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UNIT-I
GENERAL FUNDAMENTALS
Introduction to Computers: Block Diagram of a Computer – Characteristics and Limitations of
Computers – Applications of Computers – Types of Computers – Generations of Computers

Introduction to Computers
A Computer is a programmable electronic device designed to accept data, perform prescribed
mathematical and logical operations at high speed, and display the results of the operations. Some of
the different types of computers are Mainframes, Desktop Computers, Laptops, Tablets.

Computers are being used for a variety of purposes, starting from simple arithmetic calculations to very
complex data analysis such as weather forecasting. Computers have become an integral part in day-to-
day life. A Computer is used for automation of manual computations of various tasks, in an organized
manner with the help of discrete components.

A computer is a machine or device that performs processes, calculations and operations based on
instructions provided by a software or hardware program. Modern computers are electronic devices
used for a variety of purposes ranging from browsing the web, writing documents, editing videos,
creating applications, playing video games, etc.

Data refers to the raw material (details) that need to be processed to generate information. Programs
refer to the set of instructions that can be executed by the computer in a sequential or non-sequential
manner. The main task of a computer system is to process the given input in an efficient manner. A
Computer System is also referred as Data Processing Unit or System.

Block Diagram of a Computer

A Computer includes various devices that
function as an integrated system to perform
several tasks. These devices are
(I) Input Unit
(II) Central Processing Unit
(III) Output Unit

The basic computer organization involves the

interfacing of different units of the computer and
various operations performed between the units.

I. INPUT UNIT: An Input Unit is an

electronic device used to feed input data and control signals to a computer. Input devices are
connected to a computer such as keyboard, mouse, scanner etc.
a) Keyboard: It is the standard input device. It
contains alphanumeric keys (A to Z, 0 to 9),
Function Keys (F1 to F12), Special Keys (Ctrl,
Alt, Shift, Tab, Page Up, Page Down, Home,
End). Function Keys are used to perform specific
tasks such as Help, Refresh and Save etc.
Modifier Keys include Ctrl, Shift and Alt keys to
modify the casting style of a character or
symbol. Cursor Movement keys include Left, Right, Up and Down arrows which are used to
direct the cursor on the screen.
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b) Mouse: It is the standard pointing device used to select elements on

the screen such as tools, icons, buttons etc by pointing and clicking
them. A Mouse consists of two buttons. The Left Button is used to
select an element and Right Button displays special options such as
Open, Print and Properties etc. The wheel is used to scroll up and
down in a document or web page

c) Scanner: A scanner is a device that captures

images from photographic prints, posters, magazine
pages, and similar sources for computer editing and
display. There are different types of Scanners, such
as Hand-held, Feed-in, and Flatbed. Scanners are
also available in black & white and colour modes.
Very high resolution scanners are used for scanning
for high-resolution printing, but lower resolution
scanners are adequate for capturing images for
computer display. Scanners usually come with
software, such as Adobe's Photoshop product, that lets to resize or modify a captured image.
Scanners usually attached to personal computer with a Small Computer System Interface. An
application such as Photoshop uses the program to read in the image. Some major manufacturers
of scanners include: Epson and Hewlett-Packard (HP). It is an input device that converts
documents and images as digitized images understandable by the computer system. The
digitized images can be produced as black & white, gray or coloured images. An image is
considered as collection of dots, each representing a combination of red, green and blue colours
varying in proportions.

II. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU): The function of a computer system revolves around
a central component called Central Processing Unit. It is popularly referred as ‘Brain’ of the
computer. It is responsible for processing the data. It is also responsible for controlling all other
components of the system. The main operations of the CPU are:
Fetching instructions from the memory
Decoding the instructions to decide what operations are to be performed
Executing the instructions
Storing the results in the memory
The main components of the CPU are
(i) Control Unit (ii) Arithmetic & Logic Unit (iii) Memory Unit
i) Control Unit: It is the main component of the CPU that controls the flow of data and
information. It maintains the sequence of operations being performed. It fetches an instruction
from the storage area, decodes the instructions and transmits the corresponding signals to the
ALU and the storage registers. CU guides the ALU about the operations that are to be performed
and also suggests the input and output devices to which the data is to be communicated. CU uses
a program counter register for retrieving next instructions that is to be executed.
ii) Arithmetic Logic Unit: It is a part of the CPU that performs arithmetic and logic operations on
the data. The arithmetic operations can be addition, subtraction, multiplication, division. The
multiplication and division operations are usually implemented by the ALU as the repetitive
process of addition and subtraction respectively. It takes the input in the form of an instruction
that contains opcode, operands the format code. The opcode specifies the operation to be
performed and the operands specify the data on which the operation is to be performed. The
output of the ALU contains the result of the operation and the status of the result. The output is
stored in a register by the ALU.
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Register: It is a small storage area inside the CPU from where data is retrieved faster
than any other storage area. It performs 16 different types of logical operations such
as less than (<), greater than (>), equals to (=), shift left/right. It makes various logic
gates AND, OR, NOT for performing logical operations on data. Register is a high
speed memory location used to hold instructions that area being processed.
iii) Memory Unit: It is used to store data, instructions for processing. It is classified into primary
memory and secondary memory.
MEMORY
a) Primary Memory b) Secondary Memory c) Internal Processor Memory
 RAM  Hard Disk  Cache Memory
 ROM  Magnetic Tape  CPU Registers
 USB Drive

