[ Paragraph 1] Until about the late 1980s, most scientists believed that life was restricted to the top

few meters of the soil

or ocean sediments. The few reports of organisms being recovered from great depths within Earth
were dismissed as
contamination with material from the surface layers. Two technical developments changed this
view. The first was the
development of drilling techniques that gave confidence that samples could be retrieved from
depth without
contamination. Samples were recovered using a diamond-studded drill bit that headed a great
length of rotating steel pipe
from a drilling derrick. A concentrated tracer material was added to the lubricating fluid so that
when a deep sample of
rock was removed, any contaminated material could be identified and cut away to leave a pristine
sample of rock from
deep within Earth. The second development was the advent of techniques for identifying
microorganisms without having to
grow them in culture. All organisms contain DNA, and their presence can be revealed by dyes that
either stain DNA directly
or can be attached to nucleic acid probes. By varying the nucleic acid probe, scientists can
demonstrate the presence of
different types of microorganisms.
[ Paragraph 2 ] The first scientists to use these techniques were involved in the Subsurface Science
Program of the United
States Department of Energy (DOE). They were interested in the possibility that if organisms
existed in the depths of Earth,
they might degrade organic pollutants and help maintain the purity of groundwater or, rather less
usefully, degrade the
containers in which the DOE was proposing to deposit the radioactive waste from nuclear
facilities. They demonstrated the
presence of many different types of microorganisms in rocks at depths down to 500 meters
beneath the surface. Since
then, microbes have been discovered in many different types of rocks and deep within ocean
sediments. The record depth
at which life has been found is at the bottom of a South African gold mine, 3.5 ki lometers below
ground Pressure and
temperature increase as you go deeper into Earth Some scientists think that subsurface bacteria
could withstand
temperatures as high as 150°(. This would allow organisms to exist to depths of about 7 kilometers
beneath the seafloor
and to 4 kilometers below the surface of the land. Although the organisms are often sparsely
distributed, this is such an
enormous volume that it has been estimated that the total biomass of deep subsurface organisms
exceeds that of those
living on, or just below, the surface.
[ Paragraph 3 ] Bacteria are the most numerous of these subsurface organisms, but there are also
fungi and protozoa
Some 10,000 strains of microorganism have been isolated from subsurface cores. Each gram of
rock contains anything from
100 bacteria to 10 million bacteria (compared with more than 1 billion per gram in agricultural
soils); ocean sediments
contain even higher numbers. The protozoa feed on the bacteria, forming part of a simple
subterranean food chain, but
what do t he bacteria feed on? Sedimentary rocks are formed from sands and from ocean, river, or
lake sediments that have
organic material trapped within them. Microbes living in pores within the sediments can utilize
these ancient nutrients and
grow. As sedimentary rocks are buried more deeply, they become increasingly compacted and
their pores filled with
minerals. The distribution of microorganisms is thus likely to become more patchy, condensed into
the remaining pores
and concentrations of nutrients The bulk of Earth' s crust, however, consists of igneous rocks, such
as granite and basalt,
which are solidified from molten magma. These rocks were too hot to support life when they were
first formed; the
organisms that inhabit cracks and fissures within the rocks are carried there by the groundwater
flowing through them.
Subsurface bacteria do not just rely on nutrients trapped within the rock or carried there by
groundwater. Some are
chemotrophs, deriving their energy from the oxidation of iron or sulfur compounds and building
organic material directly
from the carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas dissolved in the rock. These bacteria excrete organic
compounds that are then
utilized by other types of bacteria These ecosystems based on chemotrophic bacteria are
completely independent of
material and solar energy from the surface
1. Select the TWO answer choices that, according to paragraph 1, indicate what scientists believed
before the 1980s about
underground organisms. To receive credit, you must select TWO answers
A. It was impossible for organisms to live beyond just a few meters underground
B. Organisms were filtered into the soil from ocean sediments.
C. Organisms that were supposedly found at great depths were actually from the surface layers
D. Contamination from the surface layers of the soil was seriously affecting life underground.
2. The word "pristine" in the passage is closest in meaning to
A. Suitable
B. pure
C. precise
D. solid
3. According to paragraph 1, what is the purpose of using concentrated tracer material during
drilling?
