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PETROLEUM REFINING PROCESSES

CHE 441 (Course Outline)

A Typical Refinery Flows Heat:

overall refinery operations, terminology, properties and types of crude oils. Effect of
properties on refinery operations. Refinery products; motor fuels, heating oils,
lubricating oils, petrochemical feed stock etc. specifications on refinery products.
Crude oil processing: desalting, atmospheric and vacuum distillation.

Processes for Motor Fuel Yields:

Reforming, catalytic cracking, hydrocracking, alkylation’s polymerisation and
isomerization. Calculation of product yield from these processes. Use of commercial
software for calculation of yield from refinery processes.

Product blending to meet Specification:

Octane, cetane, flash point and viscosity blending. Sulphur removal and recovering in
refineries processing crudes. Water and air pollution control.

Liquid fuels are used extensively these days in industrial and domestic fields. Their
importance is best understood by the fact that almost all internal combustion engines
run on them. The use of liquid fuels in heat generation in ovens and furnaces is also
expanding at an increasing rate. The largest source of liquid fuels is petroleum.
Petroleum means rock oil (in Latin petra means rock and oleum means oil). It is also
called mineral oil. Petroleum is a complex mixture of paraffinic, olefinic and aromatic
hydrocarbons with small quantities of organic compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen
and sulphur.

Processing of Crude Petroleum

Petroleum is found deep below the earth crust. The oil is found floating over salt water
or brine. Accumulation of natural gas occurs above the oil. In order to bring the oil to
the surface, (mining of oil) holes are drilled and pipes are sunk right up to the oil to
the oil-bearing rocks. Oil usually rushes out through these holes because of the
pressure of the natural gas. But as the pressure of the natural gas subsides, the oil is
pumped out with the help of air-lift pumps. The air lift pump consists of two coaxial
pipes, lowered into the oil bed. Compressed air is forced through the outer pipe when
oil from the inner pipe flows out.

Classification of Crude Petroleum

Name Contents Residue obtained
after distillation
Low Paraffin base HCs & small Straight chain octane Paraffin wax
amounts of naphthenes and member straight run
aromatic gasoline
High Asphaltic base naphthenic Aromatic and octana Asphalt
(cycloparaffins) HCs member straight run
gasoline
Medium Mixed base Paraffins, napthenes and Paraffin wax and
grade aromatic HCs asphalt
 Refining of Petroleum
Crude oil reacting the surface, generally consists of a mixture of solid, liquid and
gaseous hydrocarbons containing sand and water.
The refining process includes the following steps.
1. Demulsification: The crude oil from the well, is in the form of stable emulsion
of oil and salt water, which is yellow to dark brown in colour. Demulsification
is achieved by cottrell’s process in which the water is removed by the oil by
electrical process.
2. Removal of Harmful Impurities: Excessive salt content such as NaCl and
MgCl2 can corrode the refining equipment. These are removed by washing with
water. The objectionable sulphur compound are removed by treating the oil
with copper oxide. The copper sulphide so formed is separated by filteration

3. Fractional Distillation: The fractional distillation of petroleum is called out in

a specially designed tall fractionating tower or column made up of steel.

Fractions Obtained on Fractional Distillation of Crude Petroleum

Fraction Boiling Composition Uses
Range
1 Uncondensed fuel < 30oC C1 – C4 Domestic fuel (LPG) synthesis of
gases organic chemicals
2 Petroleum ether 30o – 70oC C5 – C7 Solvent for fats, essential oils, used
in dry cleaning
3 Gasoline or petrol or 40o – 120oC C5 – C9 As a motor fuel for IC engines,
motor spirit solvent, dry cleaning
4 Naptha or solvent 120 – 180o C9 – C10 As a solvent and in dry cleaning
 spirit feedstock for petrochemicals
o o
5 Kerosene oil 180 – 250 C C10 – C16 Illuminant,fuel for stoves, for making
oil gas, more volatile portion as set
fuel
6 Diesel oil 250 – 320oC C10 – C18 Diesel engine fuel, carburetting of
water gas
7 Heavy oil 320 – 400oC C17 – C30 Fuel for ships, metallurgical
furnaces, feedstock for cracking
processes.
Gives 1. Lubricating oil - C17 – C20 Lubricating oil used in cosmetics and
2. Petroleum jelly - - medicine
3. Grease - - As lubricant used for making
4. Paraffin wax - C20 – C28 candles, wax paper, electrical
insulator
8 Residue: It may be > 400oC - Used for making roads & water
of 2 types proofing roofs etc.
a) Asphalt (4 crude
is asphaltic)
b) Petroleum coke - - As a fuel for moulding electrode rods

