Microwave Engineering Laboratory

ECE Department, NIT Kurukshetra

Lab Manual
ECLR70
Microwave Lab

Bachelor of Technology
in
Electronics & Communication Engineering

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

National Institute of Technology
Kurukshetra-136119
Website: www.nitkkr.ac.in

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VISION

The Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering shall strive to impart state-of-the-art
Electronics and Communication Engineering Education and Research responsive to global challenges.

MISSION

1) To prepare students with strong theoretical and practical knowledge by imparting quality
education.
2) To produce comprehensively trained and innovative graduates in Electronics and
Communication Engineering through hands on practice and research to encourage them
for entrepreneurship.
3) To inculcate team work spirit and professional ethics in students.

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Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

The graduates of the Electronics and Communication Engineering Program will:

1) Have a lead and successful role in their professional career.
2) Be able to analyze real life problems and design socially accepted and economically viable
solutions in Electronics and Communication Engineering area.
3) Be capable of lifelong learning and professional development by pursuing higher education and
participation in research and development activities.
4) Have appropriate human and technical communication skills to be a good team-member/leaders
and responsible human being.

Program Outcomes (POs)

After successful completion of B. Tech. (Electronics & Communication Engineering) program, the
student will be able to:
1. Apply knowledge of Mathematics, Science and Engineering to solve technical problems in the
domain of Electronics and Communication Engineering.
2. Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering problems
reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and
engineering sciences.
3. Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system components or
processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and
safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Use research-based knowledge and methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusion.
5. Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT
tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an
understanding of the limitations.
6. Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal
and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering
practice.
7. Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental
contexts, demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics, responsibilities, and norms of the
engineering practice.
9. Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and in
multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering community
and with society, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design
documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.

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11. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and management principles and
apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in
multidisciplinary environments.
12. Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and life-
long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

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ECT-414
Microwave Lab

L T P

0 0 3

Course This lab aims to get familiarize the students about the various microwave
Objectives components, the characteristics of reflex Klystron tube and Gunn diode and
communication antennas used in microwave range. It includes their design, gain,
directivity, polar pattern, VSWR and various other characteristics. Further in this lab
students will attain the knowledge about operation of various Plane-Tee.

Course At the end of the course, the students will be able to:
Outcomes 1) Gain knowledge and understanding of microwave analysis methods.
2) Be able to apply analysis methods to determine circuit properties of
passive/active microwave devices.
3) Know how to model and determine the performance characteristics of
a microwave circuit or system using computer aided design methods.
4) Have knowledge of basic communication link design; signal power
budget, noise evaluation and link carrier to noise ratio.
5) Have knowledge of how transmission and waveguide structures

List of Experiments:
1. To study the microwave components.
2. To study the characteristics of the reflex Klystron tube and to determine its electronic tuning
range.
3. To determine the frequency and wavelength in a rectangular waveguide working in TE IO
mode.
4. To determine the standing wave ratio and reflection coefficient.
5. To study the I-V characteristics of Gunn diode.
6. To study the magic tee.
7. To study the isolator and attenuator.
8. To measure the coupling coefficient and directivity of a wave guide directional coupler
9. To measure the polar pattern and the gain of a waveguide horn antenna.
10. To measure the insertion loss and attenuation.
11. To measure an unknown impedance using smith chart.

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INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS

The objective of microwave communication systems is to transmit information from one place
to another without interruption and clear reproduction at the receiver. Fig.1 indicates how this is
achieved in its simplest form. Above 100 MHz the waves travel in straight lines and can therefore be
narrowly focused. Concentrating all the energy into a small beam using a parabolic antenna (like the
satellite TV dish) gives a much higher signal to noise ratio, but the transmitting and receiving antennas
must be accurately aligned with each other. Before the advent of fiber optics, these microwaves formed
the heart of the long-distance telephone transmission system.
In its simplest form the microwave link can be one hop, consisting of one pair of antennas
spaced as little as one or two kilometers apart, or can be a backbone, including multiple hops, spanning
several thousand kilometers. A single hop is typically 30 to 60 km in relatively flat regions for
frequencies in the 2 to 8 GHz bands. When antennas are placed between mountain peaks, a very long
hop length can be achieved. Hop distances in excess of 200 km are in existence.

Fig.1 Transmission of Information from Transmitter to Receiver

The "line-of-sight" nature of microwaves has some very attractive advantages over cable
systems. Line of sight is a term which is only partially correct when describing microwave paths.
Atmospheric conditions and certain effects modify the propagation of microwaves so that even if the
designer can see from point A to point B (true line of sight), it may not be possible to place antennas at
those two points and achieve a satisfactory communication performance.
In order to overcome the problems of line-of-sight and power amplification of weak signals,
microwave systems use repeaters at intervals of about 25 to 30 km in between the transmitting receiving
stations. The first repeater is placed in line-of-sight of the transmitting station and the last repeater is
placed in line-of-sight of the receiving station. Two consecutive repeaters are also placed in line-of-
sight of each other. The data signals are received, amplified, and re-transmitted by each of these
stations.

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MICROWAVE SYSTEMS

A microwave system is a system of gear used for microwave data transmission. The typical
microwave system includes radios located high atop microwave towers, which are used for the
transmission of microwave communications using line of sight microwave radio technology.
Usually a microwave system consists of a transmitter sub system, consisting of a microwave
oscillator, waveguide, transmission antenna and a receiver sub system; that includes a receiving
antenna, wave guide a microwave detector, power and frequency meter. The intermediate region
between the transmitter and receiver, as well as the inner hollow space of the waveguide may be filled
up with air or dielectric medium. The electromagnetic wave traverses with the speed of light through
air but a dielectric medium such as Teflon and even water will slow down the waves. If the medium
has the dielectric constant, then wavelength (𝜆 ) in the dielectric is given by 𝜆 = 𝜆 /√𝜖 where 𝜆 is
the free space wavelength.
The Fig. 2 depicts block diagram of microwave link transmitter and receiver section. The voice,
video, or data channels are combined by a technique known as multiplexing to produce a broadband
signal. This signal is frequency modulated to an IF and then up converted (heterodyned) to the RF for
transmission through the atmosphere. The reverse process occurs at the receiver.

Fig. 2 Block diagram of microwave transmitter and receiver

The frequency bands used for digital microwave radio are recommended by the Canadian
Council of Insurance Regulators (CCIR). Each recommendation clearly defines the frequency range,
the number of channels that can be used within that range, the channel spacing the bit rate and the
polarization possibilities.
MICROWAVE FREQUENCIES
Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from one meter
to one millimeter; with frequencies between 300 MHz (100 cm) to 300 GHz (0.1 cm). Different sources
define different frequency ranges as microwaves; the above broad definition includes both UHF and

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EHF (millimeter wave) bands.
Relationship between the frequency (f) and the wavelength (λ) of an E.M. wave is
𝜆𝑓 = 𝑐
Where c is the velocity of electromagnetic radiation, usually called the speed of light.

Table 1. Frequencies and wavelengths of various radio spectrum

Band Nomenclature Frequency Wavelength
name
ELF Extremely Low Frequency 3-30 Hz 100,000-10,000 Km

SLF Super Low Frequency 30-300 Hz 10,000-1,000 Km

ULF Ultra-Low Frequency 300-3000 Hz 1,000-100 Km
VLF Very Low Frequency 3-30 kHz 100-10 Km
LF Low Frequency 30-300 kHz 10-1 Km
MF Medium Frequency 300-3000 kHz 1 Km -100 m
HF High Frequency 3-30 MHz 100-10 m
VHF Very High Frequency 30-300 MHz 10-1 m
UHF Ultra-High Frequency 300-3000 MHz 1 m -10 cm
SHF Super High Frequency 3-30 GHz 10-1 cm
EHF Extremely High Frequency 30-300 GHz 1 cm – 1 mm

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF MICROWAVE AND APPLICATIONS

First important characteristic is that the microwave is highly directive which makes it possible
for microwave communication used for telephone networks, radio broadcasting and television systems.
Like any other energy, microwave energy has a heating effect, it is used in microwave oven for home
cooking, drying machine, drying inks, and in food processing industries.
Microwaves are capable of energetically interacting with matter and so used in microwave
spectroscopy for structural analysis. Apart from scientific research the absorption of microwave by
molecular resonance is well suited for various industrial measurements like control of pollution by
checking the concentration of different gases from an exhaust chimney.
Advantages of Microwaves

(a) Large Bandwidth: The Bandwidth of Microwaves is larger than the common low frequency
radio waves. Thus, more information can be transmitted using Microwaves. It is very good
advantage, because of this, Microwaves is used for Point to Point Communications.
(b) Better Directivity: At Microwave Frequencies, there are better directive properties. This is
due to the relation that as Frequency Increases, Wavelength decreases and as Wavelength
Decreases Directivity Increases and Beam width decreases. So, it is easier to design and
fabricate high gain antenna in Microwaves.

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(c) Small Size Antenna: Microwaves allows decreasing the size of antenna. The antenna size
can be smaller as the size of antenna is inversely proportional to the transmitted frequency.
Thus, in Microwaves, we have waves of much higher frequencies and hence the higher the
frequency, the smaller the size of antenna.
(d) Low Power Consumption: The power required to transmit a high frequency signal is lesser
than the power required in transmission of low frequency signals. As Microwaves have high
frequency thus requires very less power.
(e) Effect of Fading: The effect of fading is minimized by using Line of Sight propagation
technique at Microwave Frequencies. While at low frequency signals, the layers around the
earth causes fading of the signal.

Microwave technology is extensively used for point-to-point telecommunications (i.e. non-

broadcast uses). Microwaves are especially suitable for this use since they are more easily focused into
narrower beams than radio waves, allowing frequency reuse; their comparatively higher frequencies
allow broad bandwidth and high data transmission rates, and antenna sizes are smaller than at lower
frequencies because antenna size is inversely proportional to transmitted frequency.

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EXPERIMENT 1
TO STUDY MICROWAVE COMPONENTS
Objective: Study of various microwave components and instruments like rectangular waveguide,
directional couplers, microwave isolator, microwave circulators, frequency meter, microwave
attenuators, detector mount, slotted waveguide, waveguide detector mount, klystron mount, Slide screw
tuners, movable short, matched termination, Pyramidal waveguide horn antenna, Gunn oscillator, pin
modulator, Gunn power supply.

Theory:
Waveguides are used to transfer electromagnetic power efficiently from one point in space to
another. Some common guiding structures are shown in the figure below. These include the typical
coaxial cable, the two-wire and mictrostrip transmission lines, hollow conducting waveguides, and
optical fibers. In practice, the choice of structure is dictated by: (a) the desired operating frequency
band, (b) the amount of power to be transferred, and (c) the amount of transmission losses that can be
tolerated.

