Solidworks FEA Model Type

Solidwork
Solidwork Material Database
Material Database

Linear
Linear
Elastic
Elastic Elasto-Platic
Elasto-Platic Super Elastic
Super Elastic Creep
Creep Visco- Elastic
Visco- Elastic

Linear Elastic
Linear Elastic Nonlinear
Nonlinear Elastic
Elastic Hyper
Hyper Elastic
Elastic

Mooney-Rivlin
Mooney-Rivlin

Blatz-Ko
Blatz-Ko

Ogden
Ogden

How can we predict failure?

Ductile materials – Failure occurs at the onset of plastic deformation.
Brittle materials – Failure occurs at fracture.

Here are five theories of failure

1-Shear strain energy theory/ Max energy of distortion (von Mises)
2-Total strain energy theory (Haigh)
3-Maximum shear stress theory (Tresca)
4-Maximum normal strain theory (Saint Venant)
5-Maximum principal stress theory (Rankin)

Linear & Nonlinear

For static studies, you can only select linear isotropic and linear orthotropic materials. For nonlinear studies,
you can define the following material models, in addition:
 Nonlinear Elastic
 von Mises Plasticity (kinematic & isotropic)
 Tresca Plasticity (kinematic & isotropic)
 Drucker Prager Plasticity
 Mooney Rivlin Hyperelastic
 Ogden Hyperelastic
 Blatz Ko Hyperelastic
 Viscoelastic

Linear Elastic Isotropic

Most metallic alloys and thermoset polymers are considered isotropic, where by definition the material
properties are independent of direction. Such materials have only 2 independent variables (i.e. elastic
constants) in their stiffness and compliance matrices, as opposed to the 21 elastic constants in the
general anisotropic case.

Isotropic materials therefore have identical elastic modulus, Poisson's ratio, coefficient of thermal expansion,
thermal conductivity, etc. in all directions. The term isothermal is sometimes used to denote materials with
no preferred directions for coefficients of thermal expansion.

The two elastic constants are usually expressed as the Young's modulus E and the Poisson's ratio V.
However, the alternative elastic constants K (bulk modulus) and/or G (shear modulus) can also be used. For
isotropic materials, G and K can be found from E and V  by a set of equations, and vice-versa.

The shear modulus G xy is calculated internally by the program even if it is explicitly specified. In order to
define the isotropic elastic properties, you must define the elastic modulus  E x.

Linear Elastic Orthotropic

Orthotropic materials show similar results when similar stimuli are applied in only three mutually
perpendicular directions. Wood, many crystals, and rolled metals are common example of an orthotropic
material.

A material is orthotropic if its mechanical or thermal properties are unique and independent in three mutually
perpendicular directions. Orthotropic materials are a subset of anisotropic materials.
This term is defined for the three main directions that are used to give the dimensions of a material. These
are perpendicular to each other ex: longitudinal, radial, and tangential directions. Therefore, orthotropic
materials have three axes of symmetry.

Nonlinear Elastic
For those materials that don’t exhibit any linear behaviour, stress is not proportional to strain. e.g., a stress-
strain relationship like the graph below, the nonlinear elastic material model is appropriate. This material
responds in a nonlinear way, even for small strains.
 
Types of Nonlinear Material
There are several types of material nonlinearity that might be present in a structural analysis:
 Nonlinear elastic
 Bi-linear elasto-plastic
 Multi-linear plastic
 Hyperelastic
 Viscoelastic
Simplified models of stress-strain curves are shown below:

A nonlinear material model can be defined as nonlinear elastic where the part returns to a zero strain state
when the load is removed or elasto-plastic where permanent strain begins to accumulate after reaching the
yield strength of the material.
Additionally, an elasto-plastic stress-strain curve can be input as bi-linear, where only an elastic modulus and
a plasticity or hardening modulus are entered. It can also be defined as a multi-linear stress-stress curve
where the true nonlinearity of the plastic range can be captured with a series of points.

Plasticity - von Mises (Max energy of distortion)

Von Mises Stress criterion is one of the widely used criteria for designing ductile material engineering
components. To judge if a design is within design limits and will work safely for its design life, Von Mises
Stress Criteria prove to be highly effective. Von Mises stress concept is developed from the distortion energy
theory and a highly preferred failure theory used in the mechanical design industry.
This theory is devised by James Clerk Maxwell in 1865, but in 1913 it was rigorously developed by Richard
Edler Von Mises, an Austrian Jewish scientist and mathematician. Accordingly, the theory is popular as Von
Mises Stress theory. In this article, we will explore more details about Von Mises Stress.

