moguls, ignoring the slope of the hill, is
that gives the relative distance between the
m(t) = 0.75 sin 1.26t, write a function
cars over time.
that represents the skier’s actual path of
height versus time.
c) Graph the function in part a) and the
two functions in part b) on the same set
of axes.
D i d You K n ow ?
Moguls are representative wave models. The crests

are the high points of a mogul and the troughs are
the low points.
y
crests
D id Yo u Know ?
The Saskatchewan International Raceway is the 0 x

oldest drag strip in Western Canada. It was built in
1966 and is located outside of Saskatoon. troughs

20. An even function satisfies the property C3 MINI LAB Materials
f(-x) = f(x) for all x in the domain of f(x).
Model the path of a • grid paper or graphing
An odd function satisfies the property
bungee jumper. The technology
f(-x) = -f(x) for all x in the domain
table gives the height
of f(x).
versus time data of a bungee jumper.
Devise and test an algebraic method to Heights are referenced to the rest position
determine if the sum of two functions is of the bungee jumper, which is well above
even, odd, or neither. Show by example ground level.
how your method works. Use at least three
of the functions you have studied: absolute Time Height Time Height Time Height
value, radical, polynomial, trigonometric, (s) (m) (s) (m) (s) (m)
exponential, logarithmic, and rational. 0 100 13 -11 26 -39
21. The graph shows either the sum or the 1 90 14 11 27 -39

difference of two functions. Identify the 2 72 15 30 28 -35
types of functions that were combined. 3 45 16 44 29 -27
Verify your thinking using technology. 4 14 17 53 30 -16
y 5 -15 18 54 31 -4
6 6 -41 19 48 32 6
f(x)
4 7 -61 20 37 33 17
8 -71 21 23 34 24
2
9 -73 22 6 35 28
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x 10 -66 23 -8 36 29
11 -52 24 -23 37 26
22. Consider f(x) = x 2 - 9 and g(x) = _

1 12 -32 25 -33
x.
a) State the domain and range of Step 1 Create a graph of height versus time.
each function. How does the graph exhibit sinusoidal
b) Determine h(x) = f(x) + g(x). features?
c) How do the domain and range of each Step 2 Describe how the graph exhibits
function compare to the domain and exponential features.
range of h(x)? Step 3 Construct a cosine function that has
the same period (wavelength) as the
Create Connections graph in step 1.
C1 a) Is f(x) + g(x) = g(x) + f(x) true for all Step 4 Construct an exponential function to
functions? Justify your answer. model the decay in amplitude of the
b) Is (f - g)(x) = (g - f )(x) true for all graph in step 1.
functions? Justify your answer. Step 5 Construct a combined function to
C2 Let y1 = x3 and y2 = 4. Use graphs, model the height-time relationship of
numbers, and words to determine the bungee jumper.
a) the function y3 = y1 + y2 Step 6 How far will the bungee jumper be
b) the domain and range of y3 above the rest position at his fourth
crest?

10.2
Products and
Quotients
of Functions
Focus on…
• sketching the graph of a function that is
the product or quotient of two functions
• determining the domain and range of a
function that is the product or quotient
of two functions
• writing the equation of a function that is
the product or quotient of two functions
You have explored how functions can b be combined

bi d through
h h addition
ddi i and d Wi i
Winnipeg JJets
subtraction. When combining functions using products or quotients, you will celebrate scoring
in game against
use techniques similar to those you learned when multiplying and dividing Montreal at MTS
rational expressions, including the identification of non-permissible values. Centre Winnipeg on
October 9, 2011
You can use products and quotients of functions to solve problems related to
populations, revenues at a sports venue, and the movement of a pendulum
on a clock, to name a few examples.
Investigate Products and Quotients of Functions
Materials 1. Consider the graphs of the functions y f(x)

• grid paper f(x) and g(x). 4
a) Copy the table and use the graph
2
of each function to complete the g(x)
columns for f(x) and g(x). In the
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
last column, enter the product of
-2
the values of f(x) and g(x).
x f (x) g(x) p(x) -4
-4 -6
-2
0
2
4
6

b) Predict the shape of the graph of p(x). Then, copy the graphs of
f (x) and g(x) and sketch the graph of p(x) on the same set of axes.
c) How are the x-intercepts of the graph of p(x) related to those of the
graphs of f(x) and g(x)?
2. a) Determine the equations of the functions f (x) and g(x).
b) How can you use the equations of f(x) and g(x) to write the
equation of the function p(x)? Write the equation of p(x) and
verify that it matches the graph.
3. a) What are the domain and range of the functions f (x), g(x),
and p(x)?
b) Is the relationship between the domains of f(x), g(x), and p(x) the
same as it was for addition and subtraction of functions? Explain.
4. a) Add a fifth column to your table from step 1 using the heading
q(x). Fill in the column with the quotient of the values of f(x)
and g(x).
b) Predict the shape of the graph of q(x). Then, copy the graphs of
f (x) and g(x) and sketch the graph of q(x) on the same set of axes.
c) How are the x-intercepts of the graphs of f(x) and g(x) related to
the values of q(x)?
5. a) How can you use the equations from step 2a) to write the equation
of the function q(x)? Write the equation of q(x) and verify that it
matches the graph.
b) State the domain and range of q(x). Is the relationship between the
domains of f (x), g(x), and q(x) the same as it was for addition and
subtraction of functions? Explain.
Reflect and Respond

6. Consider the graphs of f(x) = x and g(x) = -2x + 2.
y
g(x) f(x)
4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2
-4
a) Explain how you can write the equation and produce the graph of
the product of f(x) and g(x).
b) Explain how you can write the equation and produce the graph of
the quotient of f(x) and g(x).
c) What must you consider when determining the domain of a
product of functions or the domain of a quotient of functions?
10.2 Products and Quotients of Functions • MHR 489

Link the Ideas
Did Yo u Know ? To combine two functions, f(x) and g(x), multiply or divide as follows:
Multiplication can Product of Functions Quotient of Functions
be shown using a f(x)
centred dot. For h(x) = f(x)g(x) h(x) = _
example,
g(x)
2×5=2·5
h(x) = (f · g)(x) h(x) = _
f
()
g (x)
The domain of a product of functions is the domain common to the

original functions. However, the domain of a quotient of functions must
take into consideration that division by zero is undefined. The domain of
f(x)
a quotient, h(x) = _ , is further restricted for values of x where g(x) = 0.
g(x)
______
Consider f(x) = √x - 1 and g(x) = x - 2.
The domain of f(x) is {x | x ≥ 1, x ∈ R}, and the domain of g(x) is
{x | x ∈ R}. So, the domain of (f · g)(x) is {x | x ≥ 1, x ∈ R}, while the
domain of _ ()
f
g (x) is {x | x ≥ 1, x ≠ 2, x ∈ R}
y y
4
(f · g)(x)
4
()
_f (x)
g
g(x) g(x)
2 2
f(x) f(x)
-2 0 2 4 6 x -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2 -2
-4 -4
Example 1
Determine the Product of Functions
Given f(x) = (x + 2)2 - 5 and g(x) = 3x - 4, determine h(x) = (f · g)(x).
State the domain and range of h(x).
Solution
To determine h(x) = (f · g)(x), multiply the two functions.
h(x) = (f · g)(x)
h(x) = f(x)g(x)
h(x) = ((x + 2)2 - 5)(3x - 4)
h(x) = (x 2 + 4x - 1)(3x - 4)
h(x) = 3x3 - 4x 2 + 12x 2 - 16x - 3x + 4 How can you tell from the original
3 2 functions that the product is a
h(x) = 3x + 8x - 19x + 4
cubic function?

The function f(x) = (x + 2)2 - 5 is quadratic with domain {x | x ∈ R}.
The function g(x) = 3x - 4 is linear with domain {x | x ∈ R}.
The domain of h(x) = (f · g)(x) consists of all values that are in both the
domain of f (x) and the domain of g(x).
Therefore, the cubic function h(x) = 3x3 + 8x 2 - 19x + 4 has domain
{x | x ∈ R} and range {y | y ∈ R}.
Your Turn
_______
Given f(x) = x 2 and g(x) = √4x - 5 , determine h(x) = f(x)g(x). State the
domain and range of h(x).
Example 2
Determine the Quotient of Functions
Consider the functions f(x) = x 2 + x - 6 and g(x) = 2x + 6.
g
a) Determine the equation of the function h(x) = _ (x).
f ()
coordinate axes.
Solution
g
(f)
a) To determine h(x) = _ (x), divide the two functions.
g
()
h(x) = _ (x)
f
g(x)
h(x) = _
f(x)
2x + 6
h(x) = __
x2 + x - 6
2(x + 3)
h(x) = ___ Factor.
(x + 3)(x - 2)
1
2(x + 3)
h(x) = ___
(x + 3)(x - 2)
1
2 , x ≠ -3, 2
h(x) = __ Identify any non-permissible values.
x-2

2
x f (x) = x2 + x - 6 g(x) = 2x + 6 h(x) = __ , x ≠ -3, 2
x-2
How could you -3 0 0 does not exist
use the values 1
-2 -4 2 -_
in the columns 2
for f(x) and g(x) -1 -6 4 2
-_
to determine the 3
values in the 0 -6 6 -1
column for h(x)?
1 -4 8 -2
2 0 10 undefined
3 6 12 2
4 14 14 1
18
How are the
16 y-coordinates of
points on the graph of
14
h(x) related to those
on the graphs of f(x)
12
and g(x)?
10
f(x) = x2 + x - 6
8
4
2x + 6
h(x) = __________
2 x2 + x - 6
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
-2
-4
-6
g(x) = 2x + 6
-8
-10

c) The function f(x) = x 2 + x - 6 is quadratic with domain {x | x ∈ R}.
The function g(x) = 2x + 6 is linear with domain {x | x ∈ R}.
g
()
The domain of h(x) = _ (x) consists of all values that are in both
f
the domain of f(x) and the domain of g(x), excluding values of x
where f(x) = 0.
2 and is undefined
(
Since the function h(x) does not exist at -3, - _
5 )
at x = 2, the domain is {x | x ≠ -3, x ≠ 2, x ∈ R}. This is shown in
2 and the vertical
(
the graph by the point of discontinuity at -3, - _
5 )
asymptote that appears at x = 2. How do you know
there is a point of
Domain of discontinuity and
f(x) = x2 + x - 6 0 an asymptote?
Domain of
g(x) = 2x + 6 0
Domain of
g
( )
h(x) = _ (x)
f
-3 0 2
2, y ∈ R .
{
The range of h(x) is y | y ≠ 0, - _
5 }
Your Turn
Let f(x) = x + 2 and g(x) = x 2 + 9x + 14.
a) Determine the equation of the function h(x) = _ (f)
g (x).
b) Sketch the graphs of f(x), g(x), and h(x) on the same set of coordinate
axes.
Example 3
Application of Products and Quotients of Functions
A local hockey team owner would like to boost fan support at the games.
He decides to reduce the ticket prices, T, in dollars, according to the
function T(g) = 10 - 0.1g, where g represents the game number.
To further increase fan support, he decides to randomly give away
noisemakers. The number, N, in hundreds, of noisemakers can be
modelled by the function N(g) = 2 - 0.05g. The community fan base is
small but the owner notices that since the incentives were put in place,
attendance, A, in hundreds, can be modelled by A(g) = 8 + 0.2g.
a) Determine r(g) = T(g)A(g) algebraically and explain what it represents.
b) Use the graph of r(g) = T(g)A(g) to determine whether the owner
increases or decreases revenue from the ticket sales with the changes
made to draw in new fans.
N(g)
c) Develop an algebraic and a graphical model for p(g) = _ . Explain
A(g)
what it means. What is the chance of receiving a free noisemaker for
a fan attending game 4?

Solution
a) Multiply T(g) by A(g) to produce r(g) = T(g)A(g).
r(g) = T(g)A(g)
r(g) = (10 - 0.1g)(8 + 0.2g)
r(g) = 80 + 2g - 0.8g - 0.02g2
r(g) = 80 + 1.2g - 0.02g2
This new function multiplies the ticket price by the attendance.

Therefore, r(g) = T(g)A(g) represents the revenue from ticket sales,
in hundreds of dollars.
b) Enter r(g) = 80 + 1.2g - 0.02g2 on a graphing calculator. Then,

use the trace feature or the table feature to view increasing and
decreasing values.
The graph of r(g) = 80 + 1.2g - 0.02g2 is a parabola that continues to

increase until game 30, at which time it begins to decrease.
The owner will increase revenue up to a maximum at 30 games, after

which revenue will decrease.
c) To determine the quotient, divide N(g) by A(g).

N(g)
p(g) = _
A(g)
2 - 0.05g What is the non-permissible value of g?
p(g) = __ How does it affect this situation?
8 + 0.2g
Use graphing technology to graph the new function.
Which window settings would

you use in this situation?

This combined function represents the number of free noisemakers D i d You K n ow?
that will be randomly handed out divided by the number of fans
The probability that
attending. This function represents the probability that a fan will
an event will occur is
receive a free noisemaker as a function of the game number. the total number of
favourable outcomes
To determine the probability of receiving a free noisemaker at game 4, divided by the total
2 - 0.05g number of possible
evaluate p(g) = __ for g = 4. outcomes.
8 + 0.2g
2 - 0.05g
p(g) = __
8 + 0.2g
2 - 0.05(4)
p(4) = ___
8 + 0.2(4)
p(4) = 1.8
_
8.8
p(4) = 0.2045…
There is approximately a 0.20 or 20% chance of receiving a

free noisemaker.

A pendulum is released and allowed to swing back and forth. The In 1851, Jean Foucault
periodic nature of the motion is described as p(t) = 10 cos 2t, where demonstrated that
the Earth rotates
p is the horizontal displacement, in centimetres, from the pendulum’s
by using a long
resting position as a function of time, t, in seconds. The decay of the pendulum that swung
amplitude is given by q(t) = 0.95t. in the same plane
a) Write the combined function that is the product of the two while the Earth
rotated beneath it.
components. Explain what the product represents.
b) Graph the combined function. Describe its characteristics and explain
how the graph models the motion of the pendulum.
Key Ideas
The combined function h(x) = (f · g)(x) represents the product of two

functions, f(x) and g(x).
The combined function h(x) = _ ()f

g (x) represents the quotient of two
functions, f(x) and g(x), where g(x) ≠ 0.
The domain of a product or quotient of functions is the domain common
()
f
to both f (x) and g(x). The domain of the quotient _
g (x) is further
restricted by excluding values where g(x) = 0.
The range of a combined function can be determined using its graph.