Fig. 1.1 Typical waveguide structures

Coaxial cables are widely used to connect RF components. Their operation is practical for
frequencies below 3GHz. Above that the losses are too excessive. For example, the attenuation might
be 3dB per 100m at 100MHz, but 10dB/100m at 1GHz, and 50dB/100m at 10GHz. Their power rating
is typically of the order of one kilo watt at 100MHz, but only 200W at 2GHz, being limited primarily
because of the heating of the coaxial conductors and of the dielectric between the conductors (dielectric
voltage break down is usually a secondary factor). However, special short-length coaxial cables do
exist that operate in the 40 GHz range. Another issue is the single-mode operation of the line, at higher
frequencies, in order to prevent higher modes from being launched, the diameters of the coaxial
conductors must be reduced, diminishing the amount of power that can be transmitted. Two-wire lines
are not used at microwave frequencies because they are not shielded and can radiate. One typical use
is for connecting indoor antennas to TV sets. Microstrip lines are used widely in microwave integrated
circuits.
Rectangular wave guides are used routinely to transfer large amounts of microwave power at
frequencies greater than 3GHz. For example, at 5GHz, the transmitted power might be one megawatt
and the attenuation only 4dB/100m. Optical fibers operate at optical and infrared frequencies, allowing

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a very wide bandwidth. Their losses are very low, typically, 0.2dB/km. The transmitted power is of the
order of milliwatts.

1) Rectangular waveguides
Rectangular waveguides are the one of the earliest type of the transmission lines. They are used
in many applications. A lot of components such as isolators, detectors, attenuators, couplers and slotted
lines are available for various standard waveguide bands between 1 GHz to above 220 GHz.

A rectangular waveguide supports TM and TE modes but not TEM waves because we cannot
define a unique voltage since there is only one conductor in a rectangular waveguide. The shape of a
rectangular waveguide is as shown below Fig. 1.2. A material with permittivity  and permeability 
fills the inside of the conductor. A rectangular waveguide cannot propagate below some certain
frequency. This frequency is called the cut-off frequency which is given by-

2 2
1  m   n 
fc     
2   a   b 

Where a and b are internal dimensions of the waveguide measured in cm, m and n are number of ½-
wavelength variations of fields in the "a" direction and “b” direction respectively,  is the permittivity
and  is permeability.

Wave guides are manufactured to the highest mechanical and electrical standards and
mechanical tolerances. L and S band wave guides are fabricated by precision brazing of brass-plates and
all other wave guides are in extrusion quality. WG sections of specified length can be supplied with
flanges, painted outside and silver or gold plated in side.

Fig. 1.2 Dimensions of the rectangular waveguide

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Fig. 1.3 Rectangular waveguide

a) Waveguide Tee Junction: In microwave circuit a waveguide junction with three independent
port is commonly referred to as a tee junction.

1) E-plane tee (Series tee): An E-plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its side arm is
parallel to the E field of the main guide. If the collinear arms are symmetry about the side arm
there are two different transmission characteristics (Fig. 1.4(b)). It can be seen from Fig. 1.4(a)
that if the E-plane tee is perfectly matched with the aid of screw tuners or inductive or capacitive
windows at the junction, the diagonal elements of s matrix (S11, S22, S33) are zero because there
will be no reflection. When the waves are fed into the side arm (port 3) the waves appearing at
port1 and port 2 of the collinear arm will be of the same magnitude and opposite phase.

E - Plane tee is series type T - junction and consists of three sections of wave guide joined
together in order to divide or compare power levels. The signal entering the first port of this T -
junction will be equally dividing at second and third ports of the same magnitude but in opposite
phase

Fig. 1.4 (a) E-plane tee (b) E field for various input

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Port 3

Port 2
Port 1

Fig. 1.5 E plane tee

2) H-Plane Tee (Shunt Tee): A H-Plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its side arm is
shunting the E-field or parallel to the H-field of the main guide as shown in Fig. 1.6. It can be
seen that if the two input waves are fed into port 1 and port 2 of the collinear arm the output at
port 3 will be in phase and additive on the other hand, if the input is fed into port 3 the wave will
split equally into port 1 and port 2 with same magnitude and same phase.

Fig. 1.6 (a) H- plane tee (b) E field for various input

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Port 2

Port 1

Port 3

Fig. 1.7 H-plane tee

Like in E-plane tee, the signal fed through first port of H - plane Tee will be equally divided in
magnitude at second and third ports but in same phase.

3) Magic Tee (Hybrid Tee): A magic tee is a combination of E-plane tee and H-plane tee (see Fig
1.8). It has several characteristics. If two waves of equal magnitude and the same phase are fed into
port1 and port2, the output will be zero at port 3 and additive at port 4. If a wave is fed into port 4,
it will be divided equally between port 1 and port 2 and will not appear at port 3. If a wave is fed
into port 3 it will produce an output of equal magnitude and opposite phase at port 1 and port 2. The
output at port 4 is zero. i.e. 𝑆 = 𝑆 = 0. If a wave fed into one of the collinear arms at port 1 or
port 2, it will not appear in the other collinear arm at port 2 or port 1. Because the E-arm causes a
phase delay while the H arm causes the phase advance. i.e. 𝑆 = 𝑆 = 0 .The magic tee is
commonly used for mixing duplexing and impedance measurements, suppose for example, there are
two identical radar transmitters in equipment. A particular application requires twice more input
power to an antenna than either transmitter can deliver. A magic tee may be used to couple the two
transmitters to the antenna in such a way that the transmitters do not load each other. The two
transmitters should be connected to port 3 and port 4 respectively. Transmitter 1 causes a wave to
antenna from port 1 and another to enable from port 2, these waves are equal in magnitude but
opposite in phase. Similarly, transmitter 2 connected to port 4, gives rise to a wave at port 1 and port
2, both equal in magnitude and in phase at port1 the two opposite waves cancel each other. At port
2 the two in phase waves add together. So double output power at port 2 is obtained for the antenna
shown in figure.

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Port 4

Port 2

Port 1
Port 3

Fig. 1.8 Magic tee

2) Directional couplers
A directional coupler is four-port waveguide junction. It consists of primary waveguide port 1 &
port 2 and a secondary waveguide port 3 & port 4. When all ports are terminated in their
characteristics impedances, there is free transmission of power without reflection between port 1 &
port 2 and there is no transmission of power between port 1 & port 3 or between port 2 & port 4,
because no coupling exists between these two pairs of ports.

a) Multihole directional couplers

Multihole directional couplers are useful for sampling a part of Microwave energy for
monitoring purposes and for measuring reflections and impedance. These consists of a section
of Wave guide with addition of a second parallel section of wave guide thus making it a four-
port network. However, the fourth port is terminated with a matched load. These two parallel
sections are coupled to each other through many holes, almost to give uniform coupling;
minimum frequency sensitivity and high directivity. These are available in 3, 6, 10, 20 and
40dB coupling.

Fig. 1.9 Multihole directional coupler

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3) Microwave isolator
There are two types of isolators, A) Faraday rotation Isolator -used up too few 100W and B)
Resonance absorption Isolator- for high power. The isolator is commonly used to couple microwave
source to load. Because of change in load its frequency and power can be changed due to reflection
from the load. Such type of undesirable effects can be avoided with the aid of isolator in between
source and load as shown in Fig 1.10 and Fig 1.11.

a) Faraday rotation Isolator

A ferrite device which allows unattenuated transmission in forward direction but very high
attenuation in reverse direction. Its construction is similar to that of gyrator as shown in Fig. 1.10.
When TE10 wave is allowed to pass through R.W.G. its plane gets rotated due to 450 twists. Then
it is converted into circularly polarized TE11 wave further, wave rotates through 450 because of
ferrite in reverse direction, so output signal is in phase with input signal. When waves enter through
port 2 it converts into TE11 and comes into rotation of 450 clockwise due to ferrite rod. Further
addition 450 clockwise rotation is produced due to twist. Now the way at port1 is parallel to the
plane of resistive card. So, all the waves are absorbing by it and no signals are available at port 1.
Performance factors are insertion loss of less than 1db and isolation of 20 dB to 30 dBs.
The three port circulators may be converted into isolators by terminating one of its port into
matched load. These will work over the frequency range of circulators. These are well matched
devices offering low forward insertion loss and high reverse isolation.

Fig. 1.10 Faraday rotation isolator

b) Resonance absorption isolators

A resonance absorption isolator was proposed by L. Lewin. The isolator has very simple
structure which is formed on a substrate by placing a ferrite blank under the junction of the main
strip and the sub strip connected at right angle. However, the resonance absorption isolator has
not been used for cellar phone terminals. Yet, because the length of the microstrip is too large and
the insertion loss of the isolator is too high.

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Fig. 1.11 Resonance absorption isolators

4) Microwave circulators
It is a multiport ferrite device that have the property that a wave incident in Port 1 is coupled
in Port 2 and coupled in Port 3 only and so an. A four-port circulator utilizing 2900 non-reciprocal
phase shifter is shown in Fig. In general, the sequence 1 2 3 4 1 is followed.

Fig.1.12 Microwave circulator

5) Frequency meter
A typical cavity wave meter is shown in Fig. 1.13. The axis of cavity is made perpendicular to
the main wave guide and the coupling from the cavity to the wave guide is achieved to a small
circular hole or iris. A block polyron (absorbing material) on the back of plunger prevents false
resonance. By proper design of cavity, the instrument made by dumping out any oscillations that
might exists. It should be notice that as the resonance is made smaller by proper design of cavity the
instrument may be made to indicate wavelength directly on a micrometer head attached to a plunger.
Calibration of this wave meter is done by determining the resonant frequency for different
micrometer settings. The calibration chart drawn from these readings and the wave meter calibrated
accordingly. A signal is fed to cavity through input and detector is connected through output. The
size of cavity is adjusted with the plunger until the detector indicates the pronounced oscillations
are taking place, whereupon frequency is read from the micrometer.

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Fig. 1.13 Frequency meter

6) Microwave attenuators
Attenuators are component that reduce the amount of power from the input to the output of the
device. For high powers provision must be made to remove excess heat. It is important that
attenuators reduce the power through the device without reflecting energy or affecting the mode of
transmission.
Types of attenuator:
a) Fixed attenuators
Fixed Attenuators are meant for inserting a known attenuation in a wave guide system. This
consists of a lossy vane inserted in a section of wave guide, flanged on both ends. These are useful
for isolation of wave guide circuits, padding and extending the range of measuring equipment.
A precision built probe carriage has a centimeter scale with a Vernier reading of 0.1mm least
count and a dial gauge can be mounted easily if precise readings are required.