What is Von Mises Stress?

Von Mises stress is an equivalent stress value based on distortion energy to decide if a ductile material will
fail (yield or fracture) under a given loading condition. The Von Mises failure theory indicates that a material
will fail if the Von Mises stress or effective stress of that material under load is equal or greater than the
yield limit of the same material under a simple uniaxial tension test.
Equation for Von Mises Stress
Failure of any material is decided by a simple tension test. In this test when the material reaches the yield
point, the material is considered as failed. Now failure by distortion energy or Von Mises Stress theory
compares two kinds of distortion energy.

Case A: Distortion energy for the actual case with complex loading conditions.
Case B: Distortion energy for the same material in the simple tensile test during failure.

As per Von Mises Stress theory, Failure will occur if Case A>=Case B. Mathematically, this can be
explained as below:
Distortion Energy, ud for the actual stress condition in terms of principal stress values (σ ¿ ¿1 , σ 2 , σ 3 )¿

2 2 2
1+ ν (σ 1−σ 2) +( σ 2−σ 3) +(σ 3−σ 1)
ud =
3E [ 2 ]
Again, the distortion energy for uniaxial tension case at the time of failure is given as:
u 1+ν 2
d ,∼¿= σ ¿
3E y

So, as per distortion energy theory,

ud ≥ ud ,∼¿ ¿

Or,
2 2 2
1+ ν ( σ 1−σ 2) +(σ 2−σ 3) +( σ 3−σ 1)
3E [ 2
≥
1+ ν 2
3E y
σ ]
Or,

2 2 2

[ (σ 1−σ 2) +(σ 2−σ 3) +(σ 3−σ 1)

2
2
≥σ y ]
Now, the formula for Von Mises Stress, σ v is given by
1
σ v=
√ 2
[(σ 1−σ 2 )¿¿ 2+(σ 2−σ 3 )2+(σ 3−σ 1 )2 ]¿

So, the above equation becomes, σ 2v ≥ σ 2y

So, the Von Mises failure condition can be simplified as follows:

σv≥ σ y

In the cases of plane stress, σ 3 =0 The von Mises criterion reduces to,
σ 12−σ 1 σ 2 +σ 22 ≤ σ 2y
The failure envelope based on distortion energy or Von Mises Stress theory can be represented in two
dimensions as follows:

Steps for solving problems using the Von Mises Stress Theory
To use the Von Mises Stress theory in solving problems the following steps are required to be followed:
Step 1: Calculate the three principal stresses (σ 1  ,σ 2 and σ 3  ) using principal stress equations or Mohr’s circle
method.
Step 2: Find out the Von Mises Stress (σ v ) following the equations mentioned above.
Step 3: Determine the value of the allowable stress (σ y /N  ) of the material.σ y  is the Yield Strength and N is
the factor of safety.
Step 4: Compare the value calculated at step 2 with allowable value found at step 3. If Value at step 2 is less
than the allowable value calculated at step 3, then the design is safe as per the Von Mises stress theory.

Applications of Von Mises Stress Theory

During the mechanical design of elements, It is the duty of every engineer to keep the Von Mises Stress ( σ v )
value below the yield strength ( σ y ) of that material to make the design safe. This theory finds wide
application in Finite Element Analysis.
In piping stress analysis and structural beam design Von Mises Stress theory is applied to make the piping or
structural beams safe from various loading conditions.

Difference between Von Mises theory and Maximum Shear Stress theory
As distortion is always associated with shear stress; there are some similarities between both the failure
theories. The main differences between the Von Mises theory and the maximum shear stress theory are listed
below:
The Von Mises theory predicts ductile yielding with more accuracy as compared to the maximum shear
stress theory. It is more real and less conservative than maximum shear stress theory and hence, product cost
reduces.
Von-Mises theory use all the three principal stresses (σ ¿ ¿1 , σ 2 , σ 3 )¿ in its equation while the maximum
shear stress theory uses only two (σ ¿ ¿ Max∧σ Min )¿ 
Hardening Factor, RK

Plasticity – Tresca (Max shear stress)

Maximum shear stress theory provides failure criteria of mechanical components made of a ductile material.
This failure criterion is developed by the French mechanical engineer, Henri Tresca and based on his name
maximum shear stress theory is also known as the Tresca theory of failure. Due to the enormous contribution
in the field of plasticity, Henry Tresca is popular as the father of the field of plasticity.