Practise
f(x)
5. Repeat #4 using h(x) = _ (f)
g (x).
1. Determine h(x) = f(x)g(x) and k(x) = _
g(x)
for each pair of functions. Apply
6. Given f (x) = x + 2, g(x) = x - 3, and
a) f(x) = x + 7 and g(x) = x - 7
h(x) = x + 4, determine each combined
b) f(x) = 2x - 1 and g(x) = 3x + 4 function.
______
c) f(x) = √x + 5 and g(x) = x + 2 a) y = f(x)g(x)h(x)
______ ______
d) f(x) = √x - 1 and g(x) = √6 - x f (x)g(x)
b) y = __
h(x)
2. Use the graphs of f(x) and g(x) to evaluate f(x) + g(x)
the following. c) y = __
h(x)
y _f(x) g(x)
f(x) g(x)
d) y = ×_
4 h(x) h(x)
7. If h(x) = f(x)g(x) and f (x) = 2x + 5,
2
determine g(x).
a) h(x) = 6x + 15
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
b) h(x) = -2x 2 - 5x
__ __
a) (f · g)(-2) b) (f · g)(1) c) h(x) = 2x √x + 5 √x
c) ( gf )(0)
_ d) ( gf )(1)
_ d) h(x) = 10x 2 + 13x - 30
f(x)
8. If h(x) = _ and f (x) = 3x - 1,
3. Copy the graph. Add the sketch of the g(x)
graph of each combined function to the determine g(x).
same set of axes. 3x - 1
a) h(x) = __
y x+7
3x
__
b) h(x) = ______
-1
6
f(x) √x + 6
4 c) h(x) = 1.5x - 0.5
d) h(x) = __
1
2 x+9
g(x)
9. Consider f(x) = 2x + 5 and g(x) = cos x.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
a) Graph f(x) and g(x) on the same set of
f(x) axes and state the domain and range of
a) h(x) = f(x)g(x) b) h(x) = _ each function.
g(x)
4. For each pair of functions, f(x) and g(x), b) Graph y = f (x)g(x) and state the domain
• determine h(x) = (f · g)(x) and range for the combined function.
• sketch the graphs of f(x), g(x), and h(x)
on the same set of coordinate axes
10. Given f (x) and g(x), graph y = _ ()
f
g (x).
• state the domain and range of the State the domain and range of the
combined function h(x) combined function and any restrictions.
a) f(x) = tan x and g(x) = cos x
a) f(x) = x 2 + 5x + 6 and g(x) = x + 2
b) f (x) = cos x and g(x) = 0.8x
b) f(x) = x - 3 and g(x) = x 2 - 9
1 1
c) f(x) = __ and g(x) = _
x+1 x

11. Let f(x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x. d) The fish farm will no longer be viable
a) Write an expression as a quotient of when there is not enough food to
functions that is equivalent to tan x. sustain the population. When will this
occur? Explain how you determined
b) Write an expression as a product
your result.
of functions that is equivalent to _______
1 - cos2 x. 13. Let f(x) = √36 - x 2 and g(x) = sin x.
c) Use graphing technology to verify your a) Graph f(x), g(x), and y = (f · g)(x) on the
answers to parts a) and b). same set of axes.
12. A fish farm plans to expand. The fish b) State the domain and range of the
population, P, in hundreds of thousands, combined function.
as a function of time, t, in years, can be
modelled by the function P(t) = 6(1.03)t.
c) Graph y = _
f
()
g (x) and state its domain
The farm biologists use the function and range.
F(t) = 8 + 0.04t, where F is the amount d) Explain how the domain and range for
g
of food, in units, that can sustain the fish
population for 1 year. One unit can sustain
()
y = _ (x) differs from the domain and
f
one fish for 1 year. range in part c).
14. The motion of a damped harmonic
oscillator can be modelled by a function
of the form d(t) = (A sin kt) × 0.4ct, where
d represents the distance as a function of
time, t, and A, k, and c are constants.
a) If d(t) = f(t)g(t), identify the equations
of the functions f(t) and g(t) and graph
them on the same set of axes.
b) Graph d(t) on the same set of axes.
D i d You K n ow ?
A damped harmonic
Fish farm at Sonora Island, British Columbia oscillator is an
object whose
a) Graph P(t) and F(t) on the same set of motion is cyclic with
axes and describe the trends. decreasing
amplitude over time.
b) The amount of food per fish is calculated
Examples include a
F(t) F(t)
using y = _ . Graph y = _ on child on a swing
P(t) P(t) after the initial push
a different set of axes. Identify a and a freely
swinging pendulum.
suitable window setting for your
graph. Are there values that should not
be considered?
c) At what time is the amount of food per
fish a maximum?

Extend Create Connections
15. The graph of y = f(x)g(x), where g(x) is a C1 Is the product of functions commutative?
sinusoidal function, will oscillate between Choose functions to represent f(x) and g(x)
the graphs of f(x) and -f (x). When the to explain whether f(x)g(x) = g(x)f (x).
amplitude of the wave is reduced, this is C2 Compare and contrast the properties of
referred to as damping. the domains of products of functions and
a) Given the functions f (x) = __
2 and quotients of functions.
x2 + 1
g(x) = sin (6x - 1), show that the above C3 The volume, V, in cubic centimetres,
scenario occurs. of a square-based box is given by
b) Does the above scenario occur for V(x) = 4x3 + 4x 2 - 39x + 36.
f(x) = cos x and g(x) = sin (6x - 1)? a) Write a combined function to represent
16. The price, p, in dollars, set by a the area, A(x), of the base, if the side
manufacturer for x tonnes of steel is length of the base is 2x - 3.
x+2
( )
p(x) = 12x __ . Using the quotient of
x+1
b) Graph A(x) and state its domain and
range in this context.
functions, determine whether the price per
tonne decreases as the number of tonnes c) Determine the combined function
increases, algebraically and graphically. V(x)
h(x) = _ . What does this represent
A(x)
17. A rectangle is inscribed in a circle of
in this context?
radius r. If the rectangle has length 2x,
write the area of the rectangle as the d) Graph h(x) and state its domain and
product of two functions. range in this context.
Project Corner Musical Presentation
Write lyrics to a song that demonstrate your

understanding of a topic in Unit 4.
• You might examine the lyrics of a popular
song to understand the structure (chorus
and verse), line length, and rhymes.
• Choose a title for your song. Then, think of
questions and answers that your title might
suggest. Use a list of related words and
phrases to help you write the lyrics.
• Finally, write your own melody or choose
an existing melody to fit your lyrics to.

10.3
Composite
Functions
Focus on…
• determining values of a composite function
• writing the equation of a composite function and
explaining any restrictions
• sketching the graph of a composite function
You have learned four ways of

combining functions—adding,
subtracting, multiplying, and dividing.
Another type of combined function occurs any
time a change in one quantity produces a change
h iin another,
th which,
hi h iin turn,
t Approaching
A hi
produces a change in a third quantity. For example, downtown Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan
• the cost of travelling by car depends on the amount of gasoline consumed,
and the amount of gasoline consumed depends on the number of kilometres
driven
• the cost of an item on sale after taxes depends on the sale price, and the sale
price of an item depends on the original price
Investigate Composition of Functions
1. Consider the functions f(x) = 2x and g(x) = x 2 + 2. The output

values of a function can become the input values for another
function. Copy and complete the mapping diagram below.
f g
2
1
0
-1
-2
2. Which of the following functions can be used to obtain the results

from step 1 directly?
A h(x) = 2x3 + 4x B h(x) = x 2 + 2x + 2
C h(x) = 2x 2 + 4 D h(x) = 4x 2 + 2
10.3 Composite Functions • MHR 499

3. Show, algebraically, how to create the equation you chose in step 2
from the original equations for f and g.
4. Suppose the output values of g become the input values for f.
a) Create a mapping diagram to show this process.
b) Write an equation that would give your results in one step.
Reflect and Respond

5. When working with two functions where one function is used as
the input for the other function, does it make a difference which
of the two functions is the input function? Explain.
6. Given the functions f(x) = 4x + 2 and g(x) = -3x and using f as
the input for g, list the steps you would use to determine a single
equation to represent this situation.
7. Identify a real-life situation, different from the ones in the
introduction to this section, where one function is used as
the input for another function.
Link the Ideas
________
To compute √2(7) - 3 on many graphing calculators, the entire
expression can be entered in one step. However, on some scientific
calculators the expression must be entered in sequential steps. In this
example, enter the expression 2(7) - 3 and press ___
the = button, which
evaluates the calculation as 11. Then, press the M button, which results
√
composite function in the square root of 11 or 3.3166…. The output of the expression
• the composition of f(x) 2(7) - 3 is used as the input for the square root operation.
and g(x) is defined as
f(g(x)) and is formed Composite functions are functions that are formed from two functions,
when the equation of f(x) and g(x), in which the output or result of one of the functions is
g(x) is substituted into __
used as the input for the other function. For example, if f(x) = √x_______
and
the equation of f(x)
g(x) = 2x - 3, then the composition of f (x) and g(x) is f (g(x)) = 2x - 3 ,
√
• f (g(x)) exists only for
those x in the domain as shown in the mapping diagram.
of g for which g(x) is in f(g(x))
the domain of f
• f (g(x)) is read as “f of g g(x) f(x)
of x” or “f at g of x” or
“f composed with g”
• ( f ◦ g)(x) is another x 2x - 3 2x - 3
way to write f(g(x))
• composition of
functions must not When composing functions, the order is important. f(g(x)) is not
be confused with
multiplication, that is,
necessarily the same as g(f(x)). f(g(x)) means first substitute into
(f ◦ g)(x) does not g, and then substitute the result into f. On the other hand, g(f (x))
mean (fg)(x) means first substitute into f, and then substitute the result into g.

Example 1
Evaluate a Composite Function
If f(x) = 4x, g(x) = x + 6, and h(x) = x 2, determine each value.
a) f(g(3))
b) g(h(-2))
c) h(h(2))
Solution
a) Method 1: Determine the Value of the Inner Function and
Then Substitute
Evaluate the function inside the brackets for the indicated value of x.
Then, substitute this value into the outer function.
Determine g(3).
g(x) = x + 6
g(3) = 3 + 6
g(3) = 9
Substitute g(3) = 9 into f(x).

f(g(3)) = f(9) Substitute 9 for g(3).
f(g(3)) = 4(9) Evaluate f(x) = 4x when x is 9.
f(g(3)) = 36
Method 2: Determine the Composite Function and Then Substitute

Determine the composite function first and then substitute.
f (g(x)) = f(x + 6) Substitute x + 6 for g(x).
f(g(x)) = 4(x + 6) Substitute x + 6 into f(x) = 4x.
f(g(x)) = 4x + 24
Substitute x = 3 into f(g(x)).

f(g(3)) = 4(3) + 24
f(g(3)) = 36
When you evaluate composite functions, the result will not

change if you compose first and then evaluate or evaluate
first and then compose.
b) Determine h(-2) and then g(h(-2)).

h(x) = x 2
h(-2) = (-2)2
h(-2) = 4
Substitute h(-2) = 4 into g(x).

g(h(-2)) = g(4) Substitute 4 for h(-2).
g(h(-2)) = 4 + 6 Evaluate g(x) = x + 6 when x is 4.
g(h(-2)) = 10

c) Determine h(h(x)) and then evaluate.
h(h(x)) = h(x 2) Substitute x 2 for h(x).
h(h(x)) = (x 2)2 Substitute x 2 into h(x) = x2.
h(h(x)) = x 4
Substitute x = 2 into h(h(x)).

h(h(2)) = (2)4
h(h(2)) = 16
Your Turn
If f(x) = |x| and g(x) = x + 1, determine f(g(-11)) using two methods.
Which method do you prefer? Why?
Example 2
Compose Functions With Restrictions
______
Consider f(x) = √x - 1 and g(x) = x 2.
a) Determine (f ◦ g)(x) and (g ◦ f )(x).
b) State the domain of f (x), g(x), (f ◦ g)(x), and (g ◦ f )(x).
Solution
a) Determine (f ◦ g)(x) = f(g(x)).
(f ◦ g)(x) = f(x 2
)
________ Substitute x 2 for g(x).
______
(x 2) - 1
(f ◦ g)(x) = √______ Substitute x 2 into f(x) = √x - 1 .
(f ◦ g)(x) = √x 2 - 1
Determine (g ◦ ______
f )(x) = g(f (x)). ______
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(√x - 1 ) Substitute √x - 1 for f(x).
______ ______
(g ◦ f )(x) = (√x - 1 )2 Substitute √x - 1 into g(x) = x 2.
(g ◦ f )(x) = x - 1
Order does matter when composing functions. In this case,

(f ◦ g)(x) ≠ (g ◦ f )(x).
b) The domain of f(x) is {x | x ≥ 1, x ∈ R}.

The domain of g(x) is {x | x ∈ R}.
The domain of (f ◦ g)(x) is the set of all values of x in the domain

of g for which g(x) is in the domain of f. So, any restrictions on
the inner function as well as the composite function must be taken
into consideration.
• There are no restrictions on the domain of g(x).
• The restriction on the domain of ( f ◦ g)(x) is x ≤ -1 or x ≥ 1.
Combining these restrictions gives the domain of (f ◦ g)(x) as

{x | x ≤ -1 or x ≥ 1, x ∈ R}.

The domain of (g ◦ f )(x) is the set of all values of x in the domain of f
for which f(x) is in the domain of g. So, any restrictions on the inner
function and the composite function must be taken into consideration.
• The restriction on the domain of f(x) is x ≥ 1.
• There are no restrictions on the domain of (g ◦ f )(x).
Combining these restrictions gives the domain of (g ◦ f )(x) as

{x | x ≥ 1, x ∈ R}.
Your Turn
______
Given the functions f(x) = √x - 1 and g(x) = -x 2, determine (g ◦ f )(x).
Then, state the domain of f(x), g(x), and (g ◦ f )(x).
Example 3
Determine the Composition of Two Functions
Let f(x) = x + 1 and g(x) = x 2. Determine the equation of each
composite function, graph it, and state its domain and range.
a) y = f(g(x))
b) y = g(f (x))
c) y = f(f(x))
d) y = g(g(x))
Solution
a) Determine f(g(x)).
f(g(x)) = f(x 2)
f(g(x)) = (x 2) + 1
f(g(x)) = x 2 + 1
The graph of the composite function y = f (g(x)) is a parabola
that opens upward with vertex at (0, 1), domain of {x | x ∈ R},
and range of {y | y ≥ 1, y ∈ R}.
y
y = x2 + 1
4
-4 -2 0 2 4 x

b) Determine g(f(x)).
g(f(x)) = g(x + 1)
g(f(x)) = (x + 1)2
g(f(x)) = x 2 + 2x + 1
The graph of the composite function y = g(f(x)) is a parabola that
opens upward with vertex at (-1, 0), domain of {x | x ∈ R}, and
range of {y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}. How do you know the coordinates of the vertex?
2
y = x2 + 2x+ 1
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
c) Determine f(f(x)).
f(f(x)) = f(x + 1)
f(f(x)) = (x + 1) + 1
f(f(x)) = x + 2
The graph of the composite function y = f (f(x)) represents a linear
function. The domain and range of the function are both the set of
real numbers.
y
What are the slope and y-intercept of this line?
4
y=x+2
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
d) Determine g(g(x)).
g(g(x)) = g(x 2)
g(g(x)) = (x 2)2
g(g(x)) = x 4
The graph of the composite function y
y = x4
y = g(g(x)) is a quartic function that 4
opens upward with domain of {x | x ∈ R}
2
and range of {y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
Your Turn
Given f(x) = |x| and g(x) = x + 1, determine the equations of y = f(g(x))
and y = f(f(x)), graph each composite function, and state the domain
and range.

Example 4
Determine the Original Functions From a Composition
If h(x) = f (g(x)), determine f (x) and g(x).
- 2)2 + (x - 2) + 1
a) h(x) = (x______
b) h(x) = x3 + 1
√
Solution
In this case, the inner function is g(x) and the outer function is f (x).
a) Look for a function that may be common to more than one term
in h(x). The same expression, x - 2, occurs in two terms.
Let g(x) = x - 2. Then, work backward to determine f(x).
h(x) = (x - 2)2 + (x - 2) + 1
f(g(x)) = (g(x))2 + (g(x)) + 1
f(x) = (x)2 + (x) + 1
The two functions are f(x) = x 2 + x + 1 and g(x) = x - 2.
b) Let g(x) = x3 + 1. Then, work backward to determine f(x).

______
h(x) = √x3 + 1
____
f(g(x)) = √g(x)
__
f(x) = √x
__
The two functions are f(x) = √x and g(x) = x3 + 1. Is this the only
solution? Explain.
Your Turn
If h(x) = f(g(x)), determine f (x) and g(x).
3 __ 3
h(x) = √ x + __ 3 __
3+ √ x
Example 5 D i d You K n ow?

Application of Composite Functions The Global Climate
Observing System
A spherical weather balloon (GCOS) Upper
is being inflated. The Air Network is a
balloon’s radius, r, in feet, worldwide network of
almost 170 stations
after t_ minutes is given by that collect data for
r = √t . climate monitoring
a) Express the volume of and research. Five of
these stations are
the balloon as a function located in Canada,
of time, t. including Alert Upper
b) After how many minutes Air Station, Nunavut;
Cambridge Bay Upper
will the volume be
Air Station, Nunavut;
4000 ft³? and Fort Smith Upper
Cambridge Bay Air Station, Northwest
Upper Air, Nunavut Territories.