Cracking
Of all the fractions obtained by fractional distillation of crude petroleum, gasoline is
considered to be the most important fraction. The consumption of petrol has increased
many folds, but the yield of this fraction is only 20% of the crude oil. Also the quality
of the gasoline obtained is not good. This gasoline is called straight run gasoline. On
the other hand, the yield of heavier petroleum fraction is quite high. Thus it is
necessary to make better use of these heavy fractions by converting them into more
useful fraction, gasoline. This is achieved by a technique called cracking.

“Cracking is the process by which heavier fractions are converted into lighter fractions
by the application of heat with or without catalyst. Cracking involves the rupture of
C – C and C – H bonds in the chains of high molecular weight hydrocarbons. For
example

Cracking
C10 H22 C5H12 + C5H10
Decane n – pentane Penteod
BpA 174oC B.pt = 36oC

C8H18 Cracking C5H12 + C3H6

Usefulness of Cracking
Nearby 50% of today’s gasoline is obtained by cracking. The gasoline obtained by
cracking is far more superior to the straight run gasoline. The process of cracking
involves the following chemical change:
 - Higher HCs are converted to lower HCs by C – C clearage. The products
obtained have low boiling points than initial reactant
- Formation of branched chain HCs takes place from straight chain alkanes
- Unsaturated HCs are formed from saturate HCs
- Cyclization may take place.

Cracking can be carried out by two methods

Thermal Cracking & Catalytic Cracking

Thermal Cracking
When cracking takes place simply by the application of heat and pressure, the process
is called thermal cracking. The heavy oils are subjected to high temperature and
pressure, when the bigger HCs break down to give smaller molecules of paraffins,
Olefins etc. the thermal, Olefins etc. The thermal stability among the constituents of
petroleum fractions increases as paraffins < naphthenes (alicyclic) < aromatics.

The products obtained, depend upon the operating conditions. Thermal cracking may
be in liquid phase or vapour phase.

(a) In liquid phase thermal cracking, any type of oil (residues, heavy oil can be
cracked. The charge is kept in liquid form by applying high pressures of the
range 3 okg/cm2 to 100kg/cm2 at a temperature of 476 – 530oC. The cracked
products are separated in a fractionating column. The fractions includes
cracked gasoline (30 – 35%), cracked gases (10-45%) cracked fuel oil (50 –
55%).

The cracked gasoline has an octane number of about 70. The cracking gases
constitute raw materials for petrochemicals. The cracked residue is used as a
fuel.

(b) Vapour phase thermal cracking crack only oils that can vapourise at low
temperatures. Petroleum fractions of low boiling range like kerosene oil are
heated at a temperature of 670 – 720oC under low pressure of 10 – 20kg/Cm2.
The time required for cracking in this process is much less as compared to
liquid phase thermal cracking. Gasoline obtain from vapour phase cracking has
higher octane rating (better antiknock properties) but poorer stability.

The drawback of thermal cracked petrol over the straight run petrols is the
presence of highly reactive unsaturated HCs in them which makes them less
stable than straight run petrols.

Comparison of Liquid and vapour phase thermal cracking

 Characteristic Liquid phase thermal Vapour phase thermal
cracking cracking
Cracking temperature 475-530oC 670 – 720oC
Pressure 100kg/cm2 10 – 20kglcm2
Octane rating of petrol 56 – 70 >70
Type of oil Any heavy oil can be Oil should be readily
cracked vapourised

Mechanism of Thermal Cracking

The process is believed to follow free radical mechanism. For example cracking of n –
nonane initiation.
. .
CH3(CH2)7CH3 heat CH3(CH2)3CH2 + CH2(CH2)2CH3

Propagation
Free radicals formed are thermally unstable and undergo fission at the β position to
yield a new radical and an olefin.

This β scission continues, till a thermally more stable radical is formed.

The radicals having no C – C bond in the β position give rise to hydrogen free
radicals.