Maximum shear stress theory is one of the two main failure criteria that are widely used in recent times for
predicting the failure of ductile materials. To establish failure criteria of material, all failure theories compare
a specific parameter with the same parameter for the uniaxial tension test. The maximum shear stress theory
is no exception and the parameter for comparison in Tresca theory is maximum shear stress.
“The maximum shear stress theory states that the failure or yielding of a ductile material will occur when the
maximum shear stress of the material equals or exceeds the shear stress value at yield point in the uniaxial
tensile test.”

The Tresca theory is more conservative than the von Mises theory. It predicts a narrower elastic region. The
Tresca criterion can be safer from the design point of view, but it could lead the engineer to take unnecessary
measures to prevent an unlikely failure. The criterion choice depends on the type of design and personal taste
of the designer.

Maximum shear stress theory formula

Let’s deduce the mathematical form of the above-mentioned Tresca theory statement.
Considering principal stresses, at the yield point, the principal stresses in a uniaxial test,
σ 1 =σ y ; σ 2=0 ; σ 3 =0

So the maximum shear stress at yielding: σ sy =σ 1 /2 , Therefore σ sy =σ y /2

Now assuming σ 1 > σ 2> σ 3 ; the maximum shear stress for the material is given by:
σ 1 −σ 3
τ max=
2

Now comparing these to maximum shear stresses following Tresca theory, failure will happen when
τ max ≥ σ sy

Safe Design Condition as per Tresca theory of failure

So the design of a mechanical component should be based on the following maximum shear stress theory
equation
τ max ≥ σ sy

The factor of safety (N) can also be calculated based on maximum shear stress theory and given by
  N=σ sy /τ max
Hence, maximum permissible shear stress for designing a component as per maximum shear stress theory is
given by
 τ max=σ sy /N

The failure envelope for Tresca theory of failure is provided in Fig. 1 below:
Steps for using the Maximum Shear Stress Theory
To use the maximum shear stress theory in problem solving the following steps are necessary to be followed:
Step 1: Determine the three principal stresses (σ ¿ ¿1 , σ 2 , σ 3 )¿ from the tri-axial stress system using
principal stress equations or Mohr’s circle method.
Step 2: Find out the maximum (σ ¿ ¿1) ¿ and the minimum (σ ¿ ¿3) ¿ principal stresses.
Step 3: Determine the value of the maximum shear stress τ max=(σ ¿ ¿ 1−σ 3 )/2 ¿.
Step 4: Find out the allowable stress value of the material; allowable stress= σ sy /N or σ y /2 N as mentioned
above (N=Factor of safety)
Step 5: Compare the value calculated at step 3 with the allowable value found at step 4. If the Value at step 3
is less than the allowable value at step 4, then the design is safe as per the maximum shear stress theory.

Plasticity – Drucker Prager

The modified Drucker-Prager/Cap plasticity/creep model:
 to model cohesive geological materials that exhibit pressure-dependent yield, such as soils and
rocks;
 is based on the addition of a cap yield surface to the Drucker-Prager plasticity model ( Extended
Drucker-Prager models), which provides an inelastic hardening mechanism to account for plastic
compaction and helps to control volume dilatancy when the material yields in shear;
 can be used in Abaqus/Standard to simulate creep in materials exhibiting long-term inelastic
deformation through a cohesion creep mechanism in the shear failure region and a consolidation
creep mechanism in the cap region;
 can be used in conjunction with either the elastic material model (Linear elastic behaviour) or,
in Abaqus/Standard if creep is not defined, the porous elastic material model (Elastic behaviour of
porous materials); and

Hyperelastic – Mooney Rivlin

These hyperelastic materials (models) have the following significant characteristics:
  Can withstand large elastic (recoverable) deformation, sometimes with stretch up to 1000%.
 Hyperelastic materials are almost incompressible. Because the deformation is caused by the
straightening of the molecular chain of the material, the volume change under the applied stress is
small.
 The stress-strain relationship is highly nonlinear. Normally, the material softens first and then
hardens under tension, but hardens sharply when compressed.