a) Primary Memory: It is available in the computer as a built-in unit. Primary Memory is

represented as a set of locations occupying 8 bits each. Each bit in the memory is identified
by a unique address. The data is stored in binary form in the memory locations. The
commonly used primary memories are RAM and ROM.
 RAM: RAM stands for Random Access Memory. RAM (Random Access Memory) is
the hardware in a computing device where the operating system, application programs
and data in current use are kept so they can be quickly reached by the device's processor.
RAM is used to store working data and machine code. It is the Read/Write memory in
which information will be stored as long as there is power supply. Random Access
Memory is volatile. It temporarily stores data and applications as they are in use.
 ROM: ROM stands for Read Only Memory. Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of
storage medium that permanently stores data on personal computers (PCs) and other
electronic devices.It stores data and instructions, even when the computer is switched
off. ROM is permanent and non-volatile, meaning it also holds its memory even when
power is removed. By contrast, random access memory (RAM) is volatile; it is lost when
power is removed.
It contains the programming needed to start a Computer. It performs major input/output
tasks and holds programs or software instructions. This type of memory is often referred
to as “Firmware”. It is permanent memory of the computer chip, where the data cannot
be modified by the user. ROM is a chip that is inserted into the mother board. It is
basically used to store BIOS (Basic Input Output System) which performs the POST
(Power-On Self Test).
 Cache Memory: Cache memory is a small-sized
type of volatile computer memory that provides
high-speed data access to a processor and stores
frequently used computer programs, applications
and data. When the processor performs processing,
it first accesses the cache memory and then the
RAM, for an instruction. The Cache Memory is
placed between CPU and the main memory of the
computer. Cache makes data retrieving easier and
more efficient. It is the fastest memory in a
computer, and is typically integrated onto the
motherboard and directly embedded in the
processor or main random access memory (RAM).
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b) Secondary Memory: It represents the external storage devices that are connected to the
computer. They provide non-volatile memory source used to store information that is not in
use. A storage device is either located in the CPU casing of the computer or connected
externally. The secondary storage devices can be classified as
 Magnetic Storage: These
devices store information that
can be read, erased and rewritten
number of times. Some of them
are Floppy Disk, Hard Disk and
Magnetic Tape.
 Optical Storage Devices: These
devices use laser beams to read
the stored data. These include
CD-ROM (Compact Disc), DVD
(Digital Video Disk).
 USB Drives: Universal Serial
Bus Drive commonly known as Flash Drive or Pen Drive is a removable storage device
that is interlaced on the USB Port of a computer. It is relatively fast, when compared to
other storage devices like CD, Floppy Disk. USB Drive is larger in capacity and smaller
in size.
III. OUTPUT UNIT: It is an electronic device, used to communicate with the user by generating
the output obtained after processing a specific task to the user. The data processed by the CPU is
made available to the end user by the output devices. Most common output devices are

 Monitor: It is the standard output device that produces visual displays generated by the
computer. Monitors can be classified as CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitors, LCD (Liquid
Crystal Display) Monitors. CRT Monitors are large in size where as LCD Monitors are thin
and light-weighted. Both types of monitors are available as Monochrome, Gray Scale and
Colour Models.
 Printers: It is an output device that transfers the data onto the paper that can be used by the
end user. There are various types of printers like Dot-Matrix Printers, Inkjet Printers and
Laser Printers.
The computer needs to convert the document that is to be printed. Printer Software or Printer
Driver is used to convert a document to a form understandable by the printer. The
performance of a printer is measured in terms of DPI (Dots per Inch) and PPM (Pages per
Minute). The greater DPI parameter of a printer, the better is the quality of the output
generated by it. The higher PPM represents efficiency of the printer.