Termination

Synthetic Gasoline
The synthesis of petrol can be achieved by polymerisation method. The gasoline
obtained is called polymer gasoline having a high octane number of 78 to 83. When
olefin or unsaturated HCs such as ethane, propene, butenes obtained from cracking are
subjected to high pressure and high temperature in the presence of absence of catalyst,
the undergo polymerisation to form higher HCs resembling gasoline.

CH3 – CH = CH2 + CH3 – CH2 – CH = CH2

Propene 1 butene

CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH2CH(CH3)2

5 – Methylhexene
Also when cracked gases are passed in 70% Tetraoxosulphate II acide at 10-20 oC, two
molecules of isobutene polymerize, leaving behind other olefins unaffected. The di-
isobutylene is catalytically hydrogenated under pressure over nickel as a catalyst at
160oC to give 180 octane. 150 octane in its pure form has octane number of 100

Polymerization can be carried out by two methods

i. Thermal polymerisation which is carried out by subjecting the cracked gases to

a temperature of 500 – 600oC and a pressure of 70 – 350kg/cm2. The products
obtained are gasoline and gas oil which are separated by fractional distillation.

ii. Catalytic polymerisation which involves the use of catalyst such as phosphoric
acid, sulphuric acid etc. polymerisation reaction rate is increased in presence of
catalyst and the process temperature is reduced to between (150 – 200 oC). other
advantage of the catalytic process over the thermal process is that some
molecular combination which are not possible by thermal polymerization are
possible by catalytic polymerization.

Refining of Gasoline
Gasoline obtained from crude oil or by synthetic processes contain some undesirable
unsaturated olefins and sulphur. Presence of these substances is objectionable because.

1. The olefins can undergo oxidation and polymerisation leading gum and sludge
formation on storage. These form deposit on the wall of the carburettor and
stop the engine with time.
2. Due to presence of sulphur, sulphur compounds are formed which have
objectionable odour and cause corrosion of internal combustion engines. Thus
the gasoline has to be refined by removing the objectionable compounds by
chemical or physical means.

a). Removal of sulphur compounds

Gasoline containing sulphur is referred to as sour petrol. The petrol can
undergo sweetening by converting the sulphur to disulphides which are
extracted with a suitable solvent or removed by filteration. The chemical
reaction of the process is shown below:

Na2 PbO2 + 2RSH Pb(SR)2 + NaOH

Sodium Gasoline lead mercaptide
Plumbite Containing
Sulphur

Pb(SR)2 + S PbS(s) + RSSR

Lead Disulphide
Mercaptide

b). Removal of Olefins

Olefins can be removed by treating gasoline with cold 80% H 2SO4. This
reaction does not work with paraffins, naphthenes and aromatics; but with
unsaturated compounds forming alcohols and esters and polymerizes these to
tar-like substance which are removed by filteration. Gasoline may also be
purified by passing through fuller’s earth which preferentially adsorbs the
colours and olefins. The refined gasoline on storage may undergo slow
oxidation causing gum formation. Gum formation can be suppressed by the use
of inhibitors such as aromatic amines and amino phanols.
Comparison of straight run, cracked and polymer gasoline
Straight-run gasoline Cracked gasoline Polymer gasoline
1 It is obtained from straight
It is obtained from It is obtained from low
distillation of crude
heavy oil molecular weight
petroleum components
2 It is physically separated
High molecular w.f Low molecular w.t
from crude oil. Process is
components are broken components are
physical into low ones. So, it is polymerization to give
a chemical process high mol.wt ones so, it
is a chemical process
3 It is having low octane It is having higher It is having highest
number octane number octane number
4 It contains only normal It contains more of It contains more of
alkanes aromatics, naphthenes, branched chain HCs
& branched chain HCs
5 Composition range is wide Composition range is Composition range is
(C5-C9) narrow (C6 – C8) very narrow
(C7 – C8)

Catalytic Cracking
This method of cracking is carried out in the presence of a catalyst at much lower
temperatures and pressures. Originally cracking was accomplished thermally but the
catalytic process has almost completely replaced thermal cracking because more
gasoline having a higher octane and less heavy fuel oils and light gases are produced.
The light gases produced by catalytic cracking contain more olefins than those
produced by thermal cracking. The cracking process produce coke (a type of carbon)
which remains on the catalyst activity. To maintain the catalyst activity at a useful
level, it is regenerated by burning off the Coke with air. Hence the catalyst is
continuously moved from reactor to regenerator and back to reactor. The cracking
reaction is endothermic and the regeneration reaction is exothermic. Some units are
designed to use the regeneration heat to supply that needed for the reaction and to heat
the feed up to reaction temperature. These are known as heat balance units.