To predict and analyse the mechanical properties of these hyperelastic materials, many models have been
proposed. Common hyper-elastic models are Neo-Hookean, Mooney-Rivlin, Odgen, Arruda-Boyce,
Gent, Yeoh, Blatz-Ko, etc. At present, these models are widely used in many fields including rubber
products (such as rubber seals).

Mooney-Rivlin is based on the order of the level, there are four types: two-parameter, three-parameter,
five-parameters, and nine-parameter strain energy.

From these four potentials, we can tell:

 The higher-order potential can model more complex strain-stress constitutive relations but requires
more computational efforts, experimental data, and parameter fitting. At the same time, as the
nonlinearity becomes stronger, the higher-order may be difficult to converge.
 Mooney-Rivlin model is a special form of Polynomial model. When N = 1, the Polynomial model is
reduced to 2-parameter Mooney-Rivlin; when N = 2, the Polynomial model is reduced to 5-
parameter Mooney-Rivlin; when N = 3, the Polynomial model is reduced to 9-parameter Mooney-
Rivlin.
 The 2-parameter Mooney-Rivlin has the following features: it is reduced to Neo-Hookean when
parameter C01=0. (Shear module u=2*C10). The non-zero C01 term makes the model under
uniaxial tension more accurate, but it still cannot accurately simulate the multiaxial stress states. The
parameter obtained from one type of deformation experiments, can’t not predict another type of
deformation accurately. Since the shear modulus of 2-parameter Mooney-Rivlin is constant
(u=C10+C01), it cannot model the carbon black rubber. The summation of C10 and C01 must be
positive. For most rubber materials, the ratio of C10 / C01 lies between 0.1 and 0.2.
 Three- or more-parameter Mooney-Rivlin models can describe unsteady shear modulus. However,
solutions need to be carefully evaluated when the high-order terms are introduced, as it may produce
unstable strain energy values and yield non-physical solutions.

Hyperelastic – Ogden
A versatile model that can be used for rubber, polymer, and biological tissues. The Ogden model has been
successfully applied to the analysis of O-rings, seals and other industrial products. Its most special feature in
the theoretical algorithm is that the principal stretches are used as the independent variable, rather than the
strain tensor invariant. Like other hyperelastic models such as Mooney-Rivlin, Ogden hyperelastic model is
named after Dr. Ogden, to thank his contributions to this hyperelastic model.

 Ideal for handling large strain problems. When N = 3 or higher, the required accuracy can be
achieved even when the strain is as high as 700%.
 Suitable for describing non-constant shear modulus and slightly compressed material behaviour.
 It can describe the rapid stiffness rise in the late stage of deformation.
 The material parameters determined by one type of experiment cannot be used to predict another
type of deformation. It is not recommended to use in the case of insufficient experimental data, such
as only uniaxial tensile test data.

Hyperelastic – Blatz Ko
The most hyperelastic models are mainly designed for incompressible materials, while Blatz-Ko is very
suitable for modelling the compressible hyperelastic materials, such as the foamed rubber. Because of the
simplicity of math form, Blatz-Ko has been one of the most widely used constitutive models for
compressible isotropic nonlinearly elastic solids. Blatz-Ko model is named after Dr. Blatz and Dr. Ko, for
their contribution to this hyperelastic model.
Behaviours and limitations of the Blatz-Ko:
1. Simple. Only one input parameter. Therefore, the amount of the required experiment is small.
2. It can show the mechanical behaviour of materials with small Poisson’s ratio.
3. Like all other low-order or two/three-parameter models, Blatz-Ko is unable to predict the whole range of
strain.

Viscoelastic
Viscoelasticity is the property of materials that exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics when
undergoing deformation. Synthetic polymers, wood, and human tissue, as well as metals at high temperature,
display significant viscoelastic effects. In some applications, even a small viscoelastic response can be
significant.
The difference between elastic materials and viscoelastic materials is that viscoelastic materials have a
viscosity factor and the elastic ones don’t. Because viscoelastic materials have the viscosity factor, they have
a strain rate dependent on time. Purely elastic materials do not dissipate energy (heat) when a load is applied,
then removed; however, a viscoelastic substance does.
Viscoelastic materials are used for isolating vibration, dampening noise, and absorbing shock. They give off
the energy absorbed as heat.

