Basic Discrete Structure : Set

Lecture 4

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 Basic Discrete Structure
Discrete math =
– study of the discrete structures used to represent discrete objects

Many discrete structures are built using sets

– Sets = collection of objects

Examples of discrete structures built with the help of sets:

• Combinations
• Relations
• Graphs

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 Set
Definition:

A set is a (unordered) collection of objects.

These objects are sometimes called elements or members

of the set.

• Examples:
– Vowels in the English alphabet
V = { a, e, i, o, u }

– First seven prime numbers.

X = { 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17 }
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 Representing Set
Representing a set by:
1) Listing (enumerating) the members of the set.
2) Definition by property, using the set builder notation
{x| x has property P}.

Example:
• Even integers between 50 and 63.
1) E = {50, 52, 54, 56, 58, 60, 62}
2) E = {x| 50 <= x < 63, x is an even integer}

If enumeration of the members is hard we often use ellipses.

Example: a set of integers between 1 and 100
• A= {1,2,3 …, 100}
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 Important set in discrete math
• Natural numbers:
– N = {0,1,2,3, …}

• Integers
– Z = {…, -2,-1,0,1,2, …}

• Positive integers
– Z+ = {1,2, 3.…}

• Rational numbers
–

• Real numbers
–R 5
 Equality of Set
Definition: Two sets are equal if and only if they have the
same elements.

Example:
• {1,2,3} = {3,1,2} = {1,2,1,3,2}

Note: Duplicates don't contribute anything new to a set, so

remove them. The order of the elements in a set doesn't
contribute anything new.

Example: Are {1,2,3,4} and {1,2,2,4} equal?

No! 6
 Universal set
Special sets:

– The universal set is denoted by U: the set of all objects

under the consideration.

– The empty set is denoted as Ø or { }.

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 Venn Diagram
A set can be visualized using Venn Diagrams:

– V={ A, B, C }

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 A subset
Definition: A set A is said to be a subset of B if and only
if every element of A is also an element of B. We use
to indicate A is a subset of B.

Alternate way to define A is a subset of B:

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 Empty set/subset property
Theorem :

• Empty set is a subset of any set.

Proof:
•Recall the definition of a subset: all elements of a set A must
be also elements of B:

•We must show the following implication holds for any

•Since the empty set does not contain any element, is

always False
•Then the implication is always True. (F → T/F =T)
End of proof 10
 Venn diagram of Empty set
Theorem :

• Empty set is a subset of any set.

U
A

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 Subset property
Theorem:
• Any set S is a subset of itself

Proof:
• the definition of a subset says: all elements of a set A must
be also elements of B:

• Applying this to S we get:

• which is trivially True

• End of proof

Note on equivalence:
• Two sets are equal if each is a subset of the other set. 12
 A proper Subset
Definition:

A set A is said to be a proper subset of B if and only if

and . We denote that A is a proper
subset of B with the notation .

Example: A={1,2,3} B ={1,2,3,4,5}

Is: ? 13
 A proper Subset
Definition:

A set A is said to be a proper subset of B if and only if

and . We denote that A is a proper
subset of B with the notation .

Example: A={1,2,3} B ={1,2,3,4,5}

Is: ? Yes. 14
 Cardinality
Definition: Let S be a set. If there are exactly n distinct
elements in S, where n is a nonnegative integer, we say S is
a finite set and that n is the cardinality of S. The cardinality of
S is denoted by | S |.

Examples:
• V={1 2 3 4 5}
|V|=5

• A={1,2,3,4, …, 20}
|A| =20

•|Ø|=0
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 Infinite set
Definition: A set is infinite if it is not finite.

Examples:
• The set of natural numbers is an infinite set.
• N = {1, 2, 3, ... }

• The set of real numbers is an infinite set.

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 Power set
Definition: Given a set S, the power set of S is the set of all
subsets of S. The power set is denoted by P(S).

Example

• What is the power set of Ø ? P(Ø ) = {Ø}

• What is the cardinality of P(Ø) ? | P(Ø) | = 1.

Assume {1,2,3}
• P({1,2,3}) = {Ø, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3} }
• |P({1,2,3} | = 8

If S is a set with |S| = n then | P(S) | = ? 2n 17

 N-tuple
Sets are used to represent unordered collections.