The catalyst used could be a mixture of silica and alumina (hydrated aluminium
silicate) or zeolite.
a). High temperatures and pressures are not required in presence of a catalyst and
hence there is saving in the production cost.

b). The use of catalyst not only accelerates the cracking reactions (decomposition,
dehydrogenation, isomerization and polymerization), but also introduces new
reactions which considerably modify the yield and the nature of the products.

c). The yield of the gasoline is higher about 70% of raw materials is converted into
gasoline.

d). The gasoline obtained by catalytic cracking contains low percentage of olefins
and high percentage of isoparaffin and aromatic hydrocarbons. This increases
the antiknock properties of gasoline. Gasoline formed by catalytic cracking has
an octane number of 80.
e). No external fuel is required for cracking; since the heat required is obtained by
burning off the coke deposited on the catalyst itself, during regeneration
process.
f). The process(s) can be better controlled than that of thermal process to achieve
desired products.
g). The products contains very little amount of undesirable sulphur, because a
major portion of it escapes out as H2S gas, during cracking.

h). The gasoline formed contain much less gum and forming compounds.

i). The process yield less coke, less gas and more liquid products then thermal
cracking.

j). Catalysts are selective in action and hence cracking of only high boiling
fractions takes place.
l). Coke forming materials are absorbed by the catalysts as soon as they are
formed.

Types of Catalytic Cracking Process

Depending upon how the catalyst is used, the catalyst cracking is of two types:

i). Fixed bed Catalytic Cracking and

ii). Moving bed or Fluid bed Catalytic Cracking.

(i) In fixed bed catalytic cracking, the catalyst is in the form of granules or pellets.
These pellets or granules are used in the form of fixed beds in Catalyst towers.

(ii) In fluid bed (Fluidized bed) catalytic cracking the catalyst is in the form of fine
powder which flows down to the cracking chamber, through a hopper. The
catalyst gets mixed with the heavy oil vapours and behave much like a fluid
which can be circulated in gas streams.

Reforming
In order to increase the antiknock properties of straight-run gasoline, it is subjected to
a special type of treatment know as reforming. Reforming is the structural
modification in the components of gasoline. The modifications are essentially a result
of rearrangement of molecules without greatly disturbing their average mol. weight.

The main reactions in reforming process are

i). the formation of aromatic by dehydrogenation of cycloalkanes.
ii). the dehydrocyclization of paraffins
iii). Hydrocracking and
iv). Isomerization

i). Dehydrogenation (formation of aromatics)

ii). Dehydrocyclization

iii). Hydrocracking

iv). Isomerisation

Reforming can be carried out thermally or in presence of catalyst (catalytic

reforming). Catalyst used is platinum supported on alumina.

Hydrocracking
There are hundreds of simultaneous chemical reactions occurring in hydrocracking. It
is believed that mechanism of hydrocracking is that of catalytic cracking with
hydrogenation superimposed. Catalytic cracking is the scission of the C – C single
bond and hydrogenation is the addition of hydrogen to a carbon-carbon double bond.

This reaction shows that cracking and hydrogenation are complimentary. This is
because cracking provides olefins for hydrogenation, while hydrogenation in turn
provides heat for cracking. The cracking reaction is endothermic and hydrogenation
reaction is exothermic. The overall reaction provides an excess of heat because the
amount of heat released by the exothermic hydrogenation reactions is much greater
than the amount of heat consumed by the endothermic cracking reactions. This surplus
of heat causes the reactor temperature to increase and accelerate the reaction rate. This
again is controlled by injecting cold hydrogen as quench into the reactors to absorb the
excess heat of reaction.