Fig. 1.13 Fixed attenuator

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b) Variable attenuator

Fig. 1.14 Variable attenuator

1) Slide vane attenuator

Slide vane and flap attenuators operates on the principle that a resistive material placed in
parallel with the E lines of a field current will induce a current in the material that would reduce
in an I2 R power loss. The slide vane attenuator is a thin dielectric material such as glass that is
coated with lossy resistive material. The location of the vane will depend on the mode of
propagation in the waveguide. For a TE10 mode the location of maximum attenuation would be
in the center of waveguide.
2) Flap attenuator
A flap attenuator has a vane that is dropped into the waveguide through a slot in the top of the
guide. The further the vane is inserted into the waveguide the greater the attenuation. The position
of the slot for the vane must be located with reference to the maximum E field of the operating
mode. The resistive vane of the flap attenuator is curved to reduce reflections as the vane is
inserted and removed from the waveguide.
3) Rotary vane attenuator
It is a precision attenuator in which attenuator follows a mathematical law. It has three sections
each with a resistive card in the center with all the cards lined up the E field is perpendicular to
the card and there is zero attenuation. The center section can rotate independently of the ends.
When the center section is rotated the E field is split into two components. 𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 component is
observed by the card. 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 splits into components 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 sin 𝜃 which is observed and 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
which is not observed. 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 exist the attenuator with the sane attenuation as E field. The
resulting attenuation is then equal to Attenuation = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 40𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 {dB}

7) Detector mount
Detection of an electromagnetic wave is accomplished through the use of special diodes that
operate throughout the microwave range. These are non-linear devices designed for signal detection,
frequency conversion, and frequency harmonic generation. Microwave diodes are point contact
silicon, gallium or Schottky barrier, diodes. They are mounted in a case that can be inserted into
detector mount. These devices cannot be mounted across the end of waveguide or located in the top
of waveguide this is due to mismatch of diode with the waveguide and the requirement for a return
dc current path. Detectors are in the interfaced with the waveguides through the use of detector

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mount if the diode is located a quarter wavelength from the end of guide. The end of the guide can
be a tuning plunger to tune out any slight mismatch. Diodes are square law devices only at low
powers.

Fig. 1.15 Detector mount

8) Slotted waveguide
In slotted Waveguide Section a longitudinal slot is cut into the top of a section of waveguide
as shown in Fig. These sections are used as tuners to match the waveguide to mismatched load for
two maxima or minimum field points to be located at the same point. The slot must be greater than
half wavelength for the lowest group wavelength. Field strength is determined through the use of
a detector probe that slides along the top of the waveguides. The slot is located along the plane of
maximum electric field for TE10 mode. A scale is located on the top of the guide with a Vernier
scale located on the carriage.

Fig. 1.16 Slotted waveguide

9) Wave guide detector mount (tunable)
Tunable Detector Mount is simple and easy to use instrument for detecting microwave power
through a suitable detector. It consists of a detector crystal mounted in a section of a Wave guide
and shorting plunger for matching purpose. The output from the crystal may be fed to an indicating
instrument. In K and R bands detector mounts the plunger is driven by a micrometer.

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Fig. 1.17 Waveguide detector mount

10) Klystron mount

Klystron mounts are meant for mounting corresponding Klystrons such as 2K25, 723A/B,
726A or RK - 5976 etc. These consists of a section of wave guide flanged on one end and
terminated with a movable short on the other end. An octal base with cable is provided for
Klystron.

Fig.1.18 Klystron mount

11) Circulators
T and Y types of three port circulators respectively. These are precisely machined and
assembled to get the desired specifications. Circulators are matched three port devices and these
are meant for allowing Microwave energy to flow in clockwise direction with negligible loss but
almost no transmission in the anti-clockwise direction.

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Fig. 1.19 Circulators

12) Slide screw tuners

Slide screw tuners are used for matching purposes by changing the penetration and position of
a screw in the slot provided in the center of the wave guide. These consists of a section of wave
guide flanged on both ends and a thin slot is provided in the broad wall of the Wave guide. A
carriage carrying the screw, is provided over the slot. A VSWR up to 20 can be tuned to a value
less than 1.02 at certain frequency.

Fig.1.20 Slide screw tuners

13) Movable short
Movable shorts consist of a section of waveguide, flanged on one end and terminated with a
movable shorting plunger on the other end. By means of this none contacting type plunger, a
reflection co-efficient of almost unity may be obtained.

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Fig.1.21 Movable short

14) Matched termination

Matched termination are low power and non-reflective type of terminations. It consists of a
small and highly dissipative taper flap mounted inside the centre of a section of wave guide.
Matched Terminations are useful for VSWR measurement of various waveguide components.
These are also employed as dummy and as a precise reference loads with Tee junctions, directional
couplers and other similar dividing devices.

Fig. 1.22 Matched termination

15) Pyramidal waveguide horn antenna

Pyramidal Waveguide Horn antenna consists of waveguide joined to pyramidal section
fabricated from brass sheet. The pyramidal section shapes the energy to concentrate in a specified
beam. Wave guide horns are used as feed horns as radiators for reflectors and lenses and as a
pickup antenna for receiving microwave power.

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Fig. 1.23 Horn antenna

16) Gunn oscillators

Gunn Oscillators are solid state microwave energy generators. These consists of waveguide
cavity flanged on one end and micrometer driven plunger fitted on the other end. A Gunn-diode is
mounted inside the Wave guide with BNC (F) connector for DC bias. Each Gunn oscillator is
supplied with calibration certificate giving frequency vs micrometer reading.

Fig.1.24 Gunn oscillator

17) Pin Modulators

Pin modulators are designed to modulate the CW output of Gunn Oscillators. It is operated by
the square pulses derived from the UHF(F) connector of the Gunn power supply. These consists
of a pin diode mounted inside a section of Wave guide flanged on it’s both end. A fixed attenuation
vane is mounted inside at the input to protect the oscillator.

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Fig. 1.25 Pin Modulators

18) Gunn Power Supply

Gunn Power supply comprises of regulated DC power supply and a square wave generator,
designed to operate Gunn-Oscillator and pin modulators respectively. The DC voltage is variable
from 0 - 10V. The front panel meter monitors the Gunn voltage and the current drawn by the Gunn
diode. The square wave of generator is variable from 0 - 10V. in amplitude and 900 - 1100 Hz in
frequency. The power supply has been so designed to protect Gunn diode from reverse voltage
application over transient and low frequency oscillations by the negative resistance of the Gunn-
diode.

Fig. 1.26 Gunn power supply

Result:
Thus, all the microwave components were studied in detail.

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Questions
1. What is microwave?
2. Mention the frequency band for a millimeter wave.
3. List some of IEEE microwave frequency bands.
4. List some of characteristic feature of microwave.
5. List some of the application of microwave technology.
6. Draw a simple microwave system.
7. What are waveguide `Tees’?
8. What is an isolator?
9. What is a circulator?
10. What is a directional coupler?

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EXPERIMENT 2
REFLEX KLYSTRON CHARACTERISTICS

Objective: To study the repeller mode characteristics of the Reflex Klystron.

Apparatus Required: Klystron power supply, klystron tube with mount, frequency meter variable
attenuator, detector mount with probe connection, Oscilloscope.

Theory:
Reflex Klystron is one of the most commonly used microwave (low power) generators. It
converts D.C. power into microwave power.

Reflex klystron oscillators:

The Reflex Klystron makes use of velocity modulation and current modulation to transform a
continuous electron beam into microwave power. Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated
and passed through the cavity resonator. The electron velocity is either accelerated or retarded
depending on the instantaneous ac voltage across the resonator (velocity modulation). The electrons
that leave the resonator and travel towards reflector need different times to return due to change in
their velocities. As a result, returning electrons group together in bunches (current modulation).
The schematic diagram of a reflex klystron tube is shown in Fig. 2.1, which uses only a single re-
entrants microwave cavity as resonator. The electron beam emitted from the cathode K is accelerated
by the grid G and passes through the cavity anode A to the repeller space between the cavity anode
and the repeller electrode.

Fig.2.1 Reflex klystron tube

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Mechanism of oscillation
Due to dc voltage in the cavity circuit, RF noise is generated in the cavity. This electromagnetic
noise field in the cavity becomes pronounced at cavity resonant frequency. The electrons passing
through the cavity gap d experience this RF field and are velocity modulated in the following
manner. The electrons as shown in Fig.2.1 which encountered the positive half cycle of the RF field
in the gap d will be accelerated, those (reference electrons) b which encountered zero RF field will
pass with unchanged original velocity, and the electrons c which encountered the negative half cycle
will be retarded on entering the repeller space.

Fig. 2.2 Bunching action of a reflex klystron

All these velocities modulated electrons will be repelled back to the cavity by the repeller due to its
negative potential. The repeller distance L and the voltages can be adjusted to receive all the velocity
modulated electrons at a same time on the positive peak of the cavity RF voltage cycle. Thus the
velocity modulated electrons are bunched together and lose their kinetic energy when they encounter
the positive cycle of the cavity RF field. This loss of energy is thus transferred to the cavity to
conserve the total power. If the power delivered by the bunched electrons to the cavity is greater than
the power loss in the cavity, the electromagnetic field amplitude at the resonant frequency of the
cavity will increase to produce microwave oscillations. The RF power is coupled to the output load
by means of a small loop which forms the center conductor of the coaxial line. When the power
delivered by the electrons becomes equal to the total power loss in the cavity system, a steady
microwave oscillation is generated at resonant frequency of the cavity.

Mode of oscillation
The bunched electrons in reflex klystron can deliver maximum power to the cavity at any instant which
corresponds to the positive peak of the RF cycle of the cavity oscillation. If T is the time period at the
resonant frequency, to is the time taken by the reference electron to travel in the repeller space

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between entering the repeller space at b and the returning to the cavity at positive peak voltage on
formatting of the bunch then
to = (n + 3 / 4) T = NT
where N = n + 3 / 4, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., as shown in Fig.2.1

Fig. 2.3 Reflector voltage and amplitude of square wave

thus by adjusting repeller voltage for given dimensions of reflex klystron, the bunching can be
1 3 3
made to occur at N= ,1 , 2 , etc.for modes n=0,1,2,3,…..respectively. It is obvious that the
4 4 4
lowest order mode ¾ occurs for a maximum value of repeller voltage when the transit time
to of the electrons in the repeller space is minimum. Higher modes occur at lower repeller
voltages. Since at the highest repeller voltage the acceleration of the bunched electrons of
return is maximum, the power output of the lowest mode is maximum.

Modulation:
By varying the reflector voltage about a d.c. value, Klystron can be frequency and amplitude
modulated simultaneously. For proper square wave modulation with 100% modulation index,
the reflector voltage and amplitude of the square wave should be set as shown in Fig. 4.3. If
the square wave peak to peak amplitude is Vm and Vo is the reflector d.c. voltage, the total
reflector voltage will switch between (Vo+Vm) and (Vo- Vm). We have to choose Vo and Vm
such that (Vo+Vm) is in the mode center and (Vo-Vm) is the non-oscillating region for proper
square wave modulation.

