Jeremiah Rushchitsky

Foundations of
mechanics of materials:
Part 1
JEREMIAH RUSHCHITSKY

FOUNDATIONS OF
MECHANICS OF
MATERIALS: PART 1

2
Foundations of mechanics of materials: Part 1
1st edition
© 2021 Jeremiah Rushchitsky & bookboon.com
ISBN 978-87-403-3706-8
Peer review by Prof. Surkay Akbarov, Prof. Yaroslav A. Zhuk, Prof. Volodymyr Zozulya

3
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Contents

CONTENTS
Foreword 5

1 Basic information on mechanics 11

2 Basic information on mechanics of materials. Theory of elasticity.

Short description of linear theory of elasticity 27

3 Some additional fundamental facts from

the linear theory of elasticity 42

4 Short description of nonlinear theory of elasticity. Part 1 69

5 Short description of nonlinear theory of elasticity. Part 2 83

6 Short description of linearized theory of elasticity 103

7 Short description of strength of materials 118

8 Focus on composite materials. Different models

of elastic deformation 139

9 Focus on composite materials. Structural model of elastic mixtures 170

10 Focus on new materials Nanomechanics of materials 192

11 Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials 239

4
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Foreword

FOREWORD
On the auditory. Goals of the book presented. Structure
of this book. Three basic parts of the book. The most
known classical book (text-book) on mechanics of materials.
The most popular books (text-books) on mechanics of
materials. Structure of the single chapter. On comments.
On bibliography. On questions.

The proposed 20 chapters are created as an answer to the very big request for the courses
on the mechanics of materials. This request is displayed in the sufficiently great number of
proposed books, their supernormal volume (a very great number of pages), the constant
interest of publishers to such books, a great number of republications of the popular in
academic community books on mechanics of materials as well as a presence of the course
“Mechanics of Materials” in the universities of all continents.

The presented short course is intended as the small addendum to the imposing size classical
books on the mechanics of materials. The chapters let know of the hearer-reader in brief
terms the information on fundamentals of mechanics of materials and have for an object
to help him to systemize of his knowledge in the area of modern mechanics of materials,
to understand the common back-ground and interdependence of models and theories of
the modern mechanics of materials.

It seems to be natural that, first of all, the classical book-textbook “Timoshenko S.P. Gere
J.M. (1972) Mechanics of Materials. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York” is the
world standard for any author. Seemingly, this is not the accidental fact that the author
of the proposed chapters is working for the last fifty years just in the area of mechanics of
materials at the Institute of Mechanics named after S.P. Timoshenko - the founder and first
director of this institute (1918).

In this book, the fundamental assumptions, the primary notions, and the basic models and
theories of mechanics of materials are stated and commented on.

The proposed in the chapters information has differed essentially from the information
that is proposed in the classical and modern books on the mechanics of materials and
complements them just in the fundamental aspects.
First, it is concise and contains 276 pages only.
Second, it is based on understanding the mainline of studying the mechanics of materials
that consists of conditionally of four parts using the more and more complicated approaches
and models – the strength of materials, the linear theory of elasticity, the linearized theory

5
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Foreword

of elasticity, the nonlinear theory of elas ticity. At that, the focus is made on the nonlinear
theory of elasticity as the most adequate theory.
Third, it includes the foundations of theories that reflect other basic properties of materials  –
thermoelasticity, viscoelasticity, plasticity, elastoplasticity, piezoelasticity, magnetoelasticity,
diffusional elasticity.

The structure of this book is as follows:

PART I

Chapter 1. Basic information on mechanics.

Chapter 2. B
 asic information on mechanics of materials. Theory of elasticity. Short
description of linear theory of elasticity.
Chapter 3. Some additional fundamental facts from the linear theory of elasticity
Chapter 4. Short description of nonlinear theory of elasticity. Part 1.
Chapter 5. Short description of nonlinear theory of elasticity. Part 2.
Chapter 6. Short description of linearized theory of elasticity.
Chapter 7. Short description of strength of materials.
Chapter 8. Focus on composite materials. Different models of elastic deformation
Chapter 9. Focus on composite materials. Structural model of elastic mixture.
Chapter 10. Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials.
Chapter 11. Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials.

Each chapter is finished by comments, bibliography that includes the list of basic and
additional books and list of questions.

The most known classical book (text-book) on mechanics of materials

6
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Foreword

Timoshenko S.P., Gere J.M. (1972)

Mechanics of Materials.
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York.
670 p.

Gere J.M., Goodno B.J. (2012)

Mechanics of Materials.
8th edition.
Cangage Learning Custom Publishing, Stanford.
1152 p.

The most popular books (text-books) on mechanics of materials

7
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Foreword

Handbook of
Bedford A.M., Mechanics of
Liechti K.M. (2020). Materials (2019)
Mechanics of Editor-in-Chief
Materials. Springer, Hsueh C-H.
Berlin. 1039 p. Springer, Berlin.
2464 p.

Muvdi B.B, Elhouar S.

Vable M. (2015)
(2016)
Advanced Mechanics
Mechanics of
of Materials. 2nd
Materials. With
edition. Michigan
Application in Excel.
Technological
CRC Press,
University. 594 p.
Boca Raton. 723 p

Ghavami P. (2015) Beer F.P., Johnson

Mechanics of Jr E.R., De Wolf
Materials. An J.T., Mazurek D.F.
Introduction (2014). Mechanics of
to Engineering Materials. McGraw
Technology. Springer, Hill Education, New
Berlin. 260 p. York. 896 p.

Janco R., Hucko B.

(2013). Introduction
Gupta V. (2013)
to Mechanics of
An Introduction
Materials. Part I. Part
to Mechanics of
II. Ventus Publishing
Materials,
ApS, Copenhagen
Alpha Science Int.,
(free text-book in
500p.
BookBooN.com) 160
p. 234 p.

8
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Foreword

De Silva W.
(2013) Mechanics Hibbeler R.C.
of Materials (2011) Mechanics
(Computational of Materials. 10th
Mechanics and edition in 2017.
Applied Analysis). Prentice Hall, New
CRC Press, Boca York. 910 p.
Raton. 466p.

Kiusalaas J., Pytel

Allen J.H. Mechanics A. (2010). Mechanics
of Materials for of Materials. 2nd
Dummies (2011) edition, Cangage
Wiley, New York. Learning Custom
384p. Publishing, Stanford.
576 p.

Philpot T.A.
Vable M. (2009)
(2008). Mechanics
Mechanics of
of Materials: An
Materials. 2nd
Integrated Learning
edition. Michigan
System. John Wiley
Technological
& Sons, New York.
University. 594 p.
744 p.

Urugal A.C.
Bedford A.M.,
(2007). Mechanics
Liechti K.M. (2000).
of Materials:
Mechanics of
An Integrated
Materials. Prentice
Approach. John
Hall, New York. 627
Wiley & Sons, New
p.
York. 736 p.

Urugal A.C.
Popov E. (1976).
(1995). Mechanics
Mechanics of
of Materials:
Materials. 2nd
An Integrated
edition. Prentice
Approach. John
Hall, New York. 590
Wiley & Sons, New
p.
York. 736 p.

9
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Foreword

Each chapter-lecture contains at the end the comments to problems considered,

the bibliography (the list of books and original articles on the chapter subject for
further reading), and the list of question, which will enable the reader to turn to
the cited books and to study more deeply some aspect of the chapter.
Comments are concentrated mainly on fragments not reflected sufficiently in the
chapter-lecture and important for the in-depth study.
The bibliography is intended to show the wealth of the problems in hand (mainly,
the theoretical models problems, and in a few chapters, only), on the one hand,
and to help in the in-depth study, on the other hand.
The questions are the main goal to formulate the staring point for in-depth discussion
of some aspects of the chapter. The depth of discussion will depend on the reader
and his intentions.
The genesis of this book can be found in the author’s years of research and
teaching while heading of department at S.P. Timoshenko Institute of Mechanics
(National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine), a member of the Center for Micro and
Nanomechanics at Engineering School of University of Aberdeen (Scotland) and a
professor at Physical-Mathematical Faculty of the Igor Sikorsky National Technical
University of Ukraine “KPI”.

10
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Basic information on mechanics

1 BASIC INFORMATION
ON MECHANICS
Mechanics as science. Definition of mechanics. Antique
roots of mechanics. Mecha-nics as a precision science,
having the axiomatics. Material body. Material. States
of material substance. Classification of mechanics by
different attributes. Different classifications of mechanics.
The classic division. Continuity. Continuum mechanics.
Diffe-rent divisions of mechanics. Classifiers of mechanics.

Definition 1.1. Mechanics is the science on the equilibrium of mechanical motion

of material bodies as a change over time in the space of the mutual position of
material bodies or their parts under action of forces (in the modern interpretation,
of not only the forces of mechanical nature: for example, forces of electromagnetic
or diffusion nature, temperature). The word mechanics comes from the Greek word “
μηχανική – mechanics”, which in turn comes from another Greek word “μηχανή – an
instrument, a building.” In ancient Greece, the words “μηχανική – mechanics” and
“τηχνή – technique” meant “the art of constructing machines”.

Mechanics in its original form (ANTIQUE MECHANICS) was initiated by two needs:
works in construction (sometimes quite grandiose at that time) and the auxiliary mechanisms
necessary for these works and the problem of interaction between the moving solids and
water (air) during navigation (flight). Thus, it has been so happened historically that in
all stages of the development of mankind, starting with the ancient world, mechanics and
engineering business in many cases were considered as a whole.

Therefore, the specificity of mechanics as a science is that it is a science of a

fundamental nature and, at the same time, the relevance of mechanics is determined
by the significance of its problems for engineering. Simultaneously, mechanics
is an exact science in the sense that it is extremely active in mathematics in its
theoretical constructs and the experiments play a crucial role in the development
and testing of theories.

A precision of mechanics as the physical science was caused by the interest of the famous
mathematician David Gilbert, who formulated his SIXTH PROBLEM in the following way:

“Mathematical consideration of the axioms of physics. A study of the foundations

of geometry suggests the following problem: Consider by the same way, with the
help of axioms, those physi- cal sciences in which mathematics is already playing an
important role today; above all, they are the theory of probability and mechanics.“

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Basic information on mechanics

The Gilbert’s problems were voiced in 1900 at the 2nd International Congress of Mathematicians.
In the 2nd half of the 20 century, Walter Noll and Clifford Truesdell built the AXIOMATICS
OF MECHANICS (6 axioms concerning the material body, 3 axioms concerning mass,
4 axioms concerning force, 3 axioms on reference systems, 2 axioms on inertia, 2 axioms
on energy). This allowed C. Trusdell to assert that the analytical mechanics in the sense
that it is that part of mechanics, which is not the computational or experimental one, can
be called the rational mechanics. The term “rational” is interpreted here in the sense of
Lagrange’s concept of rationality.

Thus, mechanics belongs to a narrow circle of sciences that have their own
axiomatics.

The primary concept in mechanics ​​is the notion of the material body.

Definition 1.2. The material body (material substance, physical substance, substance)
is defined as a collection of discrete formations (atoms, molecules, and more complex
formations of them), having the mass of rest and occupying the part of space.

The word ”material” has a Latin origin: “material” means a tree (as a substance), material,
substance.

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12
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Basic information on mechanics

THE AGGREGATE AND PHASE STATES OF MATTER

(SUBSTANCE) ARE DISTINGUISHED.

Mechanics describes the mechanical motion of matter for all its states.

The aggregate states are divided into four types:

GASEOUS, PLASMA, SOLID, LIQUID.
The criterion for differing these states is the presence of different types of motion
of discrete formation and density of packaging (distances among the formations).

THE PLASMA
AGGREGATE STATE
THE SOLID
is formed only by the
AGGREGATE STATE
atomized gas with
allows only the
THE GASEOUS an equal number of
oscillatory motion of
AGGREGATE STATE positive and negative
formations around
allows the charges. This is one
fixed centers of THE LIQUID
translational, rotary, of the options for
equilibrium with AGGREGATE STATE
and oscillatory the gaseous state. It
frequencies 1013- by the nature of
motions of stands out separately
1014 oscillation per the motions of
formations (atoms, only because
second. There are formations are close
molecules). In the substance in
no translational and to the gaseous state
this state, the the universe is
rotary motions in and by the nature
distances between composed just
it. In this state, the of the packaging -
the formations are of the plasma. At
distances between to the solid state.
large (the packing that, the plasma is
the formations are
density of the divided into four
small, or, in other
formations is small). types - the plasma
words, the packing
itself, Bose- Einstein
density of the
condensate, fermion
formation is large.
condensate, and
quark-gluon plasma.

The phase states are divided into three types: GASEOUS, CRYSTALLINE, LIQUID.
The criterion for differing these states is the order in the mutual placement of formations.

13
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Basic information on mechanics

THE LIQUID PHASE STATE

is a state of “near” order in
the placement of molecules
(formations), when the
THE CRYSTALLINE
order is saved at distances
PHASE STATE
of several molecules
is characterized by the “far”
(formations), and ordering
order in the placement of
is observed only in the
molecules (formations), when
immediate neighborhood of
the order is maintained at
the molecule, and further. the
distances exceeding the size
placement is unpredictable.
THE GASEOUS of the molecules (formations)
For this state, also the term
AGGREGATE AND by many hundred times. Here
PHASE STATES the ordering is observed “AMORPHOUS
almost coincide. at the long distances. PHASE STATE”
is used. It can be liquid
THE SOLID AGGREGATE
or solid (glassy). The solid
STATE corresponds to two
amorphous phase state
phase states - CRYSTALLINE
is significantly different
AND GLASSY.
from the liquid amorphous
phase state. Therefore, it
is sometimes isolated as
the separate phase state,
and such substances are
called the GLASSES.

Mechanics as science clearly takes into account in their models the differences in the states
of matter.

The motion of a substance in a liquid state (aggregate and liquid phase) and a
gaseous state (aggregate and phase) is studied by mechanics of liquid, gas, and
plasma (fluid mechanics).
The motion of a substance in the solid aggregate state is studied by mechanics
of materials (solid mechanics) since the materials themselves are understood as a
substance in the solid aggregate state.
The property of a material to have the mass and shape is described by the notion
of hardness, which is ability of the material of a certain mass and shape to retain
its shape or to prevail over this shape in comparison with other possible shapes.

Mechanics distinguishes matter according to the criterion of form change and is divided
by this criterion into four groups. Here, two basic notions are first used: the material point
and the rigid body.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Basic information on mechanics

Definition 1.3. The material point is the body having a mass and size of which is
neglected in comparison with the distance to which it is displaced.
Definition 1.4. The rigid body is the body that does not change its dimensions
with the given shape (does not deform).

THE GROUP 1 includes mechanics of the material point,

THE GROUP 2 includes mechanics of the systems of material points,
THE GROUP 3 includes mechanics of the rigid body, and
THE GROUP 4 includes the substances that change their form (are deformed).
THE GROUP 4 is traditionally divided into two main sections:
mechanics of liquid, gas, and plasma (fluid mechanics) and solid mechanics as well as
a series of sections intermediate between these two sections that describe the motion of
substance with special characteristics: soils, bulk substances, substances with properties,
intermediate between the properties of solids and liquids (rheological substances), etc.

Mechanics as science has now become a sufficiently branched area of ​​knowledge. In the
division of mechanics into the separate sections, the different criteria and attributes are used
and in this way, the different divisions are received.

The velocity of motion is an important value in the classification of mechanics. The motion
of bodies with velocities close to the speed of light, where the classical Newton’s laws are
incorrect, is considered in the part of physics called THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY,
and the motion of elementary particles at the atomic or subatomic level is considered in
THE QUANTUM MECHANICS. These two cases of motion are, of course, not related
to the study of both classical mechanics and modern mechanics.

The classic division is the division of mechanics by the type of physical models used in the
study of phenomena. According to this criterion, mechanics traditionally is divided into
five main sections:

MECHANICS OF THE MATERIAL POINT,

MECHANICS OF THE SYSTEMS OF MATERIAL POINTS,
MECHANICS OF THE RIGID BODY,
FLUID MECHANICS,
SOLID MECHANICS.

The construction of models is the main tool of mechanics in the study of mechanical
phenomena and all the above sections include a sufficiently large number of different
models.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Basic information on mechanics

It is based on the point of view that, considering mechanics,

we consider, in fact, the sequence of physical models.

The primary assumption in most of the models is the

assumption of CONTINUITY of the material body.

Continuity is introduced in mechanics in the following way. The initial fact is that
modern phy-sics represents matter as a system of a large number of interconnected
and interacted particles, which were previously defined as discrete formations. Since
a description of the change in the body shape, while the motion of each particle
being taken into account, is a very difficult prob-lem, it was found that solving the
problem is inappropriate. The point is that knowledge of the individual motion of
the particle (the number of particles in 1 cm3 is of the order 1022) gives a picture
of the microscopic motion of all particles of the body. Experience has been shown
that a change in the body shape is successfully described as a manifestation of the
macroscopic motion of the body as a whole.
THE MAIN TOOL in the transition from nanoscale or microscale description to
the macro-scale description is THE PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY, in which
the body in the form of a discrete particle system is replaced by the body with
a continuous system of points (CONTINUUM) that occupies the same area of​​
space. At the same time, each point of the continuum attributes a certain set of
average physical properties (density and a series of thermodynamic parameters)
that are obtained by the procedure of averaging of the parameters of the nano- or
microscopic motion.

The typical representatives of the mechanics of the rigid body are:

the CELESTIAL AND ORBITAL MECHANICS,
the SECTION OF FLUID MECHANICS - HYDROMECHANICS,
the SECTION OF SOLID MECHANICS – the THEORY OF ELASTICITY
and the THEORY OF PLASTICITY
If in the study of sufficiently complex phenomena the models from two
or three sections mentioned above are commonly used, then such studies
are conventionally attributed to the GENERAL MECHANICS
or to its separate parts (for example, to MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS).

Division of mechanics by the methods used in the study

of phenomena includes three main sections:
ANALYTICAL MECHANICS,
COMPUTATIONAL MECHANICS,
EXPERIMENTAL MECHANICS.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Basic information on mechanics

In the past, only the corresponding problems of mechanics of the rigid body were referred
to THE ANA-LYTICAL MECHANICS. At present, the analytical mechanics is interpreted
in the broader sense as mechanics that is using the analytical approaches, when it refers to
the corresponding problems of fluid mechanics and solid mechanics. The general theoretical
problems: the formulation of an exact statement of problems, theorems of uniqueness and
existence of solutions, variational principles, and other related questions are also referred
to the analytical mechanics. In the study of certain problems, the methods and approaches
of two or three sections are commonly used.

THE COMPUTATIONAL MECHANICS is developing very strongly in our time and

it was initially thought that it would push the analytical mechanics because of the great
difficulties in the analytic representation of the complex problems of mechanics. The most
popular are several methods of computer analysis of the problems of mechanics. The first
among them is the method of finite elements, which proposed by R. Courant and further
adapted to mechanics by M. Terner, R. Clog, H. Martin, L. Top, J. Argiris, S. Cellsi.
Currently, the number of utilized worldwide commercial software products that are developed
in computational mechanics.

THE EXPERIMENTAL MECHANICS has a very rich history from ancient times to the
modern ones. The modern experimental technology is high-tech and expensive. Therefore,
experiments in mechanics are carried out mainly in rich countries.

The division of mechanics on the base of the characteristic

size of the internal structure includes four sections:
MACRO-MECHANICS, MESO-MECHANICS, MICRO-
MECHANICS, NANO-MECHANICS.

This kind of division of mechanics was introduced into the scientific practice when only the
NANO-MECHANICS started its development as the new area of mechanics despite that the
notions of MACRO -MECHANICS and MICRO-MECHANICS were used in mechanics
many years ago relative to composite materials and the notion of MESO-MECHANICS
was used relative the metals. Thus, only the nanomechanics is a product of the twenty-first
century, it is developed successfully within the framework of the continuum mechanics
after the invention of the atomic force microscope (AFM) and scanning tunneling electron
microscope (STEM), that are able to differ the nanostructure of material. The leading in
science countries spent big finance on a study of nano-mechanics.

The division of mechanics on the base of correspondence to the specific areas of practical
human activity includes many sections:

17
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Basic information on mechanics

BUILDING MECHANICS, CELESTIAL MECHANICS,

MECHANICS OF SPACE FLIGHT,
BUILDING MECHANICS OF AIRCRAFT AND SHIP, MINING MECHANICS,
GEOTECHNICAL MECHANICS, GEOMECHANICS,
MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS,
BIOMECHANICS AND MECHANICS
OF MAN, MECHANICS OF ENVIRONMENT, and others.

The division of mechanics by the nature of phenomena contains only two

sections: STATICS (studying the body equilibrium) and DYNAMICS (studying
the body motion), to which in many cases the STABILITY and FRACTURE
are added, which include both static and dynamic phenomena.

A more detailed division of mechanics into sections (subsections, subsubsections, etc.) - the
more in detail classification of mechanics) is contained in the classifiers of mechanics, which
are developed in various international specialized editions on mechanics and references to
which are widely used in scientific publications. The three most common classifications of
mechanics are as follows:

The newest classifier

The latest classifier
Mathematics Subject
Applied Mechanics
Classification (MSC)
The classic classifier Reviews Subject
is prepared by two of the
Uniform Decimal Classification (AMR),
world’s largest abstract
Code (UDC) is prepared by the world’s
journals – Mathematical
is least adapted to the largest abstract journal –
Reviews (USA) and
contemporary mechanics Applied Mechanics Reviews
Zentralblatt für Mathematik
(USA) and is most adapted to
(Germany) and reflects the
the contemporary mechanics
current state of mechanics

Newton’s laws of motion, set forth by I. Newton in 1687 in the famous work
“Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica”, forms the basis of all sections of
mechanics. The theoretical mechanics or general mechanics studies general laws
and principles relating to the mechanical motion of bodies, and general theorems
and equations arising from these laws and principles. It is traditionally divided
into STATICS, KINEMATICS, and DYNAMICS. The models of mechanics of
the material point, mechanics of the systems of material points, mechanics of the
rigid body are used here.