Solution
4
a) The formula for the volume of a sphere is V(r) = _ πr 3. Since r is a
3
function of t, you can compose the two functions.
V(r) = _4 πr 3
3
4 π(√_t )3
V(r(t)) = _
3
1 3
V(r(t)) = 4 π(t 2 )
_
_
3
4 πt _32
V(r(t)) = _
3
b) To determine when the volume reaches 4000 ft³, substitute 4000 for V
and solve for t.
4 πt _23
V(r(t)) = _
3
4000 = _ 4 πt _23
3
3(4000)
__ = t _2
3
4π
2 2
3 _
3000
_ 3 = (t _2 ) 3
_
( π )
3000 _32
t= _( π )
t = 96.972…
After approximately 97 min, the volume will be 4000 ft³.
Your Turn
A spherical weather balloon is being blown up. The balloon’s
_
radius, r,
in feet, after t minutes have elapsed is given by r = √t .
a) Express the surface area of the balloon as a function of time, t.
b) After how many minutes will the surface area be 180 ft2?
Key Ideas
Two functions, f (x) and g(x), can be combined using composition to

produce two new functions, f(g(x)) and g(f(x)).
To evaluate a composite function, f(g(x)), at a specific value, substitute the
value into the equation for g(x) and then substitute the result into f(x) and
evaluate, or determine the composite function first and then evaluate for
the value of x.
To determine the equation of a composite function, substitute the second
function into the first as read from left to right. To compose f (g(x)),
substitute the equation of g(x) into the equation of f(x).
The domain of f(g(x)) is the set of all values of x in the domain of g for
which g(x) is in the domain of f. Restrictions on the inner function as well
as the composite function must be considered.

Practise 7. If h(x) = (f ◦ g)(x), determine g(x).

1. Given f(2) = 3, f (3) = 4, f (5) = 0, g(2) = 5, a) h(x) = (2x - 5)2 and f (x) = x 2
g(3) = 2, and g(4) = -1, evaluate the
b) h(x) = (5x + 1)2 - (5x + 1) and
following.
f(x) = x 2 - x
a) f(g(3)) b) f(g(2))
c) g(f(2)) d) g(f(3)) Apply
2. Use the graphs of f(x) and g(x) to evaluate 8. Ron and Christine are determining the
the following. composite function (f ◦ g)(x), where
y f(x) = x 2 + x - 6 and g(x) = x 2 + 2. Who
g(x) f(x) is correct? Explain your reasoning.
2
Ron’s Work
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x (f o g)(x) = f(g(x))
-2 = (x2 + 2)2 + x - 6
-4 = x4 + 4x2 + 4 + x - 6
= x4 + 4x2 + x - 2
Christine’s Work
a) f(g(-4)) b) f(g(0))
(f o g)(x) = f(g(x))
c) g(f(-2)) d) g(f(-3))
= (x2 + 2)2 + (x2 + 2) - 6
3. If f(x) = 2x + 8 and g(x) = 3x - 2, = x4 + 4x2 + 4 + x2 + 2 - 6
determine each of the following. = x4 + 5x2
a) f(g(1)) b) f(g(-2))
9. Let j(x) = x 2 and k(x) = x3. Does
c) g(f(-4)) d) g(f(1)) k(j(x)) = j(k(x)) for all values of x?
4. If f(x) = 3x + 4 and g(x) = x - 1, 2 Explain.
determine each of the following. 10. If s(x) = x 2 + 1 and t(x) = x - 3, does
a) f(g(a)) b) g(f(a)) s(t(x)) = t(s(x)) for all values of x?
c) f(g(x)) d) g(f(x))
Explain.
11. A manufacturer of lawn chairs models the
e) f(f (x)) f) g(g(x))
weekly production of chairs since 2009
5. For each pair of functions, f(x) and g(x), by the function C(t) = 100 + 35t, where
determine f(g(x)) and g(f(x)). t is the time, in years, since 2009 and C
a) f(x) = x 2 + x and g(x) = x 2 + x is the number of chairs. The size of the
______
b) f(x) = √x 2 + 2 and g(x) = x 2 workforce at the manufacturer’s
__ site is
modelled by W(C) = 3 √C .
c) f(x) = |x| and g(x) = x 2
__ a) Write the size of the workforce as a
6. Given f(x) = x and g(x) = x - 1, sketch
√
function of time.
the graph of each composite function.
b) State the domain and range of the
Then, determine the domain and range of
new function in this context.
each composite function.
a) y = f(g(x))
b) y = g(f(x))

12. Tobias is shopping at a local sports store 15. A Ferris wheel rotates such that the angle,
that is having a 25%-off sale on apparel. πt , where t is
θ, of rotation is given by θ = _
Where he lives, the federal tax adds 5% to 15
the time, in seconds. A rider’s height, h, in
the selling price.
metres, above the ground can be modelled
a) Write the function, s(p), that relates the by h(θ) = 20 sin θ + 22.
regular price, p, to the sale price, s, both
a) Write the equation of the rider’s height
in dollars.
in terms of time.
b) Write the function, t(s), that relates the
b) Graph h(θ) and h(t) on separate sets
sale price, s, to the total cost including of axes. Compare the periods of the
taxes, t, both in dollars. graphs.
c) Write a composite function that
expresses the total cost in terms of the D i d You K n ow ?
regular price. How much did Tobias The first Ferris wheel was designed for the 1893
pay for a jacket with a regular price World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois,
of $89.99? with a height of 80.4 m. It was built to rival
the 324-m Eiffel Tower built for the 1889 Paris
13. Jordan is examining her car expenses. Her Exposition.
car uses gasoline at a rate of 6 L/100 km,
and the average cost of a litre of gasoline 16. Environmental biologists measure the
where she lives is $1.23. pollutants in a lake. The concentration,
a) Write the function, g(d), that relates C, in parts per million (ppm), of
the distance, d, in kilometres, pollutant can be modelled as a function
driven to the quantity, g, in litres, of the population, P, of a nearby city,
of gasoline used. as C(P) = 1.15P + 53.12. The city’s
population, in ten thousands, can be
b) Write the function, c(g), that relates t
_
the quantity, g, in litres, of gasoline modelled by the function P(t) = 12.5(2) 10 ,

used to the average cost, c, in dollars, where t is time, in years.
of a litre of gasoline. a) Determine the equation of the
concentration of pollutant as a
c) Write the composite function that
function of time.
expresses the cost of gasoline in terms
of the distance driven. How much b) How long will it take for the
would it cost Jordan to drive 200 km concentration to be over 100 ppm?
in her car? Show two different methods to
solve this.
d) Write the composite function that
expresses the distance driven in terms
of the cost of gasoline. How far could
Jordan drive her car on $40?
14. Use the functions f(x) = 3x, g(x) = x - 7,
and h(x) = x 2 to determine each of the
following.
a) (f ◦ g ◦ h)(x)
b) g(f(h(x)))
c) f(h(g(x)))
d) (h ◦ g ◦ f )(x)

17. If h(x) = f(g(x)), determine f (x) and g(x).
1 1
22. If f(x) = __ and g(x) = __ ,
1+x 2+x
a) h(x) = 2x 2 - 1 determine f(g(x)).
2 23. Let f1(x) = x, f2(x) = _
1
b) h(x) = __2 x , f3(x) = 1 - x,
3-x
c) h(x) = |x 2 - 4x + 5| f4(x) = __x , f (x) = __
1 , and
x-1 5 1-x
18. Consider f(x) = 1 - x and x - 1.
x , x ≠ 1. f6(x) = __x
g(x) = __
1-x a) Determine the following.
a) Show that g(f(x)) = _ .
1
g(x) i) f2(f3(x))
b) Does f(g(x)) = _ ?
1
ii) (f3 ◦ f5)(x)
f(x)
19. According to Einstein’s special theory of iii) f1(f2(x))
relativity, the mass, m, of a particle moving iv) f2(f1(x))
m0
at velocity v is given by m = __ _______ , b) f6-1(x) is the same as which function
v2
√
1-_
c2
listed in part a)?
where m0 is the particle’s mass at rest and Create Connections
c is the velocity of light. Suppose that ˚
C1 Does f (g(x)) mean the same as (f · g)(x)?
velocity, v, in miles per hour, is given as
Explain using examples.
v = t3.
C2 Let f = {(1, 5), (2, 6), (3, 7)} and
a) Express the mass as a function of time.
g = {(5, 10), (6, 11), (7, 0)}. Explain
b) Determine the particle’s mass at time
__ how each equation is true.
t= √_2c hours.
3
a) g(f (1)) = 10
b) g(f (3)) = 0
Extend
C3 Suppose that f (x) = 4 - 3x and
20. In general, two functions f(x) and g(x)
4 - x . Does g(f(x)) = f(g(x))
g(x) = __
are inverses of each other if and only if 3
f(g(x)) = x and g(f(x)) = x. Verify that for all x? Explain.
the pairs of functions are inverses of
C4 MINI LAB
each other.
1 Step 1 Consider f (x) = 2x + 3.
a) f(x) = 5x + 10 and g(x) = _ x - 2
5 a) Determine f (x + h).
x-1
b) f(x) = __ and g(x) = 2x + 1
2 f(x + h) - f(x)
___
______ b) Determine .
3
c) f(x) = √x + 1 and g(x) = x3 - 1 h
Step 2 Repeat step 1 with f(x) = -3x - 5.
d) f(x) = 5x and g(x) = log5 x
f(x + h) - f (x)
21. Consider f(x) = log x and g(x) = sin x. Step 3 Predict what ___ will
h
a) What is the domain of f (x)? 3 x - 5. How are each
be for f (x) = _
4
b) Determine f(g(x)). of the values you found related to
c) Use a graphing calculator to graph the functions?
y = f(g(x)). Work in radians.
d) State the domain and range of
y = f(g(x)).

Chapter 10 Review
1 __
10.1 Sums and Differences of Functions, 4. Let f(x) = __ and g(x) = √x .
x-1
pages 474—487 Determine the equation of each
1. Given f(x) = 3x - 1 and g(x) = 2x + 7, combined function and state its
determine domain and range.
a) (f + g)(4) b) (f + g)(-1) a) (f + g)(x)
c) (f - g)(3) d) (g - f )(-5) b) (f - g)(x)

2. Consider the functions g(x) = x + 2 and 5. A biologist has been recording the births
h(x) = x 2 - 4. and deaths of a rodent population on
a) Determine the equation and sketch the several sections of farmland for the
graph of each combined function. Then, past 5 years. Suppose the function
state the domain and range. b(x) = -4x + 78 models the number of
births and the function d(x) = -6x + 84
i) f(x) = g(x) + h(x)
models the number of deaths, where x
ii) f (x) = h(x) - g(x) is the time, in years. The net change in
iii) f(x) = g(x) - h(x) population, P, is equal to the number of
b) What is the value of f (2) for each births minus the number of deaths.
combined function in part a)? a) Write an expression that reflects
3. For each graph of f(x) and g(x), the net change in population at any
• determine the equation and graph of given time.
y = (f + g)(x) and state its domain b) Assuming that the rates continue,
and range predict how the population of rodents
• determine the equation and graph of will behave over the next 5 years.
y = (f - g)(x) and state its domain
c) At what point in time does the
and range
population start to increase?
a) Explain.
y
6
f(x) = x2 - 3
4
10.2 Products and Quotients of Functions,
pages 488—498
2
6. Consider the functions g(x) = x + 2 and
h(x) = x 2 - 4. Determine the equation
-2 0 2 4 6 8 x
and sketch the graph of each combined
-2
g(x) = -2x + 3 function f(x). Then, state the domain and
range and identify any asymptotes.
b) y a) f(x) = g(x)h(x)
4 h(x)
b) f(x) = _
f(x) = x - 3 g(x)
2
g(x)
c) f(x) = _
h(x)
-2 0 2 4 6 8 x
7. Determine the value of f(-2) for each
-2
combined function in #6.
-4
g(x) = -x + 2

1
8. Given g(x) = __ and h(x) = __
1 , 11. For f(x) = 2x 2 and g(x) = _
4
x+4 2
x - 16 x , determine the
determine the equation of each combined following and state any restrictions.
function and state its domain and range. a) f(g(x))
a) f(x) = g(x)h(x) b) g(f (x))
g(x)
b) f(x) = _ c) g(f(-2))
h(x)
2 __
h(x) 12. Consider f(x) = - _
c) f(x) = _ x and g(x) = x.
√
g(x)
a) Determine y = f(g(x)).
9. For each graph of f(x) and g(x),
b) State the domain and range of
• determine the equation and graph of
y = f(g(x)).
y = (f · g)(x) and state its domain and
range 13. If f(x) = 2x - 5 and g(x) = x + 6,
• determine the equation and graph determine y = (f ◦ g)(x). Then, sketch
of y = _()
f
g (x) and state its domain
the graphs of the three functions.
14. The temperature of Earth’s crust is
and range
a linear function of the depth below
a) y
the surface. An equation expressing
g(x) = -x - 4 4 this relationship is T = 0.01d + 20,
where T is the temperature, in
2
degrees Celsius, and d is the depth,
in metres. If you go down a vertical
-6 -4 -2 0 2 x
shaft below ground in an elevator at a
-2
rate of 5 m/s, express the temperature
-4 as a function of time, t, in seconds,
f(x) = x + 3
of travel.
b) y 15. While shopping for a tablet computer,

Jolene learns of a 1-day sale of 25%
6
off. In addition, she has a coupon for
g(x) = x + 6
4 $10 off.
2 a) Let x represent the current price of

the tablet. Express the price, d, of the
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 x tablet after the discount and the price,
-2
c, of the tablet after the coupon as
functions of the current price.
-4
f(x) = x2 + 8x + 12 b) Determine c(d(x)) and explain what
this function represents.
c) Determine d(c(x)) and explain what
10.3 Composite Functions, pages 499—509 this function represents.
10. Given f(x) = x 2 and g(x) = x + 1,
d) If the tablet costs $400, which method
determine the following. results in the lower sale price?
a) f(g(-2)) Explain your thinking.
b) g(f (-2))

___
Multiple Choice 4. Given f (x) = 5 - x and g(x) = 2 √3x , what
is the value of f(g(3))?
For #1 to #5, choose the best answer. __
A 5 - 2 √6
_________
1. Let f(x) = (x + 3)2 and g(x) = x + 4. Which
B 2 √15 - 3x 2
function represents the combined function
C -1
h(x) = f(x) + g(x)?
D 1
A h(x) = x 2 + 7x + 7
5. Which function represents y = f(g(x)), if
B h(x) = x 2 + 7x + 13
f(x) = x + 5 and g(x) = x 2?
C h(x) = x 2 + x + 13
A y = x2 + 5
D h(x) = x 2 + 2x + 7
B y = x 2 + 25
2. If f(x) = x + 8 and g(x) = 2x 2 - 128,
g(x) C y = x2 + x + 5
what is the domain of y = _ ?
f(x) D y = x 2 + 10x + 25
A {x | x ∈ R}
B {x | x ∈ I} Short Answer
C {x | x ≠ 8, x ∈ R} 6. Given f (x) = sin x and g(x) = 2x 2,
D {x | x ≠ -8, x ∈ R} determine each combined function.
3. The graphs of two functions are shown. a) h(x) = (f + g)(x)
y b) h(x) = (f - g)(x)
6 c) h(x) = (f · g)(x)
f(x)
4
g(x)
d) h(x) = _ (f)
g (x)
2 7. Copy and complete the table by
determining the missing terms.
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
g(x) f(x) (f + g)(x) (f ◦ g)(x)
-2 __
a) x-8 √x
-4 b) x+3 4x
______ ______
c) √x - 4 √x 2 - 4
Which is true for x ∈ R? 1

_ x
d) x
A g(x) - f(x) < 0
1
8. Determine the product of g(x) = __ and
f (x)
_ 1+x
B > 1, x ≠ 0 1 . Then, state the domain of
g(x) h(x) = __
3 + 2x
C f(x) < g(x)
the combined function.
D g(x) + f(x) < 0

9. Use the graphs of f(x) and g(x) to 12. A pendulum is released and allowed to
sketch the graph of each combined swing back and forth according to the
function. equation x(t) = (10 cos 2t)(0.95t ), where
y x is the horizontal displacement from
the resting position, in centimetres, as a
8
function of time, t, in seconds.
f(x)
6 g(x) a) Graph the function.
4 b) The equation is the product of two
functions. Identify each function and
2
explain which is responsible for
• the periodic motion
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
• the exponential decay of the
-2
amplitude
a) y = (f - g)(x) Extended Response

b) y = _()f
g (x)
13. Given f (x) = 2x 2 + 11x - 21 and
g(x) = 2x - 3, determine the equation
10. For each of the following pairs of
and sketch the graph of each
functions, determine g(f(x)) and
combined function.
state its domain and range.
a) y = f(x) - g(x)
a) f(x) = 3 - x and g(x) = |x + 3|
b) y = f(x) + g(x)
b) f(x) = 4x and g(x) = x + 1
f (x)
__ c) y = _
c) f(x) = x 4 and g(x) = √ x g(x)
11. Becky has $200 deducted from every d) y = f(g(x))
paycheque for her retirement. This can 14. A stone is dropped into a lake, creating
be done before or after federal income a circular ripple that travels outward at a
tax is assessed. Suppose her federal speed of 50 cm/s.
income tax rate is 28%. a) Write an equation that represents the
a) Let x represent Becky’s earnings per area of the circle as a function of time.
pay period. Represent her income, State the type of combined function
r, after the retirement deduction and you wrote.
her income, t, after federal taxes b) Graph the function.
as functions of her earnings per
c) What is the area of the circle after 5 s?
pay period.
d) Is it reasonable to calculate the area of
b) Determine t(r(x)). What does this
the circle after 30 s? Explain.
represent?
c) If Becky earns $2700 every pay period,
calculate her net income using the
composite function from part b).
d) Calculate Becky’s net income using
r(t(x)).
e) Explain the differences in net income.