Characteristics of a Computer
Speed  Reliability Storage Capacity
Accuracy Diligence Versatility
Computers are capable of performing various types of operations, based on instructions. Any wrong
instruction or faulty logic or any wrong data may result in erroneous output. This is popularly known as
“Garbage-In, Garbage-Out” (GIGO)
iv) Speed: A Computer is an electronic device that is designed to solve large and complex problems in
few microseconds. The speed of a computer generally depends upon its hardware configuration.
Computers can process data in Millions of Instructions Per Second (MIPS). The time taken to
process an instruction is measured in microseconds or nanoseconds. The speed of a computer is
determined in terms of Milliseconds (10-3 part of a second), Microseconds (10-6 part of a second),
Nanoseconds (10-9 /second) or Picoseconds (10-12 part of a second).
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v) Accuracy (Correctness): A Computer carries out calculations with great accuracy at a rate of 100%.
It performs all the tasks with the same accuracy. There are few chances of uncertainty in results,
which may be due to wrong input of data or unreliable instructions given by the user.
vi) Storage Capacity: Computers have an in-built memory where it can store large amount of data. We
can store data in secondary storage devices such as hard disk, flash drive, CD or DVD. The storage
capacity of a computer is measured in Kilobytes (Kb), Mega Bytes (MB), Giga Bytes (GB) and
Terabytes (TB). Computer’s primary memory or main memory (RAM) holds data / instructions as
long as it is connected to a power source. In addition, a computer includes ROM, Cache Memory at
different levels, thereby speeding up the performance. Computers have the ability to store all types of
data such as pictures, programs, games, audio & video.
vii) Versatility: Computers are versatile machines that can be used to perform different tasks and
used for different purposes like weather forecasting, listening music, playing games, design graphics,
solving large and complicated mathematical operations.
viii) Reliability: A Computer produces results without any error. Computers are trustworthy
machines that give consistent output. It means if the user gives same set of input any number of
times, it will give the same output.
ix) Diligence: Computers can perform calculations any number of times with same accuracy and
efficiency. Computers can work for hours without any break and without errors. A Computer is free
from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue.

Applications of Computers
Computers are being used in almost every sphere of life such as education, communication, healthcare,
entertainment, business, engineering etc. The use of computers has reduced the paper work to a large
extent.
Home: Computers are used at home for several purposes like online payments, online shopping,
watching movies, playing games, access Internet, sending and receiving emails. Computers are helping
employees to avail work from home facility provided by corporate companies. Computers are being
used by students to get online education.
Healthcare: Computers are extensively used in the field of medical science for maintaining patient
details. Computers are used by doctors to diagnose various kinds of diseases and ailments. Several
analog and digital devices are connected with computers to determine heart beats, temperature, ECG,
conducting surgeries etc.
Banking: Computers are used in banks to store details of customers and their accounts. They are used
for providing various online services like ATMs, Electronic Payments etc.
Business: Computers have been an integral part of every business. The main objective is
transaction processing which involves in managing details of customers, suppliers, employees etc.
Computer software helps employees to analyze investments, sales, expenses etc.
Science & Research: Computers are used by scientists for the purpose of research and development of
analyzing new theories.
Engineering: In every branch of engineering, computers are used as a strong tool for engineers for
designing complex drawings in fields like automobile and construction. Robots are used in complicated
industrial process. Computer-Aided Design (CAD), Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) is used in
the manufacturing units of industries like electronics, electrical, mechanical models of machines.
Education: Computers are effective tools which are used for teaching and learning, result processing,
student data management, online education, online examinations.
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Classification of Computers (Types of Computers)

There are different types of computers. The function of each type of computer is to process data and
provide some output to the users. Computers are classified according to the following three criteria:

Classification of Computers
Based on Operating Principle Based on Applications Based on Size and Capability
 Analog Computers  General-Purpose  Micro Computers
 Digital Computers Computers  Mini Computers
 Hybrid Computers  Special-Purpose  Mainframe Computers
Computers  Super Computers
Based on Operating Principle: On the basis of operations performed and methods used to store and
process data and information, computers are classified into the following categories:
 Analog Computers: The Analog Computers represent data in the form of continuous
electrical signals having a specific magnitude. Analog Computers are used to process
continuously varying data. These computers are very fast in their operations and allow several
other operations to be carried out at the same time. Examples of analog computers are
temperature, pressure, telephone lines, Speedometer etc. Analog Computes are widely used in
applications in which the accuracy of results is not significant. They are powerful tools to solve
differential equations. These computers works with continuously variable physical quantities
such as electrical potential, fluid pressure, or mechanical motion are represented in a
way analogous to the corresponding quantities in the problem to be solved.
 Digital Computers: These computers are also known as Digital Information Processing
System. These computers stores and processes data in the digital form. Each type of data is
usually stored and processed in the form of 0s and 1s. Digital Computers are generally faster
and reliable than the analog computers and provide more accurate results. The hardware
components of a digital computer are Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU),
Memory Unit (MU) and Input / Output (I/O) Units. ALU of a digital computer is used to
perform various arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division. It
also performs various logic operations such AND, OR, NOT. Control Unit helps in directing the
operations of ALU. The Memory Unit is used to store data on temporary or permanent basis.
The Input Units are used to enter the data into the computer and the Output Units are used to
display the information generated to the user.
 Hybrid Computers: These computers are a combination of analog computers and digital
computers. In these computers, data is generally measured and processed in the form of
electrical signals and is stored with the help of digital components. These computers are also
used for performing logic operations. The input accepted by the hybrid computers is a
continuously varying input signal. This input signal is then converted by them into a set of
discrete values for performing different operations. These computers prove to be very cost-
effective in performing complex simulations. The hybrid computers are also less expensive than
the digital computers. These computers are used in hospitals to measure heartbeats; in
scientific applications; in engineering fields and controlling business processes.

Based on Applications: On the basis of different applications or purposes, computers are classified
into two categories:
 General-Purpose Computers: They are designed in such a manner that they can work in all
environments. The general purpose computers are versatile. They can store a number of
programs meant for performing different tasks. These computers are not efficient and consume a
large amount of time in generating the result.
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 Special-Purpose Computers: They are designed in such a manner that they can perform only
specific task. These computers are not versatile and their speed, memory size depends on the
task that is to be performed. These computers are less expensive, efficient and consume less
amount of time in generating the result.

Based on Size and Capability: Computers differ from each other in terms of shape, size and weight.
On the basis of size and capability, computers are classified into the following categories:
 Micro Computers: A Microcomputer is a small and cheap digital computer that is designed to
be used by individuals. It is build around a micro
processor, a storage unit and Input / Output
Channel. Other hardware parts of a micro
computer include power supply, connecting
cables, keyboard, mouse, printer and scanner.
These computers also include several software
programs such as Operating System, System
Software and Utility Software. The micro
computers are generally available in the form of
Personal Computers (PCs), Workstations and
Notebook Computers.
Microprocessor: It is the main component of a
microcomputer. It incorporates all the functions of a CPU onto a single IC. The basic units of
micrrorocessor are ALU, Register and Control Unit. ALU is used to perform arithmetic and
logic operations. The Register Unit is used to store data and instructions temporarily needed by
the ALU. Control Unit is used to manage and direct the operatiions performed by the Micro
Computer.
Memory: It is used to store data and instructions on temporary or permanent basis. A
Microcomputer generally employs two types of memories: Primary Memory and Secondary
Memory. Primary Memory is also called
Main Memory which is used to store the
data and instructions on temporary basis,
which are needed by the microprocessor
of the computer for processing. The
Secondary Memory is also called
Auxiliary Memory which is used to store
data and instructions permanently.
Magnetic Disks and Tapes are examples
of Secondary Memory.
Peripheral Devices: These are generally
the Input and Output devices attached to a
computer. Input Devices like Keyboard, Mouse are used to enter programs and data into the
computer for performing operations. They are used to transfer data and instructions from
external environment into the computer. Output Devices like Monitor and Printer are used to
display the results computed by the computer to the user. Major function performed by the
output devices is to convert the binary result into a format that can be easily understood by the
user.
System Bus: It is also referred as the Front-side Bus or Memory Bus or Host Bus. It is used to
connect microprocessor, memory and peripheral devices into a single unit. The System Bus is a
collective name given to address, data and control bus. The Address Bus is a bidirectional bus
that is used to transfer data among microprocessor, memory and peripheral devices. The Control
Bus is used by the microprocessor to send control signals to the various devices within the
computer.
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 Mini Computers: A Mini Computer was first introduced in the year 1960 by Digital
Equipment Corporation DEC. They were called Mini Computers because of their smaller size
than the other computers. They can handle more
data and more input/output than micro
computers. Minicomputers are mainly used as
small or mid-range servers operating business
and scientific applications. However, the use of
the term minicomputer has diminished and has
merged with servers. A minicomputer may also
be called a mid-range computer.

Minicomputers are used for scientific and

engineering computations, business-transaction
processing, file handling, and database
management, and are often now referred to as
small or midsize servers.Mini Computers are
less powerful than Mainframe Computers but powerful than Micro Computers. They are able to
cater the needs of multiple users at a single instant of time. The number of users supported by
mini computers may range between 4 and 200.