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Fig. 2.4 Set up for reflex klystron

Components & Equipment Required:

S.No. Name of The Item Specifications Qty

1 Klystron Power Supply Beam Voltage 240-400 V, 1
Repeller Supply 10-270 V
2 Klystron Tube - 1
3 Isolator Min Isolation:20 dB; 1
Min Insertion Loss:0.4 dB
4 Frequency Meter 8.2 to 12.4 GHz 1
5 Variable Attenuator Average Power:2 W; 1
Max. Insertion Loss:0.2 dB
6 Detector Mount IN23 1
7 Wave Guide Stands - 5
8 VSWR Meter Frequency :1 KHz; Range: 70 1
dB Minima in 10 dB Steps
9 Oscilloscope 30 MHz 1
10 BNC Cable - 2

Procedure:
I. Carrier Wave Operation
1. Connect the components and equipment as shown in the Fig 1.
2. Set the Variable Attenuator at the maximum attenuation position.
3. Set the Mod-Switch of Klystron Power Supply at CW position, beam voltage control knob to fully
anti clock wise and reflector voltage control knob to fully clock wise and the Meter Switch to ‘OFF’
position.
4. Rotate the Knob of frequency meter to one side fully.
5. First connect the D.C micro-ammeter with Detector.

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6. Switch on the Klystron Power Supply, VSWR Meter and Cooling fan.
7. Switch on beam voltage and rotate the knob slowly clockwise up to 250 V. Observe beam current
value. “The Beam Current should be less than 30 mA”

8. Vary the reflector voltage slowly and watch ammeter. Set the voltage for maximum deflection in
the meter.
9. Tune the plunger of klystron.
10. Rotate the knob of frequency meter slowly. At some particular position there will be a dip in micro-
ammeter. Note down the frequency meter reading where output current is lowest. Read frequency
directly between two horizontal lines and vertical marker in case of direct reading type wave meter
and use the frequency chart to find frequency from micrometer reading.
11. Change the reflector voltage and read the current and frequency for each reflector voltage.

II. Square Wave Operation

1. Connect the equipment and components as shown in the Fig 2.4.
2. Set Micrometer of variable attenuator at some position.
3. Set the range switch of VSWR meter at 40 dB position, input selector switch to crystal impedance
position, meter switch to narrow position.
4. Set Mod-selector switch to AM-MOD position, beam voltage control knob to fully
anticlockwise position.
5. Switch ‘ON’ the Klystron Power Supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan. Wait for few
minutes.
6. Switch ‘ON’ the Beam voltage switch and rotate the beam voltage knob clockwise up to 300
V deflections in meter.
7. Keep the AM-MOD amplitude knob and AM-FRE, knob at the mid-position.
8. Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter.
9. Rotate the AM-MOD amplitude knob to get the maximum output in VSWR meter.
10. Maximize the deflection with frequency knob to get the maximum output in VSWR meter.
11. If necessary, change the range switch of VSWR meter 30 dB or 50 dB if the deflection in VSWR
meter is out of scale or less than normal scale respectively. Further the output can also be reduced
by variable attenuator to set the output for any particular value.

III. Mode study on Oscilloscope.

1. Set up the components and equipment as shown in Fig 2.4.
2. Keep position of variable attenuator at minimum attenuation position.
3. Set mode selector switch to FM-MOD position, FM amplitude and FM frequency knob at mid-
position, keep beam voltage knob fully anticlockwise and reflector voltage knob to fully clockwise

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and Beam switch to ‘OFF’ position.
4. Keep the time/division scale of oscilloscope around 100Hz frequency (t=0.01sec) measurement
and Volt/division to lower scale.
5. Switch ‘ON’ the Klystron Power Supply and Oscilloscope.
6. Switch ‘ON’ Beam voltage and set beam voltage to 300 V by beam voltage control knob.
7. Keep amplitude knob of FM Modulator to maximum position and rotate the reflector voltage
anticlockwise to get modes on the oscilloscope. The horizontal axis represents reflector voltage and
vertical axis represents output power.
8. By changing the reflector voltage and amplitude of FM modulation, any mode of Klystron tube can
be seen on Oscilloscope. Model Waveforms are shown in Fig 2.3.

Measurement

Carrier Wave Operation

Beam Voltage: - 250 Volts

Sr. Repeller Voltage (Volts) Micrometer reading Frequency Meter

No. reading (GHz)
1
2
3
4

Square wave operation

S No. Reflector Voltage (in Volts) Amplitude (from Frequency (in GHz)
display)
1
2
3

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Fig. 2.5 Mode study of reflex klystron

Fig. 2.6 Setup of equipment for mode study of klystron

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Fig. 2.7 Oscilloscope display of klystron mode

S. No. Repeller Voltage (in volts) SWR reading (α power) Frequency meter reading (in
GHz)

Calculations:

1) Knowing mode top voltage of two adjacent modes, mode number of the modes may be
computed from Equation below:

3
(n  1) 
N 2 V1 4
 
N1 V2 3
n
4
2) Knowing mode number, transit time of each mode may be calculated from equation below:
3
n
t1  4  N1 sec
f 01 f 01

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3) Calculate electronic tuning range, i.e., the frequency band from one end of the mode to another.
4) ETS may be calculated from equation below:
ETS= f 2  f1 MHz / V
V 2  V1
f 2 and f 2 being half power frequencies in GHz, and V2 and V1 are corresponding voltages for a
particular mode. A practical example is given below:
3 n  0.75 64 32.9
(n  1)   n 1
N 2 V1 4
i.   Or, n  1.75 105.5 Or, 40.5
N1 V2 3
n
4
ii. Hence, N 1 =1.75 and N 2 =2.75 are the respective mode numbers. Corresponding transit
times are:
N1 1.75
t1    10  9  1.8  10  8 s
f 01 9.465
N 2.75
t2  2   10  9  2.9  10  8 s
f 02 9.47
iii. ETR for 1.75 mode = (9.488-9.435) 109 Hz = 53 MHz
ETR for 2.75 mode = (9.482-9.425) 109 Hz = 57 MHz
9.485  9.39 46
iv. ETS for 1.75 mode = f 2  f1 MHz / V =  109 Hz / V   3.4 MHz / V
V 2  V1 111.5  98 13.5
9.482  9.487 45
ETS for 2.75 mode =  109 Hz / V   3.9 MHz / V
69  57.5 11.5

Result:
The performance characteristics of reflex klystron tube are observed.

Questions
1. What is velocity modulation?
2. Mention the Principle used in Klystron?
3. When the o/p power of reflex klystron maximum?
4. List the application of reflex klystron
5. What is transit time?
6. Which mode number is most frequently used? Why?
7. How many cavity Reflex Klystron does have?
8. What is bunching?
9. What is electronic tuning?
10. Importance of multicavity klystron?

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EXPERIMENT 3
MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH

Objective: To determine the frequency and wavelength in rectangular waveguide working in TE 10 mode.

Apparatus Required: Klystron power supply, klystron tube with mount, variable attenuator, frequency
meter, fixed attenuator, short CRO as VSWR meter.

Theory:
For dominant TE10 mode in waveguide c , 0 and g are related by following equation:
1/ 02  1/ g2 1/ c2

Where, c , 0 and g are cut off frequency, free space wavelength and guide wavelength,
respectively.
For TE10 mode, f  c / 

Procedure:
1) Set up the components and equipment as shown in figure.
2) Set up variable attenuator at minimum attenuation position.
3) Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as below
Range 50 dB
Input switch Crystal low impedance
Meter switch Normal Position
Gain Mid Position.
4) Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as below:
Beam voltage OFF Mod
Modulation switch AM
Beam voltage knob Fully anticlockwise
Reflector voltage Fully clockwise
AM- amplitude knob- around fully clockwise
AM-frequency knob - Around mid-position.
5) Switch ‘ON’ the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan switch.
6) Switch ‘ON’ the beam voltage switch and set beam voltage at 250 V with the help of beam voltage
knob.
7) Adjust the reflector voltage to get some deflection in VSWR meter.
8) Maximize the deflection with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of power supply.
9) Tune the plunger of klystron Mount for maximum deflection.
10) Tune the reflector voltage knob for maximum deflection.
11) Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
12) Tune the frequency meter knob to get a ‘dip’ on the VSWR scale and note down the frequency
directly from frequency meter.
13) Replace the termination with movable short, and detune the frequency meter.
14) Move the probe along the slotted line. The deflection in VSWR meter will vary. Move the probe
to a minimum deflection position, to get accurate reading. If necessary increase the VSWR meter
range dB switch to higher position. Note and record the probe position.
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15) Move the probe to next maximum position and record the probe position again.
16) Calculate the guide wavelength as twice the distance two successive minimum position obtained
as above.
17) Measure the waveguide inner broad dimension ‘a’ which will be around 22.86mm for X- band.
18) Calculate the frequency by following equation.
f  c / 0
8
Where c= 3*10 meter/sec.ie velocity of light.
19) Verify with frequency obtained by frequency meter.

Observations and Calculations:

1) Measure the frequency from the meter let it be ‘f’
2) Find out the broad dimensions of waveguide, let it be ‘a’.
3) Calculate the cut off wavelength c  2a .
4) Find out the value of first minima and second minima.
5) Calculate the value of g  2 (first minima-second minima).
6) Calculate the operating wavelength using the formula:
1/ 02  1/ g2 1/ c2

7) Calculate the operating frequency f  c / 

8) Also find out the percentage error.

Result:
The frequency and wavelength for the waveguide has been studied.

Questions

1. What is wavelength?
2. What is guide wavelength ‘λg’?
3. What is cut off wavelength for a wave-guide?
4. What is the relationship between frequency and velocity of light?
5. Name various methods that can be used to measure frequency / wavelength?
6. What is wave meter?
7. For TE10 mode why λc= 2a?
8. What is down frequency conversion method of measuring frequency.
9. In a wave meter ‘dip’ indicates what?
10. In a wave meter, how resonant frequency can be changed.

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EXPERIMENT 4
VSWR MEASUREMENT

Objective: To determine the standing wave ratio and reflection coefficient.

Apparatus Required: Klystron power supply, klystron tube, Isolator, variable attenuator, frequency
meter, klystron mount, SWR meter, slotted line, fixed attenuator, short CRO as VSWR meter.

Theory:
The electromagnetic field at any point of transmission line or waveguide may be considered
as the sum of two traveling waves: the ‘incident wave’ propagates from generator and the
‘reflected wave’ propagates towards the generator. The reflected wave is set up by reflection
of incident wave from a discontinuity on the line or from the load impedance. The
m a g n i t u d e and phase of reflected wave depends upon amplitude and phase of the
reflecting impedance. The presence of two traveling waves gives rise to standing wave
along the line. The maximum field strength is found where two waves are in phase and
minimum where they are in opposite phase. The distance between two successive
minimum (or maximum) is half the guided wave-length on the line. The ratio of electrical
field strength of reflected and incident wave is called reflection coefficient. The VSWR is
defined as ratio between maximum and minimum field strength along the line.
Hence, VSWR is
Emax E1  ER
s 
Emin E1  ER

Where E1 and E2 are respectively the amplitudes of the incident and reflected electric field
strengths. VSWR(dB) = 20 log(s).
Further, the ratio of the reflected to the incident electric field intensities is defined as reflex
coefficient, i.e.
ER Z L  Z 0
R  
EI Z L  Z 0

Where Z L is the load impedance and Z 0 is the characteristic impedance. Hence, VSWR can be

expressed in terms of reflection coefficient as follows:

1 R
s
1 R

Where E max =+ i.e., there is no reflection (ER=0), the resulting VSWR=1.00, this is the basic requirement of
matched filter. In other words, under given ideal conditions, the VSWR of a matched load is 1.00. Under
extreme mismatch conditions, Emin  0 i.e. total reflection (ER= EI), the resulting VSWR = ∞.