• Ordered-n tuples are used to represent an ordered

collection.

Definition: An ordered n-tuple (x1, x2, ..., xN) is the ordered

collection that has x1 as its first element, x2 as its second
element, ..., and xN as its N-th element, N ˃= 2.

Example: Coordinates of a point in the 2-D plane (12, 16) 18

 Cartesian Product
Definition: Let S and T be sets. The Cartesian product of S
and T, denoted by S x T, is the set of all ordered pairs (s,t),
where s ϵ S and t ϵ T. Hence,

• S x T = { (s,t) | s ϵ S ˄ t ϵ T}.

Examples:
• S = {1,2} and T = {a,b,c}

• S x T = { (1,a), (1,b), (1,c), (2,a), (2,b), (2,c) }

• T x S = { (a,1), (a, 2), (b,1), (b,2), (c,1), (c,2) }

• Note: S x T ≠ T x S !!!!
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Cardinality of a Cartesian Product
• |S x T| = |S| * |T|.

Example:
• A= {John, Peter, Mike}
• B ={Jane, Ann, Laura}

• A x B= {(John, Jane),(John, Ann) , (John, Laura), (Peter, Jane),

(Peter, Ann) , (Peter, Laura) , (Mike, Jane) , (Mike, Ann) ,
(Mike, Laura)}

• |A x B| = 9
• |A|=3, |B|=3 → |A| |B|= 9

Definition: A subset of the Cartesian product A x B is called a relation from

the set A to the set B.

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 Set Operation
Definition: Let A and B be sets. The union of A and B,
denoted by A U B, is the set that contains those elements that
are in both A andB.

• Alternate: A U B = { x | x ϵ A V x ϵ B }.

Example:
• A = {1,2,3,6} and B = { 2,4,6,9}

• A U B = { 1,2,3,4,6,9 } 21
 Set Operation
Definition: Let A and B be sets. The intersection of A and B,
denoted by A ∩ B, is the set that contains those elements that
are in both A andB.

• Alternate: A ∩ B = { x | x ϵ A ˄ x ϵ B }.

Example:
• A = {1,2,3} and B = { 2,4,6,9}

•A∩ B={2} 22
 Disjoin Set
Definition: Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is
empty.

• Alternate: A and B are disjoint if and only if A ∩ B = Ø.

Example:
• A={1,2,3,6} B={4,7,8} Are these disjoint?
• Yes.
•A∩B=Ø 23
 Cardinality of set union
Cardinality of the set union.

• |AU B| = |A| + |B| - |A ∩ B|

Why this formula? Correct for an over-count.

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 Set Difference
Definition: Let A and B be sets. The difference of A and B,
denoted by A - B, is the set containing those elements that
are in but not in B. The difference of A and B is also called
the complement of B with respect to A.

• Alternate:

Example: A= {1,2,3,5,7} B = {1,5,6,8}

• A - B ={2,3,7} 25
 Complement of a Set
Definition: Let U be the universal set: the set of all objects
under the consideration.
Definition: The complement of the set A, denoted by Ã, is the
complement of A with respect to U.
• Alternate: Alternate:

Example: U={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} A ={1,3,5}

• Ã={2,4,6,7,8} 26
 Generalized union
Definition: The union of a collection of sets is the set that
contains those elements that are members of at least one set
in the collection.

Example:
A1 = {1}
• Let Ai= {1,2,...,i} i =1,2,...,n
A2= {1,2}
A3= {1,2,3}
…………..
…………..
An {1,2,3,4,...,n} 27
 Generalized intersection
Definition: The intersection of a collection of sets is the set
that contains those elements that are members of all sets in
the collection.