CHAPTER
11 Permutations,
Combinations,
and the Binomial
Theorem
Combinatorics, a branch of discrete mathematics, can
be defined as the art of counting. Famous links to
combinatorics include Pascal’s triangle, the magic square,
the Königsberg bridge problem, Kirkman’s schoolgirl
problem, and myriorama cards. Are you familiar with
any of these?
Myriorama cards were invented in France around 1823

by Jean-Pierre Brès and further developed in England
by John Clark. Early myrioramas were decorated with
people, buildings, and scenery that could be laid out
in any order to create a variety of landscapes. One
24-card set is sold as “The Endless Landscape.”
How long do you think it would take to generate

the 6.2 × 1023 possible different arrangements
from a 24-card myriorama set?
Key Terms
fundamental counting principle combination
on
factorial binomial theorem
heorem
permutation

11.1
Permutations
Focus on…
• solving counting problems using the fundamental counting principle
• determining, using a variety of strategies, the number of permutations
of n elements taken r at a time
• solving counting problems when two or more elements are identical
• solving an equation that involves nPr notation
How safe is your password? It has been suggested that

a four-character letters-only password can be hacked in
under 10 s. However, an eight-character password with
at least one number could take up to 7 years to crack.
Why is there such a big difference?
In how many possible ways can you walk from A to B
in a four by six “rectangular city” if you must walk on
the grid lines and move only up or to the right? B
The diagram shows one successful path from A to B.

What strategies might help you solve this problem?
You will learn how to solve problems like these in
this section.
A
Investigate Possible Arrangements
You are packing clothing to go on

a trip. You decide to take three
different tops and two pairs
of pants.
1. If all of the items go together,
how many different outfits can you make? Show
how to get the answer using different strategies.
Discuss your strategies with a partner.
2. You also take two pairs of shoes. How many
different outfits consisting of a top, a pair of pants,
and a pair of shoes are possible?
3. a) Determine the number of different outfits you
can make when you take four pairs of pants, two shirts, and two
hats, if an outfit consists of a pair of pants, a shirt, and a hat.
b) Check your answer using a tree diagram.

Reflect and Respond
4. Make a conjecture about how you can use multiplication only to
arrive at the number of different outfits possible in steps 1 to 3.
5. A friend claims he can make 1000 different outfits using only tops,
pants, and shoes. Show how your friend could be correct.
Link the Ideas
Counting methods are used to determine the number of members of a fundamental

specific set as well as the outcomes of an event. You can display all of counting principle
the possible choices using tables, lists, or tree diagrams and then count • if one task can be
the number of outcomes. Another method of determining the number of performed in a ways
and a second task
possible outcomes is to use the fundamental counting principle. can be performed in
b ways, then the two
tasks can be performed
Example 1 in a × b ways
Arrangements With or Without Restrictions • for example, a
restaurant meal
a) A store manager has selected four possible applicants for two consists of one of two
salad options, one of
different positions at a department store. In how many ways can
three entrees, and one
the manager fill the positions? of four desserts, so
b) In how many ways can a teacher seat four girls and three boys in a there are (2)(3)(4) or
row of seven seats if a boy must be seated at each end of the row? 24 possible meals
Solution
a) Method 1: List Outcomes and Count the Total
Use a tree diagram and count the outcomes, or list all of the hiring
choices in a table. Let A represent applicant 1, B represent applicant
2, C represent applicant 3, and D represent applicant 4.
Position 1 Position 2 Position 1 Position 2
B A B
A C A C
D
A D
A
B A
B C
D B C
hiring
A B D
C B C A
D C B
A C D
D B
D A
C
D B
D C
Total pathways = 12 12 possibilities
There are 12 possible ways to fill the 2 positions.
11.1 Permutations • MHR 517

Method 2: Use the Fundamental Counting Principle

(number of choices for position 1) (number of choices for position 2)
If the manager chooses a person for position 1, then there are four
choices. Once position 1 is filled, there are only three choices left
for position 2.
4 3
(number of choices for position 1) (number of choices for position 2)
According to the fundamental counting principle, there are (4)(3) or
12 ways to fill the positions.
b) Use seven blanks to represent the seven seats in the row.

(Seat 1) (Seat 2) (Seat 3) (Seat 4) (Seat 5) (Seat 6) (Seat 7)
There is a restriction: a boy must be in each Why do you fill these
end seat. Fill seats 1 and 7 first. two seats first?
If the teacher starts with seat 1, there are three boys to choose. Once
the teacher fills seat 1, there are two choices for seat 7.
3 2
Boy Boy
Once the end seats are filled, there are Why do you not need to distinguish
five people (four girls and one boy) between boys and girls for the
second through sixth seats?
to arrange in the seats as shown.
3 5 4 3 2 1 2
By the fundamental counting principle, the teacher can arrange the
girls and boys in (3)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)(2) = 720 ways.
Your Turn
Use any method to solve each problem.
a) How many three-digit numbers can you make using the digits 1, 2, 3,
4, and 5? Repetition of digits is not allowed.
b) How does the application of the fundamental counting principle in
part a) change if repetition of the digits is allowed? Determine how
many three-digit numbers can be formed that include repetitions.
factorial
In Example 1b), the remaining five people (four girls and one boy) can
• for any positive integer
be arranged in (5)(4)(3)(2)(1) ways. This product can be abbreviated as 5!
n, the product of all of
the positive integers and is read as “five factorial.”
up to and including n
Therefore, 5! = (5)(4)(3)(2)(1).
• 4! = (4)(3)(2)(1)
In general, n! = (n)(n - 1)(n - 2)…(3)(2)(1), where n ∈ N.
• 0! is defined as 1

The arrangement of objects or people in a line is called a linear permutation
permutation. In a permutation, the order of the objects is important. • an ordered
When the objects are distinguishable from one another, a new order arrangement or
sequence of all or part
of objects creates a new permutation. of a set
Seven different objects can be arranged in 7! ways. • for example, the
possible permutations
7! = (7)(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1) Explain why 7! is equivalent to 7(6!) or to 7(6)(5)(4!). of the letters A, B, and
C are ABC, ACB, BAC,
If there are seven members on the student council, in how many ways BCA, CAB, and CBA
can the council select three students to be the chair, the secretary, and
the treasurer of the council?
Using the fundamental counting principle, there are (7)(6)(5) possible
ways to fill the three positions. Using the factorial notation,
1 1 1 1
(7)(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)
7! = ____
_
4! (4)(3)(2)(1)
1 1 1 1
= (7)(6)(5)
= 210
The notation nPr is used to represent the number of permutations,

or arrangements in a definite order, of r items taken from a set of
n distinct items. A formula for nPr is nPr = __ n! , n ∈ N.
(n - r)!
Using permutation notation, 7P3 represents the number of arrangements D i d You K n ow?
of three objects taken from a set of seven objects.
The notation n! was
P = __ 7! introduced in 1808
7 3
(7 - 3)! by Christian Kramp
7! (1760—1826) as a
=_ convenience to the
4!
printer. Until then, n
= 210 had been used.
So, there are 210 ways that the 3 positions can be filled from the
7-member council.
Example 2
Using Factorial Notation
a) Evaluate 9P4 using factorial notation.
b) Show that 100! + 99! = 101(99!) without using technology.
c) Solve for n if nP3 = 60, where n is a natural number. D i d You K n ow?
Solution Most scientific and

graphing calculators
9!
a) 9P4 = __ can evaluate
(9 - 4)! factorials and
=_9! calculate the number
5! 1 of permutations for n
(9)(8)(7)(6)5!
___ distinct objects taken
= Why is 9! the same as (9)(8)(7)(6)5!? r at a time. Learn to
5!
1 use these features
= (9)(8)(7)(6) on the calculator
= 3024 you use.

b) 100! + 99! = 100(99!) + 99!
= 99!(100 + 1) What math technique was used in going from
= 99!(101) step 1 to step 2?
= 101(99!)
c) P
n 3
= 60
__ n! = 60 Why must n ≥ 3?
(n - 3)!
n(n - 1)(n - 2)(n - 3)!
_____ = 60
(n - 3)!
n(n - 1)(n - 2) = 60
Method 1: Use Reasoning

n(n - 1)(n - 2) = 60 Why is 60 rewritten as the product of three
n(n - 1)(n - 2) = 5(4)(3) consecutive natural numbers?
n=5 Will any other values work for n? Why or why not?
The solution to nP3 = 60 is n = 5.
Method 2: Use Algebra

n(n - 1)(n - 2) = 60
n3 - 3n2 + 2n - 60 = 0
Since n must be a natural number, only factors of 60 that are natural
numbers must be considered: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60.
Test these factors using the factor theorem.
P(n) = n3 - 3n2 + 2n - 60
P(5) = 53 - 3(5)2 + 2(5) - 60
=0
Therefore, n = 5 is a solution.
Test n = 5 in the original equation.
Left Side = n(n - 1)(n - 2) Right Side = 60 Do you need to test
= 5(5 - 1)(5 - 2) any other values for
n? Why or why not?
= 60
Method 3: Use Graphing

Which of the three Graph to solve the equation
methods do you prefer? n(n - 1)(n - 2) = 60.
Graph y = n(n - 1)(n - 2) and
y = 60 and find the point of
intersection.
Where does the solution for the original
equation occur on your graph?
Your Turn
a) Evaluate 7P2 using factorial notation.
b) Show that 5! - 3! = 19(3!).
c) Solve for n if nP2 = 56.

Permutations With Repeating Objects
Consider the number of four-letter arrangements possible using the letters
from the word pool.
pool opol oopl oolp polo oplo olpo olop ploo lpoo lopo loop
pool opol oopl oolp polo oplo olpo olop ploo lpoo lopo loop
If all of the letters were different, the number of possible four-letter
arrangements would be 4! = 24.
There are two identical letters (o), which, if they were different, could be
arranged in 2! = 2 ways.
The number of four-letter arrangements possible when two of the letters
4! = _
are the same is _ 24 or 12.
Why do you divide by 2!?
2! 2
A set of n objects with a of one kind that are identical, b of a
second kind that are identical, and c of a third kind that are
identical, and so on, can be arranged in __ n! different ways.
a!b!c!…
Example 3
Repeating Objects
a) How many different eight-letter arrangements can you make using the
letters of aardvark? B
b) How many paths can you follow from A to B in a
four by six rectangular grid if you move only up
or to the right?
A
Solution
a) There are eight letters in aardvark. There are 8! ways to arrange eight
letters. But of the eight letters, three are the letter a and two are the
letter r. There are 3! ways to arrange the a’s and 2! ways to arrange the
8!
r’s. The number of different eight-letter arrangements is _ = 3360.
3!2!
b) Each time you travel 1 unit up, it is the same distance no matter
where you are on the grid. Similarly, each horizontal movement is the
same distance to the right. So, using U to represent 1 unit up and R to For every path from A
represent 1 unit to the right, one possible path is UUUURRRRRR. The to B, how many units of
distance must you travel?
problem is to find the number of arrangements of UUUURRRRRR.
10! = 210. How many vertical units
The number of different paths is _ Where did the numbers
must you travel?
4!6! 10, 4, and 6 come from?
Your Turn How many horizontal
a) How many different 5-digit numbers can you make by arranging all of units must you travel?
the digits of 17 171?
b) In how many different ways can you walk from A A
to B in a three by five rectangular grid if you must
move only down or to the right?
B

Example 4
Permutations with Constraints
Five people (A, B, C, D, and E) are seated on a bench. In how many

ways can they be arranged if
a) E is seated in the middle? b) A and B must be seated together?
c) A and B cannot be together?
Solution
a) Since E must be in the middle, there is only 1 choice for that position.
This leaves four people to be arranged in (4)(3)(2)(1) ways.
4 3 1 2 1 What is the restriction?
(Seat 1) (Seat 2) (Seat 3) (Seat 4) (Seat 5)
Middle
There are (4)(3)(1)(2)(1) = 24 ways to arrange the five people with E
seated in the middle.
b) There are 2! ways to arrange A and B together, AB or BA.
Consider A and B together as 1 object. This means that there are 4
objects (C, D, E, and AB) to arrange in 4! = 24 ways.
Then, there are 2!4! = 48 ways to arrange five people if A and B must
be seated together.
c) Method 1: Use Positions When A and B Are Not Together
There are five positions on the bench. A and B are not together when
they are in the following positions:
1st and 3rd 1st and 4th 1st and 5th (6 ways)
2nd and 4th 2nd and 5th 3rd and 5th
For any one of these six arrangements, A and B
(2 ways)
can be interchanged.
The remaining 3 people can always be arranged 3! or 6 ways. (6 ways)
There are (6)(2)(6) = 72 ways where Why is it necessary to multiply
A and B are not seated together. to get the final answer?
Method 2: Use Positions When A and B Are Together

The total number of arrangements for five people in a row with no
restrictions is 5! = 120. Arrangements with A and B together is 48
from part b).
Therefore, the number of arrangements with A and B not together is
Total number of arrangements - Number of arrangements together
= 5! - 2!4!
= 120 - 48
= 72
Your Turn
How many ways can one French poster, two mathematics posters,
and three science posters be arranged in a row on a wall if
a) the two mathematics posters must be together on an end?
b) the three science posters must be together?
c) the three science posters cannot all be together?

Arrangements Requiring Cases
To solve some problems, you must count the different arrangements
in cases. For example, you might need to determine the number of
arrangements of four girls and three boys in a row of seven seats if the
ends of the rows must be either both female or both male.
Case 1: Girls on Ends of Rows Arrangements
Girl (2 Girls and 3 Boys) Girl
4 5! 3 (4)(5!)(3) = 1440
Case 2: Boys on Ends of Rows
Boy (4 Girls and 1 Boy) Boy
3 5! 2 (3)(5!)(2) = 720
Total number of arrangements: 1440 + 720 = 2160
Example 5
Using Cases to Determine Permutations
How many different 3-digit even numbers greater than 300 can you make
using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6? No digits are repeated.
Solution
When determining the number of permutations for a situation in which Why does the solution to
there are restrictions, you must first address the choices with the this example require the
identification of cases?
restrictions.
Case 1: Numbers That Are Even and Start With 3 or 5
Numbers start with 3 or 5, so there are two choices for the first digit.
Numbers are even, so there are three choices for the third digit.
Number of choices Number of choices Number of choices
for first digit for second digit for third digit How do you know
there are four
2 4 3 possible choices for
Number of possibilities = 2(4)(3) the middle digit?
= 24
Case 2: Numbers That Are Even and Start With 4 or 6
Numbers start with 4 or 6, so there are two choices for the first digit.
Numbers are even, so two choices remain for the third digit.
for first digit for second digit for third digit Why are there only
two choices for the
2 4 2 third digit?
Number of possibilities = 2(4)(2)
= 16
The final answer is the sum of the possibilities from the two cases.
There are 24 + 16, or 40, 3-digit even numbers greater than 300.
Your Turn
How many 4-digit odd numbers can you make using the digits 1 to 7
if the numbers must be less than 6000? No digits are repeated.