Another reaction that occurs and illustrates the complimentary operation of the
hydrogenation and cracking reactions is the initial hydrogenation of a condensed
aromatic compound to a cycloparaffin. This allows subsequent cracking to proceed to
a greater extent and thus converts a low-value component of catalytic cycle oils to a
useful product.
Isomerization is another reaction type that occurs in hydrocracking and accompanies
the cracking reaction. The olefinic products formed are rapidly hydrogenated, thus
maintaining a high concentration of high octane isoparaffins and preventing the
reverse reaction back to straight chain molecules. Another advantage of hydrocracking
is the relatively small amounts of propane and lighter materials that are produced as
compared with normal cracking processes.

The volumetric yield of liquid products can be as high as 125% of the feed because
the hydrogenated products have a higher API gravity than the feed.
Hydrocracking reactions are normally carried out at average catalyst temperatures
between 290oC to 400oC and a reactor pressures between 8275 and 13800kPa. The
circulation of large quantities of hydrogen with feedstock prevent excessive catalyst
fouling and permits long runs without catalyst regeneration.

The precaution to be taken here is to ensure careful preparation of the feed in order to
remove catalyst poisons to give long catalyst life as the catalyst is susceptible to
metallic salt, oxygen, organic nitrogen compounds and sulphur poisoning. The feed is
frequently hydrotreated to remove sulphur and nitrogen compounds as well metals
before it is sent to the first hydrocracking stage. Sometimes the first reactor in the
reactor train can be used for hydrotreating.
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Hydrocracking Reactions (Sulphur and Nitrogen Removal)

In the hydrotreater a number of hydrogenation reactions takes place such as olefin
saturation, aromatic ring saturation but cracking is still insignificant due to operating
condition used. The nitrogen and condition used. The nitrogen and sulphur present in
feed are remove by conversion too ammonia and hydrogen sulphide. Although the
organic nitrogen compounds are thought to act as permanent poisons to the catalyst,
the ammonia produced by reaction of the catalyst permanently. The presence of
hydrogen sulphide in low concentrations act as a catalyst to inhabit the saturation of
aromatic rings. This is a beneficial effect when maximizing gasoline production as it
conserves hydrogen and produces a higher octane product.

In addition to removal of water from the feed stream is very necessary. At the
hydrocracking temperature, steam causes the crystalline structure of the catalyst to
collapse and the dispense rare-earth atoms agglomerate. Water removal is carried out
by passing the feed stream through silical gel or molecular sieve dryer.

On the average; hydrogen treating process requires approx. 150 to 300fts 3 of hydrogen
per barrel of feed (27 to 54m3 hydrogen per m3 feed).
Hydrotreating reaction are given below
1. Desulphurization
a). Mercaptans: RSH + H2 RH + H2S
b). Sulphides: R2S + 2H2 2RH + H2S
c). Disulphides: (RS)2 + 3H2 2RH + 2H2S
d). Thiophanes:

2. Denitrogenation
a). Pyrrole: C4H4NH + 4H2 C4H10 + NH3
b). Pyridine: C5H5N + 5H2 C5H12 + NH3

3. Deoxidation
a). Phenol: C6H5OH + H2 C6H6 + H2O
b). Peroxides: C7H13OOH + 3H2 C7H6 + 2H2O
4. Dehologenation:
Chlorides: RCl + H2 RH + HCl
5. Hydrogenation:
Pentene: C5H10 + H2 C5H12

6. Hydrocracking: C10H22 + H2 C4H10 + C6H14

Alkylation and Polymerization

The addition of an alkyl group to any compound is an alkylation reaction but in
petroleum refining terminology the term alkylation is used for the reaction of low
molecular weight olefins with an isoparaffin to form higher molecular weight
isoparaffins. Alkylation reactions are the reverse of cracking. Alkylation can be
carried out at high temperatures and pressures without catalysts. Commercially the use
of catalyst such as sulphuric or hydrofluoric acid helps to lower reaction temperatures.

When these catalyst are used isoparaffins with tertiary carbon atoms, such as
isobutene or isopentane react with the olefins to produce gasoline of higher octane
rating (94 to 99). Isopentane already have high octane rating and therefore need to go
through alkylation. Certain variables affect the alkylation reaction. For instance the
yield, volatility, and octane number of the product is regulated by adjusting the
temperature, acid/hydrocarbon ratio and isoparaffin ratio. Sufficient pressure is
maintained on the system to keep the hydrocarbons and acid in the liquid state. High
isoparaffin/olefin ratios (4:1 to 15:1) are used to minimize polymerization and to
increase product octane rating.