18
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Basic information on mechanics

The basic concepts of statics are the notions: force, mass, motion, a moment of force, a
center of mass, friction. The statics of solids, like statics of liquids, have also been studied
in ancient times. Like the Archimedes “law on the equilibrium of floating bodies”, the
Archimedes “law on the equilibrium of a lever”

Definition 1.5. A lever is called a long rod, which is based on a distance from one
end to the fixed support and to which vertically forces are applied on both ends.

is formulated as follows - the product of one force at a distance from the point of its
application to the point of reference is equal to the product of another force at a distance
from the point of its application to the point of support.

It is considered the first scientific fact of theoretical mechanics.

The basic concepts of kinematics are: trajectory, passed distance, speed, acceleration,
rotation, angular velocity. The dynamics in the reduced form is studied in the theoretical
mechanics and more fully in the analytical mechanics.

THE ANALYTICAL MECHANICS is based on Newton’s laws, concepts of generalized

coordinates, the construction of kinematics and kinetics of the rigid body, concepts of work
and potential energy.
The general equations of the Lagrange motion of a holonomic mechanical system with a
finite number of degrees of freedom have made it possible to reduce the solution of any
problem of the motion of the system to the mathematical problem of solving the differential
equations. This fact underlies the analytic mechanics. It contains the theory of motion
of holonomic systems (with positional restraints) and nonholonomic-kinematic systems,
methods of constructing the first and second-order Lagrange equations, the Euler-Lagrange
equations, Appel and Chaplygin equations of relative motion, canonical equations (including
the theory of their integration on the basis of the Hamilton-Jacobi theorem), the theory
of perturbations, the variational principles of mechanics (including the introduction of the
notion of action by Hamilton, and a number of principles: the Hamilton-Ostrogradsky
principle, the stationary action principle Lagrange. The development of analytical mechanics
in recent times has led to the creation of new divisions, such as the theory of jet motion, the
subsequent transition from the dynamics of discrete systems to the dynamics of continuous
systems, etc.
Mechanics contains a number of parts, which are simultaneously the parts of other sciences.
These parts include the already mentioned relativistic mechanics and quantum mechanics,
which are the parts of physics, as well as celestial mechanics, which is also part of the
analytical mechanics and the part of astronomy.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Basic information on mechanics

The history of mechanics is reach and diverse. Many excellent books are devoted to this
theme. Therefore, in the following statement, the historical sketches of some parts of
mechanics will be presented.

Historical sketch. Celestial mechanics studies the motion of celestial bodies as the
rigid bodies on the basis of laws relating to the gravitation forces. It was founded
by Newton. It is believed that before Newton, the celestial mechanics studied the
kinematics of the motion of celestial bodies, and it has its origins since ancient times.
Despite the false idea of ​​the motion of celestial bodies around the Earth, the eclipse
was predicted fairly accurately and the calendars were synchronized with the motion
of the Earth around the Sun. Introduced by Apollonius of Perge, epicycles allow a
well-described motion of planets. During the Renaissance, a great step was taken in
the development of celestial mechanics, when N.Copernicus placed the Sun in the
center of the universe, and J.Kepler formulated three laws of the motion of planets.
But only the work of I. Newton marked the formation of celestial mechanics as a
science. Newton’s law of universal gravitation “The bodies are mutually attracted to
a force that is proportional to their mass and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them” is the basis of the celestial mechanics. Newton’s theory of
gravity has allowed us to construct the differential equations describing the motion
of celestial bodies. To solve them, the theory of perturbations was construc-ted
in the 18th century, the largest contribution to which made Euler and Lagrange.
As a result, the existence of a new planet - Uranus was theoretically foreseen and
therefore experimentally observed. In the 20th century, Einstein proposed a new
theory of gravitation, known as the general theory of relativity. He refined the
results of Kepler and Newton, based on the field equations proposed by Einstein.
The initiated by Einstein’s theory of relativity was responded to the proposal of
Poincaré: “Perhaps, we must build a completely new mechanics, yet foggy, in which the
inertia increases with the speed and the speed of light is the limit one.” In this way, a
relativistic mechanics arose, based on a new understanding of gravity.

20th century is also characterized by the appearance in the theoretical concepts of the
CONCEPT of CHAOS, which is often understood as a transition from one mode of motion
to another one. It was found that the solutions of equations of the celestial mechanics are
very sensitive to changes in the initial conditions and small changes in the initial conditions
lead to a large evolution of the solution.
The features of equations of celestial mechanics are such that evolution due to chaotic
instability is very slow. At the most recent stage of development, it is possible to indicate
such a section of applied celestial mechanics as astrodynamics, which studies the motion
of artificial satellites and the transition of satellites from one orbit to another. The modern
celestial mechanics takes into account not only traditional gravity forces but also zero
gravity: gas resistance, heat release, the interaction between radiation and matter, comet
jet, tidal friction, etc.

20
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Basic information on mechanics

MECHANICS OF FLUID, GAS, AND PLASMA studies, in accordance with the name,

the motion of fluid, gas, and plasma. The peculiarity of this type of substance is its fluidity
or easy mobility.
Models of mechanics of fluid, gas, and plasma necessarily take into account the properties
of continuity and fluidity. The main models of fluid, gas and plasma are the model of an
ideal (non-viscous) fluid and the model of viscous (Newtonian) fluid. The model of non-
viscous fluid is an idealization that does not take into account the existence of shear stresses
in the fluid. This simplifies the analysis of motion, while the viscous fluid model takes these
stresses into account, considering them proportional to the gradient of the velocity in the
direction perpendicular to the shear plane. For example, water is a viscous fluid. The so-
called non-Newtonian fluids are studied by rheology. Most fluids with a molecular structure
consisting of long molecules exhibit the properties of non-Newtonian fluids. 

The study of plasma as an ionized substance required the consideration of the

interaction of the plasma with the electromagnetic field. The study of plasma motion
was stimulated by the great technical need for the creation of magnetohydrodynamic
gene-rators, the study of the behavior of high-temperature plasma in strong magnetic
fields (thermonuclear reaction), and others like that.
THE MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS studies the motion of not only plasma,
but also of liquid metals, saline water, and electrolytes.

Having the basic properties of continuity and fluidity,

gases and fluids differ in the molecular structure.

In the fluid, the distance between the molecules is small and therefore molecular forces
of adhesion arise between the molecules. These forces act on the outer surface of the fluid
and their action is such that the fluid is very compressed. The small changes in pressure
observed in the slow-motion cause small changes in the fluid volume. Therefore, the fluids
are generally considered to be little compressible and, in most models, the fluid is considered
to be incompressible. 
In contrast to the fluid, the distance among the molecules in the gas is large and the
interaction among the molecules is weak. Therefore, gas is much more compressible than
fluid. Just difference in compliance with compression forms the main difference between
the fluid and gas. Under certain circumstan- ces, the fluid can be compressed, and the
gas is non-compressive. Therefore, the same models of fluid, gas, and plasma are used
for fluid and gas. 

Note 1.1. The statics of fluid was studied even in ancient times. The mentioned
above Archimedes law “the main vector of the pressure of the fluid on the surface of
the body immersed in this fluid, is equal to the weight of the fluid in the body volume
and directed toward the opposite force of weight” is considered the first scientific fact
of mechanics of fluid, gas, and plasma.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Basic information on mechanics

Historical sketch. The foundations of modern mechanics of fluid, gas, and plasma were laid
in the Middle Ages. Here such scientists should be listed: Leonardo da Vinci (he described
observations and experiments), E.Toricelli (he invented the barometer), I.Newton (he
investigated the viscosity, in his honor the viscous fluid is called the Newtonian), B.Pascal
(he formulated the law of isotropy of normal stresses in a fluid – Pascal’s law), D.Bernoulli
(he proposed the mathematical fluid dynamics). Contribution to the theory of motion of
the ideal fluid was made by L.Euler, J.D’Alembert, J.Lagrange, P.S.Laplace, S.D.Poisson,
and in the theory of the motion of the viscous fluid – J.L.Puiseuille and G.Hagen. In the
19th century, H.Navier and G.Stokes proposed the basic equations - the Navier-Stokes
equation. H.Helmholtz created the doctrine of vortices.

Definition 1.6. The vortex is called the form of motion of the fluid, which is
described by an antisymmetric part of the velocity gradient; accordingly, the motion
of a fluid occurs without a vortex, if this part is absent; the vortex motion is called
the vortex motion with the presence of vortices. 

The study of the non-vortex motion of fluid forms a separate part of fluid mechanics.
Already in the 20th century, L.Prandtl and T. von Karman developed the theory of
the boundary layer. O.Reynolds, J.Taylor, A.Kolmogorov made a further contribution
to the understanding of the viscosity and turbulence of the motion in the problems
of fluid mechanics.

The separate study of the statical and dynamical problems

in mechanics of fluid, gas, and plasma is a traditional one.

THE HYDROSTATICS explains several phenomena of everyday life: the changes in

atmospheric pressure when changing the height; ascending trees or oils in water; the
horizontal surface of the water and its flat shape in an arbitrary shape of the container,
etc. The hydrostatics creates the foundation for hydraulics and engineering, which studies
the preservation and transport of fluid, and is partly important for medicine, meteorology,
geophysics, astrophysics, and other sciences.

The hydrodynamics and aerodynamics exist as separate specialized sections of the

dynamics of fluid, gas, and plasma. which have a very wide range of applications. 

The following part of mechanics having the great importance in this book is the
SOLID MECHANICS (MECHANICS OF MATERIALS).
It will be described in the next chapter. 

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Basic information on mechanics

Comments
Comment 1.1. The tailoring of models of mechanical motion of substance is always a difficult
problem. The usual way in modern mechanics is called the phenomenological approach.
According to the approach, the parameters of phenomenological model are strongly defined
theoretically, further physical experiments for the determination of physical constants are
described, and finally, the theory has to predict new phenomena.
For fundamental sciences, the necessity of attention to experiments and practice had been
formulated as far back by Leibniz in his motto theoria cum praxi, he urged that theory be
combi-ned with practical application, and thus Leibniz is claimed as the father of applied
science, and the Leibniz’s motto it understood as the necessity for any theory to amplify
with experimentations. 200 years later, Boltzman, stated: “nothing is so practical as the theory”.
In 1926 in a talk between Werner von Heisenberg and Albert Einstein, Heisenberg stated
that each theory, in its building, must cor-respond to only those observed by this time fact.
Einstein answered, that it could be wrong to try to build the theory only on observed facts.
Really, it happens the vice versa - theory determines, what we can observe.

Comment 1.2. The general theory of models is worthy to separate comment. Here we will
follow the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy which stated that although the models play
an important role in science and are one of the principal instruments of modern science,
there remain significant lacunas in the understanding of what models are and of how they
work. The philosophical literature studies: probing models, phenomenological models,
computational models, developmen-tal models, explanatory models, impoverished models,
testing models, idealized models, theoretical models, scale models, heuristic models, caricature
models, didactic models, fantasy mo-dels, toy models, imaginary models, mathematical
models, substitute models, iconic models, formal models, analog models, instrumental
models et cetera.

Let us concentrate on the phenomenological models together with empirical and semi-
empirical models. A traditional definition of phenomenological models in philosophy takes
them to be models that only represent the observable properties of their real objects and
refrain from postulating hidden mechanisms and the like. But also, the phenomenological
models are thought of as models that are independent of theories. This, however, seems to
be too strong. Many phenomenological models, while failing to be derivable from a theory,
incorporate principles and laws associated with theories.

Just this last sentence is close to the used in mechanics understanding the
phenomenological model. This model arises in the case when the universal physical
laws do not help to study some mechanical object (these laws are not enough to
build an adequate model). Then the phenomenological laws are used in mechanics
and the constructed theory is called the phenomenological theory.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Basic information on mechanics

Definition 1.7. The phenomenological law is thought in mechanics as the well

substantiated empirical law with the restricted and also well substantiated area of
application.

To the classical examples of such laws can be related:

the Hooke’s on the linear relation between the force and extension,
the Fourier’s law on the linear relation between the heat flow and temperature gradient.

Note 1.2. In essence, every theory is phenomenological, since otherwise we would

have reached an absolute penetration into the nature of things, which is impossible
in principle.

The empirical models have the less universal character as compared with the phenomenological
ones.

Note 1.3. The term empirical comes from the Greek word for experience - ἐμπειρία.

To describe the notions of empirical model and then the empirical theory, it is necessary
to introduce the chain of more abstract notions.
First, the notion of empirical evidence has to be formulated:

Definition 1.8. The empirical evidence is an information received by means of the

senses, particularly by observation and experimentation, in the form of recorded data,
which may be the subject of analysis.

The statements and arguments depending on the empirical evidence are often referred

to as a posteriori (following experience) as distinguished from a priori (preceding it). A
priori knowledge or justifi-cation is independent of experience, whereas a posteriori knowledge
or justification is dependent on experience or empirical evidence. 

Note 1.4. In science, the de Groot’s empirical closed cycle is well-known: 1.Observation:
The observation of a phenomenon and inquiry concerning its causes. 2. Induction:
The formulation of hypotheses - generalized explanations for the phenomenon.
3. Deduction: The formulation of ex-periments that will test the hypotheses (i.e.
confirm them if true, refute them if false). 4. Testing: The procedures by which the
hypotheses are tested and data are collected. 5. Evaluation: The interpretation of
the data and the formulation of a theory - an abductive argument that presents the
results of the experiment as the most reasonable explanation for the phenomenon.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Basic information on mechanics

In mechanics, the empirical and semi-empirical models are distinguished by the

criterion of the degree of universality and size of substantiated area of application.
In general, the phenomenological, semi-empirical, and empirical models are supported
by experiment and observation but not necessarily supported by theory.

Further reading
I. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Physics, 2020, Foster, B (Editor-in-Chief ) Oxford
University Press & American Institute of Physics, Oxford.
II. Encyclopedia of Continuum Mechanics. 2019, Altenbach H & Öchsner A (eds),
Springer. Berlin.
III. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2018, Stanford University Press, CSLI, Stanford.
IV.  Encyclopedia of Physics Research, 2012, Devins, NB & Ramos, JP (eds) Nova
Science Publishers, New York.
V Encyclopedia of Physics (in 2 vols) 2005, Lerner, RG & Trigg, GL (eds) Wiley-VCH,
VI. MacMillan Encyclopedia of Physics (in 4 vols), 1996, Rigden, JS (ed) MacMillan.
VII. The Encyclopedia of Physics, 1990, Besancon, RM (ed) Springer, Berlin.
VIII. Flugge’s Encyclopedia of Physics. 1988, Springer, Berlin.

1.1. A scione, L & Grimaldi, A 1993, Elementi di meccanica del continuo (Elements of
continuum mechanics). Massimo, Napoli. (In Italian)
1.2. Blekhman, II, Myshkis, AD & Panovko, YH 1976, Applied Mathematics: Subject, Logics,
Features of Approaches. Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)
1.3. Eringen, AC 1967, Mechanics of Continua. John Wiley, New York.
1.4. Eslami, MR, Hetnarski, RB, Ignaczak, J, Noda, N, Sumi, N & Tanigawa, Y 2013,
Theory of Elasticity and Thermal Stresses. Explanations, Problems and Solutions. Series “Solid
Mechanics and Its Applications” Springer Verlag Netherlands, Amsterdam.
1.5. Fung, YC 1965, Foundations of Solid Mechanics. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
1.6. Germain, P 1973, Cours de mécanique des milieux continus. Tome 1. Théorie générale.
Masson et Cie Editeurs, Paris. (in French)
1.7. Gurtin, ME 1981, An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics. Academic Press, New York.
1.8. Iliushin, AA 1990, Mechanics of Continuum, Moscow University Publishing House,
Moscow. (in Russian)
1.9. Lur’e, AI 1990, Nonlinear Theory of Elasticity. North-Holland Series in Applied
Mathematics and Mechanics, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
1.10. Maugin, GA 1988, Continuum Mechanics of Electromagnetic Solids. North Holland,
Amsterdam.
1.11. Prager, W 1961, Introduction to Mechanics of Continua. Ginn, Boston.
1.12. Sedov, LI 1970, Mechanics of Continuum, in 2 vols. Nauka, Moscow. (in Russian)

25
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Basic information on mechanics

1.13. Spencer, AJM 1980, Continuum Mechanics. Longman, London.

1.14. Truesdell, C 1972, A First Course in Rational Continuum Mechanics. The John Hopkins
University, Baltimore.

Questions
1.1. W hich facts from the ancient history of mechanics you would like to add? Formulate
briefly these facts.
1.2. Which parts of modern physics, besides mechanics, are using the notion “continuum”
as the basic one? List on these parts and estimate the level of application.
1.3. Write a few areas of natural science (excluding mathematics) that have the axiomatics.
1.4. Try to substantiate the advantage of science to have the axiomatics. If you think that
this is not essential fragment in science, you can propose other essential fragments and
substantiate this proposal. For example, a correspondence of the basic experiments.
1.5. Add the list of areas of mechanics, which are not mentioned in this chapter.
1.6. Which additional historical sketches you could insert into the text of this chapter ?
1.7. Try to estimate in which a way you could to use the proposed encyclopedias.

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26
 BASIC INFORMATION ON MECHANICS OF MATERIALS.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS THEORY OF ELASTICITY. SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

2 BASIC INFORMATION ON
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS.
THEORY OF ELASTICITY. SHORT
DESCRIPTION OF LINEAR
THEORY OF ELASTICITY
Definition of mechanics of materials. Classifications and
main properties of materials. Main theories of materials.
Theory of elasticity: division on four parts. Material conti-
nuum. Equipped continuum. Short description of linear
theory of elasticity. Vector of displacement. Cauchy-Green
strain tensor. Stress. The Euler-Cauchy cutting principle.
Internal stress tensor. Balance equations. Motion equations.
Kinetic and potential energy. Constitutive equations.
Three classical kinds of symmetry of materials – ortho-
tropy, transversal isotropy, and isotropy. Lame equations.
Boundary and initial conditions.

To begin with, let us repeat the definition from Lecture 1.

Definition 2.1. SOLID MECHANICS (MECHANICS OF MATERIALS) is the

part of mechanics that studies the deformation of materials.

The modern mechanics of materials and solid mechanics are not always identical.
The difference is observed in the accents when carrying out research. The modern
interpretation of research on solid mechanics relates them to three modern sections
of science - applied mathematics, mechanical and other engineering, material science.
During a few centuries, when the solid mechanics was developed theoretically
and experimentally mainly as the theory of elas-ticity, the theoretical part of solid
mechanics was very close to the applied mathematics and sometimes the theory of
elasticity was considered as a part of mathematical physics. Nowa-days, the prevailing
number of both theoretical and experimental studies in mechanics of material is
referred to last two sections, which focus on the materials and their models.

The materials are classified according to the various features: 

27
 BASIC INFORMATION ON MECHANICS OF MATERIALS.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS THEORY OF ELASTICITY. SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

1. Traditional classification - by the field of use and physical-chemical structure -

machine-building and construction materials, polymer and composite materials,
ceramic and glass ma-terials, etc. 
2. Classical classification - on the level of internal structure consideration -
homogeneous and heterogeneous materials. 
3. Modern classification - divides materials into five types:
Type 1. Metals and alloys. Type 2. Polymers. Type 3. Ceramics and glass. Type 4.
Composites. Type 5. Natural materials (wood, leather, cotton /wool /silk, bone,
coal, ice).

THERE ARE SEVEN MAIN PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

WHILE THEY BEING DEFORMED. 

1. ELASTICITY: the body instantaneously takes on the initial configuration after eliminating
the causes of deformation (deformations are reversible). 
2.1. PLASTICITY: the body does not take on the initial configuration after eliminating
the causes of deformation (deformations are irreversible). 
2.2. ELASTOPLASTICITY: the process of deformation is elastic to some value of deformation,
and when it exceeds this value becomes plastic. 
2.3. HARD-PLASTICITY: to some extent, the intensity of the external action of the body
does not change the configuration (the body is not deformed), and when the value exceeds
this value becomes plastic. 
3.1. THERMOELASTICITY: the temperature changes lead to the elastic deformation and
vice versa. 
3.2. THERMOPLASTICITY: the temperature changes lead to plastic deformation and
vice versa.
4.1. VISCOSITY: the dependence of internal forces that arise during deformation, not on
deformations (which is characteristic of elastic and plastic deformation), but on the rate of
deformation (which is characteristic of liquids). 
4.2. VISCOELASTICITY: at the same time, the body has the properties of elasticity and
viscosity, which is manifested in the existence of creep and relaxation phenomena. 

Definition 2.2. The creep of deformations consists in increasing the deformations

under conditions of stress constancy. 
Definition 2.3. The relaxation of stresses consists of decreasing stresses under con-
ditions of deformation constancy. 

4.3. VISCOPLASTICITY: the phenomenon of creep is presented and at the same time
the body is deformed plastic. 
5. DIFFUSIONAL ELASTICITY: diffusion is the cause of elastic deformation and vice versa.