Key Ideas
The fundamental counting principle can be used to determine the number of

different arrangements. If one task can be performed in a ways, a second task
in b ways, and a third task in c ways, then all three tasks can be arranged in
a × b × c ways.
Factorial notation is an abbreviation for products of successive positive integers.
5! = (5)(4)(3)(2)(1)
(n + 1)! = (n + 1)(n)(n - 1)(n - 2)(3)(2)(1)
A permutation is an arrangement of objects in a definite order. The number of
permutations of n different objects taken r at a time is given by nPr = __ n! .
(n - r)!
A set of n objects containing a identical objects of one kind, b identical objects of
another kind, and so on, can be arranged in __ n! ways.
a!b!…
Some problems have more than one case. One way to solve such problems
is to establish cases that together cover all of the possibilities. Calculate the
number of arrangements for each case and then add the values for all cases to
obtain the total number of arrangements.
Practise 3. Show that 4! + 3! ≠ (4 + 3)!.

1. Use an organized list or a tree diagram to 4. What is the value of each expression?
identify the possible arrangements for 9!
a) 9! b) _
a) the ways that three friends, Jo, Amy, and 5!4!
Mike, can arrange themselves in a row. c) (5!)(3!) d) 6(4!)
b) the ways that you can arrange the digits 102!
e) __ f) 7! - 5!
2, 5, 8, and 9 to form two-digit numbers. 100!2!
5. In how many different ways can you
c) the ways that a customer can choose
arrange all of the letters of each word?
a starter, a main course, and a dessert
from the following menu. a) hoodie b) decided
c) aqilluqqaaq d) deeded
LUNCH SPECIAL MENU
Starter: soup or salad e) puppy f) baguette
Main: chili or hamburger or chicken or fish
Dessert: ice cream or fruit salad D i d You K n ow ?
The Inuit have many words to describe snow. The

2. Evaluate each expression. word aqilluqqaaq means fresh and soggy snow in
a) 8P2 b) 7P5 one dialect of Inuktitut.
c) P
6 6
d) 4P1

6. Four students are running in an election 11. In how many ways can seven books be
for class representative on the student arranged on a shelf if
council. In how many different ways can a) the books are all different?
the four names be listed on the ballot?
b) two of the books are identical?
7. Solve for the variable.
c) the books are different and the
a) P = 30
n 2
b) nP3 = 990 mathematics book must be on an end?
c) P = 30
6 r
d) 2(nP2) = 60 d) the books are different and four
8. Determine the number of pathways from particular books must be together?
A to B.
a) Move only down or to the right. Apply
A 12. How many six-letter arrangements can you
make using all of the letters A, B, C, D, E,
and F, without repetition? Of these, how
B many begin and end with a consonant?
b) Move only up or to the right. 13. A national organization plans to issue its
B members a 4-character ID code. The first
character can be any letter other than O.
The last 3 characters are to be 3 different
digits. If the organization has 25 300
A members, will they be able to assign each
member a different ID code? Explain.
c) Move only up or to the left.
B 14. Iblauk lives in Baker
Lake, Nunavut. She
makes oven mitts to
A sell. She has wool
duffel in red, dark
9. Describe the cases you could use to solve
blue, green, light blue,
each problem. Do not solve.
and yellow for the
a) How many 3-digit even numbers greater body of each mitt. She
than 200 can you make using the digits has material for the
1, 2, 3, 4, and 5? wrist edge in dark green,
b) How many four-letter arrangements pink, royal blue, and red.
beginning with either B or E and ending How many different colour
with a vowel can you make using the combinations of mitts can Iblauk make?
letters A, B, C, E, U, and G? 15. You have forgotten the
10. In how many ways can four girls and two number sequence to your
boys be arranged in a row if lock. You know that the
a) the boys are on each end of the row? correct code is made up of
b) the boys must be together?
three numbers (right-left-right).
The numbers can be from
c) the boys must be together in the middle
0 to 39 and repetitions are
of the row?
allowed. If you can test one number
sequence every 15 s, how long will it take
to test all possible number sequences?
Express your answer in hours.

16. Jodi is parking seven different types 21. Cent mille milliards de poèmes (One
of vehicles side by side facing the Hundred Million Million Poems) was
display window at the dealership where written in 1961 by Raymond Queneau, a
she works. French poet, novelist, and publisher. The
a) In how many ways can she park book is 10 pages long, with 1 sonnet per
the vehicles? page. A sonnet is a poem with 14 lines.
Each line of every sonnet can be replaced
b) In how many ways can she park them
by a line at the same position on a
so that the pickup truck is next to the
different page. Regardless of which lines
hybrid car?
are used, the poem makes sense.
c) In how many ways can she park them
a) How many arrangements of the lines
so that the convertible is not next to
are possible for one sonnet?
the subcompact?
b) Is the title of the book of poems
17. a) How many arrangements using all of
reasonable? Explain.
the letters of the word parallel are
possible?
b) How many of these arrangements have e le if
co n
sec
te t u
end r ad
mi f o rc ipi
all of the l’s together? Sed
i n te
llus
r ing
me
i ll a
p o su
i. E
tia
m
e re n e c s
sc i
ng
el i
t. P
ro i
tus
ve n s o l l i c i , q
aa
od
ap
ie na
ena t ud ui s i o. n n e c
18. The number of different permutations trist
sit a
iqu
me
t pe
t i s,
llen
ips
um
in ,
est
o rc
i ac
so d
gra
al e
sm
a
Nu
n c
l uc t e aug tes el e vid ssa
us a q .
using all of the letters in a particular set mal
mor
esu
bi t
r i st
liq u
et.
iqu Pelle
ue
. Ve ue n
s ti
bu
eq
l u m e fe l
u
i fe
nd
sap
a
ien
ada es nt e
is given by _ 5! . Pr a e
fe r m s e n t
co n e n t u m o n te
n
fam
es
ac
en
ec
tus ue h
et
sq
ab
so
llic
i
it u
s
din
s ec llu tur ne ita
2!2! tet
ur
eu
. Pr
ism
oin
in
nu
sn
l
ec
d olo
pis
eg
e sta
s
tu
se t
t
n
od la r i nt .
a) Create a set of letters for which this id ne e rd
ve cn
ln eq um
is i ue
.
is true.
b) What English word could have this
number of arrangements of its letters?
19. How many integers from 3000 to 8999, 22. Use your understanding of factorial
inclusive, contain no 7s? notation and the symbol nPr to solve
each equation.
20. Postal codes in Canada consist of three
letters and three digits. Letters and digits a) 3Pr = 3!
alternate, as in the code R7B 5K1. b) 7Pr = 7!
a) How many different postal codes are c) P = 4(n − 1P2)
n 3
possible with this format? d) n(5P3) = 7P5
b) Do you think Canada will run out of 23. Use nPn to show that 0! = 1.
postal codes? Why or why not?
24. Explain why 3P5 gives an error message
D id Yo u Know? when evaluated on a calculator.
25. How many odd numbers of at most
The Canadian postal code system was established in
1971. The first letters of the codes are assigned to three digits can be formed using the
provinces and territories from east to west: digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 without
A = Newfoundland and Labrador repetitions?
… 26. How many even numbers of at least
Y = Yukon Territory
four digits can be formed using
Some provinces have more than one letter, such as the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, and 5 without
H and J for Québec. Some letters, such as I, are not repetitions?
currently used.
27. How many integers between 1 and 1000
do not contain repeated digits?

28. A box with a lid has inside dimensions 32. There are five people: A, B, C, D, and E.
of 3 cm by 2 cm by 1 cm. You have four The following pairs know each other: A
identical blue cubes and two identical and C, B and C, A and D, D and E, and
yellow cubes, each 1 cm by 1 cm by 1 cm. C and D.
How many different six-cube arrangements a) Arrange the five people in a row so that
of blue and yellow cubes are possible? nobody is next to a stranger.
You must be able to close the lid after any
b) How many different arrangements are
arrangement. The diagram below shows
possible such that nobody is next to
one possible arrangement. Show two
a stranger?
different ways to solve the problem.
c) The five people are joined by a sixth
person, F, who knows only A. In how
many ways can the six people stand
in a row if nobody can be next to a
stranger? Explain your answer.
Create Connections
Extend C1 a) Explain what the notation aPb
29. You have two colours of paint. In how represents. Use examples to support
many different ways can you paint the your explanation.
faces of a cube if each face is painted? b) Which statement best describes the
Painted cubes are considered to be the relationship between b and a? Explain.
same if you can rotate one cube so that it
b>a b=a b<a b≤a b≥a
matches the other one exactly.
C2 Explain why a set of n objects, a of which
are of one type and b of which are of
a second type, can be arranged in _ n!
a!b!
different ways and not in n! ways.
30. Nine students take a walk on four
C3 Simplify.
consecutive days. They always walk in
3!(n + 2)!
rows of three across. Show how to arrange a) __
4!(n - 1)!
the students so that each student walks 7!(r - 1)!
b) __
+ __ 5!r!
only once in a row with any two other
6!(r + 1)! 3!(r + 1)!
students during the four-day time frame.
C4 Create a mathematics career file for this
In other words, no three-across triplets
chapter. Identify one occupation or career
are repeated.
requiring the use of, or connections to,
D id Yo u K n ow ? the mathematics in this section. Write at
least two problems that might be used by
Thomas Kirkman (1806—1895) was born in
someone working in the chosen occupation
England and studied mathematics in Dublin. He
first presented a version of the problem in #30 in or career. Briefly describe how your
1847 in the Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical problems relate to the occupation or career.
Journal. Subsequently, it was published as the
“fifteen schoolgirl problem” in the 1850 Ladies’ and C5 a) What is the value of 9!?
Gentlemen’s Diary. There are many solutions and b) Determine the value of log (9!).
generalizations of the problem.
c) Determine the value of log (10!).
31. If 100! is evaluated, how many zeros are at d) How are the answers to parts b) and c)
the end of the number? Explain how you related? Explain why.
know.

11.2
Combinations
Focus on…
• explaining the differences
between a permutation and a
combination
• determining the number of
ways to select r elements from
n different elements
• solving problems using the number of
combinations of n different elements
ts
taken r at a time
• solving an equation that involves
C notation
n r
Sometimes you must consider er the order

in which the elements of a setet are arranged. In
Sorting by hand mail that has been rejected
other situations, the order is not important. For example, by the machine sort due to unrecognizable
when addressing an envelope, it is important to write the hand-written or missing postal codes
six-character postal code in the correct order. In contrast,
addressing an envelope, affixing a stamp, and inserting the
contents can be completed in any order.
In this section, you will learn about counting outcomes when
order does not matter.
Did Yo u Know ?
In the six-character postal code used in Canada, the first three characters
define a geographical region and the last three characters specify a local
delivery unit.
Investigate Making Selections When Order Is Not Important
Problem solving, reasoning, and decision-making are highly prized

skills in today’s workforce. Here is your opportunity to demonstrate
those skills.
1. From a group of four students, three are to be elected to an executive
committee with a specific position. The positions are as follows:
1st position President
2nd position Vice President
3rd position Treasurer
a) Does the order in which the students are elected matter? Why?
b) In how many ways can the positions be filled from this group?

2. Now suppose that the three students are to be selected to serve on a
committee.
a) Is the order in which the three students are selected still
important? Why or why not?
b) How many committees from the group of four students are now
possible?
c) How does your answer in part b) relate to the answer in step 1b)?
3. You are part of a group of 6 students.
a) How many handshakes are possible if each student shakes every
other student’s hand once?
b) What strategies could you use to solve this problem? Discuss with
a partner and try to solve the problem in more than one way.
Reflect and Respond combination

4. What formula could you create to solve a handshake problem • a selection of objects
without regard to order
involving n students?
• all of the three-letter
5. In step 1, you worked with permutations, but in step 2, you combinations of P, Q,
worked with combinations. Identify all of the possible three-letter R, and S are PQR,
permutations and three-letter combinations of the letters A, B, and C. PQS, PRS, and QRS
(arrangements such as
What are the similarities between permutations and combinations? PQR and RPQ are the
What are the differences? same combination)
Link the Ideas
A combination is a selection of a group of objects, taken from a larger

group, for which the kinds of objects selected is important, but not the
order in which they are selected.
There are several ways to find the number of possible combinations.
One is to use reasoning. Use the fundamental counting principle and
divide by the number of ways that the objects can be arranged among
themselves. For example, calculate the number of combinations of three
digits made from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 without repetitions:
for the first digit for the second digit for the third digit
5 4 3
There are 5 × 4 × 3 or 60 ways to arrange 3 items from 5. However,
3 digits can be arranged in 3! ways among themselves, and in a
combination these are considered to be the same selection.
So,
number of permutations
number of combinations = _____ What does 3! represent?
3!
= 60
_
3!
= 60
_
6
= 10
11.2 Combinations • MHR 529

The notation nCr, or (n
r ), represents the number of combinations
of n items taken r at a time, where n ≥ r and r ≥ 0.
P Why must n ≥ r ≥ 0?
C =_
n r
n r
r!
__ n!
(n - r)!
__
=
r!
= __ n!
(n - r)!r!
Did Yo u Know ? The number of ways of choosing three digits from five digits is
C3 = __ 5!
The number of 5
(5 - 3)!3!
combinations of n
items taken r at a =_ 5!
time is equivalent 2!3!
to the number of Explain how to simplify the expression in step 2
(5)(4)
combinations of n = __ to get the expression shown in step 3.
items taken n - r (2)(1)
How many ways are there to choose two digits
at a time. = 10
from five digits? What do you notice?
C = nCn - r
n r
There are ten ways to select three items from a set of five.
Example 1
Combinations and the Fundamental Counting Principle
There are 12 females and
18 males in a grade 12
class. The principal wishes
to meet with a group of
5 students to discuss
graduation.
a) How many selections
are possible?
b) How many selections
are possible if the group
consists of two females
and three males?
c) One of the female
students is named
Brooklyn. How many
five-member selections
consisting of Brooklyn,
one other female, and
three males are possible?

Solution
Ask yourself if the order of selection is important in these questions.
a) The question involves choosing 5 students out of 30. In this group, the
order of selection is unimportant. So, this is a combinations problem.
Use the combinations formula.
Substitute n = 30 and r = 5 into nCr = __ n! :
(n - r)!r!
C5 = __ 30!
30
(30 - 5)!5!
=_ 30!
25!5!
1 7 1
(30)(29)(28)(27)(26)(25!)
= _____
25!(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)
1 1 1 1 1
= 142 506
There are 142 506 possible ways of selecting the group of 5 students.
b) There are 12C2 ways of selecting two female students.

There are 18C3 ways of selecting three male students.
Using the fundamental counting principle, the number of ways of
selecting two females and three males is
C2 × 18C3 = __ 12! × __ 18! Why are the elements 12C2 and 18C3
12
(12 - 2)!2! (18 - 3)!3! multiplied together?
6 1 3 1
(12)(11)(10!) (18)(17)(16)(15!)
= ___ × ____
(10!)(2)(1) (15!)(3)(2)(1)
1 1 1 1 1
= 66 × 816
= 53 856
There are 53 856 ways to select a group consisting of 2 females and
3 males.
c) There is one way to select Brooklyn.

There are 11 females remaining, so there are
C or 11 choices for the second female.
11 1
Why is 11C1 = 11?
There are 18C3 ways to select the three males.