Mini Computers are used as the centralized computer or network server. Hundreds of micro
computers can be connected to a mini computer. These are also used as Web Server that can
handle thousands of transactions in a day. These computers are less expensive than Mainframe
Computers. Examples of Mini Computers are IBM 8000 Series, PDP 11.
 Mainframe Computers: A Mainframe Computer is a very large-size computer that is
employed by large business organizations for handling major applications like Financial
Transactions, Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), Consumer Statistics and Census. They are
capable of handling millions of records in a day. These computers are used as Centralized
Computers with several user computers connected to it. They are termed as Mainframe because
all the hardware units are arranged into a frame. Different manufacturers of mainframe
computers are IBM, Hitachi. Examples of Mainframes are HP mainframe, IBM 370, S/390
Mainframe Computers can handle large databases that can be accessed by remote users with a
simple terminal. They are also known as Super Servers or Database Servers. The processing
speed is generally optimized by employing more than one microprocessor to execute millions of
instructions per second. These computers have large capacity of primary and secondary storage.
Characteristics:
- A typical mainframe computer generally has more than 16 microprocessors.
- They can provide up to 12 parallel 650 MHz processors, 32 GB memory, and several
terabytes of disk storage. A typical computer consists of a single 500 MHz processor, 64 MB
of memory, and few gigabytes of disk storage.
- They are able to run multiple operating systems.
- They have different cabinets for primary storage, secondary storage and I/O units.

 Super Computers: A Super Computer is the fastest type of computer that can perform
operations at very high speeds. They employ thousands of processors, hundreds of gigabytes of
RAM and thousands of gigabytes of secondary storage. Various application areas of super
computers are Weather Forecasting, Animated Graphics, and Nuclear Energy Research etc.
They are more expensive than the other categories of computers and are specially designed for
handling complex calculations. They are designed only to execute large number of programs at a
time. Manufacturers of supercomputers are IBM, Intel, and Fujitsu.
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Generations of Computers
First Generation Computers: Vacuum Tubes (1940–1956)
The first generation computers used vacuum tubes for the circuitry and the
magnetic drums for the memory and taking up the big rooms. It was very
expensive to operate and used a great amount of electricity and produced
large amount of heat. The first generation computes relied on the machine
language, which was understood by the computers to perform the various
functions and operations. It can solve the one problem at a time and were
not capable to do the multitasking work. The input was based on the
punched cards and the paper tape and the output was displayed on the printouts. ENIAC and UNIVAC
are examples of the first generation computers. The first commercial computer was UNIVAC which was
delivered to the business client.

Second Generation Computers: Transistors (1956–1963)

Transistors were used in the second generation computers. The first
transistor was invented in 1947. Transistors are superior to the
vacuum tube because due to the transistors computer becomes smaller,
cheaper and faster. It is very reliable than the first generation of the
computers. Transistors were also produced the large amount of heat
that subjected the computer to damage. But some improvement was shown that in the second generation
of the computer. The input was based on the punched cards and paper tapes and outputs were displayed
on the printouts. The second generation of computer moved to the symbolic or assembly language from
the cryptic binary machine language. This language allowed the programmers to specify the input or
instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also developed at the same time. The first
computer of the second generation was developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation Computers: Integrated Circuits ICs (1964–1971)

The Integrated Circuits (ICs) were used in the third generation computers.
Transistors were placed on the Silicon Chips known as Semiconductors
which increases the speed and efficiency of the computer. In the third
generation computers, users were provided keyboards for inputting and
monitors for displaying results. Operating Systems were designed to
provide interface with the systems, instead of the punched cards and
printouts. In this generation, the computer can run many applications at one time. This generation of the
computer is small, cheaper and reliable than its predecessors.

Fourth Generation Computers: Microprocessors (1971–2010)

The Microprocessor was deployed in the fourth generation computers.
Computers of fourth generation used Very Large Scale Integrated
(VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits have about 5000 transistors and other
circuit elements with their associated circuits on a single chip.
Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable,
and affordable. It gave rise to Personal Computer (PC) revolution. In this generation, time sharing, real
time networks, distributed operating system were used. All the high-level languages like C, C++,
DBASE etc., were used in this generation.
In 1971 Intel 4004 chips were developed which was located to all the components of the computer. IBM
introduced its first computer for home users in 1981. The fourth generation of the computer became more
powerful and could be linked together to form the networks which led to internet development. Fourth
Generation Computers provided the use of the GUIs, keyboard, mouse and other hand handled devices.