Example:
• Let Ai= {1,2,...,i} i =1,2,...,n
A1 = {1}
A2= {1,2}
A3= {1,2,3}
…………..
…………..
An {1,2,3,4,...,n} 28
 Computer representation of set
How to represent sets in the computer?
• One solution: Data structures like a list

• A better solution: Assign a bit in a bit string to each element

in the universal set and set the bit to 1 if the element is
present otherwise use 0

Example:
All possible elements: U={1 2 3 4 5}
• Assume A={2,5}
– Computer representation: A = 01001

• Assume B={1,5}
– Computer representation: B = 10001 29
 Computer representation of set
Example:
• A = 01001
• B = 10001

• The union is modeled with a bitwise or

• A U B = 11001

• The intersection is modeled with a bitwise and

• A ∩ B = 00001

• The complement is modeled with a bitwise negation

• Ã =10110

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Basic Discrete Structure :
Set and Function

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 Quiz Problem 1
1. Suppose the following two statements are true.
I love Dad or I love Mum
If I love Dad then I love Mum
Does it necessarily follow that I love Dad? Does it necessarily follow that I
love Mum? Use propositional logic to answer the questions.
P Q P˅Q P→Q
(I love dad) (I love mum)

F F F T

F T T T

T F T F

T T T T
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 Quiz Problem 1
1. Suppose the following two statements are true.
I love Dad or I love Mum
If I love Dad then I love Mum
Does it necessarily follow that I love Dad? Does it necessarily follow that I
love Mum? Use propositional logic to answer the questions.
P Q P˅Q P→Q
(I love dad) (I love mum)

F F F T

F T T T

T F T F

T T T T
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 Quiz Problem 2
2. Consider the following specification with
two predicate symbols p1≡(<), p2≡(=)
two function symbols f1≡(+), f2≡(×)
two constant symbols c1 ≡(0), c2≡(1)
Let domain of discourse be <Z+ ∪ {0}> where Z+={1,2,….}
What are the truth values of the following statements?
i.∀x p1(c1,x)
ii.∀x∀y∃z (p1(x,z) ∧ p1(z,y))
iii.∃x∀yp1(x,y)
iv.∀x∀y p2(f2(f1(x,c2),y), f1(f2(x,y),y))

i. False 0<x

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 Quiz Problem 2
2. Consider the following specification with
two predicate symbols p1≡(<), p2≡(=)
two function symbols f1≡(+), f2≡(×)
two constant symbols c1 ≡(0), c2≡(1)
Let domain of discourse be <Z+ ∪ {0}> where Z+={1,2,….}
What are the truth values of the following statements?
i.∀x p1(c1,x)
ii.∀x∀y∃z (p1(x,z) ∧ p1(z,y))
iii.∃x∀yp1(x,y)
iv.∀x∀y p2(f2(f1(x,c2),y), f1(f2(x,y),y))

i. False 0<x
ii. False x< z ∧ z<y

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 Quiz Problem 2
2. Consider the following specification with
two predicate symbols p1≡(<), p2≡(=)
two function symbols f1≡(+), f2≡(×)
two constant symbols c1 ≡(0), c2≡(1)
Let domain of discourse be <Z+ ∪ {0}> where Z+={1,2,….}
What are the truth values of the following statements?
i.∀x p1(c1,x)
ii.∀x∀y∃z (p1(x,z) ∧ p1(z,y))
iii.∃x∀yp1(x,y)
iv.∀x∀y p2(f2(f1(x,c2),y), f1(f2(x,y),y))

i. False 0<x
ii. False x< z ∧ z<y
iii. False x<y

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 Quiz Problem 2
2. Consider the following specification with
two predicate symbols p1≡(<), p2≡(=)
two function symbols f1≡(+), f2≡(×)
two constant symbols c1 ≡(0), c2≡(1)
Let domain of discourse be <Z+ ∪ {0}> where Z+={1,2,….}
What are the truth values of the following statements?
i.∀x p1(c1,x)
ii.∀x∀y∃z (p1(x,z) ∧ p1(z,y))
iii.∃x∀yp1(x,y)
iv.∀x∀y p2(f2(f1(x,c2),y), f1(f2(x,y),y))

i. False 0<x
ii. False x< z ∧ z<y
iii. False x<y
iv True xy +y = xy+y
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 Quiz Problem 3
3. Let A be the set of English words that contains x, and B be the set of
English words that contain the letter q. Express each of these sets as
a combination of A and B.
i. The set of English words that do not contain the letter x.
ii. The set of English words that contain an x but not a q.
iii. The set of English words that do not contain either an x or a q.

i. U–A

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 Quiz Problem 3
3. Let A be the set of English words that contains x, and B be the set of
English words that contain the letter q. Express each of these sets as
a combination of A and B.
i. The set of English words that do not contain the letter x.
ii. The set of English words that contain an x but not a q.
iii. The set of English words that do not contain either an x or a q.

i. U–A
ii. A –B

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 Quiz Problem 3
3. Let A be the set of English words that contains x, and B be the set of
English words that contain the letter q. Express each of these sets as
a combination of A and B.
i. The set of English words that do not contain the letter x.
ii. The set of English words that contain an x but not a q.
iii. The set of English words that do not contain either an x or a q.

i. U–A
ii. A –B
iii. U – (A ∩ B)

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 Quiz Problem 4
4. Let A = {a, b, c}, B = {x, y} and C= {0, 1}. Find C × B × A.