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 BASIC INFORMATION ON MECHANICS OF MATERIALS.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS THEORY OF ELASTICITY. SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

6. ELECTROELASTICITY: the electric field is the cause of deformation and vice versa.
7. MAGNETOELASTICITY: the magnetic field is the cause of deformation and vice versa. 

Based on each of the properties listed above,

the corresponding theories are constructed in the mechanics of materials:

THE THEORY OF ELASTICITY,

THE THEORY OF PLASTICITY,
THE THEORY OF THERMOELASTICITY,
THE THEORY OF VISCOELASTICITY,
THE THEORY OF CREEP,
THE THEORY OF DIFFUSIONAL ELASTICITY,
THE THEORY OF ELECTROELASTICITY,
THE THEORY OF MAGNETOELASTICITY.

As it follows from the list above, the property of elasticity is presented practically in all
theories (except partially the theory of plasticity). Therefore, the theory of elasticity can be
treated as the key and basic theory in the mechanics of materials. From this point of view,
this theory is worthy to be commented more in detail.

First of all, the theory of elasticity can be divided into four parts:
I. The strength of materials.
II. The linear theory of elasticity.
III. The linearized theory of elasticity.
IV. The nonlinear theory of elasticity.

At that, the strength of materials can be considered as the separate part very
conditionally only despite a big relationship with the theory of elasticity.

Note 2.1. There are different criteria for distinguishing the shown above parts of
the theory of elasticity. One of the frequently used criteria is that Part I uses the
simplest approximate models (mainly, one-dimensional ones) and is considered as
a set of standard tools for engineering mechanics. Next three parts are built on the
stronger mathematical apparatus and include models of more complicate structure,
that are able to describe the richer set of mechanical effects. Part II is based on
the one linear model. Part III is based on the different linearized models. Part IV
is based on the different nonlinear models.

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 BASIC INFORMATION ON MECHANICS OF MATERIALS.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS THEORY OF ELASTICITY. SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

Historical sketch. It is believed that the mechanics of elastic materials was initiated
by Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo Galilei. Further contributions were made by
R.Hooke (Hooke’s law) and I.Newton (Newton’s laws). The following steps were
taken in the analysis of one-dimensional problems of mechanics of materials in the
18th century: G.Leibniz, D.Bernoulli, L.Euler, J.D’Alembert, J.Lagrange analyzed the
equilibrium and stability of the rods. The beginning of the mechanics of materials as
continuum mechanics is associated with H.Navier, A.Cauchy, S.Poisson, P.Clapeiron,
G.Lame, B.Saint-Venan. Navier himself derived the equation of the theory of
elasticity for isotropic bodies. In the second half of the 19th century, G.Kirchhoff
completed the formation of the theory of plates (thin plates), G.Green and Lord
Kelvin considered the theory of elasticity of anisotropic bodies, H.Hertz built the
theory of the impact of bodies. The theory of thin-walled shells developed at the
end of the 19th century by A.Love and H.Lamb, which in the middle of the 20th
century was clarified by W.Koiter and V.V. Novozhilov. The study of waves in elastic
bodies begins with the work of S. Poisson, A.Cauchy, G.Stokes. Lord Rayleigh
made a significant contribution to the theory of elastic waves at the end of the
19th century. The study of the concentration of stre-sses was initiated by G.Kirsch,
having solved the so-called Kirsch problem about the concentration of stresses near
a circular hole. At the beginning of the 20th century, G.V. Kolosov and C.Inglis
generalized this problem for the case of an elliptical hole, which allowed A.Griffith
to introduce the concept of a crack in a brittle body and initiate the theory of
cracks. The next step in the development of the theory of cracks was made by
G.Irwin. In the 20th century, the theory of cracks was developed very actively in
many countries within the framework of various models of materials.

The transition in the theory of elasticity to the study of nonlinearity is done in the
20th century and is associated with R.Rivlin, M.Mooney, L.Treloar, F.Murnaghan,
A.Signorini, V.V.Novozhilov, A.I.Lurie, A.Eringen, R.Ogden, E.Arruda.
Being placed between the linear theory of elasticity and nonlinear theory of
elasticity, the linearized theory of elasticity is also well developed. This theory is
based on the linearization of the basic relationships of the nonlinear theory of
elasticity and, in this way, represents some simplification of nonlinear theory. The
pioneer works are related to the middle of 20th century and are associated with
M.A.Biot, L.S.Leibensohn, A.Yu.Ishlinsky, Yershov L.V., D.D.Ivlev, A.I.Lurie,
B.R.Seth, Z.Wesolowski, A.E.Green, R.S.Rivlin, R.T.Shield. This theory obtained
strong mathematical formulation and good application to different non-classical and
applied areas of mechanics in publications of A.N.Guz and his scientific school.

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 BASIC INFORMATION ON MECHANICS OF MATERIALS.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS THEORY OF ELASTICITY. SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

The historical sketch for the strength of materials is stated in the brilliant form by
S.P.Timo-shenko. Many tens of years ago the strength of materials is formed as the
classical approach to the engineering problems of mechanics.

It seems to be rational to start with a description of the basic formulations of the theory of
elasticity from the linear theory. Just this part (Part II) of the theory of elasticity is studied
most deeply and is the most developed. Also, in the statement of foundations of Part I
and Parts III and IV, the structure and basic notions of Part II form the initial skeleton,
which is simplified for Part I and complicated for Parts III and IV. So, Part II has to be
considered first of all.

At the beginning, the fundamental idea in the description of deformation of

materials– the idea of continuum description - must be repeated once again. It
means that the real piece of material is changed on the continuum of the same
shape. Accordingly, the material is changed on the area of 3D space, in each point
of which the density U  x1 , x2 , x3  is given. In this way, the material continuum is
introduced. Further, this continuum is equipped in the linear theory of elasticity
by three new functions (from point of view of mathematical formalism), which
also are determined in each point of the continuum area. From point of view of
mechanics, these functions have mechanical sense and are new mechanical notions.
Let us start of the brief information on the mentioned above four parts with the
Part II – the linear theory of elasticity. Note here that this theory studied only the
linear deformation of the continuum.

The displacements are introduced as the distances  u1 , u2 , u3  between the point in the non-
   
deformed state and this point after deformation P  x1 , x2 , x3 , t 


uk xk  xk .(2.1)

The displacements (2.1) form the VECTOR OF DISPLACEMENTS. They must be small
in the linear theory of elasticity and depend on the spatial coordinates and time

G
u  x1 , x2 , x3 , t   u  x , x , x , t  , u  x , x , x , t  , u  x , x , x , t   .(2.2)
1 1 2 3 2 1 2 3 3 1 2 3

Note 2.2. It is always assumed in the linear theory of elasticity that the deformations,
the displacements and other similar basic mechanical parameters (strains and stresses)
depend on the location of the point in the initial (non-deformed) state. This is
substantiated just by the assumption on the smallness of values of displacements (2.1).
To the point, the displacements have the dimension and are measured in meters.
For the most of engineering materials, the linear approach admits displacements
of order 103 104 m.

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 BASIC INFORMATION ON MECHANICS OF MATERIALS.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS THEORY OF ELASTICITY. SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

The next after displacement basic notion is the notion of the STRAIN. The strain
is introduced into the theory of elasticity on the base of some considerations of a
mechanical character.

When the piece of material (body, area of a continuum) is deformed, then the distances
between points of body are changed, what means that the length of linear element (straight
line linked two neighboring points) and angles between coming from the same point
two linear elements are changed. Let the linear element joins the points P1* and P2*. After
deformation, this element joints the points P1* and P2*. Then the relative extensioncan be
defined as follows

P*1 P2*  P1 P2 'P1 P2

H .(2.3)
P1 P2 P1 P2

This formula gives the simplest example of deformation.

If to assume the smallness of gradients of displacements ui ,k  wui wxk  , what is logical

in the linear theory of elasticity, then the LINEAR CAUCHY-GREEN STRAIN
TENSOR can be introduced

1
H ik  x1 , x2 , x3 , t 
2
 ui ,k  x1, x2 , x3 , t   uk ,i  x1, x2 , x3 , t   .(2.4)

According to (2.4), the strains are small and dimensionless. They really form the symmetric
tensor of the 2nd rank, because meet the definition of such tensor.
Usually, the linear Cauchy-Green strain tensor is supplemented by the rotation tensor

1
Zik  x1 , x2 , x3 , t 
2
 ui ,k  x1, x2 , x3 , t   uk ,i  x1, x2 , x3 , t   .(2.5)

THE THIRD AND LAST BASIC NOTION OF THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY
is the notion of stress. It is based on the fundamental in physics notion of the force. The
force must have the point of application, direction of action, and intensity. Therefore,
the force is described mathematically as the vector. Usually, the forces are divided on the
mass forces and the surface forces (the concentrated force can be considered as the limit
case of the surface one). The most used in the theory of elasticity mass force is the inertia
force. The surface force must be applied to the points of the body surface. The classical
example of such force is the force of pressure when the body is exposed to the action of
other bodies. On the base of the notion of the force, the new notion of internal stresses
(or stresses) is introduced.

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 BASIC INFORMATION ON MECHANICS OF MATERIALS.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS THEORY OF ELASTICITY. SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

An introduction of this notion is based on the statement that the action of external
forces forms the internal forces in the body. Therefore, the described above forces
are called external forces.
The classical in the theory of elasticity way of introducing the stresses is called THE
EULER-CAUCHY CUTTING PRINCIPLE. According to this principle, the body
is virtually divided into two parts by an arbitrary continuous surface. The action
of part 2 on part 1 is changed on the action of the surface forces and the body
still is in the state of equilibrium. Then on the surface, the infinitesimal element of
G
surface dS is chosen and the surface force acting on this element is denoted by dP .
G G G
It is assumed further that dP tN dS , where tN is the stress vector which is applied to
G G
the surface dS with the normal N . If the vector tN is decomposed on components
in three orthogonal directions linked with dS (i.e., on a tangent, normal, and
binormal), then the obtained vectors generate three stresses. The values of these
stresses can be meant as values of obtained vectors, related to the surface element
dS (divided on the area of surface element dS ). Just, therefore, the stresses can be
briefly characterized as the force related to the area. They are measured in Pa (Pascal).

The INTERNAL STRESS TENSOR is introduced as follows. The infinitesimal coordinate

tetrahedron is introduced and it is supposed to be in the balance by the action of forces
G
dP applied to the four tetrahedron faces. The main conclusion from an analysis of the
tetrahedron balance is apparently the conclusion that the quantities of nine stresses on the
three coordinate faces form the tensor of the 2nd rank. So, the nine quantities V nm  x1 , x2 , x3 , t  ,
which are called the STRESSES, form the STRESS TENSOR.

Now, the basic equations of the linear theory of elasticity can be shown. These equations
include three sets of equations. The first one is equations of motion (equilibrium). They are
formulated based on the law of balance of momentum in the usual form of three equations
of motion

w 2ui
U V ik ,k  Fi .(2.6)
wt 2
G
Here F  x1 , x2 , x3 , t  ^F  x , x , x , t  , F  x , x , x , t  , F  x , x , x , t ` is the external volume force.
1 1 2 3 2 1 2 3 3 1 2 3

Note 2.3. An analysis of balance equations (conservation laws) has proceeded from
the well-known statement: ”the great laws of classic physics can be considered as
one general law of conservation”. Definition 2.4.
Definition 2.4.Definition
Definition 2.4.
Definition
2.4. 2.4.
The balance of2.4.
Definition the moment of momentum has the usual corollary that the stress tensor is
symmetric.
Definition 2.4.
Definition 2.4. Definition 2.4.

on 2.4. Definition 2.4.

nition 2.4. 33
Definition 2.4.
 BASIC INFORMATION ON MECHANICS OF MATERIALS.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS THEORY OF ELASTICITY. SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

Note 2.4. Three equations (2.5) include nine unknown functions – three displacements
and six stresses. This means that new six equations are needed to obtain the closed
system of equations.

The mentioned above six equations follow from an analysis of the balance of energy stored
by the body in the process of deformation. At this place, two new functions must be
introduced - the kinetic energy K  u1 , u2 , u3 , U  as the function of velocities and density and
the internal energy U  H11 ,..., H 23  as the function of strain tensor. The energy of a body E
is defined as the sum of kinetic energy K of a body and of internal energy of a body U .
Definition 2.4. Definition 2.4.
Definition 2.4.
. Definition 2.4. The elastic material is defined strongly as a material which can be
in the natural (free of stresses) state and in a neighborhood of this state the stresses
in present time can be defined one-to-one by values either of deformation gradient
or strain tensor at present time

V ik Fik  H lm (2.7)

or for the rectilinear symmetry

V ij Aijkl H kl  AijklmnH kl H mn  AijklmnpqH lmH mnH pq " . (2.8)

Here, the fourth rank tensor Aijkl defines the linear properties of elastic materials,
when tensors of higher ranks are absent in (2.7). This means that the linear elastic
material is defined as the material, in which the relations between stresses and
strains are linear and have the form

V ij Aijkl H kl .(2.9)

In this way, the necessary six equations relative stress and strain tensors components
are obtai- ned. But, at that the equations (2.9) introduced six new unknown
functions – the components of the strain tensor. And still the number of equations
is less of the number of unknown functions.

In the linear theory of elasticity, the different procedure of introduction of relations (2.9)
is often used. First, the assumption is adopted that the specific internal energy U is an
analytical function of the strain tensor components Definition 2.4.

U U  H lm  . (2.10)

34
 BASIC INFORMATION ON MECHANICS OF MATERIALS.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS THEORY OF ELASTICITY. SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

From point of view of mathematical formalism, the energy U H nm  can be expanded

owing its analyticity into the Taylor series by the six independent variables H IK
function in the neighborhood of “the point” with zeros coordinates H IK 0 (it is
assumed that two first terms are zero because the initial state is zero)

M N 1

¦ 1 M ! ª«¬w e  wH ij  " wH sr  N º» H 
m1 m1
e  H IK  " H sr 
M m mN
"
M 1 ¼ H IK 0
ij

ª¬e  H IK  º¼ H   we wH ij  H ij  1 2! ª« w 2 e wH ij wH kl H { Cijkl º» H ij H kl  (2.11)

IK 0 H IK 0 ¬ IK 0 ¼
 1 3! ª« w 3e wH ij wH kl wH mn  { Cijklmn º» H ij H kl H mn  ", m1  "  mN M.
¬ H IK 0 ¼

The linear model of elastic deformation corresponds to saving in (2.11) only the quadratically
nonlinear summands

e  H IK  1 2! ª¬« w 2e wH ij wH kl H IK 0
{ Cijkl º» H ij H kl
¼
.(2.12)

The equation (2.12) is obtained in assumption of arbitrary symmetry properties in

the material and contains therefore 81 constants Ciklm , which can be formed together
as the quadratic matrix 9 u 9. The based on this matrix 4th rank tensor is called the
tensor of elastic constants.
Definition The Definitionof
2.5. symmetry 2.5.
strain tensor
Definition 2.5. decreases the number of
Definition 2.5.
independent elastic constants from 81 to 36. For the next decreasing number of
constants, the additional symmetry of a material is needed. The theory of elasticity
Definition 2.5.
considers mainly three kinds of symmetry
Definition 2.5. 2.5. – orthotropy, transversal isotropy, and
Definition
isotropy. The classical linear theory of elasticity is traditionally concentrated on the
case of isotropy.

Definition 2.5. The material is called the isotropic one, when its mechanical
properties are identical in any direction.

Definition 2.5.
The formula for the internal energy U (2.12) generates a few formulas of the general character.
Definition 2.4.
Euler’s formula on the uniform functions

U 1 2  wU wH lm  H lm . (2.13)

Clapeyron’s formula

U 1 2 V lmH lm .(2.14)

Castigliano’s formula

H lm  wU wV lm  . (2.15)

35
 BASIC INFORMATION ON MECHANICS OF MATERIALS.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS THEORY OF ELASTICITY. SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

Betti’s formula
for two stress-strain states  H lm ,V lm  ,  H lm ,V lm  in the given point of body

V lm H lm V lm H lm . (2.16)

To write the missing six equations, the first law of thermodynamics is used which in the
considered here case is stated as equality of increments of the energy and the work of
external volume and surface forces

GK  u1 , u2 , u3 , U   GU  H11 ,..., H 23  G  F1 , F2 , F3   G  S1 , S2 , S3  ,

The formula (2.13) testifies that elasticity decreases the anisotropy level in materials, since
it additionally increases the symmetry owing to equalities

Cijkl C jikl , Cijkl Cijlk , Cijkl Cklij .

The number of independent constants decreases from 36 to 21. The simplest case
of symmetry (the highest symmetry) is the case of isotropy. Then the number of
independent elastic cons- tants is 2 and formula (2.13) becomes very simple

V ij OH kk G ij  2PH ij . (2.17)

These equations are called the CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS.

The constants O , P are called the Lame elastic constants.

Six equations (2.17) together with equations (2.4)-(2.6), forms the basic system of
15 linear equations relative to 15 unknown functions uk , H nm ,V il .

The most used in the linear theory is the system of Lame equations which follows from
(2.4)-(2.6),(2.17) by excluding the strains and stresses and includes 3 coupled partial
differential equations of the 2nd order

U ui ,tt P ui ,kk   O  P  uk .ki  Fi . (2.18)

THE SYSTEM (2.18) IS THE BASIC ONE IN THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY.
It permits to solve mathematically the prevailing part of the problem on equilibrium (static
problems) and motion (dynamic problems) of elastic bodies.

The necessary boundary and initial conditions have the classical form.
Three types of BOUNDARY CONDITIONS are mostly used:

36
 BASIC INFORMATION ON MECHANICS OF MATERIALS.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS THEORY OF ELASTICITY. SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

G
Type 1. Three components of the displacement vector u are given on the body
surface S

uk  x1 , x2 , x3 , t  S uko  x1S , x2 S , x3 S , t   x1S , x2 S , x3S   S .

Type 2. Three conditions of equality of values of the internal stresses on the body
surface V ik nk S and the external surface force

V ik nk S Si  x1S , x2 S , x3S , t  ,

G
where n ^nk  x1S , x2 S , x3S , t ` is the normal to surface S .

Type 3. The surface is divided on two disjoint parts S Su  SV . The condition of Type
1 are given on the part Su and the condition of Type 2 are given on the part SV .
These conditions are called the mixed conditions.

Note 2.5. Different kinds of mixed conditions can be formed by the procedure,
when at the point of surface are given one or two components from Type 1 and
two or one components from Type 2.

For example, in a case when S is the coordinate plane x1 x1o, the normal to the
plane component of displacement u1  x1 , x2 , x3 , t  S u1o  x1S , x2 S , x3S , t  and two tangential
components of surface stresses V1m S 
Sm x1o , x2 S , x3S , t  m 2,3 are given.

The classical INITIAL CONDITIONS in the linear theory of elasticity are formulated as
an assignment of the displacements and velocities at the initial moment t o

uk  x1 , x2 , x3 , t  uko  x1 , x2 , x3 , t o  , uk  x1 , x2 , x3 , t  uko  x1 , x2 , x3 , t o  .

Let us recall that here the brief information on the four parts of the theory of
elasticity is stated. The linear theory of elasticity is chosen as the first one, because
it forms the basic skeleton with which other three parts are constructed – strength
of materials as the part with many simplifying assumptions that are used in the
engineering practice and the linearized and nonlinear theories of elasticity as the
parts with more exact and complicate models that extend significantly the area of
application.

37
 BASIC INFORMATION ON MECHANICS OF MATERIALS.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS THEORY OF ELASTICITY. SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

Comments
Comment 2.1. In mechanics, certain methods of substantiating the transition from a model
of a discrete structure of a substance to a model of a continuum structure of a substance
are known, based on a statistical description of discrete systems. As one of such methods,
we indicate the procedure given in the book of Ilyushin quoted below. Here a system of a
large number of fixed particles is considered. This system can be simple or complex.

For example, a monatomic gas can be considered a simple system in which a particle
(molecule) has three translational degrees of freedom. Diatomic gas is a complex system of
molecules, where each molecule has three translational and two rotational degrees of freedom.

Next, the total energy (kinetic + potential) of the system is studied. For a given function
(including potential-internal energy) that describes the system, the average values over time
and over the ensemble are determined, which, generally speaking, is characteristic of statistical
mechanics, and not mechanics. That is, further the system of particles (molecules) is studied
by the methods of statistical mechanics. For such a function, the ergodicity theorem is
assumed to be valid - the mean values over time and over the ensemble coincide.

Note 2.6. Just this approach was implemented by Kolmogorov in the axiomatization
of probability theory and further by Noll and Truesdell in the axiomatization of
mechanics.
Note 2.7. The ergodicity theorem is physically meaningless if the characteristic
time of the system is commensurate (longer) with the time it takes to determine
the average values used in the theorem.

It is believed that the average over the ensemble of functions characterizing a discrete system
are indeed observable quantities. This allows us to move on to the macroscopic characteristics
of the system and thereby use the concept of the continuum.
In other words, if a macroscopically very small volume of a substance with a large number of
microscopically small particles (molecules) is considered and a system with a macroscopically
small time exceeding the characteristic time of the system is observed, then the system is
equilibrium one and the ergodicity theorem holds for it.

It is considered that statistical interpretations help in understanding the physical

meaning in the formal transition from a discrete model of matter to a continuum.