Nitinol
Nitinol is a metal alloy of nickel and titanium with unique properties, including superelasticity or
pseudoelasticity and “shape memory” properties. That means nitinol can remember its original shape and
return to it when heated. It also shows great elasticity under stress.

One of the most valuable properties of Nitinol is the two-way shape memory effect. This shape memory
effect is when the metal undergoes a reversible phase transformation between the Austenite and Martensite
phases. The atoms of metals are arranged in specific structures, depending on their components, but rarely
change structure shape while still solid.
Under high temperatures, the metal enters the Austenite phase, where it achieves maximum stiffness and is
spring-like when bent. The metal enters the Martensite phase during low temperatures. In this phase, the
metal feels rubbery and bends easily.  When Nitinol is in the Martensitic form it can be easily deformed into
a new shape.  However, when heated through its transformation temperature it reverts to Austenite and
recovers its previous shape.
The temperature at which Nitinol remembers its high-temperature form can be adjusted by slight changes in
the alloy composition and through heat treatment. Depending on the application depends on which transition
temperature you choose. For example, if you were making a device, such as a stent, for use in the human
body, you would choose a transition temperature close or equal to normal human body temperature.

In robotics, Nitinol can be used as an actuator where an electrical current (or heat) is applied to a stretched
wire, and the wire will contract while the charge is applied and relax once the charge is removed.  Unlike
most metals, Nitinol contracts in length when heated but will maintain the same absolute volume.  Also, its
thermal movement is 100 times greater than other metals.

A bone staple is one example of the use of thermal size contraction; where the staple is stretched open and
inserted into two holes in the bone to be reconnected and then heated to return to the original shape. This
technique effectively pulls the two pieces together and holds them in place during the healing process. 
Another medical device example is a stent which is cooled and mechanically squeezed to fit into a small
diameter catheter inserted through a vein. Once positioned the stent is released from the constraining sleeve
and allowed to return to its original shape, after reaching body temperature, holding the artery open.
Mechanical Properties

Elastic Modulus
-also known as Young Modulus / Tensile Modulus / Modulus of Elasticity.
- Young Modulus is the slope of the stress-strain curve in uniaxial tension.  It has dimensions of stress and is
usually large. You can think of Young Modulus as a measure of the stiffness of the solid. The larger the
value of Young Modulus, the stiffer the solid.  For a stable material, Young Modulus >0

Poisson’s ratio 
Is the ratio of lateral to longitudinal strain in uniaxial tensile stress. It is dimensionless and typically ranges
from 0.2-0.49, and is around 0.3 for most metals.  For a stable material −1< ν< 0.5  . It is a measure of the
compressibility of the solid.  If ν=0.5  , the solid is incompressible its volume remains constant, no matter
how it is deformed.  If ν=0  , then stretching a specimen causes no lateral contraction.  Some bizarre
materials have  ν< 0 if you stretch a round bar of such a material, the bar increases in diameter!!
 
 
Bulk modulus 
-quantifies the resistance of the solid to volume changes.  It has a large value (usually bigger than E).
-is defined as the relative change in the volume of a body produced by a unit compressive or tensile stress
acting throughout the surface uniformly.
E
Bulk Modulus , K =
3 (1−2 ν )

Shear Modulus/Rigidity
- When a shear force is applied on a body that results in its lateral deformation, then the elastic coefficient is
referred to as the shear modulus of rigidity. Therefore, the shear modulus of rigidity measures the rigidity of
a body. Also, it is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain in a body.
 Shear Stress
Shear Modulus , µ=
Shear Strain

Lame Modulus 

νE
Lame Modulus , λ=
(1+ ν)(1−2 ν)
Flexural modulus/ Bending Modulus
-used is determined from the slope of the stress strain diagram of a material which is the Modulus of
Elasticity. 

Tensile Strength 
Often referred to as ultimate tensile strength (UTS), tensile strength is the maximum tensile load a material
can withstand prior to fracture. It is a measure of a material's resistance to failure under tensile loading. The
tensile strength of a material is determined using a tensile test. It is the highest point on the stress-strain
curve, which is plotted after the test.