With the same operating conditions, the products from hydrofluoric acid and sulphuric
acid alkylation are similar, but when the plant are operated at different conditions, the
products are slightly different efficient agitation to promote contact between the acid
and HC phases is essential to high product quality and yields. Contact time is usually
between 10 to 40minutes.

The variable affecting both processes are (1) Reaction temperature (for H 2SO4,
temperature is 5 to 21oC, while for HF, temperature is about 38oC,
2). Acid strength
3). Isobutane concentration
4). Olefin space velocity.

Alkylation reactions are shown

1.

2.
Alkylation Chemistry
Initiation to form tert-butylcation:

1.

2.

Sec-butyl ion may isomerize instead of forming cation as in reaction (2):

3.

Reaction of tert-butyl cation with 2 butene

4.

Reaction of trimethylpentyl cations:

5.

6.Formation of dimethylhexanes:

6.

7.

Hydrocrackers and catalytic crackers produce a great deal of the isobutene used in
alkylation catalytic reforming, crude distillation and natural gas processing also
produces isobutane for alkylation. In some cases normal butane can be isomerized to
produce more isobutane for alkylation unit feed.

Range of Operating Variables in Alkylation

Hf H2SO4

Isobutane concentration
Vol % in rxn zone 30 – 80 40 – 80
External ratio to olefins 3 – 12 3 – 12
Internal ratio to olefins - 50 – 1000
Olefin concentration
Total HC contact time, min 8 – 20 20 – 30
Olefin space velocity, v/hr/v - 0.1 – 0.6
Reaction themp 16 – 46 35 – 60
Reactor acid concentration wt% 80 – 95 88 – 95

Production Blending
Refinery operations produce basic intermediate streams that can be blended to produce a
variety of on specification finished products for example naptha can be blended with n-
butane to produce gasoline. Jet fuel can also be obtained by blending naptha. Aside
lubricating oils, the major refinery products produced by blending are gasolines, jet fuels. The
purpose of product blending is to allocate the available blending components in such a way to
meet product demands and specifications at the least cost and to produce incremental product
demands and specifications at the least cost and to produce incremental products which
maximize overall profit. Ethyl alcohol is an important liquid fuel. It can be mixed with
gasoline in a ratio of gasoline and alcohol 4:1 to produce gasoline of higheroctane number.

The desired Reid vapour pressure (RVP) of a gasoline is obtained by blending n-butane with
C5 – 193oC naphtha.
The amount of n-butane required to give the needed RVP is calculated by:

(1)

Where
Mt = total moles blended product
(RVP)t = specification RVP for product, Psi
Mi = moles of component i
(RVP)i = RVP of component I, psi or kPa

Example 1

PVP RVP Base Stock BPD ib/hr MW Mol/hr Mol%

2.32 11.1 LSR gasoline 4,000 39,320 86 457 21.0
0.80 2.8 Reformate 6,000 69,900 115 617 28.4
0.62 4.6 Alkylate 3,000 30,690 104 295 13.4
1.64 4.4 FCC gasoline 8,000 87,520 108 810 37.2
5.38 Total 21,00 2,179 100.0
0
Blend for a 10psi (n-butane: MW = 58, RVP = 52)
Butane requirement:
(2,179)(5.38) + M(52.0) = (2,179 + M)(10)
11,723 + 52.0M = 21790 + 10.0M
42.0M = 10,067
M = 240 moles nC4 reqd

BPD ib/hr MW mol/hr

n-Butane 1,640 13,920 58 240

To ensure that the blended streams meet the desired specifications, stream analyzers,
measuring for example, boiling point, specific gravity, RVP and research and motor
octane are installed to provide feedback control of additives and blending streams.

Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP)

RVP is a common measure of the volatility of gasoline and other petroleum products.

It is defined as the absolute vapour pressure exerted by the vapour of the liquid and
any dissolved gases/moisture at 37.8oC as determined by the test method ASTM – D
-323. The latest version is ASTM – D – 323 – 15a.
RVP is commonly reported in kPa or psi and represents volatization at atmospheric
pressure.

Vapour pressure blending indices (VPBI) have been compiled as a funet of the RVP
of the blending streams and are given in standard tables. The Reid vapour pressure of
the blend is closely approximated by the sum of all the products of the volume
fraction (v) times the VPBI for each component. In equation form.