A. To lubricate the drill
B. To obtain uncontaminated rock samples
C. To cut away the samples of rock
D. To identify rock sample types
4. The word "revealed" in the passage is closest in meaning to
A. added to
B. made known
C. restricted
D. replaced
5. According to paragraph 1, what can be inferred about the new techniques for the identification
of underground
microorganisms?
A. They depend on growing microorganisms in culture.
B. They sometimes add contaminants to the sample.
C. They involve DNA analysis
D. They cannot demonstrate the presence of different types of microorganisms.
6. Why does the author use the phrase "rather less usefully" in the passage?
A. To question the usefulness of microorganism identification
B. To identify two negative effects of pollution, the second one more dangerous than the first
C. To compare the scientific usefulness of two theories
D. To contrast a possible benefit of the existence of subsurface organisms with a potential danger
A. 500 meters below ground
B. 35 kilometers below ground
C. 4 kilometers below ground
D. 7 kilometers beneath the seafloor
8. The author asks "what do the bacteria feed on?" for the purpose of
A. presenting a problem that scientists have not yet been able to solve
B. expressing doubts about the theory that bacteria can live at great depths
C. introducing the explanation that answers the question
D. arguing against the idea that bacteria form part of a subterranean food chain
9. The word " compacted" in the passage is closest in meaning to
A. complicated
B. strengthened
C. absorbent
D. compressed
10. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 3 about the organisms in cracks and
fissures in igneous
rock?
A. They produce the cracks and fissures in the rock
B. They grow in the molten magma that forms the rock.
C. They can survive changing temperatures
D. They have not orig inated in the igneous rock
11. The phrase" rely on" in the passage is closest in meaning to
A. use up
B. head for
C. depend on
D. pass on
12. According to paragraph 3, why are chemotrophic bacteria important to their ecosystems?
A. They compete with other microorganisms.
B. They allow other bacteria to use organic compounds
C. They do not depend on t he iron or sulfur compounds that other microorganisms consume.
D. They process material and solar energy for other underground organisms to use.
13. Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the
passage
However, it would be wrong to think that these factors make life at great depths impossible.
Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [] to add the sentence to t he passage.
[ Paragraph 2 ] The first scientists to use these techniques were involved in the Subsurface Science
Program of the United
States Department of Energy (DOE). They were interested in the possibility that if organisms
existed in the depths of Earth,
they might degrade organic pollutants and help maintain the purity of groundwater or, rather less
usefully, degrade the
containers in which the DOE was proposing to deposit the radioactive waste from nuclear
facilities. They demonstrated the
presence of many different types of microorganisms in rocks at depths down to 500 meters
beneath the surface. Since
then, microbes have been discovered in many different types of rocks and deep within ocean
sediments. The record depth
at which life has been found is at t he bottom of a South African gold mine, 3.5 kilometers below
ground. [ A] Pressure and
temperature increase as you go deeper into Earth. [ B] Some scientists think that subsurface
bacteria could withstand
temperatures as high as 150°(. [ C] This would allow organisms to exist to depths of about 7
kilometers beneath the
seafloor and to 4 ki lometers below the surface of t he land. [ D] Alt hough the organisms are often
sparsely distributed, this
is such an enormous volume t hat it has been estimated that the total biomass of deep subsurface
organisms exceeds that
of those living on, or just below, the surface.
14. It is only recently that living organisms have been found below the top few meters of the soil
or ocean sediments.
Answer Choices
A. It became necessary to develop techniques that would prevent the lubricating flu id on the drill
from contaminating
the samples recovered from the depths.
B. Subsurface life is thoug ht to live at greater depths and to resist higher temperatures than was
once thought
possible
C. Rather than consuming other food available, chemotrophs process some minerals they find in
rocks to obtain the
nutrients t hey need
D. The discovery of subsurface life was enabled by the development of sophisticated drilling and
microorganism
identification techniques.