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However, in most of the cases, VSWR is greater than 1.00. It is not rare to obtain VSWR as
low as 1.02 in well-designed set-up having matched components.

Components & Equipment Required:

S. No Name of The Item Specifications Qty

1 Klystron Power Supply Beam voltage 240-400 V, 1
Repeller supply 10-270 V
2 Klystron Tube - 1
3 Isolator Min Isolation Loss:20 dB; 1
Min Insertion Loss:0.4 dB
4 Frequency Meter 8.2 to 12.4 GHz 1
5 Variable Attenuator Average Power:2 W; 1
Max. Insertion Loss:0.2 dB
6 Detector Mount IN23 1
7 Wave Guide Stand - 5
8 Frequency :1 KHz; Range
VSWR Meter :70 dB Minima in 10 dB 1
Steps
9 BNC Cable - 2
10 Slotted Line Max Residual VSWR 1..01 W 1
11 Tunable Probe Detector: IN23 1
12 Movable Short - 1
13 Matched Termination Average Power: 2.0 W 1
14 Cooling - 1
Fan for Klystron Tube

Fig.4.1 Setup for VSWR measurement

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Procedure:
1) Set up the equipment as shown in fig.4.1.
2) Keep the variable attenuator at maximum position.
3) Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as below:
Range dB-40 dB/50 dB
Input switch-impedance low
Meter switch-normal
Gain (coarse-Fine)-mid position approx.
4) Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as below:
Meter switch- OFF
Mod switch-AM
Beam voltage knob- fully anticlockwise
Reflector voltage knob- fully clockwise
Am frequency and amplitude knob-mid position
5) Switch ‘ON’ the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan.
6) Turn the meter switch of klystron power supply to beam voltage position and set the beam voltage
at 300V.
7) Adjust the reflector voltage to get deflection in VSWR meter.
8) Tune the output by tuning the reflector voltage, amplitude and frequency of AM modulation.
9) Tune for maximum deflection by tuning the plunger of klystron mount. Also tune for maximum
deflection by tuning the probe.
10) If necessary, change the range dB-switch, variable attenuator position and gain control knob to get
maximum deflection in the scale of VSWR meter.
11) Move the probe along slotted line, the deflection in VSWR meter will change.

I. MEASUREMENT OF LOW, MEDIUM VSWR

1) Move the probe along with the slotted line to maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
2) Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob or variable attenuator until the meter indicate 1.0 on
normal SWR scale (0-∞).
3) Keep all the control knobs as it is, move the probe to next minimum position. Read the VSWR on
the scale and record it (0-∞).
4) Repeat the above step for change of S.S tuner probe depth and record the corresponding SWR.
5) If the VSWR is between 3.2 and 10, change the range dB switch to next higher position and read
the VSWR on the second VSWR scale i.e. 3 to 10.

This way table 4.1 is completed for the unknown load at different frequencies by repeating the
above steps 1 to 5.

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Table 4.1 Low and medium VSWR measurements

S. No. VSWR (dB) Frequency (GHz)

1.

2.

3.

II. MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VSWR (Double minima method)

1) Set the depth of SS tuner slightly more for maximum VSWR.

2) Move the probe along the slotted line until a minimum is indicated.
3) Adjust the VSWR meter gain control and variable attenuator to obtain a reading of 3 dB on normal
dB scale (0 to 10 dB) of VSWR meter.
4) Move the probe to the left on the slotted line until full scale deflection is obtained i.e. 0 dB on 0 to
10 dB scale. Note and record the probe position on the slotted line. Let it be d1.
5) Repeat the step 3 and 4 then move the probe right along slotted line until full scale deflection is
obtained on 0-10 dB scale. Let it be d2.
6) Replace the SS tuner and termination by short circuit termination.
7) Measure the distance between two successive minima. Twice this distance is guide wavelength
g .
8) Compute SWR s  g /[(d1 d2 )]
9) Calculate   (1  s) / (1  s)

S.No. Wavelength(cm) Minimum Probe Double VSWR

meter position for minimum g /   X 
reading(3dB double meter width
in SWR) reading at  X  X 2  X 1
minimum(0
dB in SWR)
Left Right
hand hand
side x side x

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Observations:
VSWR(low)

ρ=

VSWR(medium)

ρ=

VSWR(High)

ρ=

Calculations:
1) Calculate VSWR using the formula s  g /[(d1 d2 )]
2) Calculate the reflection coefficient   (1  s) / (1  s)

Result:
Thus, standing wave ratio is determined and reflection coefficient is calculated.

Questions

1. What is standing wave ratio?

2. What is reflection coefficient?
3. When do standing waves form?
4. How they are useful in microwave engineering?
5. What is range of VSWR?
6. How they are useful in microwave engineering?
7. What is the optimum value of reflection coefficient?
8. What is range of reflection coefficient?
9. How many scales are there on a VSWR?
10. What is guide wavelength?

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EXPERIMENT 5
GUNN DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

Objective: To study the I-V characteristics of Gunn diode.

Apparatus Required: Gunn power supply, isolator, Gunn oscillator, PIN modulator,
Frequency meter, matched termination, cooling fan, BNC-BNC cable and TNC-TNC cable.

Theory:
GUNN diodes (Transferred Electron Devices)
Gunn diodes are negative resistance devices which are normally used as low power oscillator at
microwave frequencies in transmitter and also as local oscillator in receiver front ends. J B
Gunn (1963) discovered microwave oscillation in Gallium arsenide (GaAs), Indium phosphide (InP)
and cadmium telluride (CdTe). These are semiconductors having a closely spaced energy valley in the
conduction band as shown in Fig. 5.1(a) for GaAs. When a dc voltage is applied across the material,
an electric field is established across it. At low E-field in the material, most of the electrons will be
located in the lower energy central valley Γ. At higher E-field, most of the electrons will be
transferred in to the high-energy satellite L and X valleys where the effective electron mass is
larger and hence electron mobility is lower than that in the low energy Γ valley. Since the conductivity
is directly proportional to the mobility, the conductivity and hence the current decreases with an
increase in E-field or voltage in an intermediate range, beyond a threshold value V th as shown in
Fig. 5.1(b). This is called the transferred electron effect and the device is also called ‘Transfer
Electron Device (TED) or Gunn diode’. Thus the material behaves as negative resistance device over
a range of applied voltages and can be used in microwave oscillators.

Fig. 5.1 (a) Multi-valley conduction band energies of GaAs

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Fig. 5.1 (b) Current-voltage characteristics of GaAs

The basic structure of a Gunn diode is shown in Fig. 5.2 (a), which is of n-type GaAs semiconductor
+
with regions of high doping (n ). Although there is no junction this is called a diode with reference to
the positive end (anode) and negative end (cathode) of the dc voltage applied across the device. If
voltage or an electric field at low level is applied to the GaAs, initially the current will increase with a
rise in the voltage. When the diode voltage exceeds a certain threshold value, V th a high electric field
(3.2 KV/m for GaAs) is produced across the active region and electrons are excited from their initial
lower valley to the higher valley, where they become virtually immobile. If the rate at which electrons
are transferred is very high, the current will decrease with increase in voltage, resulting in equivalent
negative resistance effect. Since GaAs is a poor conductor, considerable heat is generated in the diode.
The diode will be bonded into a heat sink (Cu-stud).
The electrical equivalent circuit of a Gunn diode is shown in Fig. 5.2 (b), where Cj and – Rj are the
diode capacitance and resistance, respectively, Rs includes the total resistance of lead, ohmic contacts,

Fig. 5.2 Constructional details and the electrical equivalent circuit of a Gunn Diode

and bulk resistance of the diode, Cp and Lp are the package capacitance and inductance, respectively.
The negative resistance has a value that typically lies in the range –5 to –20 ohm.

Gunn oscillator
In a Gunn Oscillator, the Gunn Diode is placed in a resonant cavity. In this case the oscillation
frequency is determined by cavity dimension than by the diode itself. Although Gun Oscillator
can be amplitude-modulated with the bias voltage, we have used separate PIN modulator

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through PIN diode for square wave modulation. In a Gunn oscillator, the Gunn diode is placed in
a resonant cavity. In this case the oscillation frequency is determined by cavity dimension rather than
by diode itself. Although Gunn oscillator can be amplitude-modulated with the bias voltage, a separate
PIN modulator through PIN diode for square wave modulation is used.

Fig. 5.3 Setup for study of Gunn oscillator

Components & Equipment Required:

S.No. Name of The Item Specifications Qty

1 Gunn Oscillator 8.6 to 11.6 GHz 1

2 Gunn Power Supply Min. Output Power: 10 mW 1

3 Isolator Min Isolation:20 dB; 1

Min Insertion Loss:0.4 dB
4 Frequency Meter 8.2 to 12.4 GHz 1
5 Variable Attenuator Average Power:2W; Max. 1
Insertion Loss:0.2 dB
6 Detector Mount IN23 1
7 Wave Guide Stand - 5
8 VSWR Meter Frequency :1 KHz; Range :70 1
dB Minima in 10 dB Steps
9 BNC Cable - 2
10 Circulator Min Isolation:20 dB; 1
Max VSWR:1.2
11 Matched Termination Average Power: 2.0 W 2
12 Cooling - 1
Fan for Klystron
Tube

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Procedure:
1) Set the components and equipment as shown in the Fig 5.3.
2) Initially set the variable attenuator for maximum attenuation.
3) Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply as below:
Meter switch – OFF
Gunn bias knob – Fully anti-clockwise
Pin mod frequency – Any position
4) Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as below:
Meter switch – Normal
Input switch- Low impedance
Range dB switch – 40 dB
Gain control knob – Fully clockwise
5) Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator for required frequency of operation.
6) Switch on the Gunn power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan.
7) Measure the Gunn diode current corresponding to various voltages from the panel meter by turning
meter switch to voltage and current positions. Do not exceed the bias voltage above 10 volts.
8) Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph as shown in fig. 5.4.
9) Measure the threshold voltage which corresponds to maximum current.

Measurements

Voltage(volts) Current(mA)

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Fig.5.4 I-V characteristics of Gunn Diode

Result:
The I-V characteristics of Gunn diode are obtained.

Questions

1. What are the basis of classification of microwave devices?

2. What is Gunn Effect?
3. What are the applications of Gunn diode?
4. What is negative resistance?
5. What are the advantages of Gunn diode?
6. What are the disadvantages of Gunn diode?
7. What is threshold voltage?
8. What is the role of PIN diode in the test setup?
9. In a Gunn oscillator, Gunn diode is placed in a resonant cavity. In your Opinion what shall be
the effect of this.
10. What is the role of Isolator in the test setup?