(2)

In the case where the volume of the butane to be blended for a given RVP is desired:

A(VPBI)a + B(BPBI)b + …+ W(VPBI)W = (Y + W) (VPBI)m (3)

Where
A = bbl of component a, etc
W = bbl of n-butane (w)
Y = A + B + C + … (all components except n-butane)
(VPBI)m = VPBI corresponding to the desired RVP of the mixture
W = Subscript indicating n-butane
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Example 2

Component BPCD RVP VPBI VOL XVPBI

n-Butane W 51.6 138.0 138W

ISR gasoline 4,000 11.1 20.3 81,200
Reformate 6,000 2.8 3.62 21,720
Alkylate 3,000 4.6 6.73 20,190
FCC gasoline 8,000 4.4 6.37 50,960
Total 21,000+W 174,070 + 138W

For 10psi RVP, (VPBI)m = 17.8

17.8(21,000 + W) = 174,070 + 138W
(138 – 17.8)W = 373,800 – 174,070
120.2W = 199,730
W = 1,660 bBl n-butane required.

Total 10psi RVP gasoline = 21,000 + 1660

= 22,660 BPCD
This result with that obtained in example 1 agree well within the limits required for
normal refinery operation.

Octane numbers are blended on a volumetric basic using the blending octane members
(BON) of the components. Flash points, viscosity, density etc can be adjusted through
blending of refinery products.

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Air and Water Pollution Control

Pollution is defined as any undesirable change in the composition of air, water and
soil or any segment of environment against nature.

Air pollution can be defined as the presence of Chemicals in the atmosphere in

quantities and duration that are harmful to human health and the environment. Air
pollution sources includes natural sources such as volcanic eruptions emitting
poisonous gases like H2S, SO2 etc, Decay of vegetation, forest fires etc, and man made
sources such as increase in population, deforestation, fossil fuel combustion, use of
pesticides, insecticides in agriculture, explosives used in wars etc. various air
pollutants includes CO, CO2, SO2, SO3, NOx, Ozone, Photochemical Smog, dust,
smoke, lead,, mercury, cadmium, asbestos etc.

Classification of Air pollutants

On the basis of Origin On the basis of Physical State

Air Pollutants Air Pollutant

Primary pollutant eg. Primary pollutant eg. Gaseous (CO, CO2, Particulate (smoke,
Fires, volcanic eruption, Ozone, Photochemical SO2, HC, NOx) smog, lead, mercury,
CO, NO2, SO2 smog Cd, asbestos)
The most effective method of dealing with air pollution problem is to prevent the
formation of pollutant or to reduce their emissions at the source. Some of the
industrial processes may be suitably modified so as to minimise the extent of
pollution.

Main routes to cutting pollutant emissions are:

i). Reducing the consumption of fossil fuels.
ii). Better designing of the equipment to control emissions.
iii). Removing pollutants from exhaust and gases (source correction methods).

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Water Pollution
When toxic substances enter lakes, streams, rivers, oceans and other water bodies,
they get dissolved or lie suspended in water. This causes deterioration of the water
quality.

Deterioration of Physical, Chemical and Biological properties of water can be brought

about by human activities and natural resources which cause harmful effects on
human and aquatic life.

Pollution from natural sources include the decomposed vegetable, animal and
weathered products which are brought into water resources.

Pollution from human activities include domestic as well as industrial pollution.

Water Pollutants includes

1. Oxygen demanding wastes
2. Pathogen (Disease causing agents)
3. Synthetic organic compounds, eg detergents
4. Plant nutrients e.g sewage & agricultural run off
5. Inorganic Chemicals and minerals e.g heavy metals, soluble salts, Acid mine
drainage
6. Sediments e.g soil, sand and mineral particles
7. Radioactive substances e.g radionucles of radium, bismuth etc from refining of
uranium ore
8. Thermal discharges from industry and power plants cooling.
9. Oil
10. Volatile organic compounds used as solvents in industrial processes.

Water Pollution Control

This involves waste water treatment.
Waste water or savage is often treated to meet drinking water specifications.
REPAIR, FORMAT, AND UPDATE YOUR LAPTOP

I ALSO SELL DIFFERENT TYPES OF LAPTOPS

CALL OV: 09032979094

#VICTOR LUCIANO