E. Scientists involved in t he Subsurface Science Program found underground life accidentally
while studying the
effects of pollution on groundwater
F. The food chain below t he surface involves fungi, protozoa, bacteria, and the organic material
and minerals in or
derived from sedimentary and igneous rock.

The Revolution of Cheap Print

[ Paragraph 1] The first half of the nineteenth century saw dramatic changes in the economics of
the printed word in both
the United States and Europe, though the changes generally happened earlier and on a wider basis
in America. In the 1830s
and 1840s, sharp reductions in prices for newspapers and books in America highlighted the advent
of an era of cheap print.
Now there were daily newspapers that instead of 6 cents per copy sold for a penny or two. Now
there were novels that
instead of an earlier price of $2 sold for 25 cents or less, when the same books in Brita in cost the
equivalent of more than
$7. So steep were the declines in the price of print over so short a period that they amounted to an
information-price
revolution, the first of several such episodes of declining prices that have profoundly affected
information and culture
during the past two centuries. Two mid-nineteenth-century American cultural innovations, the
"penny press" and the
"dime novel," were actually named for their low price These were criticized for being cheap in
both senses of that word
low in price and low in taste But low price did not necessarily mean lowbrow increasingly, book
publishers issued even the
most esteemed works in cheap as well as expensive editions to reach as wide a public as possible.
The information-price
revolution also affected religious and political publishing, as reading became a basis of mass
persuasion for the first time in
history.
[ Paragraph 2] Cheap print was not entirely unprecedented. In seventeenth- and eighteenth-century
Eng land and France,
cheap collections of stories, ballads, and other miscellany had circulated among the lower classes.
But since only a minority
of the poor could read, most listened while a few read aloud; thus cheap print reached not so much
a reading as a listening
public. The expansion of cheap print in the nineteenth century in America and Europe was on a
much larger scale, and it
took place during a great increase in popular literacy. Together these amounted to a cultural
watershed Traditionally, even
in literate homes, books and other publications had been relatively rare and treasured objects;
reading meant returning to a
few texts, especially religious works. But with the explosion of print, read ing became more
varied, and readers scanned
newspapers, magazines, and cheap books that they soon passed on or discarded. Intensive read ing
of religious and other
works did not disappear, but read ing became an increasingly common form of diversion as well
as devotion.
[ Paragraph 3 ] The usual explanation for the rise of cheap print emphasizes new technology.
Unquestionably, the ful l
development of cheap print could not have happened without technological change. Print,
however, had already become
cheaper in America before technolog ical advances played a significant role; new technology
arrived once the process was
under way, not at the beginning. This was no accident: the continuing expansion of print created
an incentive for
technological innovation. To conceive of technology as the causal force is to understate the prior
importance of polit ics,
culture, and markets in creating the cond it ions that allowed investments in new technology to
pay off.
[ Paragraph 4 ] Cheap print was public policy in America. While European governments taxed
newspapers and other
publications, the United States let them go tax free and even subsidized them, to a degree, through
the postal system. The
rise of cheap books and other forms of cheap print in the United States also reflected distinctive
patterns of nineteenthcentury
American consumer markets. As the economic historian Nathan Rosenberg remarks, citing t he
cases of cutlery,
guns, boot s, and clothing, "Americans readi ly accepted products which had been del iberately
designed for low cost, mass
production methods" at a time when handmade goods persisted in Britain Books fit this pattern.
Americans had not been
primarily responsible for introducing new manufacturing technology to the production of books.
On the contrary, most of
the key advances in printing and papermaking before 1850 had traveled west across the Atlantic
rather than the reverse.
But the industrialization of book production proceeded more rapidly in the United States, where
the market by the middle
decades of the century was not only larger than in Britain but also apparently more sensitive to
price than to quality,
perhaps because elite readers constituted a smaller proportion of book buyers.
1. The word "advent" in the passage is closest in meaning to
A. success
B. situation
C. ideal
D. beginning
2. Which of the following claims is made about the low-price publications mentioned in paragraph
1?