Comment 2.2. Let us start with the stated in this chapter sentence that the modern
interpretation of research on solid mechanics relates them to three modern sections of
science - applied mathematics, mechanical and other engineering, material science. In fact,
the modern mechanics, as a science and a profession, have disappeared into the three modern

38
 BASIC INFORMATION ON MECHANICS OF MATERIALS.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS THEORY OF ELASTICITY. SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

sections of science mentioned above. The vast majority of universities in the world do not
train specialists in mechanics. At the same time, about 60 developed countries of the world
have the national organizations of mechanicians and are united in the International Union
of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics (IUTAM) and European mechanicians are united in
the European Mecha-nics Society (EuroMech). Each of three sciences - applied mathematics,
mechanical and other enginee-ring, material science - treat mechanics in its way. For example,
at one of the International Congress of Industrial and Applied Mathematics (ICIAM),
the plenary lecturer formulated the essence of applied mathematics in this way: There is
no special science applied mathematics but applied mathematicians nonetheless exist. These
are specialists who use the achievements of mathematics for non-mathematical purposes,
allowing the use of non-mathematical means to justify their actions.
From this point of view, the assignment of mechanics to applied mathematics, perhaps,
reduces the prestige of mechanics as fundamental science.

Further reading
2.1. A scione, L & Grimaldi, A 1993, Elementi di meccanica del continuo (Elements of
continuum mechanics). Mas simo, Napoli. (In Italian)
2.2. Ashby, MF 2005, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, 3rd ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam-
Tokyo.
2.3. Atkin, RJ & Fox, N 1980, An Introduction to the Theory of Elasticity, Longman, London.
2.4. Bell, JF 1973, Experimental foundations of solid mechanics. Flugge’s Handbuch der
Physik, Band VIa / 1, pringer Verlag, Berlin.
2.5. Dagdale, DS & Ruiz, C 1971, Elasticity for Engineers. McGraw Hill, London.
2.6. Ericksen, JL 1998, Introduction to the Thermodynamics of Solids, Applied Mathematical
Sciences, vol. 131, Springer, Berlin
2.7. Eringen, AC 1967, Mechanics of Continua. John Wiley, New York.
2.8. Eschenauer, H & Schnell, W 1981, Elasticitätstheorie I, Bibl. Inst., Mannheim. (In
German)
2.9. Eslami, MR, Hetnarski, RB, Ignaczak, J, Noda, N, Sumi, N & Tanigawa, Y 2013,
Theory of Elasticity and Thermal Stresses. Explanations, Problems and Solutions. Springer
Series “Solid Mechanics and Its Applications,Springer Verlag Netherlands, Amsterdam.
2.10. Fraeijs de Veubeke, BM 1979, A Course of Elasticity. Springer, New York.
2.11. Fu, YB 2001, Nonlinear Elasticity: Theory and Applications. London Mathematical
Society Lecture Note Series,Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
2.12. Fung, YC 1965, Foundations of Solid Mechanics. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
2.13. Germain, P 1973, Cours de mécanique des milieux continus. Tome 1. Théorie Générale.
Masson et Cie Editeurs, Paris. (In French)
2.14. Gurtin, ME 1981, An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics. Academic Press, New York.

39
 BASIC INFORMATION ON MECHANICS OF MATERIALS.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS THEORY OF ELASTICITY. SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

2.15. Hahn, HG 1985, Elastizitätstheorie. B.G.Teubner, Stuttgart. (In German)

2.16. Holzapfel, GA 2000, Nonlinear Solid Mechanics: A Continuum Approach for Engineering.
Birkhauser, Zurich.
2.17. Iliushin, AA 1990, Mechanics of Continuum, Moscow University Publishing House,
Moscow. (In Russian)
2.18. Johns, DJ 1965, Thermal Stress Analysis, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
2.19. Kobayashi, AS (ed) 1987, Handbook on experimental mechanics. Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs.
2.20. Korotkina, MR 1988, Elektromagnetoelasticity, Moscow University Press, Moscow. (In
Russian)
2.21. Love, AEH 1944, The Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. 4th ed. Dover Publications,
New York.
2.22. Lur’e AI 1999, Theory of Elasticity. Springer Series in Foundations of Engineering
Mechanics. Springer, Berlin.
2.23. Lur’e, AI 1990, Nonlinear Theory of Elasticity. North-Holland Series in Applied
Mathematics and Mechanics, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
2.24. Maugin, GA 1988, Continuum Mechanics of Electromagnetic Solids. North Holland,
Amsterdam.
2.25. Müller, W 1959, Theorie der elastischen Verformung. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft
Geest & Portig K.-G., Leipzig. (In German)
2.26. Nowacki, W 1962, Thermoelasticity. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
2.27. Nowacki, W 1970, Theory of Elasticity. PWN, Warszawa. (In Polish, In Russian)
2.28. Podstrigach, JS & Povstenko, YZ 1985, Introduction into mechanics of surface phenomena
in solids, Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)
2.29. Prager, W 1961, Introduction to Mechanics of Continua. Ginn, Boston.
2.30. Ratner, LW 2003, Non-Linear Theory of Elasticity and Optimal Design. Elsevier, London.
2.31. Rushchitsky, JJ & Tsurpal, SI 1998, Waves in Materials with the Microstructure. S.P.
Timoshenko Institute of Mechanics, Kiev. (In Ukrainian)
2.32. Savin, GN & Rushchitsky, JJ 1976, Elements of Mechanics of Hereditary Media. Vyshcha
Shkola, Kyiv. (In Ukrainian)
2.33. Sedov, LI 1970, Mechanics of Continuum, in 2 vols. Nauka, Moscow. (In Russian)
2.34. Slaughter, WS 2001, Linearized Theory of Elasticity. Birkhauser, Zurich.
2.35. Sneddon, IN & Berry, DS 1958, The Classical Theory of Elasticity, vol.VI, Flügge
Encyclopedia of Physics. Springer Verlag, Berlin.
2.36. Sokolnikoff, IS 1956, Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. McGraw Hill Book Co, New
York.
2.37. Sommerfeld, A 1964, Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics. Academic Press, New
York.
2.38. Spencer, AJM 1980, Continuum Mechanics. Longman, London.

40
 BASIC INFORMATION ON MECHANICS OF MATERIALS.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS THEORY OF ELASTICITY. SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

2.39. S tarovoitov, E & Naghiyev, FBO 2012, Foundations of theTheory of Elasticity, Plasticity,

and Viscoelasticity, Apple Academic Press, Palo Alto.
2.40. Storakers, B & Larsson, P-L 1998, Introduktion till finit elasticitetteori. Hallfasthetslara,
KTH. (In Swedish)
2.41. Taber, LA 2004, Nonlinear Theory of Elasticity: Applications in Biomechanics.
Birkhauser, Zurich.
2.42. Timoshenko, SP & Goodyear, JN 1970, Theory of Elasticity, 3rd ed. McGraw Hill,
Tokyo.
2.43. Truesdell, C 1969, Rational Thermodynamics. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
2.44. Truesdell, C 1972, A First Course in Rational Continuum Mechanics. The John Hopkins
University, Baltimore.

Questions
2.1. W
 hich more complicated combinations of mechanical properties of materials (for
example, the property of gyroelasticity) exist, occurring in the real practice and reflecting
in the me chanical theories and do not mention in the chapter? Indicate the degree of
development of such theories.
2.2. Is the property of viscoelasticity characteristic for materials only? By other words, it is
possible to speak about the viscoelastic materials and the viscoelastic fluids?
2.3. Formulate similarity and distinction between rheology and viscoelasticity.
2.4. Presence of which properties will need the attraction of thermodynamical considerations
when the mechanical model being created?
2.5. Which property of material causes energy dissipation when the material being deformed?
2.6. Find the not mentioned here classifications of mechanics and compare them with the
basic ones.
2.7. Which text-book on the theory of elasticity you prefer and which book you would add
to the proposed list above? Formulate the advantages of preferred book.

41
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

3 SOME ADDITIONAL
FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM THE
LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY
Three kinds of basic mathematical problems. Direct and
inverse problems. Static and dynamic problems. General
theorems. Examples: Saint-Venant’s principle, Kirchhoff’s
theorem on uniqueness. Three-dimensional problems.
Representations of the general solution: Papkovich-Neuber’s
representation, Boussinesq-Galerkin representation,
Lame’s representation, Lowe’s representation, Helmholtz’s
representation, Boussi- nesq’s representation. Two-
dimensional problems. Anti-plane Threeand
kindsin-plane
of basic states.
mathematical problems. Direct and inv
Airy’s function. Plane dynamic problems. General theorems. Examples: Saint-Ven
Three kinds of basicdisplacement and stressDirect
mathematical problems. states.and inverse problems. Static and
theorem on uniqueness. Three-dimensional problems. Repr
dynamic problems.
Generalized plane stressGeneral
state. theorems. Examples: Saint-Venant’s principle, Kirchhoff’s
Kolosov-Muskhelishvili’s
solution: Papkovich-Neuber’s representation, Boussinesq-
theorem on uniqueness. Three-dimensional problems. Representations of the general
functions. Levi’s theorem. Kirsch’s Lame’sproblem. Method Lowe’s
representation, of representation, Helmholtz’s
solution: Papkovich-Neuber’s representation, Boussinesq-Galerkin representation,
conformal mappings. nesq’s
One-dimensional representation.
problems. Universal Two-dimensional problems. Anti-plan
Lame’s representation, Lowe’s representation, Helmholtz’s representation, Boussi-
Airy’s function. Plane displacement and stress states. Gene
nesq’s representation.
deformations. Two-dimensional
Rods and beams. Torsion and problems.
bending.Anti-plane and in-plane states.
hree kinds of basic mathematical problems. Direct and inverse Kolosov-Muskhelishvili’s
problems. Static and states. functions. Levi’s theorem. Kirsch’s
Airy’s function. Plane displacement
Plates and shells. Dynamic problems and stress
- vibrations and Generalized plane stress state.
ynamic problems. General theorems. Kolosov-Muskhelishvili’s formal
Examples: Saint-Venant’sfunctions. mappings.
principle,Levi’s
Kirchhoff’sOne-dimensional problems. Universal defo
theorem. Kirsch’s problem. Method of con-
waves.
eorem on uniqueness. Three-dimensional Approximate
problems. numerical Torsion
methodsofand bending.
(FDM,FEM,BEM). Plates and shells. Dynamic problems -
formal mappings.Representations
One-dimensional the general
problems. Universal deformations. Rods and beams.
olution: Papkovich-Neuber’s representation, Boussinesq-Galerkin proximate numerical methods (FDM,FEM,BEM).
representation,
Torsion and bending. Plates and shells. Dynamic problems - vibrations and waves. Ap-
ame’s representation, Lowe’s representation,
proximateHelmholtz’s representation,
numerical methods Boussi-
(FDM,FEM,BEM).
First, the
esq’s representation. linear theory of
Two-dimensional elasticityAnti-plane
problems. formulatesandthree kindsstates.
in-plane of basic mathematical problems:
ry’s function.Three
Planekinds of basic mathematical
displacement problems.
and stress states. Direct plane
Generalized and inverse
stressproblems.
state. Static and
dynamic problems.
olosov-Muskhelishvili’s functions. General
Levi’s theorems.
theorem. Examples:
Kirsch’s Saint-Venant’s
problem. Method of principle,
con- Kirchhoff’s
rmal mappings. The
theorem 1stonbasic problem
uniqueness.
One-dimensional consists in the
Three-dimensional
problems. Universal determination
problems. Rods
deformations. of the
Representations
and stressoftensor
beams. in the area V
the general
solution:
orsion and bending.
occupied Papkovich-Neuber’s
Platesbyand
theshells.
body Dynamic representation, Boussinesq-Galerkin
problems - vibrations
and the displacement vector inand
thewaves.
area VAp-representation,
and its boundary S when
Lame’smethods
roximate numerical representation, Lowe’s representation, Helmholtz’s representation, Boussi-
(FDM,FEM,BEM).
the external
nesq’s volume and
representation. surface forcesproblems.
Two-dimensional are given.Anti-plane and in-plane states.
Airy’s function. Plane displacement and stress states. Generalized plane stress state.
Kolosov-Muskhelishvili’s functions. Levi’s theorem. Kirsch’s problem. Method of con-
The 2mappings.
formal
nd
basic problem consists problems.
One-dimensional in the determination of the displacement
Universal deformations. vector and the
Rods and beams.
Torsion
stress and bending.
tensor in thePlates
area Vandoccupied
shells. Dynamic
by the problems
body when - vibrations and waves.
the external volumeAp- forces and
proximate numerical methods (FDM,FEM,BEM).
displacements on the surface S are given.

The 3rd basic problem (mixed problem) consists in the determination of the stress tensor
and the displacement vector in the area V occupied by the body when the external volume
forces and the mixed boundary conditions are given.

The stated above basic problems form together the direct problem. It consists in
solving one of the basic problems and determination nine functions (six components
of the stress tensor and three components of the displacement vector) depending
on the external action on the body. The inverse problem consists in that the
displacements or stresses are given, and then rest unknown functions including the
external forces should be found.

42
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

Note 3.1. Solving the inverse problem is essentially simpler. For example, when the
displacements are given. They have to be continuously differentiable and then the
Saint-Venant’s relations are fulfilled identically. Further, the stresses are determined
from the constitutive equations and the external forces are determined from the
equilibrium equations and boundary conditions.

To the point, the Saint-Venant’s relations are called the compatibility conditions
(the continuum after deformation rests the continuum) and they express the fact
that displacements are not independent. These relations have in the Cartesian
coordinates the form

H mq ,np  H np ,mq  H nq ,mp  H mp ,nq 0 . (3.1)

The linear theory of elasticity divides the problems on the static and dynamic ones what
means that in the first case the equilibrium equations and boundary conditions should be
considered and in the second case – the motion equations and corresponding boundary
and initial conditions.

The static problems include first the set of general theorems giving the mathematical tools in
the study of problems. These theorems include the existence and uniqueness theorems and
many other theorems and statements that have a name (Castigliana’s theorem, Clapeyron’s
theorem, Green’s theorem, etc).

Consider briefly, as an example, such general statement named the Saint-Venant’s principle.

The principle, later called the Saint-Venant’s principle, was formulated in the study
of the problem of deformations arising in the loaded cylinders and prisms. Saint-
Venant studied the possibility of an approximate solution to the problem in the
case when the load on the end face is statically equivalent, but not identical to the
load for which he built the exact solution. As a result, the principle of comparing
the strain distributions caused by statically equivalent loads was described.
The first general exposition of the Saint-Venant’s principle is given by Boussinesq:
A balanced system of external forces applied to an elastic body, all points of
application of which lie inside a given sphere causes deformations of a negligible
magnitude at distances from the sphere that are quite large compared to its radius.
In general, the principle of Saint-Venant’s has a long history. For example, Lowe
noted that the Saint-Venant’s principle is “known as the principle of the elastic
equivalence of statically equipollent systems of load”. In the modern linear theory
of elasticity, the Saint-Venant’s principle justification scheme is such that the rate of
attenuation of the elastic energy of the deformation of a cylindrical body is estimated

43
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

using the lowest natural frequency of the body part. The body is assumed to have
an arbitrary regular cross-section. A self-balanced system of forces is applied to one
of the ends of the cylinder; the body does not experience other external actions.
The problem is to determine the regularity of attenuation of the elastic energy of
deformation (internal energy) of the cylinder with a distance from the loaded end.

This principle has great importance for theory and engineering practice.

As one more example, the Kirchhoff’s theorem on uniqueness of solutions of the

direct problems of the linear theory of elasticity is shown below.

This theorem has two basic assumptions – the elastic body has any discontinuities
and any initial deformations. Then the basic equations of the linear theory of
elasticity have a unique solution.

The proof is transparent and accurate on each step.

Step 1. It is formulated by contradiction. So, let two non-identical solutions uk , uk exist,
which fulfill the basic equations and boundary conditions in displacements.
Step 2. Write for both solutions the equations of equilibrium for an isotropic body

P u i ,kk   O  P  u k .ki  Fi 0 , (3.2)

P u i ,kk   O  P  u k .ki  Fi 0 , (3.3)

and boundary condition on S Su  SV

V ik nk SV Pi  x1S , x2 S , x3S , t   x1S , x2 S , x3S   SV , (3.4)

V ik nk SV Pi  x1S , x2 S , x3S , t   x1S , x2 S , x3S   SV , (3.5)

u k  x1 , x2 , x3 , t  Su uko  x1S , x2 S , x3S , t   x1S , x2 S , x3S   Su , (3.6)

u k  x1 , x2 , x3 , t  Su uko  x1S , x2 S , x3S , t   x1S , x2 S , x3S   Su (3.7)

are fulfilled.

Step 3. Introduce new denotations

  
uk uk  uk , H k H k  H k , V ik V ik  V ik (3.8)

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
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and subtract equation (3.3) from equation (3.2) and boundary conditions (3.5)
from (3.4) as well as (3.7) from (3.6). As a result, new formulas are obtaining

 
P ui ,kk   O  P  uk .ki 0 , (3.9)

 
V ik nk SV 0  x1S , x2 S , x3S   SV , uk  x1 , x2 , x3 , t  Su 0  x1S , x2 S , x3S   Su (3.10)

Note 3.2. The formulas (3.9),(3.10) testify that the solution (3.8) corresponds to
zero external forces and boundary conditions. So, it is necessary to prove that this
solution corresponds to the non-deformed state.

Step 4. Write the internal energy (work of deformation) of the body for the state of
deformation (3.8)

   
U  H ij 
2º
U ³ ª¬ PH mnH mn  1 2  O H kk  ¼
dV (3.11)
V

and recall that the work (3.11) is equal to the work of external and surface forces,
which is zero for the state (3.8). Thus

   2º
³ ª¬ PH mnH mn  1 2  O H kk  ¼
dV 0 (3.12)
V

Because the Lame constants O , P are non-negative, then the integrand is always
positive. This means that


H mn 0 o H mn H mn . (3.13)

It follows from the generalized Hooke’s law (link between stresses and strains) that
the stresses are also zero


V mn 0 o V mn V mn . (3.14)


Step 5. To prove the identity of displacements uk uk  uk 0 , it is necessary to integrate
the strains


H mn 1 2   um,n  un,m  0 . (3.15)

The equation (3.15) has a solution, from which only one conclusion follows:
the displacements are distinguished by only the motion of the body as the rigid
body what means that the body is non-deformed.

45
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
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Thus, the initial assumption that two solutions of the identical equations of equilibrium
and boundary conditions can be different becomes false. It is believed that the proof is
finished and the solution of the basic problem of the linear theory of elasticity is unique.
Quod erat demostrandum.

After the general theorems, the three sections of static problems are considered separately:

Section 1. Three-dimensional (spatial) problems.

Section 2. Two-dimensional problems (including the plane problems).
Section 3. One-dimensional problems.

Section 1 includes a lot of solved particular problems and a row of fundamental facts. Let us
show here some of these last and consider the case of isotropy of mechanical properties only.

To begin with, note that the basic system of equations in this section is as follows

P ui ,kk   O  P  uk .ki  Fi 0 (3.16)

G G G
or P'u   O  P  grad div u  F 0

G
In the general analysis of equation (3.16), the case when the external force F is absent and
the body can be loaded by only the surface forces is very fruitful. The equation (3.16) is
simplified to the form

ui ,kk  ª¬1   O P  º¼ uk .ki 0 . (3.17)

Differentiation of equation (3.16) by the coordinate xi gives new equation

ui ,kki  1   O P   uk .kii 0,

from which follows that the dilatation e uk .k is the harmonic function 'uk ,k 'e 0 .
Apply further the Laplace operator to equation (3.17). As a result, the very interesting
fact is noted – the components of the vector of displacements are the biharmonic
functions ''uk 0. Afterward, the harmonic and biharmonic functions became the
big place in the mathematical analysis of equations of the linear theory of elasticity.
For example, Almansi showed that the functions M  xk\ fulfill the biharmonic
equation when the functions M ,\ are the harmonic ones.
The next example is referred to Trefftz, who considered the elastic half-space x3 t 0
and chose the displacements in the form uk Mk  x3\ k which includes six harmonic
functions.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
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So, the main advantage of the analysis of the basic equation by the use of
harmonic and biharmonic functions is that the equation to be solved became
essentially simp-ler.

The linear theory of elasticity contains some class of general representations of solutions or
general solutions, the basic concept of which consists in using the harmonic and biharmonic
functions.

The most known is Papkovich-Neuber’s representation

uk M,k   xn\ n ,k  4 1  X \ n (3.18)

G G G G
or u grad M  r ˜\   4 1  X \ ,

where the new unknown functions (one scalar function and one vector function)
fulfill the equations

G G G G
4 1  X  P '\  F 0, 4 1  X  P 'M  r ˜ F 0.(3.19)

G
Note 3.3. In the case when the external force F is absent, the equations (3.19)
have the solutions in the form of harmonic functions and the representation (3.18)
became very fruitful. It can use the big set (catalog) of different harmonic functions.

The next variant of representation of the general solution is called

Boussinesq-Galerkin representation

G G G
u 1 2P  grad div G  2 ª¬1  X  P º¼ 'G ,(3.20)

where

G G
''G  ª¬1  O  2 P  º¼ F 0 .(3.21)

G
Note 3.4. In the case when the external force F is absent, the equation (3.21) is
transformed in the biharmonic one and has the solution in the form of biharmonic
functions.

The simplest general representation uses one only scalar function M  x1 , x2 , x3  . It is called
Lame’s representation or the elastic displacement potential.