There are 1 × 11 × 18C3 or 8976 ways to select this five-member group.
Your Turn
In how many ways can the debating club coach select a team from six
grade 11 students and seven grade 12 students if the team has
a) four members?
b) four members, only one of whom is in grade 11?

Example 2
Combinations With Cases
Rianna is writing a geography exam. The instructions say that she must
answer a specified number of questions from each section. How many
different selections of questions are possible if
a) she must answer two of the four questions in part A and three of the
five questions in part B?
b) she must answer two of the four questions in part A and at least four
of the five questions in part B?
Why should you use combinations rather

Solution
than permutations to solve this problem?
a) The number of ways of selecting two questions in part A is 4C2.
The number of ways of selecting three questions in part B is 5C3.

According to the fundamental counting principle, the number of
possible question selections is 4C2 × 5C3 = 6 × 10 or 60.
There are 60 different ways in which Rianna can choose 2 of the
4 questions in part A and 3 of the 5 questions in part B.
b) “At least four” means that Rianna can answer either four questions
or five questions in part B. Solve the problem using two cases.
Case 1: Answering Four Questions in Part B
Part A Choices Part B Choices

C
4 2
C
5 4
The number of ways of choosing these Why do you multiply the

questions is 4C2 × 5C4 = 6 × 5 or 30. possibilities for parts A and B?
Case 2: Answering Five Questions in Part B
Part A Choices Part B Choices

C
4 2
C
5 5
The number of ways of choosing these questions is

C × 5C5 = 6 × 1 or 6.
4 2
Each case represents an exclusive or separate event.

The final answer is the sum of both cases.
The number of possible ways of choosing either 4 questions or

5 questions in part B is 30 + 6 or 36. Why do you add the two cases?
Your Turn
A bag contains seven black balls and six red balls. In how
many ways can you draw groups of five balls if at least three
must be red?

Example 3
Simplifying Expressions and Solving Equations With Combinations
C
a) Express as factorials and simplify _ .
n 5
C
n-1 3
b) Solve for n if 2(nC2) = n + 1C3.
Solution
__ n!
_
C
n 5 (n - 5)!5!
__ What is the formula for nCr?
a) =
C
n-1 3 (n - 1)!
__ Why is (n - 4)! in the lower denominator?
(n - 4)!3!
= __ (n!
(n - 5)!5!
__
1)! )
)( (n(n--4)!3!
1 1 1
n(n - 1)! (n - 4)(n - 5)!3! Explain why n! can be
= ____ × ____
(n - 5)!(5)(4)(3!) (n - 1)! written as n(n - 1)!.
1 1 1
n(n - 4)
= __
20
b) 2(nC2) = n+1
C3
1
n! (n + 1)!
(
2 __
(n - 2)!2!
1
= __ )
(n - 2)!3!
1 1
(n + 1)!
n! = __
3!
(n + 1)!
3! = __
n!
1
(n + 1)(n!)
6 = __
n!
1
6=n+1
5=n
Your Turn
1 .
a) Express in factorial notation and simplify (n - 1C3)( _
C3
n -2
)
b) Solve for n if 720(nC5) = P.
n+1 5
Key Ideas
A selection of objects in which order is not important is a combination.

When determining the number of possibilities in a situation, if order
matters, it is a permutation. If order does not matter, it is a combination.
The number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time can be represented
P n!
by nCr , where n ≥ r and r ≥ 0. A formula for nCr is nCr = _
n r
or nCr = __ .
r! (n - r)!r!

.
The questions in this section involve 7. Identify the cases you could use to solve
permutations or combinations. Always each problem. Do not solve.
determine whether order is important. a) How many numbers less than 1000
can you make using any number of
Practise the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5?
1. Decide whether each of the following is
b) In how many ways can a team be
a combination or a permutation problem.
selected from six grade 11 students
Briefly describe why. You do not need to
and five grade 12 students if the
solve the problem.
five-person team has four members
a) In a traditional Aboriginal welcome from either grade and a spare from
circle, each member shakes hands with grade 11?
each other member twice. If there are
8. Show that 11C3 = 11C8.
eight people in a welcome circle, how
many handshakes occur? 9. a) Evaluate 5C5 to determine the number
b) How many numbers less than 300 can
of ways you can select five objects
you make using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, from a group of five.
and 5? b) Evaluate 5C0 to determine the number
c) A car dealer has 15 mid-sized cars. In of ways you can select no objects
how many ways can a rental agency from a group of five. Explain why the
purchase 10 of the cars? answer makes sense.
d) A hockey team has 18 players. In how
many ways can the driver select six of Apply
the players to ride in the team van? 10. From a penny, a nickel, a dime, and a
2. Describe the differences between 5P3 and quarter, how many different sums of
C , and then evaluate each one.
5 3
money can be formed consisting of
3. Evaluate. a) three coins?
a) 6P4 b) 7C3 b) at most two coins?
c) C
5 2
d) C
10 7 11. From six females, in how many ways can
4. From ten employees, in how many ways you select
can you a) a group of four females?
a) select a group of four?
b) a group of at least four females?
b) assign four different jobs?
12. Verify the identity nCr − 1 + nCr = Cr.
n+1
5. a) List all of the combinations of
13. At the local drive-in, you can order a
A, B, C, and D taken two at a time.
burger with tomato, lettuce, pickle, hot
b) List all of the permutations of peppers, onion, or cheese. How many
A, B, C, and D taken two at a time. different burgers with any three different
c) How is the number of combinations choices for the extras can you order? Does
related to the number of permutations? this question involve permutations or
6. Solve for n. combinations? Explain.
a) nC1 = 10 b) nC2 = 21
c) Cn - 2 = 6
n
d) n+1
Cn − 1 = 15

14. A pizzeria offers ten different toppings. 19. a) In how many ways can you select a
a) How many different four-topping pizzas set of four science books and three
are possible? geography books from six different
science books and seven different
b) Is this a permutation or a combination
geography books?
question? Explain.
b) In how many ways can you place
15. Consider five points,
the four science books and the three
no three of which
geography books in a row on a shelf
are collinear.
if the science books must remain
a) How many line together?
segments can you
20. A Manitoba gallery wishes to display
draw connecting
20 paintings to showcase the work of
any two of the points? Complete this
artist George Fagnan.
question using two different methods.
a) How many selections are possible if
b) How many triangles, with vertices selected
the artist allows the gallery to choose
from the given points, can you draw?
from 40 of his works? Leave your
c) Write an expression using factorials answer in factorial form.
for the number of triangles if there are
b) The gallery curator wants to set
ten non-collinear points. How does this
4 of the paintings from the 20
answer compare to the number of line
selected in a row near the entrance.
segments for the same ten points?
In how many ways can this be
16. Verify that nCr = nCn − r. accomplished?
17. A jury pool consists of 12 women and
8 men. D i d You K n ow ?
a) How many 12-person juries can be George Fagnan grew up in Swan River, Manitoba. He
selected? is a proud member of the Sapotaweyak Cree Nation,
and he currently lives in Brandon, Manitoba. He
b) How many juries containing seven began his art career around the age of 5. He enjoys
women and five men can be selected? traditional native art and other creative activities.
c) How many juries containing at least

ten women can be selected?
18. Consider a standard deck of 52 well-
shuffled cards.
a) In how many ways can you select
five cards?
b) In how many ways can you select five
cards if three of them are hearts?
c) In how many ways can you select five
cards if only one of them is black?
D id Yo u K n ow ?
A standard deck of playing cards contains 52 cards

in four suits: clubs, diamonds, hearts, and spades.
Each suit contains 13 cards labelled 2 to 10, jack,
queen, king, and ace. Playing cards are thought to
have originated in India. They were introduced into Blue Garden, 2009
Europe around 1275.

21. The cards from a standard deck of playing Create Connections
cards are dealt to 4 people, 13 cards at
C1 Does a combination
a time. This means that the first person
lock involve
receives the first 13 cards, the second
combinations in a
person gets the next 13 cards, and so on.
mathematical sense?
a) How many such sets of four 13-card
Explain.
hands can be dealt? Leave your answer
C2 a) Explain what
as a product of factorials.
the notation aCb
b) Without using a calculator, show that
represents. Use
the answer in part a) simplifies examples to support
52! .
to __ your explanation.
(13!)4
c) Evaluate the answer to part a). b) Write an inequality that
h describes
d ib the
h
relationship between all possible values
Extend for a and b.
22. How many parallelograms are formed if c) What can you say for sure about the
four parallel lines intersect another set value of b?
of six parallel lines? The lines in the first C3 A teacher asks her students to calculate
set are not parallel to the lines in the the number of ways in which a hospital
second set. administrator could assign four patients
to six private rooms. Beth says that the
answer is 6C4. Bryan disagrees. He claims
the answer is 6P4. Who is correct? Why?
C4 MINI LAB Eight points lie on the
circumference of a circle. Explore how
many different inscribed quadrilaterals can
23. In a bowl of ice cream, the order of the be drawn using the points as vertices.
scoops does not matter.
Step 1 Suppose the eight points are on the
a) Suppose you can make 630 two-scoop unit circle at P(0°), P(45°), P(90°),
bowls of ice cream, each containing two P(135°), P(180°), P(225°), P(270°),
different flavours, at the shop where and P(315°). Draw a diagram. Show
you work. How many flavours of ice a quadrilateral that is an isosceles
cream are available in this shop? trapezoid with four of the given points
b) How many two-scoop bowls could you as vertices.
make if you can duplicate flavours? Step 2 Create a table in which you identify the
24. Consider the following conjecture. If p is a number of possible quadrilaterals that
prime number, aCb and paCpb have the same are squares, rectangles, parallelograms,
remainder when you divide by p. and isosceles trapezoids that can be
created using four of the eight points
a) Show that the statement is true for 5C2
from Step 1.
when p = 3.
Step 3 Make a conclusion. How many
b) Is this statement true for 5C2 when
different inscribed quadrilaterals can
p = 7? What is the remainder? be drawn using four of the eight points
c) How many remainders are possible that lie on the circumference of a circle
when dividing by 7? What are they? as vertices?
d) Describe what you could do to prove
the initial conjecture.

11.3
The Binomial Theorem
Focus on…
• relating the coefficients in the expansion of (x + y)n , n ∈ N, to Pascal’s
triangle and to combinations
• expanding (x + y)n , n ∈ N, in a variety of ways, including the binomial theorem
• determining a specific term in the expansion of (x + y)n
In 1653, Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician, described

a triangular array of numbers corresponding to the number
of ways to choose r elements from a set of n objects. Some
interesting number patterns occur in Pascal’s triangle. Have
you encountered Pascal’s triangle before? Have you explored
its many patterns? Did you realize it can give you the number
of combinations in certain situations?
Yang Hui’s triangle, 13th century China
Investigate Patterns in Pascal’s Triangle
1. Examine Pascal’s triangle and identify at least three patterns. Materials

Compare and discuss your patterns with a partner. • counters
1 • copy of Pascal’s
1 1 triangle
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
2. Write the next row for the Pascal’s triangle shown. D i d You K n ow?
3. Some of the patterns in Pascal’s triangle are spatial and relate to
Pascal was not
whole sections in the chart. Create a large Pascal’s triangle with at the first person to
least 20 rows. Mark or use counters to cover all of the multiples of discover the triangle
7 in your 20-row triangle. Then, cover all of the multiples of 5 and of numbers that bears
his name. It was
multiples of 3. What do you conclude? What happens for multiples known in India, Persia,
of even numbers? and China centuries
before. The Chinese
4. Other patterns may appear unexpectedly. Determine the sum of the
called it “Yang Hui’s
numbers in each horizontal row. What pattern did you find? triangle” in honour of
5. Each number in Pascal’s triangle can be written as a combination Yang Hui, who lived
from 1238 to 1298.
using the notation nCr, where n is the number of objects in the set
and r is the number selected. For example, you can express the
third row as
2
C0 C1
2
C2
2
Express the fifth row using combination notation. Check whether

your combinations have the same values as the numbers in the
fifth row of Pascal’s triangle.
11.3 The Binomial Theorem • MHR 537

6. Expand the following binomials by multiplying.
(x + y)2
(x + y)3
(x + y)4
Reflect and Respond

7. Explain how to get the numbers in the next row from the numbers in
the previous row of Pascal’s triangle. Use examples.
8. How are the values you obtained in steps 4 and 5 related? Explain
using values from specific rows.
9. How do the coefficients of the simplified terms in your binomial
expansions in step 6 relate to Pascal’s triangle?
Link the Ideas
If you expand a power of a binomial expression, you get a series of terms.

How could you get this expansion
(x + y)4 = 1x4 + 4x3y + 6x 2y 2 + 4xy 3 + 1y 4 by multiplying?
There are many patterns in the binomial What patterns do you observe?
expansion of (x + y)4.
The coefficients in a binomial expansion can be determined from
Pascal’s triangle. In the expansion of (x + y)n, where n ∈ N, the
coefficients of the terms are identical to the numbers in the (n + 1)th
row of Pascal’s triangle.
Binomial Pascal’s Triangle in Binomial Expansion Row

(x + y)0
1 1
(x + y)1
1x + 1y 2
(x + y)2 1x 2 + 2xy + 1y 2 3
(x + y)3
1x 3
+ 3x y
2
+ 3xy 2
+ 1y 3
4
(x + y)4
1x 4
+ 4x y
3
+ 6x y
2 2
+ 4xy 3
+ 1y 4
5
The coefficients in a binomial expansion can also be determined using

combinations.
Pascal’s Triangle Combinations

1 C
0 0
1 1 C
1 0
C
1 1
1 2 1 C
2 0
C
2 1
C
2 2
1 3 3 1 C
3 0
C
3 1
C
3 2 3 3
C
1 4 6 4 1 C
4 0
C
4 1
C
4 2
C
4 3
C
4 4
1 5 10 10 5 1 C
5 0
C
5 1
C
5 2
C
5 3 5 4
C C
5 5
C2 = _5!
5
Note that 5C2 represents the number of combinations of five items
3!2! taken two at a time. In the expansion of (x + y)5, it represents the
(5)(4) coefficient of the term containing x3y 2 and shows the number of
= __
2 selections possible for three x’s and two y’s.
= 10

Example 1
Expand Binomials
a) Expand (p + q)6.
b) Identify patterns in the expansion of (p + q)6.
Solution
a) Method 1: Use Patterns and Pascal’s Triangle
The coefficients for the terms of the
Why is the row number
expansion of (p + q)6 occur in different by one from the
the (6 + 1)th or seventh row of exponent on the binomial?
Pascal’s triangle.
The seventh row of Pascal’s triangle is

1 6 15 20 15 6 1 How are the numbers obtained?
(p + q)6 = 1(p)6(q)0 + 6(p)5(q)1 + 15(p)4(q)2 + 20(p)3(q)3 + 15(p)2(q)4

+ 6(p)1(q)5 + 1(p)0(q)6
= p6 + 6p5q + 15p4q2 + 20p3q3 + 15p2q4 + 6pq5 + q6
Method 2: Use Combinations to Determine Coefficients in

the Expansion
(p + q)6 = 6C0(p)6(q)0 + 6C1(p)5(q)1 + 6C2(p)4(q)2 + 6C3(p)3(q)3 + 6C4(p)2(q)4
+ 6C5(p)1(q)5 + 6C6(p)0(q)6
= p6 + 6p5q + 15p4q2 + 20p3q3 + 15p2q4 + 6pq5 + q6
Show that 6C4 = 15. How does symmetry
help you find the terms?
b) Some patterns are as follows:

• There are 6 + 1, or 7, terms in the expansion of (p + q)6.
• The powers of p decrease from 6 to 0 in successive terms of the
expansion.
• The powers of q increase from 0 to 6.
• Each term is of degree 6 (the sum of the exponents for p and q is 6
for each term)
• The coefficients are symmetrical, 1 6 15 20 15 6 1, and begin and
end with 1.
Your Turn
a) What are the coefficients in the expansion of (c + d)5?
b) Do you prefer to use Pascal’s triangle or combinations to determine
the coefficients in a binomial expansion? Why?
c) How many terms are in the expansion of (c + d)5?
d) What is the simplified expression for the second term in the
expansion of (c + d)5 if the terms are written with descending
powers of c?