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EXPERIMENT 6
STUDY OF MAGIC TEE

Objective: To find the

(i) Isolation loss of magic tee
(ii) Coupling coefficient of magic tee
(iii) Scattering parameters of magic tee

Apparatus Required: Klystron power supply, klystron with mount, isolator, variable attenuator,
slotted selection, magic tee, matched termination, detector mount, CRO.

Theory:
Magic Tee
An interesting type of T junction is the hybrid tee, commonly known as `magic tee’ which is shown
in fig. The device as can be seen from fig is a combination of the E arm and H plane tees. Arm3,
the H arm forms an H plane tee and arm 4, the E arm, forms an E plane tee in combination with
arms 1 and 2. The central lines of the two tees coincide and define the plane of symmetry, that is,
if arms 1 and 2 are of equal length, the part of structure on one side of the symmetry plane shown
by shaded area is the mirror image of that on the other. Arms1 and 2 are sometimes called as the
side or collinear arms.

Magic of MAGIC Tee

The name `magic Tee’ is derived from the manner in which power divides among various arms. If
power is fed into arm3, the electric field divides equally between arms 1 and 2 and the fields are in
phase. Because of symmetry of the T junction, no net electric field parallel to the narrow dimension of
the waveguide is excited in arm 4. Thus, no power is coupled in port 4. Reciprocity demands no
coupling in port 3 if power is fed in 4. Another property that results from the symmetry of the
junction is, if power is fed in E or H arm, it is equally divided between arms 1 and 2. Further,
magic tee being combination of E and H plane tees, if power is fed from arms 1 and 2, it is added
in H arm (3) while is subtracted in E arm (4).
A simple E-H tee has disadvantage of not being matched when seen from E and H arms when side
arms are terminated in matched loads. The VSWR being > 2 the most commonly used method to
reduce VSWR is to introduce discontinuity such as port iris in or near T junction to cancel out
reflections occurring therein.
The magic tee is a combination of the E and H plane Tees. Arm 3 (H-arm) in combination with arms
1 and 2 form an H plane tee and arm 4(E-arm) in combination with arms 1 and 2 forms an E-plane
Tee. When the power is fed into arm 3, the electric field divides equally between arm 1 and 2 with the
same phase, and no electric field exists in arm 4. If power is fed to arm 4(E-arm) it divides equally into
arm 1 and 2 but out of phase with no power to arm 3. Further, when the power is fed from both arms
1 and 2 they get added at arm 3(H-arm), and subtracted at arm 4 (E-arm).

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A. INPUT VSWR
Value of SWR corresponding to each port, as a load to the line while other ports are terminated in
matched load.

B. ISOLATION
The isolation between E and H arms is defined as the ratio of the power supplied by the generator
connected to the E-arm (port 4) to the power detected at H-arm (port 3) when side arms 1 and 2 are
terminated in matched load. Hence, isolation between 3 & 4 ports=10 log 10 (p4/p3) dB. Similarly,
isolation between other ports may also be defined.

C. COUPLING COEFFICIENT

It is defined as Cij  10 /20

Where α is attenuation/isolation in dB when i is the input arm and j is the output arm.
Thus   10log  Pi / Pj 
Where Pi is the power delivered to arm i and Pj is the power detected at j arm.

Components & Equipment Required:

S. No Name of The Item Specifications Qty

1 Klystron Power Supply Beam Voltage 240-400V, 1
Repeller Supply 10-270 V
2 Klystron Tube - 1
3 Isolator Min Isolation:20 dB; 1
Min Insertion Loss:0.4 dB
4 Frequency Meter 8.2 to 12.4 GHz 1
5 Variable Attenuator Average Power:2W; Max. 1
Insertion Loss:0.2 dB

6 Detector Mount IN23 1

7 Wave Guide Stand - 5
8 VSWR Meter Frequency :1 KHz; Range 1
:70 dB Minima in 10 dB
Steps
9 BNC Cable - 2
10 Circulator Min Isolation:20 dB; 1
Max VSWR:1.2
11 Matched Termination Average Power: 2.0 W 2
12 Cooling - 1
Fan for Klystron Tube

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Fig. 5.5 Study of magic tee

Fig.5.6 Characteristics of magic tee

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INPUT-VSWR: All other ports terminated with matched load termination except for the load.

Load Vmax (mv) Vmin (mv) VSWR

Port 1 3.6 2 1.8

Port 2 3.2 1.2 2.667

Port 3 2.8 2.2 1.2727

Port 4 3.2 2.0 1.6

Isolation and coupling coefficients

Magic Tee orientation

Vi (mv) Vj (mv) Iij (dB) Cij
Input
Arm-I / Output
arm-j
2 1200 27 I12 = 32.95 C12 = 0.0225
1 3 1200 700 I13 = 4.68 C13 = 0.58
1 1200 24 I21 = 33.97 0.02
2 3 1200 640 I23 = 5.46 0.533
4 1200 I34
3 1 1200 I31
3 1200 I43
4 1 1200 I41

Where α is the attenuation in dB when i is the input and j the output arm. Thus
 Pi 
  dB   10 log  
P
 j 

Where Pi is the power delivered to arm I by matched generator and Pj is the power detected by the
matched detector in arm j. In the case of magic tee, there are 12 coupling constants, one for
each of the arms as an input to each of the other three arms as an output. However, if
we have a perfectly matched detector and generator, C ij = Cji and also the reciprocity
desires C12 = C21, C32 = C31 and C41 = C42.

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Procedure:
I. VSWR MEASUREMENTS OF THE PORTS
1) Set up the components and equipment as shown in Fig. 5.6 with arm 1 to slotted section line.
2) Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation.
3) Measure the VSWR of arm 1 as described in measurement of SWR for low and medium value.
4) Connect arm 2 to slotted line and terminate the other ports with matched termination. Measure
the VSWR as above.
5) Repeat the procedure for ports 3 and 4.

II. MEASUREMENT OF ISOLATION AND COUPLING COEFFICIENT

1) Remove the tunable probe and magic tee from the slotted line and connect the detector mount
to slotted line as shown in Fig.
2) Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation and connect the detector
mount for maximum output.
3) With the help of variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter, set any power
level in the VSWR meter and note down. Let it be P3 .
4) Without disturbing the position of the variable attenuator and gain control knob, carefully
place the magic tee with the arm 3 to slotted line and arm 4 to detector mount. Note down the
reading of VSWR meter and let it be P4 .

5) Determine the isolation between ports 3 and 4 as P3  P4 in dB.

6) Determine the coupling coefficient between ports 3 and 4.

Observations:

VSWR for arm 3 =

VSWR for arm 4 =
S 1
Scattering parameter, S33 
S 1
Isolation loss:
P1 = ------ dB

P2 = ---------dB

Calculations:
1) Calculate the Coupling in dB= (Power at input port 3 (P3) – Power at port 1(P1))

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2) Calculate the Isolation in dB= (Power at input port 1 (P1) – Power at port 2(P2))
3) Calculate the Directivity in dB= (Power at input port 2 (P2) – Power at port 3(P3))
4) Calculate the Insertion loss in dB= (Power at input port 3 (P3) – Power at port 2(P2))

Result:

Scattering parameters, isolation loss and coupling coefficient are measured.

Questions

1. What are the various type of Tee’s?

2. What is H - plane Tee?
3. What is E - plane Tee?
4. What is Magic Tee?
5. What is the electric property of H-plane Tee?
6. What are the properties of E-plane Tee?
7. What are the properties of Magic Tee?
8. What is the isolation between E & H arm?
9. What are the applications of Magic Tee?
10. Define Coupling Coefficient.

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EXPERIMENT 7
TO STUDY ISOLATOR AND ATTENUATOR

Objective: (a) To measure attenuation and insertion loss of a fixed and variable attenuator.
(b) To measure isolation and insertion loss of three port circulators/isolator.

Apparatus Required: microwave source, isolator, frequency meter, variable attenuator, slotted line,
tunable probe, detector mount, matched termination, VSWR meter, klystron tube, klystron power
supply, klystron mount, circulator, waveguide stand, cooling fan, cables and accessories.

Theory:
ATTENUATOR:
The attenuator are two port bidirectional devices which attenuates some power when inserted into
the transmission line.

Attenuation A(dB) 10log P1 / P2 

Where, P1 is Power absorbed or detected by the load without the attenuator in the line. P2 is power
absorbed/detected by the load with attenuator in the line. The attenuators consist of a rectangular
waveguide with a resistive vane inside it to absorb microwave power According to their position
with respect to side wall of the waveguide. An electric field is Maximum at centre in TE mode;
the attenuation will be maximum if the vane is placed at centre of the waveguide. Moving from
centre towards the side wall, attenuation decreases in the fixed attenuator, the vane position is fixed
whereas in variable attenuator its position can be changed by the help of micrometer or by other
methods.
Following characteristics of attenuators can be studied:
1. Input VSWR.
2. Insertion loss (in case of variable attenuator).
3. Amount of attenuation offered into the lines.
4. Frequency sensitivity i.e. variation of attenuation at any fixed position of vane and
frequency is changed.

ISOLATOR:
The isolator is a two-port device with small insertion loss in forward direction and a large in reverse
attenuation.
CIRCULATOR:
The circulator is a multi-port junction that permits transmission in certain ways. A wave incident in
port 1 is coupled to port 2 only, a wave incident at port 2 is coupled to port 3 only and so on. Following
are the basic parameters of isolator and circulator for study

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A. Insertion loss: The ratio of power supplied by a source to the input port to the power detected
by a detector in the coupling arm, i.e., output arm with other port terminated in the matched
load, is defined as insertion loss or forward loss.
B. Isolation: It is the ratio of power fed to input arm to the input power detected at not coupled
port with other port terminated in the matched load.
C. Input VSWR: the input VSWR of an isolator or circulator is the ratio of voltage maximum
to voltage minimum of the standing wave existing on the line, when one port of it terminates
the line and others have matched termination.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Klystron
Cooling Fan
power supply

Klystron Frequency Variable Slotted

mount + Isolator Detect
meter Attenuator Section
Klystron tube or
mount

VSWR Meter Detector mount Attenuator

Procedure:
Insertion loss/attenuation measurement of fixed and variable attenuator
1. Remove the tunable probe, attenuator and matched termination from the slotted section in the
above set up.
2. Connect the detector mount to the slotted line, and tune the detector mount also for maximum
deflection on VSWR meter (Detector mount's output should be connected to VSWR meter).
3. Set any reference level on the VSWR meter with the help of variable attenuator (not test
attenuator) and gain control knob of VSWR meter. Let it be P1 .
4. Carefully disconnect the detector mount from the slotted line, without disturbing any position on
the set up. Place the test variable attenuator to the slotted line and detector mount to other port
of test variable attenuator. Keep the micrometer reading of test variable attenuator to zero and

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record the reading of VSWR meter. Let it be P2 . Then the insertion loss of test attenuator will
be P1 – P2 db.
5. For measurement of attenuation of fixed and variable attenuator, after step 4 of above
measurement, carefully disconnect the detector mount from the slotted line without disturbing
any position obtained up to step 3. Place the test attenuator to the slotted line and detector mount
to the other port of test attenuator. Record the reading of VSWR meter. Let it be P3 . Then the
attenuation value of fixed attenuator or attenuation value of variable attenuator for particular
position of micrometer reading will be P1 - P3 db.
6. In case of variable attenuator, change the micrometer reading and record the VSWR meter
reading. Find out attenuation value for different position of Micrometer reading and plot a graph.
7. Now change the operating frequency and whole step should be repeated for finding frequency
sensitivity of fixed and variable attenuator.
Measurement of VSWR
1) Set up the components and equipment as shown above with input port of isolator or circulator
towards slotted line and matched load on other ports of it.
2) Energize the microwave source for particular operation of frequency.
3) With the help of slotted line, probe and VSWR meter, find out SWR of the isolator or circulator
as describe earlier for low and medium SWR measurements.
4) The above procedure can be repeated for other ports or for other frequencies.