A. Inexpensive novels did not actually have a wide readership
B. The criticism that cheap novels lacked taste was not always valid.
C. Only the most highly regarded books were unavailable in cheap editions.
D. Book publishers issued as many esteemed works as works that were not widely respected.
3. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 1 as being true of nineteenth-century print
prices EXCEPT:
A. Prices first experienced a significant decrease in the 1830s and 1840s
B. Daily newspapers that sold for 6 cents in Britain sold for a penny or two in America.
C. Some American novels declined in price from two dollars to about 25 cents
D. Reductions in print prices had effects that lasted well into the twentieth century
4. The word "unprecedented" in the passage is closest in meaning to
A. reliable
B. new
C. accepted
D. effective
5. The word "expansion' ' in the passage is closest in meaning to
A. introduction
B. popularity
C. spread
D. acceptance
6. According to paragraph 2, which of the following was true of cheap print in seventeenth- and
eighteenth-century
England and France?
A. An increase in popular literacy allowed cheap print to succeed
B. Cheap publications of stories and ballads reached a wider readership in France than they did in
England
C. Decreasing print prices did not affect the reading habits of the upper classes
D. Cheap print reached more people by being read aloud than by being read silently
7. According to paragraph 2, reading changed in all of the following ways after the explosion of
print EXCEPT:
A. Reading for amusement became more common.
B. People began to read books more carefully than they had in the past.
C. People began to read a greater variety of publications
D. Readers began to discard books more frequently
8. In paragraph 3, the author expresses which of the following points of view on the relationship
between technology
and the development of cheap print?
A. Changes in technology, politics, culture, and markets all preceded the development of cheap
print.
B. Technological advances were the most important causal force in the print revolution.
C. The arrival of new technology made the development of cheap print possible.
D. The growth of cheap print provided people with a reason to develop new technology
9. Why does the author refer to Nathan Rosenberg' s remarks on " the cases of cutlery, guns, boots
and clothing"?
A. To explain how new production methods used for books were quickly applied to other types of
products
B. To point out similarities between consumer patterns in the United States and in Britain
C. To support the claim that books fit the pattern of the nineteenth-century American consumer
markets
D. To explain why handmade products were not as popular in America during the nineteenth
century as they were in
Britain
10. The word "persisted" in the passage is closest in meaning to
A. spread
B. suffered
C. continued
D. improved
11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted
sentence in the passage?
Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
[ Paragraph 4 ] Cheap print was public policy in America. While European governments taxed
newspapers and other
publications, the United States let them go tax free and even subsidized them, to a degree, through
the postal system. The
rise of cheap books and other forms of cheap print in the United States also reflected distinctive
patterns of nineteenth century
American consumer markets. As the economic historian Nathan Rosenberg remarks, citing the
cases of cutlery,
guns, boots, and clothing, "Americans ready accepted products which had been deliberately
designed for low cost, mass
production methods" at a time when handmade goods persisted in Britain Books fit this pattern.
Americans had not been
primarily responsible for introducing new manufacturing technology to the production of books.
On the contrary, most of
the key advances in printing and papermaking before 1850 had traveled west across the Atlantic
rather than the reverse.
But t he industrialization of book production proceeded more rapidly in t he United States, where t
he market by t he middle
decades of the century was not only larger than in Britain but also apparently more sensit ive to
price t han to quality,
perhaps because elite readers const ituted a smaller proport ion of book buyers.
A. The American book industry' s larger market and commitment to low prices prevented it from
selling books that
were similar in quality to the books sold to British buyers
B. Industrialization of book production occurred more rapid ly in the United States than is usually
realized, perhaps
because of the large markets and low prices that were common in the nineteenth century.
C. A larger market than in Britain and a greater demand for cheap books in the United States
contributed to the faster
industrialization of book production
D. The industrialization of book production occurred more quickly in the United States than in
Britain because elite
readers in America were not as sensitive to quality as elite readers in Britain were.