binomial theorem You can use the binomial theorem to expand any power of a
• used to expand binomial expression.
(x + y) n , n ∈ N
• each term has the form (x + y)n = nC0(x)n(y)0 + nC1(x)n - 1(y)1 + nC2(x)n - 2(y)2 +
C (x) n - k (y)k , where
n k
+ nCn − 1(x)1(y)n - 1 + nCn(x)0(y)n
k + 1 is the term
number
In this chapter, all binomial expansions will be written in
descending order of the exponent of the first term in the binomial.
Did Yo u Know ? The following are some important observations about the
expansion of (x + y)n, where x and y represent the terms of the
In French, the binomial and n ∈ N:
binomial theorem
is referred to as • the expansion contains n + 1 terms
Newton’s binomial
formula (binôme
• the number of objects, k, selected in the combination nCk
de Newton). While can be taken to match the number of factors of the second
Newton was not variable selected; that is, it is the same as the exponent on the
the first to describe
second variable
binomial expansion,
he did develop a • the general term, tk + 1, has the form
formula that can be
used to expand the C (x)n - k(y)k
n k
general case
(x + y)n, n ∈ R.
the same
• the sum of the exponents in any term of the expansion is n
Example 2
Use the Binomial Theorem
a) Use the binomial theorem to expand (2a - 3b)4.
b) What is the third term in the expansion of (4b - 5)6?
5
1
(
c) In the expansion of a2 - _ )
a , which term, in simplified form,
contains a? Determine the value of the term.
Solution
a) Use the binomial theorem to expand (x + y)n, n ∈ N.
(x + y)n = nC0(x)n(y)0 + nC1(x)n - 1(y)1 + nC2(x)n - 2(y)2 +
+ nCn - 1(x)1(y)n - 1 + nCn(x)0(y)n
In this case, (2a - 3b)4 = [2a + (-3b)]4, so, in the binomial expansion,
substitute x = 2a, y = -3b, and n = 4.
(2a - 3b)4
= 4C0(2a)4(-3b)0 + 4C1(2a)3(-3b)1 + 4C2(2a)2(-3b)2 + 4C3(2a)1(-3b)3
+ 4C4(2a)0(-3b)4
= 1(16a4)(1) + 4(8a3)(-3b) + 6(4a2)(9b2) + 4(2a)(-27b3) + 1(1)(81b4)
= 16a4 - 96a3b + 216a2b2 - 216ab3 + 81b4 What pattern occurs in
the signs of the terms?

b) The coefficients in the expansion of (4b - 5)6 involve the pattern
C0, 6C1, 6C2, 6C3, ….
6
Why does the coefficient of
The coefficient of the third term involves 6C2. the third term not involve 6C3?
In the general term tk + 1 = nCk(x)n - k(y)k, substitute x = 4b, y = -5,
n = 6, and k = 2.
t3 = 6C2(4b)6 - 2(-5)2
=_ 6! (4b)4(-5)2
4!2!
= (15)(256b4)(25)
= 96 000b4
The third term in the expansion of (4b - 5)6 is 96 000b4.
c) Determine the first few terms of the expanded binomial. Simplify the
variable part of each term to find the pattern.
1
In the binomial expansion, substitute x = a2, y = - _
a , and n = 5.
1 5 1 0 1 1 1 2
(a2 - _ ) 2 5
( )
_ 2 4
( )
_ 2 3 _
a = 5C0(a ) - a + 5C1(a ) - a + 5C2(a ) - a + ( )
1 + C a6 _ 1 +
( )
= 5C0a10 + 5C1(a8) - _
a 5 2 ( )
a2
= 5C0a10 - 5C1a7 + 5C2a4 +
The pattern shows that the exponents for a are decreasing by 3 in each
successive term. The next term will contain a4 - 3 or a1, the term after
that will contain a1 - 3 or a-2, and the last term will contain a-5.
The fourth term contains a1, or a, in its simplest form.
1 3 = 10(a4) - _
1
( )
Its value is 5C3(a2)2 - _
a ( )a3
= -10a
Your Turn
a) How many terms are in the expansion of (2a - 7)8?
b) What is the value of the fourth term in the expansion of (2a - 7)8?
c) Use the binomial theorem to find the first four terms of the expansion
of (3a + 2b)7.
Key Ideas
Pascal’s triangle has many patterns. For example, each row begins and ends with 1.
Each number in the interior of any row is the sum of the two numbers to its left and
right in the row above.
You can use Pascal’s triangle or combinations to determine the coefficients in the
expansion of (x + y)n, where n is a natural number.
You can use the binomial theorem to expand any binomial of the form (x + y)n, n ∈ N.
You can determine any term in the expansion of (x + y)n using patterns without having
to perform the entire expansion. The general term, tk + 1, has the form nCk(x)n - k(y)k.

Practise Apply
1. Some rows from Pascal’s triangle are 8. Explain how Pascal’s triangle is
shown. What is the next row in each case? constructed.
a) 1 3 3 1 1 Row 1
1 1 Row 2
b) 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 2 1 Row 3
c) 1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1 1 3 3 1 Row 4
1 4 6 4 1
2. Express each row of Pascal’s triangle 1 5 10 10 5 1
using combinations. Leave each term
in the form nCr. 9. a) Determine the sum of the numbers in
each of the first five rows in Pascal’s
a) 1 2 1
triangle.
b) 1 4 6 4 1
b) What is an expression for the sum
c) 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1 of the numbers in the ninth row of
3. Express each circled term in the given row Pascal’s triangle?
of Pascal’s triangle as a combination. c) What is a formula for the sum of the
a) 1 3 3 1 numbers in the nth row?
b) 1 6 15 20 15 6 1 10. Examine the numbers in each “hockey
c) 1 1 stick” pattern within Pascal’s triangle.
4. How many terms are in the expansion of 1
1 1
each expression?
1 2 1
a) (x - 3y)4 b) (1 + 3t2)7 1 3 3 1
q 1 1 4 6 4
c) (a + 6)
1
10 10 5 5 1
5. Use the binomial theorem to expand. 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
a) (x + y)2 b) (a + 1)3
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
c) (1 - p)4 1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1
6. Expand and simplify using the binomial
1 11 55 165 330 462 462 330 165 55 11 1
theorem.
a) (a + 3b)3 a) Describe one pattern for the numbers
within each hockey stick.
b) (3a - 2b)5
b) Does your pattern work for all possible
c) (2x - 5)4
hockey sticks? Explain.
7. Determine the simplified value of the
11. Answer the following questions for
specified term.
(x + y)12 without expanding or computing
a) the sixth term of (a + b)9 all of its coefficients.
b) the fourth term of (x - 3y)6 a) How many terms are in the expansion?
c) the seventh term of (1 - 2t)14 b) What is the simplified fourth term in
d) the middle term of (4x + y)4 the expansion?
2 8
e) the second-last term of (3w + 2) c) For what value of r does 12Cr give the
maximum coefficient? What is that
coefficient?

12. Express each expansion in the form 17. Expand and simplify. Use the binomial
n
(a + b) , n ∈ N. theorem.
a 3
4 3 2 2 3
a) 4C0x + 4C1x y + 4C2x y + 4C3xy + 4C4y 4
(
a) _ + 2
b )
b) 5C0 - 5C1y + 5C2y2 - 5C3y3 + 5C4y4 - 5C5y5 a 4
13. a) Penelope claims that if you read any

(
b) _ - a
b )
x 6
row in Pascal’s triangle as a single (
c) 1 - _
2 )
number, it can be expressed in the 4
1
form 11m, where m is a whole number. (
d) 2x 2 - _
x )
Do you agree? Explain. 18. a) Determine the middle term in the
b) What could m represent? expansion of (a - 3b3)8.
14. a) Expand (x + y)3 and (x - y)3. How are b) Determine the term containing x11 in
the expansions different? 1 10
the expansion of x2 - _ x . ( )
b) Show that
19. a) Determine the constant term in the
(x + y)3 + (x - y)3 = 2x(x 2 + 3y 2). 2 12.
c) What is the result for (x + y)3 - (x - y)3?
expansion x 2 - _ x ( )
b) What is the constant term in the
How do the answers in parts b) and c)
1 12?
compare? expansion of y - _
y2 ( )
15. You invite five friends for dinner but 20. One term in the expansion of (2x - m)7
forget to ask for a reply. is -15 120x 4y 3. Determine m.
a) What are the possible cases for the 21. MINI LAB Some students argue that using
number of dinner guests? Pascal’s triangle to find the coefficients in
b) How many combinations of your a binomial expansion is only helpful for
friends could come for dinner? small powers. What if you could find a
c) How does your answer in part b) pattern that allowed you to write any row
relate to Pascal’s triangle? in Pascal’s triangle?
16. a) Draw a tree diagram that depicts Work with a partner. Consider the fifth row
tossing a coin three times. Use in Pascal’s triangle. Each number is related
H to represent a head and T to to the previous number as shown.
represent a tail landing face up. List × 4_1 × 3_2 × 2_3 × 1_4
the arrangements of heads (H) and
1 4 6 4 1
tails (T) by the branches of your tree
diagram. Step 1 What pattern do you see in the
b) Expand (H + T)3 by multiplying the multipliers? Check whether your
factors. In the first step write the pattern works for the sixth row:
factors in full. For example, the first 1 5 10 10 5 1
term will be HHH. You should have Step 2 What pattern exists between the row
eight different terms. Simplify this number and the second element in
arrangement of terms by writing HHH the row?
as H3, and so on. Combine like terms. Step 3 What are the first 2 terms in the
3
c) What does HHH or H represent in 21st row of Pascal’s triangle? What
both part a) and part b)? Explain what are the multipliers for successive
3HHT or 3H2T represents in parts a) terms in row 21?
and b).

Extend
Line Segments
Quadrilaterals
22. Five rows of the Leibniz triangle are
Pentagons
Hexagons
Triangles
shown.
Diagram
Points
1
1
_ 1
_
2 2
1
_ 1
_ 1
_
3 6 3
1
_ 1
_ 1
_ 1
_
1
4 12 12 4
1
_ 1
_ 1
_ 1
_ 1
_
5 20 30 20 5 2 1
a) In the Leibniz triangle, each entry is 3

the sum of two numbers. However, it
4
is not the same pattern of sums as in
5
Pascal’s triangle. Which two numbers
are added to get each entry? 6
b) Write the next two rows in the Leibniz b) Show how the numbers in any row of
triangle. the table relate to Pascal’s triangle.
c) Describe at least two patterns in the c) What values would you expect for eight
Leibniz triangle. points on a circle?
25. The real number e is the base of
D id Yo u Know ?
natural logarithms. It appears in certain
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnizz mathematics problems involving growth
lived in Germany from or decay and is part of Stirling’s formula
1646 to 1716. He was
a great mathematician
for approximating factorials. One way to
and philosopher. He has calculate e is shown below.
been described as the 1 +_ 1 +_ 1 +_ 1 +_ 1 +
last universal genius. e=_
0! 1! 2! 3! 4!
He developed calculus
independently of a) Determine the approximate value of e
Sir Isaac Newton and using the first five terms of the series
was very involved in shown.
the invention of
mechanical calculators. b) How does the approximate value of e
change if you use seven terms? eight
23. Show how to expand a trinomial using the terms? What do you conclude?
binomial theorem. Expand and simplify c) What is the value of e on your
(a + b + c)3. calculator?
24. a) Complete a table in your notebook d) Stirling’s approximation can be
similar to the one shown, for one to expressed as
six points. n n √____
n! ≈ _ e( ) 2πn
The table relates the number of points Use Stirling’s approximation to estimate
on the circumference of a circle, the 15!, and compare this result with the
number of possible line segments you true value.
can make by joining any two of the
e) A more accurate approximation uses the
points, and the number of triangles,
following variation of Stirling’s formula:
quadrilaterals, pentagons, or hexagons
n n √____ 1
formed. Make your own diagrams 3, 4, n! ≈ _ e( ) 2πn 1 + _
12n ( )
5, and 6. Do not include values of zero Use the formula from part d) and the
in your table. variation to compare estimates for 50!.

Create Connections C3 a) Which method, Pascal’s triangle or
C1 Relate the coefficients of the terms of the combinations, do you prefer to use
expansion of (x + y)n, n ∈ N, to Pascal’s to express the coefficients in the
triangle. Use at least two examples. expansion of (a + b)n, n ∈ N?
C2 a) Create three problems for which _

4! b) Identify the strengths and the
2!2! weaknesses of each method.
either is an expression for the answer
C4 Add to your mathematics career file for
or is part of the answer. One of your
this chapter. Identify an occupation or
problems must be a permutation, one
career requiring the use of the binomial
must be a combination, and one must
theorem. Create at least two problems that
involve the expansion of a power of the
could apply to someone working in the
binomial a + b.
chosen occupation or career. Explain how
b) Show how your three problems are your problems relate to the occupation
similar and how they are different. or career.
Project Corner Art Presentation
Create a piece of art, by hand or using technology,

gy that
demonstrates a topic from this mathematics course.
ourse.
• Decide whether to use mathematics either to o model
a real-world object or to create something using
your imagination.
• Use any medium you like for your creation..

Chapter 11 Review
11.1 Permutations, pages 516—527 6. Passwords on a certain Web site can have
1. A young couple plans to have three from four to eight characters. A character
children. can be any digit or letter. Any password
can have at most one digit on this Web
a) Draw a tree diagram to show the site. Repetitions are allowed.
possible genders for three children.
a) How many four-character passwords are
b) Use your tree diagram to determine possible?
the number of outcomes that give
b) How many eight-character passwords
them one boy and two girls.
are possible?
2. A football stadium has nine gates: four c) If a hacker can check one combination
on the north side and five on the south every 10 s, how much longer does it
side. take to check all of the eight-character
a) In how many ways can you enter and passwords than to check all of the
leave the stadium? four-character passwords?
b) In how many ways can you enter 7. Simplify each expression.
through a north gate and leave by any n! + (n - 1)!
a) ___
other gate? n! - (n - 1)!
(x + 1)! + (x - 1)!
3. How many different arrangements can b) ____
x!
you make using all of the letters of each
word?
11.2 Combinations, pages 528—536
a) bite
8. Imagine that you have ten small,
b) bitten
coloured-light bulbs, of which three
c) mammal are burned out.
d) mathematical (leave this answer in a) In how many ways can you randomly
factorial form) select four of the light bulbs?
4. Five people, Anna, Bob, Cleo, Dina, and b) In how many ways can you select two
Eric, are seated in a row. In how many good light bulbs and two burned out
ways can they be seated if light bulbs?
a) Anna and Cleo must sit together? 9. Calculate the value of each expression.
b) Anna and Cleo must sit together and a) 10

C3 b) P
10 4
15! ( P )
so must Dina and Eric? c) C3 × 5P2
5
d)
4!11! )
(_ 6 3
c) Anna and Cleo must not sit together?
10. a) How many different sums of money can
5. In how many ways can the letters of you form using one penny, one nickel,
olympic be arranged if one dime, and one quarter?
a) there are no restrictions? b) List all possible sums to confirm your
b) consonants and vowels (o, i, and y) answer from part a).
alternate? 11. Solve for n. Show that each answer is
correct.
c) all vowels are in the middle of each
arrangement? a) nC2 = 28 b) nC3 = 4(nP2)
546 MHR • Chapter 11 Review

12. Ten students are instructed to break into 18. You can determine the number of possible
a group of two, a group of three, and a routes from A to each intersection in the
group of five. In how many ways can this diagram. Assume you can move only up or
be done? to the right.
13. a) Create two problems where the answer B
5! . One
to each is represented by _
2!3! ( )
problem must involve a permutation
and the other a combination. Explain
1 3
which is which.
b) Five colours of paint are on sale. Is 1 2 3
the number of ways of choosing two
colours from the five options the same A 1 1
as the number of ways of choosing three
colours from the five? Explain your a) Draw a diagram like the one shown.
answer. Mark the number of possible
routes or pathways from A to each
intersection in your diagram. A
11.3 The Binomial Theorem, pages 537—545 few have been done for you. Use
14. For each row from Pascal’s triangle, write counting and patterns.
the next row. b) Show how you can superimpose
a) 1 2 1 Pascal’s triangle to get the number
of pathways from A to any point on
b) 1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
the grid.
15. Explain how to determine the
c) How many pathways are possible to go
coefficients of the terms in the
from A to B?
expansion of (x + y)n, n ∈ N, using
multiplication, Pascal’s triangle, d) Use a different method to determine
or combinations. Use examples to the number of possible pathways going
support your explanations. from A to B.
16. Expand using the binomial theorem. 19. Ten green and ten yellow counters are
Simplify. placed alternately in a row.
a) (a + b)5 b) (x - 3)3
1 4 On each move, a counter can only jump
c) (2x-_ 2
x2 ) one of its opposite colour. The task is to
17. Determine the indicated term in each arrange all of the counters in two groups
binomial expansion. Simplify each answer. so that all of the green counters are at one
a) third term of (a + b)9 end and all of the yellow counters are at
the other end.
b) sixth term of (x - 2y)6
6 a) How many moves are necessary if
c) middle term of _
x - 2x
2
(1 ) you have ten green and ten yellow
counters?
b) Establish a pattern for 2 to 12 counters
of each colour. Use 2 different colours
of counters.
c) How many moves are necessary for 25
of each colour?