47
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
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In the case of absence of the external force, the function M  x1 , x2 , x3  is a harmonic

one, and this representation gives the very simple formula

uk M,k .(3.22)

Consider now the case of axisymmetric state. This means some simplification of
the equilibrium equations (3.12) and needs its representation through the stresses
and in the cylindrical coordinates ^r ,M , z`

V rr ,r  V rz , z  1 r V rr  V MM 0 , (3.23)

V rz ,r  V zz , z  1 r V rz 0 . (3.24)

The simple general representation of solutions of equations (3.23),(3.24) is Lowe’s

representation through one biharmonic function F  r , z 

ur  F ,rz , u z  F , zz  2 1 Q  'F , (3.25)

V rr 2 P ª¬  F ,rr  Q 'F º¼ , z , (3.26)

V MM 2 P ª¬  1 r  F ,r  Q 'F º¼ , z (3.27)

V zz 2 P ª¬  F , zz  2 1 Q  'F º¼ , z ,(3.28)

V rz 2 P ª¬  F , zz  2 1 Q  'F º¼ ,r . (3.29)

Note 3.5. In the proof of relations (3.25)-(3.29), the starting point is using
Helmholtz’s representation

ur  1  2Q  ) ,r  2 1 Q  < , z , (3.30)

uz  1  2Q  ) , z  2 1 Q 1 r  r < ,r , (3.31)

One more general representation for the axisymmetric state is

Boussinesq’s representation

ur M  z\ ,r , uz M  z\ , z  4 1 Q \ , (3.32)

V rr 2 P ª¬M  z\ ,rr Q ' M  z\  º¼ , (3.33)

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

V MM 2 P ª¬1 r M  z\ ,r Q ' M  z\  º¼ , (3.34)

V zz 2 P ª¬M  z\ , zz   2 Q  ' M  z\  º¼ , (3.35)

V rz 2 P ª¬M  z\ ,rz  2 1 Q \ ,r º¼ , (3.36)

' M  z\  2\ , z

Thus, the static basic problems have the power analytical tool for solving diverse
three-dimensional problems. At that, mechanics of materials has also the modern
experimental base and reach experience in experiments as well as all arsenal of
computational mechanics. Nowadays, any problem on the statics of the three-
dimensional linearly elastic body of the complex shape can be analyzed and solved
with some level of exactness.

Section 2 traditionally considered plane problems.

But also some facts of the general two-dimensional state are presented in this section.

Let the stress-strain state depends only on two coordinates x1 , x2. Then the stress-strain state
can be described by two different ones: the anti-plane and in-plane states.

The ANTI-PLANE STATE is characterized by only the vertical component of the displacement
G
vector u  x1 , x2  ^0;0; u3  x1 , x2 ` . The equilibrium equation takes on a look

V 3E ,E 0 D,E 1;2 or u3 E ,E 0 .(3.37)

The IN-PLANE STATE is characterized by only two components of the displacement

G
vector u  x1 , x2  ^u1  x1 , x2  ; u2  x1 , x2  ;0` . But further analysis is brought up on two
cases – the plane displacement state and the plane stress state. They will be discussed
later. And now one fundamental fact should be shown.

Let us write the corresponding to the in-plane state equations of equilibrium

V ED ,E 0, V E 3,E 0 D,E 1;2 .(3.38)

Now, the Airy’s function F  x1 , x2  is introduced

V DE  F,DE  GDE F,JJ , D , E , J 1;2 ,(3.39)

which fulfills the first equation in (3.38) and is the two-dimensional biharmonic function

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 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

''F 0  'f f ,11  f ,22  .(3.40)

To fulfill the second equation, it is necessary to introduce one more function \  x1 , x2  , for
determination of which the two-dimensional Poisson’s equation should be solved

'\ c (c is arbitrary constant). (3.41)

Return now to the plane displacement and stress states.

They correspond to different real mechanical situations.

The plane displacement state arises in the analysis of deformation of the long in direction
Ox3 prismatic body loaded by the surface forces which do not depend on the coordinate x3 .
It is believed then that in any cross-section of the body the plane deformed state is formed.

The plane stress state arises in the analysis of the deformation of the small thickness plate
loaded by the forces in the plate plane. In some conditions, the plate is undergoing the
plane stress state.

Plane displacement state. Mathematical description.

The equations of equilibrium include two equations and have the form (3.38). The
correspond-ding Lame’s equations have the form of the system of two equations

 O  P   u,1  u,2 ,D  P'uD 0 ,(3.42)

The constitutive equations are as follows

V 11 ¬ª E 1  Q 1  2Q  ¼º ¬ª1 Q  H11  Q H 22 ¼º , (3.43)

V 22 ª¬ E 1  Q 1  2Q  º¼ ª¬1 Q  H 22  Q H11 º¼ , (3.44)

V 33 ¬ª E 1  Q 1  2Q  ¼º  H11  H 22  ,(3.45)

V 12 2 PH12 .(3.46)

The Cauchy relations are also simple and linear

H DD uD ,D , H12 1 2   u1,2  u2,1  .(3.47)

Definition 3.1.
Definition Plane
3.1. stress state. Mathematical description.

Definition 3.1.

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 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

The equations of equilibrium (3.38) and Cauchy relations (3.46) remain and
coincide with the prior case.

Definition 3.1. The body is in the plane stress state, if

Definition 3.1.
Definition 3.1.
V 33 V D 3 0 .(3.48)

Definition 3.1.
So, 3.1.
Definition the
initial assumption about stresses is (3.48), whereas in the case of the plane
Definition 3.1. displacement state the corresponding assumption is another one: V D 3 0.

Therefore, theDefinition 3.1.

constitutive equations differ from (3.43)-(3.46)
Definition 3.1.Definition 3.1.

Definition 3.1. V 11 ^
2 P H11  ª¬Q 1 Q  º¼  H11  H 22  `,(3.49)
V 22 ^
2 P H 22  ª¬Q 1 Q  º¼  H11  H 22  ` ,(3.50)
V 12 2 PH12 .(3.51)

But the problem is the three-dimensional and

G
u  x1 , x2 , x3  ^u  x , x , x  ; u  x , x , x  ; u  x , x , x `.
1 1 2 3 2 1 2 3 3 1 2 3

The equations of equilibrium are identical with the corresponding equations of the plane
displacement state (3.42) if the Lame constant O in (3.42) is changed on the constant

O ¬ª 2OP  O  2P  ¼º . Thus, in both cases, the same mathematical equation should be solved.

The problem on the plane stress state can be generalized and simultaneously reduced to
the problem on the plane displacement state. For this, the plate is considered which is
loaded only at its contour by the surface forces. These forces have to be the symmetric
relative to its middle plane Ox1 x2 . In this statement, the problem is three-dimensional. But
in the assumption that the plate is sufficiently thin, the components of stress tensor can be
averaged over the thickness. Then the state of the plate does not depend on coordinate x3.

This state is called the generalized plane stress state.

All basic equations of the generalized plane stress state are identical with the
corresponding equations of the plane displacement state.

Thus, despite three different from point of view of mechanics statements, the one only kind
of equations should be analyzed.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
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Now, some words about the tools that are used in the analysis of the plane problems
of the linear theory of elasticity.

First, the Airy’s function should be mentioned, that leads to the analysis of the biharmonic
equation and is historically the pioneer one.

Second, the method of complex stress functions should be described as probably most known.

At the beginning, the complex variable z x  iy rei- , z x  iy rei- is introduced and

then all basic relations are written through this variable.The biharmonic equation
in the complex variable is as follows

F, zzzz 0 .(3.52)

In the case of the simple-connected body, the function F can be represented by

two holomorphic (regular) functions what is expressed by the Goursat’s formula

F  z  Re ª¬ zM  z   \  z  º¼ .(3.53)

In the theory of elasticity, the functions M  z  ,\  z  are called the Kolosov-

Muskhelishvili’s functions.

The next formulas are important in the analysis of the plane problems

V11  z   V 22  z  4 Re M c  z  2 ª¬M c  z   M c  z  º¼ ,(3.54)

V11  z   V 22  z   2V12 2 ª¬ zM cc  z   \ c  z  º¼ ,(3.55)

2 P ª¬u1  z   iu2  z  º¼ NM  z   zM c  z   \  z  .(3.56)

The constant N is different for different plane states:

N 3  4Q for the plane displacement state and N ¬ª 3 Q  1  Q  ¼º for the plane stress
state.

The general structure of the Kolosov-Muskhelishvili functions depends on the connectedness

of the area. In the case of simple-connected area, they can be represented in the power series
n f n f
M z ¦a z
n 0
n
n
,\  z  ¦ b z .(3.57)
n 0
n
n

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
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In the case of two-connected (ring-shaped) areas they have another representation

n f
M  z   ^ X  iY  ª¬ 2S 1  N  º¼` ln  z  z   ¦ a z  z  ,
n
n

n f

n f
\ z ^N `  X  iY  ln  z  z   ¦ b  z  z , (3.58)
ª¬ 2S 1  N  º¼

n f
n

where X  iY characterizes the force flow over the internal contour of the area.

Note 3.5. The Levi’s theorem is very useful in the analysis of the multi-connected
areas: If the resultant vector of forces applied to each contour separately is zero, then
the solution expressed by the Kolosov-Muskhelishvili potentials does not depend
on the elastic constants. Basing on this theorem, the stress state in the body made
of a certain material can be determined using the body made of another material.
This is used in the photoelasticity.

The classical example of the application of formulas (3.58) is Kirsch’s problem. This problem
is solved by Kirsch in 1898 and is shown in many books on the linear theory of elasticity.
It corresponds to the real problem on the plate of essential length and width with the small
hole of radius r o placed at the center of the plate. The plate is undergoing the action of
the uniform tension stress V xx V o along the longitudinal direction. Usually, the solution in
stresses is written in the polar coordinates

V 2 ^ª«¬1   r r  º»¼  ª«¬1  4  r r 

o 2 o 2
 3  r r o  º» cos 2- ` ,(3.59)
4
V rr  r ,-  o
¼

V --  r ,-  V 2 ^ª«¬1   r r  º»¼  ª«¬1  3 r r  º»¼ cos 2-` ,(3.60)

o o 2 o 4

V r-  r ,-   V o 2  ª«1  2  r r o   3  r r o  º sin 2- .(3.61)

2 4

¬ »¼

The formulas (3.59)-(3.61) are simplified at the contour of the hole and the stresses take
here the maximal values

V --  r o ,-  V o 1  2cos 2-  , V rr  r o ,-  V r-  r o ,-  0 .(3.62)

Thus, at the point - S 2  , the stress V -- takes the value 3 and attenuated very quickly
with increa-sing the distance from the point to the hole. It is believed that this is one of
the local effects. The Kirsch problem opened the new direction in the linear theory of
elasticity – the stress concentration around holes, necks, cuts et cetera.

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Note 3.6. Often, the notion of stress concentration factor is used. Usually, it is
applied to the value of stress at a given point. It shows the ratio of the maximal
local stress to the value of stress without the stress concentrator.

The progress in solving the plane problems of the linear theory of elasticity is
impressive from a different point of view. Let us stop in one direction – the
development of new methods of solving the problem. The method of conformal
mapping is worthy to be mentioned here above all. It allows not only to solve
many important partial problems, but it also was developed essentially from point
of view of mathematics.

The method of conformal mapping transforms the basic relations of the plane
problem from the Cartesian coordinates into the curvilinear ones and permit in
that way to simplify the procedure of solving.

Note 3.7. The conformal mapping of the certain simple-connected area of the plane
] [  iK into the analogical area of the plane z x  iy is realized by the analytical
function z z ]  . The word conformal is used here because this kind of mapping
preserves the angles between two curves at the point of their intersection.

The simplest example of using conformal mapping. The exterior of the circle of radius r o is
mapped into the interior of the unit circle. The mapping function has the form

z ]  r o
] .(3.63)

Then for the case, when the infinite plate with the circular hole of the radius r o is stretched
in direction Ox by the constant stress V o , a solution in the complex potentials is as follows

M z V 4  ª«¬ z   2  r 
o o 2
»¼ «¬  2

z º , \  z   V o 2  ª z   r o  1 z    r o  z 3 º .(3.64)
2

»¼

The considered problem is, in fact, the Kirsch’s problem. Therefore, the corresponding
stresses are shown by formulas (3.59)-(3.61).

Section 3. One-dimensional problems

The analysis of these problems is caused by their simplicity and great technical importance.
So, if the simplicity of the class of one-dimensional problems is mentioned, then first of
all the one more class of problems should be considered here. They are also simple and
one-dimensional by the mathema- tical description. At that, they have a general character
and unusual practical applications.

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Thus, the class of universal deformations should be briefly considered. The universal
deforma- tions (uniform deformations, universal states) occupy a special place
in the theory of elasticity just owing to their universality. It consists in that the
theoretically and experimentally determined elastic constants of material in samples,
in which the universal deformation is created purposely, are valid also for all other
deformed states both samples and any different products made of this material.
It is considered therefore that the particular importance of universal deformation
(their fundamentality) consists of a possibility to use them in the determination
of properties of materials from tests. To realize the universal deformation, two
conditions have to be fulfilled:

1. Uniformity of deformation must not depend on the choice of material.

2. The deformation of material has to occur by using only the surface loads.

In the theory of infinitesimal deformations, the next kinds of universal deformations are
studied in detail:

simple shear,
simple (uniaxial) tension-compression,
uniform volume (omniaxial) tension-compression.

In the linear theory of elasticity, the experiment with a sample, in which the simple shear
is realized, allows determining the elastic shear modulus P . The experiment with a sample,
in which the uniaxial tension is realized, allows determining Young’s elastic modulus E
and Poisson’s ratio Q . The experiment with a sample, in which the uniform compression is
realized, allows determining the elastic bulk modulus k .

While being passed from the linear model of very small deformations to the models of
nonsmall (moderate or large) ones, that is, from the linear mechanics of materials to
nonlinear mechanics of materials, the universal states permit to describe theoretically
and experimentally many nonlinear phenomena. The history of mechanics testifies
the experimental observation in the XIX century of the nonlinear effects that arose
under the simple shear and were named later by names of Poynting and Kelvin. After
about a hundred years in the XX century, these effects were described theoretically
within the framework of the nonlinear Mooney-Rivlin model.

The mechanics of composite materials is one more area of application of universal

deformations. The simplest and most used model, in this case, is the model of averaged
(effective, reduced) moduli. In the theory of effective moduli, the composite materials of
the complex internal structure with internal links are treated usually as the homogeneous
elastic media. A possibility to create in such media the states with universal deformations
was used in the evaluation of effective moduli by different authors and different methods.

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It was found that it is sufficient for isotropic composites to study the energy stored in the
elementary volumes of composites under only two kinds of universal deformations: simple
shear and omniaxial compression.

Universal deformation of simple shear. The experiments on simple shear are realized on the
sufficiently long beam of quadratic cross-section, in which the uniform deformation is
created on some distance from the ends. The lower side of the beam is fixed rigidly and
the surface tangential constant load T2 is app- lied to the upper side. The deformation of
the beam can be described by one component of the deforma-tion gradient u1,2  wu1 wx2  .
The component u1,2 and the shear angle J are linked as follows

u1,2 tan J W ! 0. (3.65)

In the linear theory, the shear angle is assumed to be small and then J | tan J W .

The Cauchy-Green strain tensor is characterized by only three nonzero components

H11 1 2   u1,1  u1,1  u1,k u1,k  1 2   u1,2u1,2  u1,3u1,3  W 2 ;

H12 H 21 1 2   u1,2  u2,1  u1,k u2,k  1 2 W .

The principal extensions are written through the shear angle by formulas O1 1, O2 O3 W .

Universal deformation of uniaxial tension. A rod in the form of a straight long cylinder (of
circular or quadratic cross-section)with the axis in direction of axis Ox1 is considered when
the lateral surface of the rod is free of stresses. The rod is stretched in the axial direction.
Then the uniform stress-strain state is formed in the rod except for the area near the ends.
It is characterized by only one nonzero component V 11 of the stress tensor and two nonzero
components H11 , H 22 H 33 of the strain tensor (or two principal extensions O1 , O2 O3 ).

This kind of deformations is used for the introduction of the Young modulus and
Poisson’s ratio instead of two classical Lame elastic constants. Perhaps, the oldest and
exhausting procedu-res are shown in classical Love’s book. Let us use the adopted
at that time notations and write the standard representation of the Hooke law
through the Lame moduli O , P

Xy 2 PH xy ; Z x 2 PH zx ; Yz 2 PH yz ,

Xx O'  2 PH xx ; Y y O'  2 PH yy ; Z z O'  2 PH zz ; (3.66)

where the notation of dilatation is used ' H xx  H yy  H zz .

56
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

The classical procedure of introducing the Young modulus and the Poisson’s ratio
is shown below.

Toward this end, the universal deformation of uniaxial tension is considered, when the axis
is chosen in direction Ox and the prism is stretched at the ends by a uniform tension T .
The stress state of a prism is uniform and is characterized by only the stress X x T (other
stresses are zero ones). In this case, the Hooke law becomes simpler

T O'  2 PH xx , 0 O'  2 PH yy , 0 O'  2 PH zz .

The expression for dilatation is obtained by adding all three equalities above

T (3O  2 P ) ' o ' T (3O  2 P ).

The substitution of the last expression for dilatation into the first equality (3.66) gives relations

T ª¬O  3O  2 P  º¼ T  2 PH xx o T ª¬ P  3O  2 P   O  P  º¼ H xx .

The last expression represents the elementary law T EH xx of link between tension
and strain of prism, in which the Young modulus E is used. Comparison of this law
with relation (3.66) gives the classical expression for the Young modulus through
the Lame moduli

E ª¬ P  3O  2 P   O  P  º¼ . (3.67)

The substitution of expression for dilatation into the second and third equalities (2) gives
relations

H yy H zz ª¬ O 2   O  P  º¼ H xx ,

which express the classical Poisson’s law on the transverse compression under the
longitudinal extension and permit to introduce the Poisson’s ratio

V  H yy H xx   H zz H xx   O 2   O  P  . (3.68)

Thus, the Poisson’s ratio is one of the characteristics of linear deformation of elastic
material and is considered as the basic notion of linear elasticity. But the ratio of
transverse strain to the longitudinal one can be used in any model of nonlinear
elasticity (and not only elasticity).

57
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

In this case, this ratio will have its representation in each model and possibly will
not be constant quantity for any level of strain.

Universal deformation of uniform (omniaxial) compression-tension. A sample has the shape of a

cube, to sides of which the uniform surface load (hydrostatic compression) is applied. Then
the uniform stress state is formed in the cube. The normal stresses are equal with each other
V 11 V 22 V 33 , and the shear stresses V ik  i z k  are absent. This type of universal deformation is
defined by the following components of displacement gradients

u1,1 u2,2 u3,3 H ! 0; u1,1  u2,2  u3,3 3H e; uk ,m  wuk wxm  0  k z m  . (3.69)

The Cauchy-Green strain tensor is as follows

H11 H 22 H 33 H  1 2  H 2 ; H ik 0  i z k  , (3.70)

and the algebraic invariants are written in the form

H11    H 22    H 33  ; I 3 H11   H 22   H 33  . (3.71)

2 2 2 3 3 3
I1 H11  H 22  H 33 e; I 2

The principal extensions are equal to each other O1 O2 O3 .

Definition 3.2.
3.8. The3.2.
NoteDefinition universal deformations will be also discussed in the following chapters.
Definition 3.2.
Most often, Definition
the linear 3.2.theory of elasticity relates to the one-dimensional problems the
Definition 3.2.
problems on the deformation of the RODS and BEAMS.

Definition 3.2. The rod is an elongated body, the two dimensions of which (height
and width) are small compared to the third size (length). In the same sense, the
term “beam” is sometimes used.

Note 3.9. Usually, the term “rod” refers to bodies of elongated shape, which resist
only the forces of tension-compression and torsion.
Note 3.10. Usually, the term “beam” refers to bodies of elongated shape, which
resist only the forces of bending.

Thus, three kinds of deformations are studied for the rods and beams – the tension-
compression, torsion, and bending. The tension-compression causes the elongation strains
in the rod and saves the middle line of the rod (no deflection). The torsion causes the shear
strains in the rod and no deflection. The bending causes the deflection of the beam.

Definition 3.3.
Definition 3.3.
Definition 3.3.

Definition 3.3.
Definition 3.3.
58
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

IN FACT, THE RODS AND BEAMS CAN BE ANALYZED IN THE LINEAR THEORY
OF ELASTICITY AS THE SPATIAL BODIES WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE
THREE-DIMENSIONAL STATEMENT. BUT THE SOLVING OF THESE PROBLEMS
IS DIFFICULT AND MEETS MANY MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS. THEREFORE,
THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY DEVELOPED DIFFERENT APPROXIMATE
APPROACHES THAT PERMIT TO ANALYZE THE RODS AND BEAMS AS THE
ONE-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS.

THIS IS AN OBJECT OF THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS,

WHICH WILL BE DISCUSSES IN CHAPTER 7.

The next after rods and beams objects of analysis of the linear theory of elasticity are
PLATES and SHELLS.

Most of the textbooks on the linear theory of elasticity do not include the theories of plates
and shells. These theories are thinking as some separate part of the general theory of elasticity.

Definition 3.3. The plate is defined as the body of finite or infinite sizes bounded by
two planes symmetric relative to some plane (middle plane; usually, the coordinate
plane Oxy ) one dimension of which (height, thickness) is smaller than two other
dimensions (length and width).

Thus, the plate is characterized by the length, width, and thickness

The plates are divided into thin and thick ones.