12. Paragraph 4 suggests which of the following about books in Britain?
A. British and American book markets fit a similar pattern in the nineteenth century
B. Government taxes were intended to prevent British books from reaching a wide audience.
C. Mass-produced books were less popular in Britain than in the United States
D. Britain possessed the most advanced technology for making books before 1850.
13. Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the
passage
Although people did not read widely, or extensively, they read intensively so as to thoroughly
understand the limited
number of books that were available for reading.
Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [] to add the sentence to t he passage.
[ Paragraph 2] Cheap print was not entirely unprecedented. In seventeenth- and eighteenth-century
England and France,
cheap collections of stories, ballads, and other miscellany had circulated among the lower classes.
But since only a minority
of the poor could read, most listened while a few read aloud; thus cheap print reached not so much
a reading as a listening
public. The expansion of cheap print in the nineteenth century in America and Europe was on a
much larger scale, and it
took place during a great increase in popular literacy. Together these amounted to a cultural
watershed. [ A] Traditionally,
even in literate homes, books and other publications had been relatively rare and treasured objects;
reading meant
returning to a few texts, especially religious works. [ B] But with the explosion of print, read ing
became more varied, and
readers scanned newspapers, magazines, and cheap books that they soon passed on or discarded.
[ C] Intensive reading
of religious and other works did not disappear, but reading became an increasingly common form
of diversion as well as
devotion. [ D]
14. Cheap print experienced early success in the United States.
Answer Choices
A. Cheap print was initially criticized because it was feared that relig ious and moral reading
would disappear and be
replaced by readinq solely for the purpose of diversion
B. The introduction of cheap books to seventeenth-and eighteenth-century England and France did
not succeed
because most of the publications were of little interest to the general public.
C. Books and other kinds of publications followed the pattern of the American consumer markets
of the t ime, and
American consumers were more willing than Europeans to buy mass-produced products.
D. The growth of cheap print gave more parts of the population access to different kinds of
publications, and it
affected the way people read and their primary reasons for reading
E. Advances in printing technology originated mostly in Europe, but unlike European
governments, the United States
encouraged cheap print by not taxing newspapers and other publications
F. By the end of the nineteenth century, low production costs made it possible for United States
publishers to expand
their markets and sell their books all over Europe.
Earth' s Core
[ Paragraph 1 ] Knowledge of Earth' s deep interior is derived from the study of t he waves
produced by earthquakes,
called seismic waves Among the various kinds of seismic waves are primary waves (P-waves) and
secondary waves (Swaves).
Primary and secondary waves pass deep within Earth and therefore are t he most instructive. Study
of abrupt
changes in the characteristics of seismic waves at different depths provides the basis for a t
hreefold division of Earth into a
central core; a thick, overlying mantle: and a thin, enveloping crust. Sudden changes in seismic
wave velocities and angles
of transmission are termed discontinuities.
[ Paragraph 2 ] One of the discontinuities is t he Gutenberg discontinuity, which is located nearly
ha lfway to the center of
Earth at a depth of 2,900 ki lometers and marks the outer boundary of Earth's core. At that depth,
the S-waves cannot
propagate, while at the same time P-wave velocity is drastically reduced S-waves are unable to
travel through fluids. Thus, if
S-waves were to encounter a fluidlike region of Earth' s interior, they would be absorbed there and
would not be able to
continue. Geophysicists believe this is what happens to S-waves as they enter the outer core. As a
result, the S-waves
generated on one side of Earth fai l to appear at seismograph stations on the opposite side of Earth,
and t his observation is
the principal evidence of an outer core that behaves as a fluid. Unlike S-waves, P-waves are able
to pass through liquids
They are, however, abruptly slowed and sharply refracted (bent) as they enter a fluid medium.
Therefore, as P-waves
encounter the molten outer core of Earth, their velocity is reduced and they are refracted
downward
[ Paragraph 3 ] The rad ius of the core is about 3,500 ki lometers. The inner core is solid and has a
radius of about 1,220
kilometers, which makes t his inner core slightly larger than the Moon. Most geologists believe
that the inner core has the
same composition as the outer core and that it can only exist as a solid because of the enormous
pressure at the center of
Earth. Evidence of the existence of a solid inner core is derived from the study of hundreds of
records of seismic waves
produced over several years. These studies showed that t he inner core behaves seismically as if it
were a solid.