Multiple Choice 9. Consider the diagram.
A
1. How many three-digit numbers with no
repeating digits can be formed using the B
digits 0, 1, 2, 8, and 9?
A 100 B 60 C 48 D 125
C
2. In how many ways can the letters of the
a) How many pathways from A to B are
word SWEEPERS be arranged in a row?
possible, moving only down or to the
A 40 320 B 20 160
right?
C 6720 D 3360
b) How many pathways from A to C are
3. How many five-member committees possible, moving only down or to the
containing two Conservatives, two New right? Explain using permutations and
Democrats, and one Liberal can be formed the fundamental counting principle.
from seven Conservatives, six New 10. How many numbers of at most three
Democrats, and five Liberals? digits can be created from the digits
A 6300 B 3150 C 1575 D 8568 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4?
4. How many terms are in the expansion of 11. Explain, using examples, the difference
(2x - 5y 2)11? between a permutation and a combination.
A 13 B 12 C 11 D 10 12. Determine the simplified term that contains
2 9.
5. What is a simplified expression for the
2
third term in the expansion of (2x + 3y) ? 7
(
x9 in the expansion of x 2 + _
x )
A 6048x10y 2 B 9072x8y 3 Extended Response
C 12 096x10y 2 D 15 120x8y 3 13. a) How many 4-digit even numbers greater
6. The numbers 1 6 15 20 15 6 1 represent than 5000 can you form using the
the seventh row in Pascal’s triangle. What digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, and 9 without
is the sixth number in the next row? repetitions?
A 1 B 7 C 21 D 35 b) How many of these numbers end in 0?
Short Answer 14. Solve for n.
7. For six multiple choice questions, a) P = 120

n 3
two answers are A, two answers are B, b) 3(nC2) = 12(nC1)

one answer is C, and one answer is D. 2 5
a) How many answer keys are possible? (

15. Expand y - _2
y )
using the binomial
b) List the possible answer keys if theorem. Simplify your answer.

you know that the answers to 16. How many ways can all the letters of aloha
questions 3 and 5 are C and D, be arranged if
respectively. a) the a’s must be together?
8. Carla claims that when you solve nP2 = 72, b) the a’s cannot be together?
there are two possible answers, and that c) each arrangement must begin with a
one of the answers is -8. Do you agree vowel and the consonants cannot be
with her? Explain. together?
548 MHR • Chapter 11 Practice Test

Chapter 9 Rational Functions 4. Solve each equation algebraically.
1 a) __
1 1 =0
+ __
1. The rational function f(x) = _
x is 2
x -9 x+3
transformed to g(x) = __2 + 3. 8x
x-1 b) __ = x + 3
x-3
a) Describe the transformations. x +4 x+5
c) __ = ___
b) Sketch the graph of g(x). 4 x2 + 6x + 5
c) State the domain, range, any intercepts, 5. Determine the roots of each equation
and the equations of any asymptotes graphically. Give your answers to two
of g(x). decimal places.
1
a) __ - __ = _2
1 2
2. Consider the rational function y = __ .
3x - 4
x+1 x+1 x-1 x
a) Graph the function. 3x
b) 1 + __ = __
1
3x - 1 6-x
b) State the domain, range, any intercepts,
and the equations of any asymptotes. Chapter 10 Function Operations
3. Match each equation with the graph of its ______
6. Consider the functions f(x) = √x + 2 and
function. Justify your choices.
g(x) = x - 2.
x2 - 3x
a) y = __
x2 - 9 a) Determine the equations of
x2
__ -1 h(x) = (f + g)(x) and k(x) = (f - g)(x).
b) y =
x+1 b) Sketch the graphs of all four functions
x2 + 4x + 3
c) y = ___ on the same set of coordinate axes.
x2 + 1
A y c) Determine the domain and range of f(x),
g(x), h(x), and k(x).
2
7. Consider_________
the functions f(x) = x and
-4 -2 0 2 4 x g(x) = √100 - x2 .
-2 a) Graph f(x) and g(x) on the same set of
axes and state the domain and range of
B y
each function.
b) Determine the equation of
4
h(x) = (f · g)(x).
2
c) Graph h(x) and state its domain and
range.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
8. Consider f(x) = x2 + 3x + 2 and
-2
g(x) = x2 - 4.
a) Determine an algebraic and a graphical
C y
f(x) g(x)
4 model for h(x) = _ and k(x) = _ .
g(x) f(x)
2 b) Compare the domains and ranges of the
combined functions.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
-2

9. Copy the graph. Add the sketch of the 15. Evaluate 7C3 + 5P2 without using
combined function y = (f + g)(x). technology.
y 16. A committee of five is selected from
f(x) six women and seven men. If there are
4
exactly two women on the committee,
2 determine the number of ways to select
the committee.
-2 0 2 x
g(x) 17. a) How many ways are there of
-2
arranging three different mathematics
books, five different history books,
10. Consider the functions f(x) = x - 3, and four different French books side
1
g(x) = _ 2 by side on a shelf if books of the same
x , and h(x) = x - 9. Evaluate subject must be together?
a) f(h(3))
b) How many arrangements of these books
b) g(f(5)) are possible if a mathematics book must
11. Let f(x) = x3 and g(x) = x - 3. be on each end and the French books
a) Determine the equations of the are together?
composite functions (f ◦ g)(x) and 18. Solve for n.
(g ◦ f)(x). (n + 4)!
a) __ = 42
b) Graph the composite functions. (n + 2)!
b) nP3 = 20n
c) Compare the composite functions.
Describe (f ◦ g)(x) and (g ◦ f)(x) as c) n+2
Cn = 21
transformations of f (x). 19. Relate the coefficients of the terms in the
12. Given each pair of functions, determine expansion of (x + y)n, n ∈ N, to Pascal’s
the indicated composite function. State the triangle and to combinations. Use two
domain of the composite function. examples where n ≥ 4.
a) f(x) = log x and g(x) = 10x; f(g(x)) 20. Expand and simplify.
1 a) (3x - 5)4
b) f(x) = sin x and g(x) = _
x ; g(f(x)) 5
1
c) f(x) = __ and g(x) = x2; f(g(x))
b) ( _1x - 2x)
x-1 21. Determine the numerical coefficient of the
fourth term of each expansion.
Chapter 11 Permutations, Combinations, and
the Binomial Theorem a) (5x + y)5
8
13. For the graduation banquet, the menu b) ( _x1 - x )

2
3
consists of two main courses, three 22. One row of Pascal’s triangle starts with the
vegetable options, two potato options, two following four terms: 1, 25, 300, 2300, ….
salad choices, and four dessert options.
a) Determine the next term, in
How many different meals are possible?
combination notation.
14. Determine the number of ways to arrange
b) Determine the number of terms in
the letters of the word NUMBER if the
this row.
vowels cannot be together.
c) Write the term 2300 as the sum of two
terms using combination notation.

Unit 4 Test
______
Multiple Choice 5. Let f(x) = √x + 1 and g(x) = x2 - 2. What
is the equation of the composite function
For #1 to #7, choose the best answer. m(x) = f(g(x))?
x+2
1. If y = ___ , which statement A m(x) = x - 1
x2 - 3x - 10 ______
is true? B m(x) = √x2 - 1
______
A The equations of the vertical asymptotes C m(x) = √x2 - 2
______
are x = -2 and x = 5. D m(x) = √x + 1 - 2
B There is a point of discontinuity in the 6. There are five empty desks in a row in a
1 and at
(
graph of the function at -2, - _
7 ) classroom. In how many ways can two
(5, 1). students be assigned to these seats?
C The range is {x | x ≠ -2, 5, x ∈ R}. A 5! B 2!
D The non-permissible values are x = -2 C C2
5
D P
5 2
and x = 5. 7. What is the value of 6C2 + 4P3?
2. The graph of a rational function has a A 15 B 24
horizontal asymptote at y = 3, a vertical
C 39 D 43
asymptote at x = -2, and a y-intercept of
1. What is the equation of the function?
Numerical Response
4
A y = __ + 3
x+2 Copy and complete the statements in #8 to #11.
-4
B y = __ + 3
8. The graph of the function y = ___
x-3
x+2
2x2 - 5x - 3
-9
C y = __ - 2 has a point of discontinuity at .
x-3 x2 = _ x are
9 9. The roots of the equation __
D y = __ - 2 2
x +1 4
x-3 x = , x ≈ , and x ≈ , to the nearest
3. Consider the revenue function hundredth.
R(x) = 10x - 0.001x2 and the cost
10. The third term in the expansion of
function C(x) = 2x + 5000, where x is the
(2x + 5y 2)4 is .
number of items. The profit function is
11. If (x - 2)5 = a0x 5 + a1x 4 + a2x 3 +
P(x) = R(x) - C(x). The profit is zero when
the number of items is approximately a3x 2 + a4x + a5, then the value of
a0 + a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 is .
A 683
B 2500 Written Response
C 8582 1
12. The graph of f(x) = _
x is transformed to the
D no solution 2 - 3.
1 graph of g(x) = __
4. Consider the functions f(x) = _ and x+1
x a) Describe the transformations.
g(x) = (x + 1)2. What is the domain of the
combined function h(x) = (f · g)(x)? b) State the equations of any asymptotes.
A {x | x ≠ 1, x ∈ R} c) Explain the behaviour of the graph
B {x | x ≠ 0, x ∈ R} of g(x) for values of x near the
C {x | x ≠ -1, x ∈ R}
D {x | x ∈ R}

3x - 1
13. Consider the rational function y = __ . 17. For f(x) = x2 - 3 and g(x) = |x|, determine
x+2
the following.
a) Graph the function.
a) f(g(2))
b) State the domain, range, and any
intercepts of the graph of the function. b) (f ◦ g)(-2)
c) Determine the root(s) of the equation c) f(g(x))

3x - 1 .
0 = __ d) (g ◦ f )(x)
x+2
d) How are the answer(s) to part c) related 18. If h(x) = f(g(x)), determine f (x) and g(x) for
to part of the answer to part b)? each of the following to be true.
14. Predict the locations of any vertical a) h(x) = 23x + 2
_________
asymptotes, points of discontinuity, and b) h(x) = √sin x + 2
intercepts for each function, giving a 19. Solve for n.
reason for each feature. Then, graph the n!
a) __ = 420
function to verify your predictions. (n - 2)!
x-4 b) nC2 = 78
a) f(x) = ___
x2 - 2x - 8 c) Cn - 2 = 45
x2 + x - 6 n
b) f (x) = ___ 20. Liz arranged the letters ABCD without
x2 + 2x - 3
x2 - 5x repeating the letters.
c) f(x) = ___
x2 - 2x - 3 a) How many arrangements are possible?
15. For the graphs of f(x) and g(x), determine
b) If the letters may be repeated, how
the equation and graph of each combined
many more four-letter arrangements are
function.
possible?
Then, state its domain and range.
c) Compared to your answer in part a), are
y
g(x) there more ways to arrange four letters
2 if two are the same, for example, ABCC?
Explain.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
21. A student council decides to form a
-2
f(x) sub-committee of five council members.
-4 There are four boys and five girls on
council.
a) How many different ways can the
a) y = (f + g)(x) b) y = (f - g)(x)
sub-committee be selected with
f
(g)
c) y = _ (x) d) y = (f · g)(x)
______
exactly three girls?
16. If f(x) = x - 3 and g(x) = √x - 1 , b) How many different ways can the
determine each combined function, sub-committee be selected with at
h(x), and state its domain. least three girls?
a) h(x) = f(x) + g(x) 22. One term of (3x + a)7 is 81 648x5.
Determine the possible value(s) of a.
b) h(x) = f(x) - g(x)
c) h(x) = _(f)
g (x)
d) h(x) = (f · g)(x)

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McGraw-Hill Ryerson

Unit 1 Transformations and Chapter 4 Trigonometry and the

Cumulative Review, Chapters 7–8 .. 422 Chapter 11 Review ...................................................... 546

Glossary ............................................. 638

Index .................................................. 643

Credits ............................................... 646

In this chapter, you will explore the mathematical

Albert Einstein (1879—1955) is often regarded as the father of

A linear frieze pattern is a decorative pattern

Lantern Festival in China

Investigate Vertical and Horizontal Translations

Materials A: Compare the Graphs of y = f(x) and y - k = f(x)

Reflect and Respond

Link the Ideas

A transformation of a function alters the equation and any transformation

1.1 Horizontal and Vertical Translations • MHR 7

6 For y = (x - 5)2, to maintain

b) The transformed graphs are congruent to the graph of y = x2.

Each point (x, y) on the graph of y = x2 is transformed to become the

• Apply the vertical translation of 3 units y

The point (0, 0) on the function y = |x| is transformed to become

1.1 Horizontal and Vertical Translations • MHR 9

4 units to the right and 9 units down. Substitute h = 4 and k = -9

1.1 Horizontal and Vertical Translations • MHR 11

y = f(x - h) A horizontal translation (x, y) → (x + h, y)

A sketch of the graph of y - k = f(x - h), or y = f(x - h) + k, can be created by

Check Your Understanding

Practise 2. Given the graph of y = f(x) and each of the

Apply 10. The graph of f(x) = |x| is transformed to

1.1 Horizontal and Vertical Translations • MHR 13

12. Janine is an avid cyclist. After cycling

30 In First Nations communities today, Pow Wows have

1.1 Horizontal and Vertical Translations • MHR 15

Reflections, symmetry, as well as horizontal and

Ndebele artist, South Africa

Investigate Reflections and Stretches of Functions

Materials A: Graph Reflections in the x-Axis and the y-Axis

Reflect and Respond

B: Graph Vertical and Horizontal Stretches

1.2 Reflections and Stretches • MHR 17

Link the Ideas

• The image points on the graph of y = f(-x) have the same

1.2 Reflections and Stretches • MHR 19

The points on the graph of y = f (x) relate to the points on the

Vertical and Horizontal Stretches

x y = f(x) y = g(x) = 2f(x) y

The vertical distances of the transformed

Since a = 2, the points on the graph of y = g(x) relate to the points

1.2 Reflections and Stretches • MHR 21

• state any invariant points

Since b = 2, the points on the graph of y = g(x) relate to the points

or [-2, 2], and the range is {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ 4, y ∈ R},

1.2 Reflections and Stretches • MHR 23

y The horizontal distances of the

Since b = _1 , the points on the graph of y = g(x) relate to the points

For f(x), the domain is {x | -4 ≤ x ≤ 4, x ∈ R}, or [-4, 4],

Choose key points on the graph of y = f (x) and determine their

The transformation can be described by the mapping (x, y) → (x, 3y).

1.2 Reflections and Stretches • MHR 25

The transformation can be described by the mapping (x, y) → (x, -y).