Measurement of insertion and isolation loss

1) Remove the probe and the isolator or circulator from the slotted line and connect the detector
mount to slotted section. The output of the detector mount should be connected to the VSWR
meter.
2) Energize the microwave source for the maximum output for particular frequency of operation.
Tune the detector mount for maximum output in VSWR meter.
3) Set any reference level of power in VSWR meter with the help of variable attenuator, gain
control knob of VSWR meter and note down the reading (let it be P1 ).
4) Carefully remove the detector mount from slotted line without disturbing the position of setup.
Insert the isolator / circulator between slotted line and detector mount. Keeping input port to
slotted line and detector at its output port. A matched termination should be placed at third port
in case of circulator.
5) Record the readings in the VSWR meter. If necessary, change range – dB switch to high or lower
position and taking 10 dB changes for one set change of switch position (let it be P2 ).
6) Compute insertion loss on P1 - P2 in dB.
7) For measurement of isolation, the isolator or circulator has to be connected reverse, i.e. output
port to slotted line and detector to input port with other port terminated by matched termination.
After setting a reference level without isolator or circulator in the set up as described in insertion
loss measurement. Let same P1 level is set.
8) Record the reading of VSWR meter after inserting the isolator or circulator (let it be P3 ).

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9) Compute isolation as P1 – P3 in dB.
10) The same experiment can be done for other ports of circulator.
11) Repeat the same for other frequency.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Measurement of VSWR

Tunable VSWR
Probe meter

Microwave Frequency Variable Slotted

Source Isolator Meter attenuator Section

Isolator or Matched
Circulator termination

Measurement of insertion and isolation loss

VSWR
meter

Microwave Frequency Variable Slotted Detector

Isolator attenuator section mount
source meter

Isolator or Matched
circulator termination

Isolator or Matched
circulator termination

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Calculations:
1) Calculate power level set by using variable attenuation and gain control knob P1.
2) Calculate power level obtained after placing the test attenuator, P2
3) Find out attenuation= P1 -P2

Result:
measured values are as follows:
VSWR-
Insertion loss-
Isolation loss-

Questions

1. Difference between isolator and attenuator.

2. By performing the practical find out the maximum VSWR.
3. What is the use of isolator in microwave?
4. Find out the frequency range of isolator in GHz by performing the practical.
5. Find out the minimum isolation in dB attained by an isolator.
6. What is maximum attainable residual VSWR in case of attenuator.
7. What is the maximum insertion loss in dB that an isolator can attain?
8. What is the difference between fixed attenuator and variable attenuator?
9. What is flang in an attenuator?
10. Difference between isolator and circulator

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EXPERIMENT 8

COUPLING COEFFICIENT AND DIRECTIVITY OF A WAVE GUIDE

DIRECTIONAL COUPLER

Aim: To measure coupling coefficient and Directivity of a Directional coupler.

Apparatus required: Klystron tube, Klystron power supply, Klystron mount, Isolator, Cooling fan,
Frequency Meter, Detector mount, Variable Attenuator, Wave Guide stand, VSWR meter, MHD
coupler, Matched Termination, Cables and accessories.

Theory:
A directional coupler is a device with which it is possible to measure the incident and reflected wave
separately. It consists of two transmission lines, main arm and auxiliary arm, electromagnetically
coupled to each other. The diagram is given below. The power entering in port 1 in the main arm divides
between port 2 and port 4 almost no power comes out of port 3. Power entering in port 2 is divided
between port 1 and 3.

Fig. 8.1 Directional coupler

Assuming power is entering from port 1, then

The coupling factor is defined as

Coupling (dB) = 10 log 10 P1 / P4

The directivity of the coupler is a measure of separation between incident wave and the reflected wave.
It is measured as the ratio of two power outputs from the auxiliary line when a given amount of power
is successively applied to each terminal of the main line with other port terminated by matched load.

Hence Directivity is given by D (dB) = 10 log10 P4f/ P4r

Where P4f and P4r are the measured powers at port 4with equal amount of power is fed to port 1 and 2
respectively.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Procedure:

Measurement of Coupling factor &Directivity

1) Set the equipment as shown in Fig.
2) Energize the microwave source for particular operation of frequency.
3) Remove the MHD coupler and connect the detector mount to the frequency meter. Tune the
detector for max. Output.
4) Set any reference level of power on VSWR meter with the help of variable attenuator, gain
control knob of VSWR meter and note down the reading (let it be X).
5) Insert the D.C as shown in fig. With detector mount to the auxiliary port 4 and matched
termination to port 2. Without changing the position of variable attenuator and gain control knob
of VSWR meter.
6) Note down the reading on VSWR meter (let it be Y) and calculate coupling factor using X &Y,
which will be in dB.
7) Now carefully disconnect the detector from the auxiliary port 4 and match termination from port2
without disturbing the setup.
8) Connect the matched termination to the aux. Port 4 and detector to port 2 and measure the reading
on VSWR meter (let it be Z).
9) Compute insertion loss using X & Z in db.
10) Repeat the steps from 1 to 4.

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11) Connect the D.C in the reverse direction i.e. port 2 to frequency meter side, matched termination
to port1 and detector mount to port 4, without disturbing the position of the variable attenuator
and gain control knob of VSWR meter.
12) Note down the reading and let it be Y0. Compute the directivity as Y- Y0.
13) Repeat the same for other frequency.

Calculations:
1) Calculate power at the input port 3(P3).
2) Calculate the power at port 1(P1).
3) Now, calculate the power at port 2 (P2).
4) Find coupling factor using formula 10log10 ( P1 / P3 )
5) Calculate isolation as 10 log10 ( P2 / P3 )
6) Directivity can be computed as 10log10 ( P2 / P1 )

Result:
The measured value for MHD coupler are

Coupling coefficient =
Directivity =

Questions

1. What is directional coupler?

2. What is Coupling?
3. What is Directivity?
4. What is Isolation?
5. What is Insertion loss?
6. In a two-hole directional coupler, what is the distance between two holes?
7. What is the material of directional coupler?
8. Name a few other types of directional couplers?
9. In a directional coupler, are ports matched?
10. How many holes can be there in a Directional coupler?

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EXPERIMENT 9
MEASURE POLAR PATTERN AND GAIN OF A WAVEGUIDE HORN
ANTENNA
Aim: To measure polar pattern and gain of waveguide horn antenna

Apparatus required: Klystron power supply, klystron mount, Isolator, Variable Attenuator,
Frequency meter, V.S.W.R Meter, coupling probes, Two Pyramidal Horn, Radiation Pattern Turn
Table, Klystron power supply, klystron mount, Isolator, Variable Attenuator, Slotted section, Detector
Mount, Standard Gain Horn, VSWR Meter, CRO.

Theory:
The radiation pattern is a graphical representation of the strength of radiation of an antenna as a
function of direction. The strength of radiation is usually measured in terms of field strength although
sometimes radiation intensity (power radiated per unit solid angle) is also used. For the purpose of
radiation pattern, one considers the given antenna to be located at the origin of a spherical polar
coordinates systems (r,θ,φ) and the variation in the field strength at different points on an imaginary
concentric spherical surface of radius r is noted. For sufficiently larger r, as explained later on, the field
variation or the pattern is independent or r and also the fields are tangential to the hypothetical spherical
surface. In general, separate patterns are plotted for θ and φ polarization.
Usually the radiation pattern is shown in principal planes of interest. Further, for linearly
polarized antennas, patterns may be plotted in E – plane or H – plane E- plane is defined as the plane
passing through the antenna in the direction of beam maximum and parallel to the far field E – vector.
One defines the H – plane similarly. It is quite common to plot the pattern by normalizing the field
values with respect to the field strength in the direction of maximum radiation.
The radiation pattern of typical microwave antennas consists of a main lobe and a few minor
or side-lobes. Beam-width of an antenna is defined as the angular separation between 3 dB points with
respect to the maximum field strength. Side lobes represent a loss and leakage of information in the
transmit mode. In the receive mode, sidelobes may cause an uncertainty in determining the angle of
arrival of a signal. However, sidelobes are very sensitive to the surroundings in which the radiation
pattern is measured.
The wavefronts in the vicinity of an antenna have a small radius or curvature but after
traveling some distance the radius of curvature increases to such an extent as to make the wave front
practically a plane wave. A receiving antenna is considered to be in the far-field of the test antenna if
the wavefront across it is practically plane. Most measurements are carried out in the far field region
since; otherwise, when the receiving antenna is kept in the region of curved wavefornt, there will be a
phase difference across the receiving aperture. It can be shown that the phase variation over the
receiving aperture is less than one sixteenth of a wavelength if it is at a distance R from the transmitting
antenna, where

In which D = largest dimension of the larger of the receiver and transmitter antennas.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Procedure:
I. Measuring gain of horn antenna

1) Switch on the power supply keeping the switch the front panel in beam OFF position.
2) Wait for few minutes and then change the switch to Beam On position.
3) Set the Beam voltage to 300V by varying beam voltage control knob.
4) Check the beam current whether it is less than 30mA.
5) Set the variable attenuator to max attenuation level.
6) Change the modulating voltage control knob from min to max range and find the modulating voltage
for which maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
7) Adjust the modulating frequency control knob from 0 Hz to I KHz until to get more deflection in
on VSWR meter. If we are getting 2 or 3 maximum deflections choose the least one.
8) Now change the repeller voltage and measure power in dB from VSWR meter.
9) For measurement of power in VSWR meter we have to detune the frequency meter every time.
10) Mount the Horn antenna one to microwave bench and other towards the VSWR end.
11) Adjusts the two horn antennas to be exactly in line with each other i.e. perfectly aligned condition
i.e. angular difference is 0.
12) Now note the deflection in the VSWR meter.
13) Now rotate the Horn antenna HZ through 100. The power output increases in the VSWR
meter. Note the reading.
14) Similar procedure is carried out to get readings in steps of 10 in anticlockwise and clockwise
directions.
15) The same process is carried out by keeping the Horn 2 in opposite position i.e. For E plane and
readings are taken