Yield Strength 
When subjected to stress, a material undergoes recoverable deformation. The yield strength of a material
represents the stress beyond which its deformation is plastic. Any deformation that occurs as a result of stress
higher than the yield strength is permanent. Because of the linearity of elastic deformation, yield strength is
also defined as the greatest stress achievable without any deviation from the proportionality of stress and
strain. Beyond this point, large deformations can be observed with little or no increase in the applied load.

Lame Modulus Shear Modulus Young Modulus Poisson Ratio Bulk Modulus
λ µ E ν k
λ, µ µ(3 λ +2 µ) λ 3 λ+2 µ
λ+ µ 2(λ+ µ) 3
 λ, E λ(1−2 ν) λ(1+ ν)(1−2 ν) λ(1+ ν)
2ν ν 3ν
λ, K 3(K− λ) 9 K ( K− λ) λ
2 3 K −λ 3 K −λ
µ,E µ(2 µ−E) E−2 µ µE
E−3 µ 2µ 3(3 µ−E)
µ,ν 2 µν 2 µ(1+ ν ) 2 µ( 1+ ν )
1−2 ν 3(1−2 ν )
µ,K 3 K −2 µ 9 Kµ 3 K−2 µ
3 3K +µ 2(3 K +µ)
E,ν νE E E
(1+ ν)(1−2 ν) 2(1+ν ) 3(1−2 ν )
E,K 3 K (3 K −E) 3 EK 3 K −E
9 K −E 9 K−E 6K
ν, K 3 Kν 3 K (1−2 ν ) 2 K (1−2 ν )
1+ ν 2(1+ ν)

Elongation at yield
-is the ratio between increased length and initial length at the yield point
-In an ASTM test of tensile strength, the test specimen is pulled from both the ends. As the pulling
progresses, the specimen bar elongates at a uniform rate that is proportionate to the rate at which the load or
pulling force increases.
-Beyond proportional limit & elastic stress limit, further pulling of specimen is opposite direction causes a
permanent elongation or deformation of the specimen.
-There is a point when an increase of strain is not provoked by an increase of stress on the test specimen i.e.
beyond which the plastic material stretches briefly without a noticeable increase in load. This point is known
as the yield point.

-It is measured in % (% of elongation vs. initial size when yield point is reached).
Also, it is equally interesting to understand the main difference between Tensile Strength and Yield
Strength.

Yield Strength is the stress a material can withstand without permanent deformation or a point at which it
will no longer return to its original dimensions (by 0.2% in length). Whereas, Tensile Strength is the
maximum stress (usually represented in PSI) that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled
before failing or breaking.

Elongation at break
Elongation at Break, also known as fracture strain or tensile elongation at break is the ratio between
increased length and initial length after breakage of the tested specimen at a controlled temperature. It is
related to the ability of a plastic specimen to resist changes of shape without cracking.

Elongation at Break measures how much bending and shaping a material can withstand without breaking.
The measured elongation at break values is an indication of the ductility of a polymer.

Elongation at break is important in components that absorb energy by plastic deformation. High elongation
at break is important for plastic hinges.

*A strain at fracture of less than 5% is considered to be brittle.

Linear Vs Nonlinear Analysis

Linear Analysis
Linear analysis is based on the static and linearity assumptions and is, therefore, valid if these assumptions
are valid.
 All the materials in the model comply with Hooke's law, that is stress is directly proportional to
strain. Some materials demonstrate such behaviour only if the strains are small. As the strains
increase, the stress-strain relationships become nonlinear.
 Other materials display nonlinear behaviour even when the strains are small. A material is said to be
linear if its stress-strain relations are linear. 
 Linear materials can be isotropic, orthotropic, or anisotropic.
 displacements are small enough so that you can ignore the change in the stiffness caused by loading.

Nonlinear Analysis
 Material - Whenever a material in the model demonstrates a nonlinear stress-strain behaviour under
the specified loading, nonlinear analysis must be used. Nonlinear analysis offers many types of
material models.
 Geometric - Nonlinear analysis offers a large deformation option when defining the material
properties of a solid component or a shell.
 Boundary – When contacts are changing due to fit problems, gear-tooth or thread contact.

Pseudo-Time
-Nonlinear problems are solved incrementally using Pseudo Time. A nonlinear analysis happens from 0 to 10
seconds, but those seconds are not wall clock time. It’s like a step 1 to step 5 etc.