[ Parag raph 4 ] Earth has an overall density of 5.5 grams per cubic centimeter, yet the average
density of rocks at the
surface is less than 3.0 grams per cubic centimeter. This difference indicates that materials of high
density must exist in the
deep interior of the planet to achieve the 5.5 grams per cubic centimeter overall density. Under the
extreme pressure
conditions t hat exist in the region of the core, iron mixed with nickel would very likely have the
required hig h density.
Laboratory experiments, however, suggest that a highly pressurized iron-nickel alloy might be too
dense and that minor
amounts of such elements such as silicon, sulfur, carbon, or oxygen may also be present to lighten
the core material.
[ Paragraph 5 ] Support for the theory that t he core is composed of iron (85 percent) with lesser
amounts of nickel has
come from the study of meteorites. Many of these samples of solar system materials are iron
meteorites t hat consist of
metallic iron alloyed with a small percentage of nickel Some geologists suspect that iron
meteorites may be fragments from
the core of a shattered planet. The presence of iron meteorites in our solar system suggests that the
existence of an ironnickel
core for Earth is plausible.
[ Parag raph 6 ] There is further evidence that Earth may have a metallic core. Anyone who
understands the functioning of
a compass is aware t hat Earth has a magnetic field. The planet itself behaves as if there was a
great bar magnet embedded
within it. A magnetic field is developed by the flow of electric charges and requires good electrical
conductors. Silicate
rocks, such as those in t he mantle and crust, do not conduct electricity very well, whereas metals
such as iron and nickel are
good conductors. Heat-driven movements in t he outer core, coupled with movements induced by
Earth' s spin, are
thought to provide the necessary flow of electrons (very small particles that carry a negative
charge) around the inner core
that produces the magnetic field. Without a metallic core, Earth' s magnetic field would not be
possible.
1. The word "instructive" in the passage is closest in meaning to
A. inaccurate
B. intense
C. inaccessible
D. informative
2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following findings provides the basis for Earth' s
division into three parts?
A. All seismic waves pass deep within Earth.
B. There are no significant differences in the behavior of P-waves and S-waves.
C. Discontinuities occur at different depths within Earth
D. Earth' s crust is too thin to account for the size of the planet.
3. The word "drastically" in the passage is closest in meaning to
A. gradually
B. severely
C. typically
D. permanently
4. The word "abruptly" in t he passage is closest in meaning to
A. suddenly
B. eventually
C. smoothly
D. normally
5. According to paragraph 2, entering the outer core affects seismic waves in each of the following
ways EXCEPT: 1
A. S-waves do not continue traveling.
B. S-waves are absorbed by the outer core.
C. P-waves are slowed down
D. P-waves do not change direction
6. Paragraph 3 supports which of the fol lowing statements about the inner core?
A. It is smaller in volume than the Moon.
B. It consists of materials different from those found in the outer core
C. It is subject to more pressure tha n t he outer core
D. It is not solid even though it behaves seismically as if it were.
7. According to paragraph 4, why do scientists believe that Earth' score consists of materials of
very high density?
A. Under the extreme pressure conditions near the center of Earth, any materials would become
very dense.
B. Without a very dense core, Earth's overall density wou ld not be as high as it is found to be
C. Earth' s deep interior is known to be solid, and solids are always denser than liquids.
D. Earth' score is known to conta in the same high-density rocks that are formed on Earth' s
surface.
8. According to paragraph 4, why do scientists believe that Earth' s core contains materials other
than iron mixed with
nickel?
A. In the absence of such materials, the core might be too dense
B. Iron and nickel do not mix evenly without the presence of lighter elements.
C. Laboratory experiments showed that minor amounts of silicon, sulfur, carbon, and oxygen are
present in samples
from Earth's core
D. Iron-nickel alloys always contain minor amounts of elements such as silicon, sulfur, carbon, or
oxygen.