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FORMULA:

G ( dB )  10log10 (4 s / 0 )  1 / 2(10log10 ( Pr / Pt )

G (dB)  10log10 (4 s / 0 )  1 / 2( Pr ( dB )  Pt ( dB))

II. Measure polar pattern of horn antenna

1) Connect the tuner and crystal detector assembly to the slotted line.
2) Switch on fan and then power supply. Obtain oscillations of the klystron. Set the variable
attenuator to get convenient reading in the VSWR Meter.
3) Maximize the crystal detector power supply and match the detector with the help of the tuner.
4) Set a convenient reading on the indicator.
5) Disconnect the tuner and detector assembly. Connect horn H1 to the slotted line and another horn H2
to the tuner and the detector assembly. Put the second horn in front of the first. The distance between
horns should be about one.
6) Read the VSWR meter and note the difference in two readings and measure the separation 's' between
the 2 horns.
7) Repeat the same experiment for different values of separation between horn. Measure the value
Yg, with the help of slotted line and calculate the value of y0 with the formula.
(1/ g ) 2  1 / 0   (1 / 2a) 2
2

8) Convert the power ratio Pr / Pt obtained in dBs into pure number by using the formula.
Pr / Pt  anti log10 ( N / 10)
Where N — Number of dB measured.
9) Now calculate the gain using the equation
Pr / Pt  (0 / 4 s)2 G1G2
Where s is the separation between aerials
0 is the free space wavelength
If two identical horns were used then G1=G2. Hence the formula becomes
Pr / Pt  (0 / 4 s) 2 G 2
4 s Pr
G
0 Pt
We can also find gain using the following method
G ( dB )  10log10 (4 s / 0 )  1 / 2(10log10 ( Pr / Pt )
G (dB)  10log10 (4 s / 0 )  1 / 2( Pr ( dB )  Pt ( dB))

Observations and Calculations:

1) Calculate transmitter power Pt.
2) For certain frequency calculate radial distance s.
3) Find out the power received and let it be Pr.
4) Calculate the gain by using the formula
4 s Pr
G and
0 Pt

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G ( dB )  10log G

Angle Received power(dB)

Result:
Thus, the radiation pattern of horn antenna is obtained

Questions

1. What is horn antenna?

2. What is radiation pattern?
3. What are the various ty\pes of lobes?
4. Where in the lobe the intensity is maximum?
5. Are side/back lobes desirable/
6. What are the disadvantages of side/back lobes?
7. What is beam width?
8. What is antenna gain?
9. What are the advantages of flaring?
10. What are the various types of microwave antenna?

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 Microwave Engineering Laboratory
ECE Department, NIT Kurukshetra

EXPERIMENT 10
MEASURE INSERTION LOSS AND ATTENUATION

Objective: To measure insertion loss and attenuation of circulator and isolator.

Apparatus Required: Klystron power supply, Klystron tube with mount, fixed attenuator, variable
attenuator frequency meter, circulator, detector mount, matched load, CRO as VSWR meter.

Theory:
Circulator is defined as device with ports arrangement such that energy entering at port is coupled to
an adjacent port but not coupled to the other ports. It is depicted in Fig.7. Circulator can have any no.
of ports. An isolator is a two-port device that transfers energy from input to output with little attenuation
& from output to input with very high attenuation. The isolator, shown in Fig. can be derived from a
three-port circulator by simply placing a matched load (reflection less termination) on one port. The
important circulator & isolator parameters are:

(a) CIRCULATOR:
Insertion loss is the ratio of power supplied by at the output port to power supplied by source
to the input port, measured with other ports terminated in the matched load. It is expressed in
dB.

(b) ISOLATOR:
Isolation is the ratio of power applied to the output to that measured at the input. This ratio is
expressed in dB. The isolation of a circulator is measured with the third port terminated in a
matched load.

(c) INPUT VSWR:

The input VSWR of an isolator or circulator is the ratio of voltage maximum to voltage
minimum of the standing wave existing in the line with all ports except the test port are
matched.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM:

CRO as
VSWR meter

Klystron Detector
power supply Mount

Klystron Frequency Circulator

Fixed
tube with Isolator
attenuator meter Isolator
mount

Matched load

Procedure:

Measurement of insertion loss/attenuation loss of attenuator

1) Remove the tunable probe, attenuator and matched termination from the slotted section in
the above set.
2) Connect the detector mount to slotted line, and the tune the detector mount also for
maximum deflection on VSWR.
3) Set any reference level on the VSWR meter with the help of variable attenuator and gain
control knob of VSWR meter. Let it be P1.
4) Carefully disconnect the detector mount from the slotted line without disturbing any
position on the setup. Place the test variable attenuator to the slotted line and detector
mount to other port of test variable attenuator. Keep the micrometer reading of variable
attenuator to zero and record the reading of VSWR meter. Let it be P2. Then insertion
loss of test attenuator will be P1-P2 dB.
5) For measurement of attenuation of fixed and variable attenuator place the test attenuator
to the slotted line and detector mount at the other port of test attenuator. Record the
reading of the VSWR meter and let it be P3 then the attenuation value of variable
attenuator for particular position of micrometer will be P1-P3 dB.
6) Find out attenuation value for different position of micrometer reading and plot the
graph.

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Measurement of insertion loss/attenuation loss of circulator

1) Arrange the set up as shown in diagram.

2) Put frequency meter and variable attenuator at minimum position.
3) Adjust the beam voltage = 250 V dc.
4) Obtain the rectangular oscillation on the C. R. O. screen.
5) Measurement of insertion loss-
 Measure the voltage present at port 2 (V2). Now disconnect circulator and connect
detector mount to variable attenuator and measure (V1).
 Calculate Insertion loss = 20 log10 (V1/V2) db.
6) Measurement of Isolation-
 Now connect circulator in reverse fashion i.e. port 2 with variable attenuator, port
1 with detector mount, at port 3 matched load. Measure the voltage present at port
1 (V1) from the previous measurement.
 Calculate Isolation = 20 log10 (Input /Output) dB

Calculations:

1. Measurement of insertion loss for circulator in forward direction

V1 =
V2 =
Insertion loss =
2. Measurement of isolation loss for circulator in reverse direction
V1 =
V2 =
Isolation loss =
3. Measurement of insertion loss for isolator in forward direction
V1 =
V2 =
Insertion loss =
4. Measurement of isolation loss for isolator in reverse direction
V1 =
V2 =
Isolation loss =

Result & Conclusion: -

1. Insertion loss of circulator =

2. Isolation loss of circulator =
3. Insertion loss of Isolator =
4. Isolation loss of Isolator =

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Questions

1. What is attenuation?
2. How many types of attenuators are there?
3. What is insertion loss?
4. What is the minimum value of insertion loss?
5. What are the methods used for measuring attenuation?
6. What are the methods used for measuring insertion loss?
7. What is the input VSWR of a circulator or isolator?
8. What is the function of resistive card in isolator?
9. How many ports a circulator can have?
10. What are the applications of circulators?

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ECE Department, NIT Kurukshetra

EXPERIMENT 11
Measuring unknown impedance using smith chart

Aim: To measure unknown impedance using smith chart

Apparatus Required: Klystron power supply, Klystron tube with mount, variable attenuator
frequency meter, slotted line, tunable probe, waveguide stand, slide screw tuner, movable
short/termination VSWR meter.

Theory:
A Smith chart is a circular plot with a lot of interlaced circles on it. When used correctly, matching
impedances, with apparent complicated structures, can be made without any computation. The only
effort required is the reading and following of values along the circles.
The Smith chart is a polar plot of the complex reflection coefficient (also called gamma and symbolized
by Γ). Or, it is defined mathematically as the 1-port scattering parameter s or s11.
A Smith chart is developed by examining the load where the impedance must be matched. Instead of
considering its impedance directly, you express its reflection coefficient ΓL, which is used to
characterize a load (such as admittance, gain, and transconductance). The Γ L is more useful when
dealing with RF frequencies. Reflection coefficient is defined as the ratio between the reflected voltage
wave and the incident voltage wave. The impedance at any point on a transmission line can be written
in the form R  jX . For comparison SWR can be calculated as:

1 R
S
1 R

Z  Z0
where Reflection coefficient  L 
Z  Z0
Where Zo = characteristic impedance of waveguide at operating frequency
And Z = Load Impedance.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

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Procedure:
1) Setup the components and equipments as shown in the figure.
2) Setup the variable attenuator at minimum attenuation position.
3) Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as shown below:
Range 40 dB
Input switch – crystal low impedance
meter switch – normal position
Gain (coarse and fine) - mid positions
4) Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as:
Beam voltage – off
Mod switch – AM
Beam voltage knob – fully anticlockwise
Repeller voltage = fully clockwise
AM amplitude knob = around fully clockwise
AM frequency knob = around mid-position
5) Switch the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan switch.
6) Switch ‘ON’ the beam voltage switche to set beam voltage at 300v with the help of beam voltage
knob.
7) Adjust the repeller voltage to get some deflection in VSWR meter.
8) Maximize the deflector with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of power supply.
9) Tune the plunger of klystron mount for maximum deflection.
10) Tune the reflector voltage knob for maximum deflection.
11) Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
12) Tune the frequency meter knob to get a ‘dip’ on the VSWR scale and note down the frequency
directly from frequency meter.
13) Keep the depth of the pin of SS tuner to around 3-4 mm and lock it.
14) Move the probe along the slotted line to get maximum deflection.
15) Adjust VSWR meter gain control knob and variable attenuator until the meter indicates 10 on the
normal dB SWR scale.
16) Move the probe to next minima position and note down the SWR ‘S0’ on the scale. Also note down
the probe position. Let it be d.
17) Remove the SS tuner and matched termination and place movable short at slotted line. The plunger
of short should be at zero.

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18) Note the position of 2 successive (maxima) or minima positional Let it be as d1 and d2. Hence
g  2(d 2  d1 ) .
19) Calculate g .
20) Find out normalized impedance as described.
21) Repeat above for different frequencies.

Observations:
I. Movable short

Distance(cm) Power(dB)
Min-1
Max-1
Min-2
Max-2

II. Matched termination

Distance(cm) Power(dB)
Min-1
Max-1
Min-2
Max-2

Calculations:
g  2(d 2  d1 )
where d2 is distance at min-2 or max-2
d1 - is distance at min-1 or max-1

Result:
The unknown impedance has been determined using smith chart.

Questions:

1) What are the various methods used for the measurement of impedance?
2) How impedance can be measured by using slotted line?
3) How can you determine whether the impedance is inductive or capacitive?
4) How impedance can be measured by using magic tee?
5) What is the purpose of slotted line for the measurement of impedance?

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6) How impedance can be measured by using reflectometer?
7) What is the purpose of variable attenuator?
8) How impedance can be determined by using directional couplers?
9) Why standing waves are produced in the wave guide?
10) What is meant by reflection coefficient and how impedance can be determined?

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