C×B {{0,x}{0,y},{1,x}{1,y}}

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 Quiz Problem 4
4. Let A = {a, b, c}, B = {x, y} and C= {0, 1}. Find C × B × A.

C×B {{0,x}{0,y},{1,x}{1,y}}
C×B×A {{0,x,a}, {0,x,b}, {0,x,c},{0,y,a}, {0,y,b},
{0,y,c},{1,x,a}, {1,x,b}, {1,x,c},{1,y,a}, {1,y,b},
{1,y,c}}

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 Quiz Problem 5
5. Let f be the function from R to R defined by y=f(m,n)=2m-n.
Write a method signature in C with appropriate return type and
parameter list that could be used to realize the function.

double f(double m, double n);

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 Definitions and notation

Check these:

Is {x} ⊆ {x}?

Is {x} ∈ {x,{x}}? Yes

Is {x} ⊆ {x,{x}}? Yes

Is {x} ∈ {x}? No

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 Operators

like
“exclusive or”

The symmetric difference, A ⊕ B, is:

A ⊕ B = { x : (x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B) v (x ∈ B ∧ x ∉ A)}

= (A - B) U (B - A)

U
A
B

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 Operators

Proof: { x : (x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B) v (x ∈ B ∧ x ∉ A)}
= (A - B) U (B - A)

A ⊕ B = { x : (x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B) v (x ∈ B ∧ x ∉ A)}
= { x : (x ∈ A - B) v (x ∈ B - A)}
= { x : x ∈ ((A - B) U (B - A))}
= (A - B) U (B - A)

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 Famous Identities

A∩U=A
• Identity AU∅=A

AUU=U
• Domination A∩∅=∅

AUA=A
• Idempotent
A∩A=A

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 Famous Identities

• Excluded Middle AUA=U

• Uniqueness A∩A=∅

• Double complement A=A

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 Famous Identities

AUB= BUA
• Commutativity
A∩B= B∩A

(A U B) U C = A U (B U C)
• Associativity
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

• Distributivity A U (B ∩ C) = (A U B) ∩ (A U C)
A ∩ (B U C) = (A ∩ B) U (A ∩ C)

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 Famous Identities

• DeMorgan’s I (A U B) = A ∩ B

• DeMorgan’s II (A ∩ B) = A U B

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 Inclusion/Exclusion
Example:
How many people are wearing a watch?
How many people are wearing sneakers?

How many people are wearing

a watch OR sneakers?

What’s wrong?
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| 7
B A
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| - |A ∩ B| 6

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 Inclusion/Exclusion

Example:
There are 217 cs majors. 125
157 are taking cs125. 173
145 are taking cs173.
98 are taking both.

How many are taking neither?

217 - (157 + 145 - 98) = 13

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 Generalized Inclusion/Exclusion
Suppose we have:
A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8},
B B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4},
A
C = {0, 3, 6, 9}.

And I want to know |A U B U C|

|A U B U C| = |A| + |B| + |C|

- |A ∩ B| - |A ∩ C| - |B ∩ C|
+ |A ∩ B ∩ C|
|A ∪ B ∪ C| = 5+5+4-3-2-2+1 ≡ 8 ≡{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9}. 53
 Functions - examples

Suppose f: R+ → R+, f(x) = x2.

Is f one-to-one? yes
Is f onto? yes
Is f bijective?
yes

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 Functions - examples

Suppose f: R → R+, f(x) = x2.

Is f one-to-one? no
Is f onto? yes
Is f bijective? no

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 Functions - examples

Suppose f: R → R, f(x) = x2.

Is f one-to-one? no
Is f onto? no
Is f bijective?
no

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Thank You

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