9. According to paragraph 5, why does the presence of iron meteorites in our solar system suggest
that an iron-nickel
core for Earth is plausible?
A. Iron meteorites indicate that our solar system contains large quantities of iron alloyed with
nickel.
B. Some scientists think that t he iron meteorites were originally part of Earth and broke off long
ago
C. Some scientists think that iron meteorites may be pieces from t he core of a planet that broke
apart
D. Iron meteorites in our solar system were formed at about t he same t ime that Earth was
formed.
10. The word "embedded " in the passage is closest in meaning to
A. active
B. revolving
C. formed
D. enclosed
11 . Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted
sentence in the passage?
Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information
[ Paragraph 6] There is further evidence that Earth may have a metallic core. Anyone who
understands the functioning of
a compass is aware t hat Earth has a magnetic field. The planet itself behaves as if there was a
great bar magnet embedded
within it. A magnetic field is developed by the flow of electric charges and requ ires good
electrical conductors. Silicate
rocks, such as those in the mantle and crust, do not conduct electricity very well, whereas metals
such as iron and nickel are
good conductors. Heat-driven movements in t he outer core, coupled with movements induced by
Earth' s spin, are
thought to provide the necessary flow of electrons (very small particles that carry a negative
charge) around the inner core
that produces the magnetic field. Without a metallic core, Earth' s magnetic field would not be
possible.
A. A combination of different motions produces Earth's magnetic field, and the magnetic field is
thought to cause a
flow of electrons around t he planet' s inner and outer core.
B. The flow of electrons around the planet that produces Earth' s magnetic field is t he combined
effect of motions
that are thought to occur in the planet' s inner core
C. The flow of electrons around the inner core that produces Earth' s mag netic field is thought to
be the joint result
of motions in the outer core and motions caused by Earth' s spin
D. Heat-driven motions in the outer core interact with motions caused by the spin of the inner core
to produce a flow
of electrons that is t hought to result in Earth' s magnetic field
12. In paragraph 6, why does the author discuss Earth' s magnetic field?
A. To cast doubt on its existence, given what scientists now know about Earth' s composition
B. To provide add it ional support for the theory of an iron-nickel core for Earth
C. To present a puzzli ng feature of Earth that has not yet been explained satisfactorily
D. To explain why so many iron meteorites are found near Earth
13. Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the
passage
Several of these have been named after their discoverers.
Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [] to add the sentence to the passage.
[ Paragraph 1 ] Knowledge of Earth' s deep interior is derived from the study of t he waves
produced by earthquakes,
called seismic waves Among the various kinds of seismic waves are primary waves (P-waves) and
secondary waves (Swaves).
[ A ] Primary and secondary waves pass deep within Earth and therefore are the most instructive. [
B] Study of
abrupt changes in the characteristics of seismic waves at different depths provides the basis for a
threefold division of Earth
into a central core; a thick, overlying mantle: and a thin, enveloping crust. [ C] Sudden changes in
seismic wave velocities
and angles of transmission are termed discontinuities. [ D]
14. Our knowledge of Earth' s interior is based on the study of the transmission of seismic waves
within the planet.
Answer Choices
A. Study of marked changes in the transmission of seismic waves at different depths has led
scientists to divide Earth
into the crust, the mantle, and the core.
B. Studies of the transmission of seismic waves show that Earth's core is less dense then the solid
crust, which
explains why the core exists mostly as a liquid
C. Changes in the characteristics of seismic waves at the Gutenberg discontinuity support the
conclusion that the
outer part of Earth' score is liquid.
D. Si licate rocks, which are found in Earth' s mantle and crust, are not good conductors of
electricity.
E. Scientists believe t hat most of the iron and nickel found in Earth's core came from iron
meteorites scattered into
space when the interior of an ancient planet broke apart.
F. A variety of evidence leads to the conclusion that Earth' s inner core is solid and composed
primarily of meta ls,
which fits well with the fact that Earth has a magnetic field.