The THIN PLATE is restricted by the values of the ratio of the smaller side (length or
width) to the thickness ! 10. The thin plates are divided on the stiff and flexible ones. The
criterion is here the value of the ratio of the smaller side (length or width) to the deflection
of the plate. The small values (0.2-0.5) correspond to the stiff plate, and the values ! 0.5
correspond to the flexible plates (membranes). In the analysis of the thin stiff plates, some
basic hypotheses are used.

The 1st Kirchhoff hypothesis (hypothesis of the straight normal). A segment of the
normal to the middle plane rests under bending the straight and normal to the
middle surface.
The 2nd Kirchhoff’s hypothesis (hypothesis on not pressing the layers of the plate).
The stresses vertical to the middle plane are ignored as compared with the stresses
in the plate plane.

59
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

The 3rd hypothesis. The deflections of the plate are supposed so small that the
membrane forces in the middle plane can be ignored.

The main unknown function is the deflection w  x, y  and the rest necessary characteristics
of deformation of the plate (displacements, strains, stresses) are expressed through the
deflection. The fundamental equation in the theory of bending the plates is called the
Sophie Germain-La-grange’s equation

''w q D  ,(3.72)

^ `
where q is the external bending load, D Eh 2 ª¬12 1 Q 2  º¼ is the so-called cylindrical stiffness,
E is Young’s modulus, Q is the Poisson’s ratio, h is the thickness of the plate.

The THICK PLATE is restricted by the values of the ratio of the smaller side to the
thickness  10. Usually, it is analyzed within the framework of the three-dimensional theory.

Definition 3.4.
Note here once again that most of the textbooks on the linear theory of elasticity
do not include the theories of plates and shells. These theories are thinking as some
ion 3.4.
Definition
separate
Definition 3.4.
Definition 3.4.
part 3.4.
of the general theory of elasticity.

Definition 3.4. The SHELL is defined as the body of finite or infinite sizes bounded
by two surfaces symmetric relative to some surface (middle surface of the shell) a
distance between which (thickness) is smaller than two other dimensions (length
and width).

The shells are divided into three types by the criterion of the Gaussian curvature of the
surfaces which form the shell: the shell of positive curvature (for example, the spherical
or ellipsoidal surface), the 3.4.
Definition shell of zeroth curvature (for example, the cylindrical or conical
surface), the shell of the negative curvature (for example, the surface of the hyperboloid of
one sheet).

Note 3.11. Some points on the torus (toroidal surface) have positive, some have
negative, and some have zero Gaussian curvature.

The shells can be thin and thick ones. A criterion is chosen as the ratio of the shell thickness
to the minimal radius of the middle surface.

For the THIN SHELL, this ratio has to be 1 20  ,..., 1 30  .

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 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

The THICK SHELL is usually analyzed within the framework of the three-dimensional
theory.

In the analysis of the thin shells, two basic hypotheses are used.

The Kirchhoff-Love’s hypothesis (hypothesis of the straight normal). A segment of

the normal to the middle surface rests under loading the straight and normal to
the middle surface and does not change its length.

The 2nd hypothesis (hypothesis on not pressing the shell layers). The stresses normal
to the middle surface are ignored as compared with the stresses acting in the surface
are-as located parallel to the middle surface.

The stress state of thin shells is characterized by two kinds of forces:

Kind 1. The stresses arising in the middle surface (it is characterized by coordinates
[ ,K ) – the normal forces N[ , NK and shear forces N[K , NK[ .
Kind 2. The stresses arising under bending the shell – the transversal forces Q[ , QK ,
the bending moments M [ , MK , the turning moments H [K , HK[ .

The
Definition 3.5.
Definitionlinear
3.5.
Definition
theory3.5.
3.5.
Definition
of elasticity highlights the case of the shallow shells.
Definition
Definition 3.5. 3.5.

Definition 3.5. The SHALLOW SHELL is defined as the shell that has a small
clearance over the plane on which it rested.
Definition 3.5. 3.5.
Definition
Definition 3.5.
Definition 3.5.
The basicDefinition
system of3.5.
equations consists of two equations relative two unknown functions –
the deflection w  x, y  and the stress function )  x, y 

1 Eh  '')  ' k w 0,  ' k )  D''w q, (3.73)

where ' k f k x f, xx  k y f, yy and k x , k y are the principal curvatures of the middle plane of the
shallow shell.

Note here once again that most of the textbooks on the linear theory of elasticity
do not include the theories of plates and shells. These theories are thinking as some
separate part of the general theory of elasticity.

Finishing the presentation of some additional fundamental facts from the linear theory
of elasticity, let us dwell attention to the distinction between the statical and dynamical
problems. In contrary to the statical analysis, the dynamical analysis is based on the additional
Definition 3.6.
Definition
Definition 3.6.
Definition 3.6.
Definition
Definition
3.6. 3.6. 3.6.

Definition 3.6. 3.6.

Definition
61
Definition 3.6.Definition
Definition 3.7. 3.7.
Definition 3.7.
Definition
Definition
Definition 3.7. 3.7. 3.7.
Definition
Definition3.6.
3.6.
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

introducing the time as a new independent variable and the inertial forces as a new kind
of forces. As a result, the basic equations of the statics (which are the elliptic type)

P ui ,kk   O  P  uk .ki  Fi 0 , (3.74)

are transformed in the case of dynamics into the hyperbolic type

P ui ,kk   O  P  uk .ki  Fi U ui ,tt . (3.75)

efinition 3.6. This permits to describe the change of the state of deformation in time and study very
important stationary and non-stationary mechanical phenomena including the vibrations
efinition 3.6.
and waves.

efinition 3.7. Definition 3.6. The vibrations of the elastic body are understood as a change of
parameters of deformation of the body (displacement, strain, stress) which occur
efinition 3.7.
more or less regularly in time.

Sometimes, some alternative definitions can be proposed. As an example, below the quite
different definition is written.

Definition 3.7. The vibrations of the elastic body are understood as the repeated
limited motion relative to some mean value of the body state, which can be often
the equilibrium state.

Note 3.12. A motion is assumed as oscillatory, when it takes place in the

neighbourhood of some fixed state, is restricted in its variation from this state, and
is repeated in most cases.

Four classical types of vibrations are studied.

Type 1. Natural vibrations. They occur in the elastic body after external excitation (jerk).
The motion is supplemented after jerk by the internal forces.
Type 2. Forced vibrations. They occur under the action of the external periodic
forces, which act independently on the vibrations of the body.
Type 3. Parametric vibrations. They differ from the forced vibrations by the kind
of the external forces. In the case of the forced vibrations, the parameters of the
body rest invariable, whereas in the case of the parametric vibrations the vibrations
are excited by the periodic change of any parameter of the body.
Type 4. Self-vibrations. They occur without the action of the external periodic forces.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

The theory of vibrations of the linearly elastic bodies is the well-developed and structured
part of the linear theory of elasticity. Also, it is the part of the general theory of vibrations,
which at present includes practically all spectrum of sciences from physics to politics.

The theory of waves of the linearly elastic bodies like the mentioned above theory of
vibrations is the well-developed and structured part of the linear theory of elasticity. Also, it
is the part of the general theory of waves, which at present includes practically all spectrum
of sciences from physics to politics.

Let us start with two different definitions of the wave.

Definition from Encarta® World English Dictionary: an oscillation that travels

through a medium by transferring energy from one particle or point to another
without causing any permanent displacement of the medium.
Definition from the well-known Whitham’s book: a wave is any recognizable signal
that is transferred from one part of the medium to another with a recognizable
velocity of propagation.

Some common attributes of waves can be specified: the observed in certain place of body
disturbance must propagate with a finite velocity to some other place of this body; as a
rule, the process must be close to oscillatory, if it is observed in time.

Waves in elastic bodies are classified by different indications and actually the different
classifications exist parallelly.
For example, the smoothness of the solution in the form of wave was turned out
to be critical in theoretical wave analysis. Knowledge of the solution smoothness is
equivalent to knowledge of its continuity or discontinuity, and also their quantitative
estimates (types of discontinuities, order of continuity, etc). The situation when
waves corresponding to discontinuous and continuous solutions are studied separately
was formed long ago.

The branch of study associated with discontinuous solutions treats a wave as a singular
surface motion relative to some given smooth physical field. That is to say, the wave motion
is understood as motion in the space of a field jump on a given surface.

The second branch is associated with continuous solutions describing a continuous motion.
Two classes of waves are considered here.

Hyperbolic waves are obtained as solutions of differential equations of hyperbolic or

ultrahyperbolic types and, consequently, are clearly defined by the type of equation.

63
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

Dispersive waves are defined by the form of solution.

Definition 3.8. The body, in which the wave propagates, is dispersive and the wave
Definition
Definition 3.8.3.8.
Definition 3.8.
Definition 3.8.
themselves is dispersive, if the wave is mathematically represented in the form of
Definition 3.8.
given function F of the phase M kx  Z t ( x ( x is the spatial coordinate, k is the
wave number, Z is the frequency, and t is time), and if the phase velocity v Z k
of the wave depends nonlinearly on frequency. Very often, the dispersion is fixed
in the form of nonlinear function Z W  k  .

Note 3.13. The solutions of type u F (kx  Z t ) are admitted not only to the hyperbolic
differential equations, but the parabolic one, and also some integral equations.
Note 3.14. The criteria of hyperbolic and dispersive waves are not mutually exclusive;
hyperbolic and dispersive waves are therefore encountered simultaneously.

Let us write here the classification standard in physics and differing from the mentioned
above hyperbolic - dispersive by the kinematic attribute. It consists of four types:

Type 1. Solitary waves or pulses – the sufficiently short in time and irregular locally
given in a body disturbances.
Type 2. Periodic (most often, harmonic) waves, which are characterized by the
disturbances in all the body.
Type 3. Wave pockets – the regular locally given in a body disturbances.
Type 4. Trains of waves – the harmonic wave pockets.

Usually, the textbooks on the linear theory of elasticity include the information on some
kinds of elastic waves. List of classical linear elastic waves consists of many items:
The volume and shear waves. Helmholtz’s theorem and Sommerfeld conditions. Plane
waves and Christoffel’s equations. Reflection of the plane harmonic waves. Spherical waves.
Cylindrical and torsional waves. Surface waves (Rayleigh’s waves). Cylindrical, spherical and
other surface waves. Love’s waves in layer. Lamb’s waves in plate. Waves in rods, plates and
shells (elementary and exact theory).

Finally, consider the APPROXIMATE METHODS of solving the problems of the linear
theory of elasticity.

They can be divided into two groups.

Group 1. Methods of approximate solving the boundary problems for the differential
equations of the linear theory of elasticity.

64
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

First of all, the finite-difference method (FDM) should be related to this group. Also, the
Bubnov-Galerkin’s method and Kantorovich-Vlasov’s methods should be mentioned here.

Group 2. Direct methods.

They are often called the variational methods because they are based on the differential
equations but the variational principles of mechanics. The finite element (FEM) and
boundary element methods (BEM) should be related to this group.

Note 3.15. Two basic variational methods are used here – the Lagrange’s principle
based on variations of displacements and the Castigliano’s principle based on
variations of stresses.

The mentioned approximate numerical methods are actively used and modified.

There are many commercial computer packages for solving the big classes of problems.

Comments
Comment 3.1. The proofs of theorems and rigorous reasonings have an important goal of
removing the doubts. Only a professional mathematician can enjoy the formal justification
of each step of a long line of reasoning.

As for the removal of doubts, there is a story about D’Alembert:

Unsuccessfully explaining the proof of some theorem to one noble pupil, he said: Sir!
Honestly, this theorem is right! The reaction of the noble pupil was instant: Oh, sir! That’s
enough. You’re a nobleman and I’m a nobleman. And your honest word is the best of proof.

Comment 3.2. In this chapter, many facts from the linear theory of elasticity are formulated
in some abstract form. This contradicts in some cases to the understanding of the mechanics
of materials as a science having also the function of being useful for engineers. Sometimes
they joke that the presentation of the solution in the form 7 arc tan 2  2 ln 7 is not acceptable
11 5 3 6
for engineers. It should have to engineer the form 0.338.

65
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

Further reading
3.1. Achenbach, JD 1973, Wave Propagation in Elastic Solids. North-Holland, Amsterdam.
3.2. Ang, W-T 2007, A Beginner’s Course in Boundary Element Methods. Universal
Publishers,  Boca Raton, USA.
3.3. Ascione, L & Grimaldi, A 1993, Elementi di meccanica del continuo (Elements of
Continuum Mechanics). Massimo, Napoli. (In Italian)
3.4. Atkin, RJ & Fox, N 1980, An Introduction to the Theory of Elasticity, Longman, London.
3.5. Banerjee, PK 1994, The Boundary Element Methods in Engineering. 2nd ed., McGraw-
Hill,  London.
3.6. Bedford, A & Drumheller, DS 1994, Introduction to Elastic Wave Propagation. John
Wiley, Chichester.
3.7. Chaskalovic, J 2008, Finite Elements Methods for Engineering Sciences, Springer Verlag,
Berlin.
3.8. Chen, PJ 1972, Wave Motion in Solids. Flügge‘s Handbuch der Physik, Band VIa/3.
Springer Verlag, Berlin.
3.9. Dagdale, DS & Ruiz, C 1971, Elasticity for Engineers. McGraw Hill, London.
310. Den Hartog JP 2007, Mechanical Vibrations, 12th ed. Dover Civil and Mechanical
Engineering, Mineola.
3.11. Eschenauer, H & Schnell, W 1981, Elasticitätstheorie I, Bibl. Inst., Mannheim. (In
German)
3.12. Eslami, MR, Hetnarski, RB, Ignaczak, J, Noda, N, Sumi, N & Tanigawa, Y 2013,
Theory of Elasticity and Thermal Stresses. Explanations, Problems and Solutions. Series Solid
Mechanics and Its Applications, Springer Verlag Netherlands, Amsterdam.
3.13. Fedorov, FI 1968, Theory of Elastic Waves in Crystals. Plenum Press, New York.
3.14. Fraeijs de Veubeke, BM 1979, A Course of Elasticity. Springer, New York.
3.15. Graff, KF 1991, Wave Motion in Elastic Solids. Dover, London.
3.16. Harris, JG 2001, Linear Elastic Waves. Cambridge Texts in Applied Mathematics.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
3.17. Hudson, JA 1980, The Excitation and Propagation of Elastic Waves. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
3.18. Hahn, HG 1985, Elastizitätstheorie. B.G.Teubner, Stuttgart. (In German)
3.19. Inman, DJ 2007, Engineering Vibration, 3rd ed. Prentice Hall, New York. 
3.20. Katsikadelis, JT 2002, Boundary Elements Theory and Applications. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
3.20. LeVeque, RJ 2007, Finite Difference Methods for Ordinary and Partial Differential
Equations. SIAM, New York.
3.21. Love, AEH 1944, The Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. 4th ed. Dover Publications,
New York.
3.22. Lur’e AI 1999, Theory of Elasticity. Series “Foundations of Engineering Mechanics”.
Springer, Berlin.

66
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

3.23. M agnus K 1976, Schwingungen. Eine Einfuhrung in die theoretische Behandlung von
Schwingugsprobleme. Teubner, Stuttgart. (In German)
3.24. Müller, W 1959, Theorie der elastischen Verformung. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft
Geest & Portig K.-G., Leipzig. (In German)
3.25. Nowacki, W 1970, Theory of Elasticity. PWN, Warszawa. (In Polish, In Russian)
3.26. Olver,  P 2013,  Introduction to Partial Differential Equations. Chapter 5: Finite
differences. Springer, Berlin. 3.27. Reddy, JN 2006, An Introduction to the Finite Element
Method.  3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York. 
3.28. Reynolds, DD 2016, Engineering Principles of Mechanical Vibration, 4th ed. Trafford
On Demand Publishing, Bloomington, USA.
3.29. Royer, D & Dieulesaint, E 2000, Elastic Waves in Solids (I,II). Advanced Texts in
Physics. Springer, Berlin.
3.30. Rushchitsky, JJ 2011, Theory of Waves in Materials. Ventus Publishing ApS, Copenhagen.
3.31. Slaughter, WS 2001, Linearized Theory of Elasticity. Birkhäuser, Zurich.
3.32. Sneddon, IN & Berry, DS 1958, The Classical Theory of Elasticity, vol.VI, Flügge
Encyclopedia of Physics. Springer Verlag, Berlin.
3.33. Sokolnikoff, IS 1956, Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. McGraw Hill Book Co, New
York.
3.34. Starovoitov, E & Naghiyev, FBO 2012, Foundations of the Theory of Elasticity, Plasticity,
and Viscoelasticity, Apple Academic Press, Palo Alto.
3.35. Strikwerda, J 2004, Finite Difference Schemes and Partial Differential Equations. 2nd
ed. SIAM, New York. 
3.36. Timoshenko, SP & Goodyear, JN 1970, Theory of Elasticity, 3rd ed. McGraw Hill,
Tokyo.
3,37. Tongue, BH 2001, Principles of Vibration, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
3.38. Wrobel, LC & Aliabadi, MH 2002, The Boundary Element Method. In 2 vols.  John
Wiley & Sons, New York.
3.39. Zienkiewicz, OC, Taylor, RL & Zhu, JZ 2005, The Finite Element Method: Its Basis
and Fundamentals. Butterworth-Heinemann, New York.

Questions
3.1. E stimate the role of inverse problems in the linear theory of elasticity. Compare with
the importance of the inverse problems in geophysics.
3.2. Read something about the existence theorem. Find two Korn’s inequalities and Fichera’s
proof of this theorem.
3.3. Show the link among the different general representation of solutions.
3.4. Find and describe the solved simple problem within the framework of the anti-plane
state. Comment the simplicity and practicability of this problem.

67
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SOME ADDITIONAL FUNDAMENTAL FACTS FROM
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THE LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

3.5. R epeat the step-by-step procedure of proving that the generalized plane stress state is
identical with the plane displacement state.
3.6. Comment an importance of the Airy’s function.
3.7. Find a few handbooks on the stress concentration around holes, necks, cuts and formulate
the most important applications of results on the stress concentration.
3.8. Describe shortly the fundamentality of universal deformations in the theory of elasticity.
3.9. Choose the most convenient for you book devoted to rods and beams.
3.10. Choose the most convenient for you book devoted to plates and shells.
3.11. Which modern book on vibrations of the elastic body you prefer?
3.12. Look for the modern books on plates and shells and choose one book on plates and
one book on shells, which you could recommend your colleagues.

68
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 1

4 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF
NONLINEAR THEORY OF
ELASTICITY. PART 1
Kinematic notions: motion, configuration, reference systems,
deformation, gradient of deformation, fundamental
quadratic form, fundamental metric tensor, strain tensors.
Kinetic notions: force, moment, stress, stress tensors.
Balance equations. Motion equa-tions. Internal energy of
deformation and constitutive equations. Generally elastic
material, hypoelastic material, hyperelastic material.

Let us recall that here the brief information on the four parts of the theory of
elasticity is continued. The linear theory of elasticity was chosen and described in
Chapter 2 as the first one because of it forms the basic skeleton with which other
three parts are constructed – the nonlinear and linearized theories of elasticity as
the parts with more exact and complicated models that extend significantly the
area of application and the strength of materials as the part with many simplifying
Kinematic
Kinematic notions:
notions: motion,
motion, configuration,
configuration, reference
reference systems,
systems, deformation,
deformation, gradient
gradient of of
assumptions that are used in engineering practice.
deformation,
deformation, fundamental
fundamental quadratic
quadratic formform fundamental
fundamental metric
metric tensor,
tensor, strain
strain tensors.
tensors.
Kinetic
Kinetic notions:
notions: force,
force, moment,
moment, stress,
stress, stress
stress tensors.
tensors. Balance
Balance equations.
equations. Motion
Motion equa-
equa-
It tions.
tions. Internal
Internal energy
energy of of deformation
deformation and and constitutive
constitutive equations.
equations. Generally
Generally
is looking appropriate to consider now the brief description of the nonlinear theory elastic
elastic ma- ma-
terial,
terial, hypoelastic
hypoelastic material,
material, hyperelastic
hyperelastic material.
material.
of elasticity and then pass on to the linearized theory of elasticity. The main difference
between the linear and nonlinear theories is that the nonlinear theory abandons the linear
description of the deformation process and admits the finite (large) deformations of the
body. A description of nonlinear deformation needs more complicated mathematical tools.
Despite of this, the nonlinear theory of elasticity is constructed very well and is considered
as the phenomenological theory with axiomatic providing the theory structure.

First of all, this theory uses the most exact definitions and strong mathematical procedures.
This can be demonstrated in the way of introduction of the difference between the non-
deformed and deformed states of the material.

The basic and primary notion in the theory of elasticity is the notion of a material continuum.
It permits to identify the real body with the geometrical domain of 3D space, which this
body occupies. In such a way, the real domain is transforming into some physical abstraction,
called the body.

Suppose the body B in Euclidean space \3 is given.

Definition
Definition 4.1. 4.1.

69
Definition
Definition 4.2. 4.2.
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 1

Definition 3.8.

Definition The motion

Definition 4.1.4.1.Definition 4.1. is the mapping of a set B on the domain F B ,t  of
Definition 4.1.
3
certain time t x F ( X , t ), X 
\ at a 4.1.
the spaceDefinition B , t  \1.
Definition 4.1.
Definition 4.1.
Definition 3.8.
The velocity and the acceleration are defined in the standard physical way x F  X , t  , x F  X , t  .
Definition 4.2. Definition 4.2.
Definition 4.2.
on 4.1. DefinitionDefinition 4.2. image F B ,t 
4.2. The of the mapping F at4.2.
Definition the moment t is called the
Definition 4.2. configuration.
Definition 4.3. Definition 4.3.
It is said sometimesDefinition 4.3. configuration
that the is like the photograph of the motion at a fixed
on 4.2. Definition 4.3. Definition 4.3.
Definition 3.8.
moment.Definition 4.4. Definition 4.4.
Definition 4.3.
Definition 4.4.
Definition 4.4. Definition 4.4.
Definition 4.3. The configuration of a body at time t is called THE ACTUAL
Definition 4.4.
on 4.3. CONFIGURATION.

on 4.4. Definition 4.4. The configuration of a body at any arbitrarily chosen initial moment
is called THE REFERENCE CONFIGURATION.

DefinitionKinematic
4.5. Thenotions: motion,
description of configuration,
body motion reference systems,
by the reference deformation,isgradient of
configuration
deformation, fundamental quadratic form fundamental metric tensor, strain tensors.
called THE REFERENCE
Kinetic DESCRIPTION.
notions: force, moment, stress, stress tensors. Balance equations. Motion equa-
tions. Internal energy of
Just this description is mainly used deformation and constitutive
in the nonlinear theory ofequations.
elasticity.Generally elastic ma-
terial, hypoelastic material, hyperelastic material.
Definition 4.5.
The reference and actual configurations are linked with the Lagrangian and Eulerian reference
systems.
Definition 4.5. Definition 4.5.
THE LAGRANGIAN SYSTEM
Definition
Definition
Definition is characterized by that material particles of a body are
4.5.4.5.
4.5.
individualized - each particle is associated with Cartesian coordinates xk (or the curvilinear
coordinates x k ). This individualization is carried out in the reference configuration. It is
further supposed that in the process of mo-ving (transition from the reference configuration
to the actual one) the coordinates xk don’t vary, i.e., the particle and its coordinates are
interlinked forever.

THE EULERIAN SYSTEM is characterized by that the particle occupies the point in the
actual confi-guration given by coordinates X D (or X D ). In this case, the coordinates of the
particle are not linked with a motion, because the last has already been taken place and a
body is already in the actual configuration.

Consider the motion anew and choose in \3 the Lagrangian {x k } and the Eulerian
{ X D } reference systems as well as assume that transitions x k x k  X D  , X D X D  x k 
Definition 4.1.
from one system to Definition
another are4.6.given. Then the motion in the reference description
can be denoted by FN ( X , t ) or x m FNm ( X D , t ) .
D

Definition 4.7.

Definition 4.6. Definition 4.6. 4.2.

Definition
Definition
Definition
Definition 4.6.4.6.
4.6.
Definition 4.7. Definition 4.7. Definition 4.8
70
Definition
Definition
Definition 4.7.4.7.
4.7.
 Definition 4.5.

FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR

OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 1

It is usually assumed that functions FNm are continuously differentiable up to the

necessary order, real, and one-value.
Definition 4.6.
Definition 4.6. THE DEFORMATION OF BODY is meant as a change of the
shape or dimensions
Definition 4.7. of the body.
Definition 4.6.
Definition 4.6. 4.6.
Definition
Definition 4.6.
Definition 4.7. THE GRADIENT OF DEFORMATION is defined as the vector
Definition
Definition4.6.
4.7. Definition 4.8
Definition 4.6. Definition
G G 4.7. 4.7.
Definition
Definition 4.7.
w
Definition 4.7.
 
F { Fk X D , t Definition
{ ’F k X D4.6. 
, t , FDm  x,mD
wX D
F km  X D , t  . (4.1)

Definition 4.7. Definition

Definition 4.6. 4.6.
Definition 4.8 Definition 4.7.
Definition 4.8 THE
Definition 4.8 DEFORMATION
Definition
Definition 4.8
4.8 IN MATERIALS is meant as a process in
x B pass
which the particleDefinition from4.7.
Definition
4.7. the reference configuration BR to the actual one B.
Definition 4.8 Definition 4.6.
It is described by THE VECTOR OF DISPLACEMENTS OF THE PARTICLE.
Definition 4.8 Definition 4.6.4.8
Definition Definition 4.6.
x B Definition 4.7.
Definition 4.6.
Definition 4.7. Definition
Definition 4.8 4.8 Definition 4.7.
G
n 4.8 u ^u m
` { ^u , u 2 , u 3` , u m  X D , t 
1
x m  X D , t   X m .(4.2)
Definition 4.7.
Definition 4.8
THE CONCOMITANT COORDINATE Definition 4.8 SYSTEM with Lagrangian coordinates
Definition 4.8 is mainly
chosen in the nonlinear theory of elasticity for the analytical description
Definition 4.8 of the configuration.

In this case, the notion of coordinate transform dT i  wT i w- k  d- k a<ik< d- k is

introduced as the continuous one-to-one correspondence between two systems
T 1 ,T 2 ,T 3  , -1 ,- 2 ,- 3 .

The next important fragment of theoretical description consists of using the covariant
G G G G G G
and contravariant vectors of basis  e1 , e2 , e3  ,  e1c, e2c , e3c  and representation of an arbitrary
G JJJJJJG
infinitesimal vector r M 1M 2 ( M 1 , M 2 are the infinitely close points of a continuum) in
G G G G G G G G G G
two forms d r dT i ei , d r d- i eic . One must be noted that the contravariant  e1 , ebasis
2 , e3  ,  e1 , e2 , e3  is
c c c
G G G G G G G G G G G G
reciprocal to the covariant basis  e1 , e2 , e3  , in
 e1c, the 
e2c , e3c sense that the vectors  e1 , e2 , e3  , are  e1c, edirected
2 , e3 
c c
G G G G G G
along the tangents to corresponding coordinate lines T and the evectors k
1 , e2 , e3  ,  e1 , e2 , e3  of new basis
c c c
are directed normally to the surface T const . The introduced covariant and contravariant
k

quantities are conventionally associated with the bases.

Further, the necessity arises to introduce the metrics of the defined

G
by bases spaces through the length of the vector d r

G2 G G
dr ds 2 dT i dT k ei ˜ ek dT i dT k gik .(4.3)

This length should be invariant relative to the coordinate system

nition 4.9.
G2 G G
dr dT p dT q ecp ˜ eqc dT p dT q g cpq o g cpq a<i <p a<kq< gik .
Definition 4.9.
Definition 4.9.

Definition 4.9.
71
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 1

Note 4.1. The expression (3.3) is called THE FUNDAMENTAL QUADRATIC

FORM.

Definition Definition
4.9. THE
Definition 4.9.FUNDAMENTAL METRIC TENSOR is defined as the
4.9.
Gi G k
tensor with g gik e e covariant components gik .

Note 4.2. The contravariant and mixed components are Definition 4.9.
defined analogously. When
Definition
ion 4.9. 4.9.
4.9. being passed from the curvilinear coordinate system to the Cartesian one, then all
Definition 4.9.
three types of metric tensors are transformed into the tensor with components in
the form of Kronecker’s symbols.

The introduced metrics permit to construct the nonlinear theory of deformation as a part
of continuum mechanics. Just for this purpose, the discussed above configurations – the
Definition 4.9.
reference Definition
configuration
4.9. (at the initial moment) and the actual (at the present moment)
one – are fixed. In different configurations, the chosen before the concomitant coordinate
G G
system will have different basis vectors – ^eko ` for the reference configuration and ^ek ` for the
actual one. If two different moments t c, t cc are considered, then corresponding configurations
G G
will be characterized by different bases ^ekc ` ,^ekcc ` . The fundamental metric tensors will also
be different

G G G G
 dsc   dscc 
2 2
gc gikc eic ekc , g cc gikcc eicc ekcc , gikc dT i dT k , gikcc dT i dT k .(4.4)

The strain tensors are the basic kinematic parameters like displacements and gradient
of displacements. In nonlinear mechanics, a row of strain tensors is proposed. Two
kinds of strain tensors can be distinguished by the criterion which basis vectors are
used for evaluation of the tensor components – vectors for the reference configuration
or for the actual one.

Note 4.3. It is appropriate to mention here that the strains characterize the change
of the body form or dimensions in whole and the relative displacements of the
infinitely close internal points of the body.

By use of relationships (4.4) an expression

1
 dsc    dscc   gikc  gikcc , (4.5)
2 2
2H ik dT i dT k , H ik
2

(here H ik can be treated as the covariant components of the certain tensor) is

introduced as one of the most important elements of the kinematics of deformation.

72
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 1

On the base of covariant components H ik , two kinds of contravariant components

G G
( H cik or H ccik ) can be constructed depending on the used basis (^ekc ` or ^ekcc ` ) .

THE STRAIN TENSORS are defined conventionally in both bases in terms of contravariant
components

G G G G
E c H ikc eic eic , E cc H ikcc eicc eicc .

G
It is usually provided in solid mechanics that the displacement vector u ^ui ` exists
for all points of a continuum. Then the strain tensors can be written through the
G G
basic vectors ek (actual configuration) or eko (reference configuration)
G G G G
1 § wu G o wu G o wu wu ·
H ik ¨ ˜ e k  ˜ e i  ¸ ,(4.6)
2 © wT i wT k wT i wT k ¹
G G G G
1 § wu G wu G wu wu ·
H ik ¨ ˜ e k  ˜ e i  ¸ .(4.7)
2 © wT i wT k wT i wT k ¹

Note 4.4. The relations (4.6),(4.7) are quadratically nonlinear relative to gradients
of displacements.

Usually, tensor (3.6) is called THE GREEN OR CAUCHY-GREEN STRAIN TENSOR,

whereas tensor (3.7) is called THE ALMANSI STRAIN TENSOR.

The Cauchy-Green strain tensor is given in the reference configuration, which defines
deformations of the body for the body metrics in reference configuration (the metrics
corresponds here to the non-deformed state). The conventional representation of this tensor
is as follows

1 § wu n wu m wu n wu i ·
H nm ( F ,kD ) { H nm ( x k , t ) ¨   ¸ 1 2   u n,m  u m,n  u n,i u i ,m  . (4.8)
2 © wx m wx n wxi wx m ¹

The Almansi strain tensor is given in the actual configuration, i.e., in the deformed state
of a body, and uses the metrics in the deformed state

1 § wU E wU J wU E wU G ·
HEJ ( X D , t ) ¨   ¸ 1 2  U E ,J  U J ,E  U E ,G U G ,J  . (4.9)
2 © wX J wX E wX G wX J ¹

Note 4.5. It is accepted that the displacement vector (4.2) and strain tensor (4.8)
or other pair – the displacement vector (4.2) and strain tensor (4.9) – describe
fully the kinematics of deformation of the body.
Note 4.6. Such pairs are called the conjugate pairs. For example, a list of five pairs
is shown in the mentioned below book of Chernykh & Litvinenkova.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 1

Three basic properties of Cauchy-Green and Almansi strain tensors:

Property 1. Both tensors are nonlinear, symmetric, positively defined and their
main values are positive.
Property 2. Three first algebraic invariants of these tensors are as follows

I1  H ik  H ik g ik , I 2  H ik  H imH nk g ik g nm , I 3  H ik  H pmH inH kq g im g pq g kn .

I1  Hik  Hik g ik , I2  Hik  HimHnk g ik g nm , I3  H ik  H pmHinHkq g im g pq g kn .
(4.10)
I1 tr  H  { H11  H 22  H 33 ; I1 tr  H  { H11  H22  H33 ; I 2 H ik H ki ; I2 Hik Hki ;
I3 det  H  { H ik H kmH mi ; I3 det  H  { Hik HkmHmi .

Note 4.7. The formulas (4.10) use the standard operators tr and det, which are
also shown in representations by components of the strain tensor.

Property 3. Three only of a countable set of all the invariants are independent;
usually three first invariants (4.10) are chosen and they are called the basis invariants.

THUS, THE KINEMATIC PICTURE OF THE NONLINEAR PROCESS OF

DEFORMATION IS FORMED ON THE BASE OF THE ESSENTIALLY MORE
COMPLICATED MATHEMATICAL PROCEDURES THAN THE LINEAR PROCESS.

The kinetic process includes a description of forces, moments and stresses. Like the
kinematic picture of nonlinear deformation, the kinetic one is based on distinguishing
the non-deformed (reference) and deformed (actual) states.

The main notions of the forces and stresses are the same as in the linear theory of elasticity.
The differences and complications arise in definitions of concrete chosen stress tensors.

Two most used in the nonlinear theory of elasticity stress tensors are differed in that which
unit area is used for measuring the values of their components.
Definition 3.8.

4.10. The
Definition Definition 4.10.Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor t nm ( x k , t ) involves stresses at
moment t on the surfaces of elementary volume in the deformed state, which are
measured on Definition
the unit4.10.
area in the reference configuration (i.e., in the non-deformed
state). It is asymmetric (it is characterized by nine independent components) and
it does not Definition
immediately4.11. determine the stress state in a body.
Definition 3.8.

4.11. The
DefinitionDefinition Lagrange-Cauchy stress tensor V ik  X D , t  involves stresses at
4.11.
moment t on the surfaces of elementary volume in the deformed state, which are
measured on the unit area in the actual configuration (i.e., in the deformed state).
This tensor is symmetric.

74
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
Definition 4.10.OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 1

tion 4.10.
tion 4.10. Despite of that the Piola-Kirchhoff and Lagrange-Cauchy stress tensors are most used, other
stress tensors are also used: PIOLA STRESSDefinition
TENSOR, 4.10.HAMEL STRESS TENSOR, THE
Definition 4.10.
Definition 4.11.SECOND PIOLA-KIRCHHOFF STRESS TENSOR, TENSOR OF TRUE STRESSES,
tion 4.11. TENSOR OF GENERALIZED STRESSES, and others.
tion 4.11.
The balance equations (conservation laws) Definition
are used 4.11.
in the form that is shown in the prior
information on the Definition
linear theory
4.11. of elasticity. But the necessity to distinguish the non-
deformed and deformed states introduces some correctives.

The law of balance of momentum generates the equations of motion (equilibrium).

It can be written in the local (differential) form and through the Euler coordinates
as follows

w
 U ui    U uiuk ,k V ik ,k  Fi , (4.11)
wt

or in the more usual form of three equations of motion

U ui V ik ,k  Fi .(4.12)

U ui tik ,k  Fi .(4.13)

Note 4.8. In the nonlinear theory of elasticity, two different operations of the
differentiation of tensors are used. The first characterizes the rate of changing the
tensor field at the fixed geometrical point (place), for it the symbol w wt is used
and it is called the LOCAL DERIVATIVE.
The second characterizes the same rate at the fixed material point (particle), for
it the symbol D Dt is used and it is called the MATERIAL (SUBSTANTIAL)
DERIVATIVE.

At this moment, the basic systems of equations include six equations (4.8) or (4.9) relative
to three displacements and six strains, as well as three equations (4.12) or (4.13) relative six
or nine stresses. Therefore, the representations of internal energy are needed, because they
give the constitutive equa-tions which form together with representations of strain tensors
and equations of motion the closed system of equations.

Note 4.9. Recall once again that the reversibility of deformations after removing the
causes of these deformations is assumed as the basic property of elastic deformations.
This property is shown in a full recoverability of the initial body shape and in the
full restoring the energy stored by the body during a deformation process.

75
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 1

The elasticity of materials has strong classical definitions according to which all deforming
elastically materials are divided on GENERALLY ELASTIC, HYPERELASTIC, AND
HYPOELASTIC MATERIALS. They are distinguished mainly by the constitutive equations.

Note 4.10. The prefix hypo- means decreasing something against the norm. The
prefix hyper- means the strong increasing something against the norm. Therefore,
the hypoelastic materials should have the property of elasticity in the less grade
than the generally elastic ones and in the less grade than the hyperelastic ones.

Each of these three groups has the exact definition based on notions of the fields of strains,
strain rates, and stresses. All three cited above fields are introduced for the general case of
nonlinear deformations. Here, the distinction between the reference (initial) and actual
states of a body seems to be essential. More definitely, it is essential to which metrics (in
the natural, the initial non-disturbed or disturbed states) are referred strains, strains rates,
and stresses.

Note 4.11. For different ways of the deformation description, it is convenient

to use different strain tensors (and respectively, different strain rate tensors) and
different stress tensors.

Definition 4.12. THE GENERALLY ELASTIC MATERIAL is called the material

which can be in the natural (free of stresses) state and in a neighborhood of this
state the stresses in present time can be defined one-to-one by values either of
n 4.12.
deformation gradients or of strain tensors at present time (in the non-linear theory
of elasticity, in a nonlinear way)
Definition 4.12.
Definition 4.12.
Definition 4.12.
V ik Fik  H lm  (4.14)

or for rectilinear symmetry

V ij Aijkl H kl  AijklmnH kl H mn  AijklmnpqH lmH mnH pq " .(4.15)

Note 4.12. The fourth rank tensor Aijkl , the sixth rank tensor Aijklmn and eighth rank
tensor Aijklmnpq are called the tensors of elastic properties. Usually, the tensors with
higher ranks are not used. The first tensor defines the linear properties, the second
one – the quadratically nonlinear relative to the strain tensor properties, the third
Definition 4.13.
one – the cubically nonlinear relative to the strain tensor properties.

Consider now the hypoelastic material. The mathematical description of this kind of material
Definition 4.13.
needs introducing oneDefinition
ofDefinition
the stress
4.13. change velocities. Usually, the proposed by Jaumann
4.13.
stress change velocity is used among a few possible variants of velocities.

76
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 1

Definition 4.13. 4.13. For

DefinitionDefinition 4.13.the symmetric Lagrange tensor V ik ,
THE JAUMANN STRESS CHANGE VELOCITY can be written in the form

V ik’  DV ik Dt   V in v[ k ,n ]  V kn v[i ,n ] , (4.16)

G G
where v u {vk } ^uk ` is the particle velocity, square brackets in v[ k ,n ]
denote the asymmetric part of vk ,n .

Note 4.13. A presence in definition (4.16) the asymmetric rotations strain velocity
tensor with components Wkn v[ k ,n ] v[ k ,n ] and subsequent using the symmetric strain
velocity tensor Vkn v( k ,n ) is characteristic for the hypoelastic materials.
These tensors are not used practically in the description of the elastic and hyperelastic
materials. The rotation tensor appears in (4.16) of necessity because it used velocities
Definition 4.14. 4.14.
Definition
Definition
change of4.14.
stresses and strains relative to the stationary coordinate system.
Definition 4.14.
Definition 4.14.

Definition 4.14. The hypoelastic material is the material the constitutive equations
. of which are given in the form

V ik’ Ciklm V rs Vlm .(4.17)

The definition of hypoelastic materials admits the presence of initial stresses. Also, the
infinitesimal strains
Definition 4.15.of 4.15.
Definition
Definition
Definitionhypoelastic
4.14.
4.15. material are reversible relative to the initial stresses. As
it was pointed byDefinition
the one4.15.
Definition of founders of this scientific direction in mechanics of elastic
4.15.

materials Prager, this fact parallel with an impossibility of hypoelastic materials to be

deformed viscously (because an internal dissipation is absent in the hypoelastic materials)
ion 4.15.
justifies their inhering to the elastic materials.

The hyperelastic materials form the most studied part of the nonlinear theory of elasticity.

Definition 4.15. HYPERELASTIC MATERIAL is the elastic material for

THE 4.15.
Definition
which the specific internal energy (the potential) e is an analytical function of the
n 4.15.
strain tensor components referred to the natural state

e e  H lm  .(4.18)

Note 4.14. The most often used variant of formula (4.18) is based on the first
three invariants of the strain tensor (4.10). For the arbitrary hyperelastic body, the
potential can be written as the analytical function of three basic invariants of the
chosen strain tensor (Cauchy-Green, Almansi, Hencky or any other).

77
 Definition 4.15.
Definition 4.15. FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 1
Definition
Definition 4.15.
4.15.

In some modern models of nonlinear deformation of materials (for example, the

rubber-like materials), the pseudoinvariants are used additionally to the classical
first three invariants.

Note 4.15. The representation of potential depends on which kind of strain tensor
is used. For example,

e e  I1 , I 2 , I 3  for the Cauchy-Green strain tensor (4.19)


e e I1 , I2 , I3  for the Almansi strain tensor. (4.20)

The stresses in hyperelastic materials can be calculated by the formula, which is also used
in the linear theory of elasticity

V ij 1 2  ª¬ w wH ij    w wH ji º¼ e H lk  for the Cauchy-Green strain tensor,  (4.21)

tij 1 2  ª¬ w wH ij    w wH ji º¼ e H lk  for the Almansi strain tensor. (4.22)

The relations (4.18)-(4.22) generate different variants of representations of the potentials

and further the constitutive equations, what can be meant as the different models of the
description of nonlinear deformations within the framework of the nonlinear theory of
elasticity.

The nonlinear theory of elasticity has a rich history both experimental and theoretical
studies. The most difficulties in constructing the nonlinear models have been displayed in
the transition from the Hooke linear law to the more complicated nonlinear dependencies.
Some simplification can be reached for isotropic materials. This can be done, first of all,
because of the simplicity of the Hooke law and comparatively simple experiments on which
validity of the Hooke linear model can be tested.

Comments
Comment 4.1. The modern view on mechanics is that it operates with models of mechanical
motion. The well-known Truesdell’s sentence is that mechanics can be meant as the sequence
of models. Therefore, the notion of a model is worthy to separate comment. To definite
the model M, it is necessary to introduce first the primary notion of the real object O that
has to be studied from point of view of mechanics. Then the set of characteristics Ch by

78
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 1

which of the real object is described in terms of mechanics has to be chosen. And only
now, the model can be defined.

Definition 4.16. M can be called the model of the real object O , if it is constructed
for the imitation of the behavior of O by characteristics Ch (or some part of them).

Note 4.15. Because the model is constructed relative to the set of characteristics
and has the goal to study these characteristics, it is always simpler than the real
object. This corresponds to the general philosophical principle that the real object
is more reach than its model.

Mechanics works with the mathematical and physical models. The mathematical models study
the functions and equations. The physical models are divided into physically realized and
speculative models. The first kind of model deals with the physical experiments, whereas the
second one is understood as the transitional model for constructing the mathematical models.

The speculative models correspond usually to real physical laws. Sometimes, such models
have an essential resemblance with the real object. The big set of mechanical models can be
related just to such kind of models. For example, the model of a continuum or the model
of viscous fluid can be thought of this kind of model.

One and the same real object can have many nonequivalent models and can be described
by different mathematical models. For example, the composite material can be studied with
the use of continuous or discrete models, deterministic or stochastic models.
The chosen model can not be considered as something unchanging. The identification of
the model assumes the determination-improving of the parameters and the structure of the
model. Thus, the model can be rebuilt.

Comment 4.2. While being tailored to some new model in mechanics, it is necessary to
follow the gene- ral metaphysical recommendations and principles.
One of the most popular principles is the so-called Occam’s razor. The most known
formulation of this principle is as follows

Non sunt multiplicanda entia sine necessitate

Entities are not to be multiplied without necessity.

In modern science, Occam’s razor is usually understood as a general principle that states
that if there are several logically consistent explanations for a phenomenon that explain it
equally well, then, ceteris paribus, one should prefer the simplest of them. The content of
the principle can be reduced to the following:

79
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 1

it is not necessary to introduce new laws without the need to explain some new
phenomenon if this phenomenon can be fully explained by the old laws.

The well-known mechanician and philosopher Ernst Mach formulated the stronger version
of Occam’s razor into physics, which he called the principle of economy stating

Scientists must use the simplest means of arriving at their results

and exclude everything not perceived by the senses.

Wikipedia stated that the razor’s statement other things being equal, simpler explanations are
generally better than more complex ones is amenable to empirical testing. Another interpretation
of the razor’s statement would be that simpler hypotheses are generally better than the complex ones.

The procedure to test the former interpretation would compare the track records of simple
and comparatively complex explanations. If one accepts the first interpretation, the validity
of Occam’s razor as a tool would then have to be rejected if the more complex explanations
were more often correct than the less complex ones (while the converse would lend
support to its use). If the latter interpretation is accep- ted, the validity of Occam’s razor
as a tool could possibly be accepted if the simpler hypotheses led to correct conclusions
more often than not.

Occam’s razor forms the basis of methodological reductionism, also called the principle
of frugality, or the law of economy (lat. Lex parsimoniae). However, it is important to
remember that Occam’s razor is not an axiom, but a presumption, that is, it does not
prohibit more complex explanations in principle, but only recommends the procedure for
considering hypotheses.

Note 4.17. In philosophy, the term “razor” refers to a tool that helps to discard
(shave) improbable, implausible explanations. And since the shaving tool is a razor,
the same name has been transferred to the truth-establishing tool.
Note 4.18. There are the so-called anti-Occam’s razors. Below two of them are
shown.

Hanlon’s razor is a presumption according to which,

when searching for the causes of unpleasant events, human errors should be assumed
first of all, and only secondarily, someone’s conscious malicious actions. It is usually
expressed by the phrase: Never attribute to malice that which can be adequately
explained by stupidity.
Hitchens’ razor is an epistemological razor. It says that

80
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 1

the  burden of proof regarding the truthfulness of a claim lies with the one who
makes the claim; if this burden is not met, then the claim is unfounded, and its
opponents need not argue further in order to dismiss it.
Another variant is as follows
what can be asserted without evidence can also be dismissed without evidence.

Further reading
4.1. B lekhman, II, Myshkis, AD & Panovko, YaG 1976, Applied Mathematics. Subject,
Logics, Features of Appro aches, Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)
4.2. Fu, YB 2001, Nonlinear Elasticity: Theory and Applications. London Mathematical Society
Lecture Note Series,Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
4.3. Fung, YC 1965, Foundations of Solid Mechanics. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
4.4. Germain, P 1973, Cours de mécanique des milieux continus. Tome 1. Théorie générale
Masson et Cie, Editeurs,Paris. (in French)
4.5. Green, AE & Adkins, JE 1960, Large Elastic Deformations and Nonlinear Continuum
Mechanics. Oxford University Press, Clarendon Press, London.
4.6. Gurtin, ME 1981, An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics. Academic Press, New York.
4.7. Guz, AN 1986, Elastic Waves in Bodies with Initial (Residual) Stresses. In 2 vols. V.1.
General Problems. V.2. Regularities of Propagation. – Kyiv: Naukova Dumka. (In Russian).
4.8. Hanyga, A 1983, Mathematical Theory of Nonlinear Elasticity. Elis Horwood, California.
4.9. Holzapfel, GA 2000, Nonlinear Solid Mechanics: A Continuum Approach for Engineering.
Birkhauser, Zurich. 2nd ed. 2006, Wiley, Chichester.
4.10. Lur’e, AI 1990, Nonlinear Theory of Elasticity. North-Holland Series in Applied
Mathematics and Mechanics, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
4.11. Novozhilov, VV 1948, Osnovy Nielinieinoi Uprugosti (Foundations of nonlinear elasticity).
Gostekhizdat, Moscow. (In Russian)
4.12. Novozhilov, VV 1953, Foundations of the Nonlinear Theory of Elasticity. Graylock
Press, Rochester-New York.
4.13. Ogden, RW 1997, Non-Linear Elastic Deformations. Dover Civil and Mechanical
Engineering, Mineola.
4.14. Ratner, LW 2003, Non-Linear Theory of Elasticity and Optimal Design. Elsevier, London.
4.15. Rushchitsky, JJ 2014, Nonlinear Elastic Waves in Materials. Series “Foundations of
Engineering Mechanics”. Springer, Heidelberg.
4,16. Storakers, B & Larsson, P-L 1998, Introduktion till finit elasticitetteori. Hallfasthetslara,
KTH. (In Swedish)
4.17. Taber, LA 2004, Nonlinear Theory of Elasticity: Applications in Biomechanics. Birkhauser,
Zurich.
4.18. Truesdell, C 1972, A First Course in Rational Continuum Mechanics. The John Hopkins
University, Baltimore.

81
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 1

Questions
4.1. Th
 e displacement (4.2) is a primary notion in the description of deformation. But
further in constructing the theory of deformation, the new notion – the gradient
of displacement – is used, which is only the linear approximation of the change of
displacement. Comment the possible contradiction between using this linear approximation
and constructing the nonlinear models.
4.2. Write a list of the strain tensors that are utilized in the mechanics. Comment a difference
among them.
4.3. Find the mathematical definition of the tensor of arbitrary rank. Describe a difference
between covariant and contravariant indexes of tensors. Estimate in which volume the
tensor analysis is used in mechanics.
4.4. Find the definition of the conjugate pairs (ordered pairs) that consist mainly of one
stress and one strain tensors. Write the most used in mechanics ordered pairs.
4.5. Write three examples of the real materials which are described in some simple problems
of mechanics by generally elastic, hypoelastic, and hyperelastic models.
4.6. Thinking the Hooke law as one of the most important in mechanics of elastic materials,
read the history of this Hooke brilliant scientific invention.

82
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

5 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF
NONLINEAR THEORY OF
ELASTICITY. PART 2
Potentials (models) of hyperelastic materials: two-constant
Seth potential two-constant Neo-Hookean potential, two-
constant harmonic John potential, three-constant Signorini
potential, one-constant Treloar potential, one-constant
Bartenev-Khazano- vich potential, eleven-parameter
Dunayev potential, two-constant Gent potential, three-
5
constant Fung potential, two-constant Mooney potential,
two-constant Chernykh potential, three-constant Chernykh
potential, multi-constant Ogden potential, one-constant
+fun-ction Rivlin-Saunders potential, three-constant Blatz-
Ko potential, two simpler variants of Blatz-Ko potential
(Knowles-Sternberg and Lurie) multi-constant Rivlin-Saunders
polynomial potential, multi-constant Yeoh potential (reduced
polynomial Yeoh potential), one-function Valanis-Landel
potential, five-constant Mur-naghan potential, six variants
of Murnaghan potential for the complex media (Guz,
Mindlin-Eringen, Cosserat, pseudo-Cosserat, Le Roux,
models) of hyperelastic materials: two-constant Seth potential two-con-
ookean potential, two-constant harmonicRushchitsky), multi-constant
John potential, Arruda-Boyce
three-constant Si- potential.
ntial, one-constant Treloar potential, one-constant Bartenev-Khazano- vich
even-parameter Dunayev potential, two-constant Gent potential, three-con-
The nonlinear
otential, two-constant theory of two-constant
Mooney potential, elasticity hasChernykh
a rich history both experimental and theoretical
potential,
ant Chernykh potential,
studies. multi-constant Ogden potential,
The most difficulties one-constant
in constructing +fun- models have been displayed in
the nonlinear
Saunders potential, three-constant Blatz-Ko potential, two simpler variants
the transitionand
otential (Knowles-Sternberg from the multi-constant
Lurie) Hooke linear law to the more pol-
Rivlin-Saunders complicated nonlinear dependencies.
ential, multi-constant Yeoh potential reduced polynomial Yeoh potential),
Some simplification can be reached for isotropic materials. This can be done, first of all,
Valanis-Landel potential, five-constant Mur-naghan potential, six variants
because
n potential for the complexof the simplicity
media of the Hooke law
(Guz, Mindlin-Eringen, and comparatively
Cosserat, pseudo- simple experiments on which
validitymulti-constant
e Roux, Rushchitsky), of the HookeArruda-Boyce
linear modelpotential.
can be tested.

One of the simplest models of nonlinear deformation is the two-constant Seth

model.

Seth tailored in 1935 the two-constants model, in which the law of stress-strain dependence
conserves the classical form of Hooke law

tik OHkk G ik  2PHik .(5.1)

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

The relation (5.1) includes the Kirchhoff stress tensor on the left-hand side and the nonlinear
Almansi strain tensor on the right-hand side. The Lame elastic constants are also saved, but,
at that, the Cauchy-Green tensor for the small strains is changed on the Almansi tensor for
the large (finite) strains. The ela-stic moduli should be evaluated from experiments.

Note 5.1. The experiments play a crucial role in judgment on the area of applicability
of the mechanical models. The theory of elasticity worked out the special tool for
estimation of correspondence of theoretical model to the experimental observations.
This fragment of the theory of elasticity is called the universal deformations. In
the case of isotropy of mechanical properties, the universal deformations are the
uniform ones. The uniform deformation has a rigorous definition – the deformation
relative to the reference configuration is called the uni-form one, if the rectilinear
interval in the reference configuration form after this deformation the rectilinear
interval, too. This means that the gradient of displacement is one and the sa-me
in all points of the body and this explains the term “uniformity”.
Three types of these deformations exist – simple shear, simple tension, uniform
volume com-pression.

The universal deformation will be described more in detail in the following chapters. They
are mentioned here for the reason that the Seth model in the conditions of experiment on
the simple shear needs additionally an application of the normal forces. It takes also into
account the finiteness of the force ruptured the sample. Thus, this model has some essential
5
deviations from the classical theory of elasticity. And finally, the Seth model has not the
5
main property of hyperelasticity - the corresponding to this 5model potential can’t be written.

The most closed to the Seth model is the two-constant Neo-Hookean model.

It conserves the classical Lame elastic constants. In contrary to the Seth model, this model
has the elastic potential, which is defined as follows

C1  I1  3  D1  J  1 ; I1
2
W J 2/3 I1 ; J det ui ,k ;
,(5.2)
W  O1 , O2 , O3  C1 ª O1 O2 O3 
¬
2/3
O
1
2
 O22  O32   3º  D1  O1 O2 O3  1
¼
2

where the elastic constants of the model are linked with the classical elastic constants (shear
modulus and bulk modulus) by relations 2C1 P ; 2 D1 k and by Om the principal stretches
are denoted.

Note 5.2. This model uses the invariants in the representation of potential. Such
practice is continued, as a rule, in the all following nonlinear models.

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

Note 5.3. The constitutive equations are evaluated by formulas (3.21), (3.22) for
all kinds of hyperelastic materials. Therefore, knowledge of the potential means
a knowledge of constitutive equations. The equations of motion (equilibrium),
equations (3.19),(3.20) for the strain tensors and the depending on the form of
elastic potential constitutive equations form the close system of the equation of the
nonlinear theory of hyperelastic materials.

The corresponding to potential constitutive equations are usually written in terms of invariants

§1  2H11 2H12 2H13 ·

¨ ¸
V nm 2C1 J 5/3
ª¬ Bnm  1 / 3 I1G nm º¼  2 D1  J  1 G nm ; ^Bnm ` ¨ 2H12 1  2H 22 2H 23 ¸ ;(5.3)
¨ 2H 2H 23 1  2H 33 ¸¹
© 13

V nn 2C1 J 5/3  On  1 / 3 I1   2 D1  J  1.

It is considered that the Neo-Hookean model describes well the deformation of rubber under
the principal stretches up to 20% from the initial state. Since these extensions are linked
with the principal values of the strain tensor by relation Ok 1  2H k , then it is assumed
Ok  1 | H kk approximately with exactness to d 1% in the cases of universal deformations for
Neo-Hookean model, what is true in the case of linear theory too. Because the extensions
in the linear theory are two orders less, then this observation testifies the fact that the Neo-
Hookean model extends essentially the area of allowable values of strains as compared with
the Hookean model.

Note 5.4. It is in place to note that the simpler variant of representing the potential
through invariants (the potential for a linear elastic body with elastic Lame modulus
O , P ) is quadratic relative to components of the linear Green strain tensor

W (H ) 1 2  O > I1 (H )@2  P I 2 (H ). (5.4)

John proposed to take into account in equation (5.4) the invariants of the nonlinear Green
tensor. Then the potential becomes to be suitable for the description of nonlinear strains.
This potential was used by John starting with 1960 for various problems of mechanics.
When the John potential being used for plane problems of elasticity, then the problems of
the theory of the harmonic functions are arisen.

Therefore, sometimes this potential is called the harmonic John potential.

The deficiency in the absence of the corresponding potential of the Seth model is
corrected in the three-constant Signorini model.

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 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2
5
5 5

The Signorini model gives the same link between the stress tensor and Almansi strain
tensor, too. But the constructed for the Signorini
5
5
model internal energy is such that the
continuum is hyperelastic. 5For the case, when the reference configuration is natural, the
Signorini potential is written as

­ 1
W  Hik 
¯ 2
2
`
G g ®cI 2 (H )   O  P   c 2    I1 (H )    P   c 2    I  I1 (H )    P   c 2   ,(5.5)

where H is the Almansi strain tensor, O , P ,c are the physical constants of the Signorini
5
model which5 are chosen in the way that the corresponding constitutive equation
should differ5as little as possible from the Hooke law.

The constitutive equations follow from (5.5) and have the form

ª § c· 2º
«O I1 (H )  cI 2 (H )  1 2  ¨ O  P  2 ¸  I1 (H )  » G ik  2 ª¬ P   O  P   c 1   I1 (H )  º¼ Hik  2c  Hik  .(5.6)
2
tik
¬ © ¹ ¼

Sometimes the third constant c is neglected. Then the quasi-linear model with two
moduli O , P ,cis obtained

tik ªO I (H )  1 2  O  P  I (H ) 2 º G  2 ª P   O  P  I (H ) º H . (5.7)

¬ 1 1 ¼ ik ¬ 1 ¼ ik

Historical comment. The Signorini potential was proposed in 40ies for incompressible
and compressible materials. The main part of last Signorini publications in 50ies
was devoted to the incompressible case and comparison this potential with other
contemporary potentials developed by different no Italian scientists.
At that, the Signorini potential is used as the starting one, with which other
potentials are compared. It is needed to stress that the area of application of this
set of potentials is the rubber-like materials.

Note 5.5. Elastic materials are divided on compressible and incompressible by the
criterion of changing the volume of the elastic body. The compressible material
admits the change of the initial volume, whereas the incompressible one – not. This
means that the third invariant of the strain tensor is constant for the incompressible
material I 3 1 and cannot be used in formulations of the potentials. The models
of finite (nonlinear) deformations of elastic materials are developed mainly for the
rubber-like materials (rubber, tissue, polymers with very long molecules).

The starting Signorini potential is written in the form that uses the first two invariants

2W  I1 , I 2  h2  I1  3  h1  I 2  3  h3  I 2  3 ,(5.8)
2

86
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

where hk  k 1, 2,3 are the elastic constants.

The simplest potential from the set of potentials for incompressible materials
 O1 O2 O3 1 is the proposed in 1943 for the deformations of rubbers one-constant
Treloar potential.

W  I1 , I 2  1 2  h2  I1  3 .(5.9)

W  O1 , O2 , O3  C1  O12  O22  O32  3 .

It can be easy seen that the Treloar potential (5.9) is a partial case of the Neo-Hookean
potential (5.2) when 5O1 O2 O3  1 0 , that is when the material is incompressible.
5 5

Some scientists link the Treloar potential with deformations of elastomers, which are considered
as the system of interconnected long molecular chains. They show results of the statistical
5
approach to deformation of elastomers and propose the corresponding potential in the form

W  O1 , O2 , O3  1 2  NkT  O12  O22  O32  3 ,(5.10)

5

where N is number of chains in the unit volume, k is the Boltzman constant, T is the
absolute temperature. Thus, the statistical approach uses three physical parameters.

The representation (5.10) is treated as a variant of the Treloar potential

(or the Neo-Hookean potential for incompressible bodies).

The corresponding to (5.10) constitutive equations are as follows

V nm 2C1 J 5/3 ª¬ Bnm  1 / 3 I1G nm º¼ ; V nn 2C1 J 5/3 ª¬On  1 / 3 I1 º¼ .(5.11)

The mentioned above statistical approach is popular and generates a row of new elastic
potentials, two of which are shown below.

The proposed in 1960 Bartenev-Khazanovich potential

(one-constant from point of view of mechanics of materials and
four-parameter from point of view of statistical approach)
is presented as follows

W  O1 , O2 , O3   3 2  kTeo m1  O1  O2  O3  3 ,(5.12)

87
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

where k is the Boltzman constant, T is the absolute temperature, eo is the mean value of
relative extension of chains in the non-deformed state, m is the volume of the free linked
segment of chains. In this way, the statistical approach uses four physical parameters.

In terms of mechanics, the potential (5.12) has the form

W  O1 , O2 , O3  2 P  O1  O2  O3  3 ,(5.13)
5

The more complicate expression of the potential for the deformation of elastomers is proposed
in 1990 by Dunayev and is called
the eleven-parameter Dunayev potential
3 3
W  O1 , O2 , O3  ¦¦^1 2  KkT  O
i n
i
2
`
 3  DkT ª¬OiD nM n  Oi   3º¼  1 2  BkT ª¬D nM n  Oi   3º¼ (5.14)

where k is the Boltzman constant, T is the absolute temperature, Mn  Oi  are the functions
depending on the rate of deformation and types of supramolecular structure of elastomer,
B, K , D,D n are linked with the statistical characteristics of the spatial net of chains. In this
way, the statistical approach uses eleven physical parameters.

The close to the Treloar potential is the two-constant Gent elastic potential that is
proposed in 1996 for the soft tissues as incompressible materials.

Note 5.6. The Wikipedia notes that, in anatomy, the soft tissue includes the tissues that
connect,support, or surround other structures and organs of the body, not being hard
tissue such as bone. Soft tissue includes tendons, ligaments, fascia, skin, fibrous tissues, fat,
and synovial membranes (which are connective tissue), and muscles, nerves, and blood
vessels (which 5 are not connective tissue).
55

The expression for the Gent elastic potential is as follows

P Jm § O 2  O22  O32  3 ·
W  O1 , O2 , O3   ln ¨1  1 ¸ ,(5.15)
2 © Jm ¹

where P and J m are the positive elastic constants (shear modulus and stiffening
parameter, respectively); the principal extensions correspond to the Cauchy-Green
strain tensor.

The next potential is close to the prior one by the attribute that it is also proposed for the
soft tissues.

It is proposed by Y.-C. Fung in 1993 and is called the three-constant Fung potential

88
 5
5
5
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

 º»¼ ,(5.16)
5
1ª c  O 2  O 2  O 2 3
W  O1 , O2 , O3  « a  O12  O22  O32  3  b e 1 2 3  1
2¬
5
5
where a, b and c are the elastic constants;
5
the principal extensions corresponds to
the Cauchy-Green
5 strain tensor.

Let us return from the soft tissues to the wider class of rubber-like materials and
consider a row of potentials being compared by Signorini with (5.5),
the first of which has to be mentioned as the proposed in 1940
two-constant Mooney potential.

It is applied to the incompressible materials and therefore first two only invariants
are presented in the potential

2W  I1 , I 2  h2  I1  3  h1  I52  3 ,(5.17)

W  I1 , I 2  1 4  P ª¬1  E  I1  3  1  E  I 2  3º¼ ,

W  O1 , O2 , O3  1 4  P ª¬1  E   O12  O22  O32  3  1  E   O12  O22  O32  3º¼ .

Here, P is the shear modulus, h1 , h2 , E are the new elastic constants.

The very close to the Mooney potential is proposed in 1979

two-constant Chernykh potential.

This potential is written through the principal stretches as follows

W  O1 , O2 , O3  P ª¬1  E   O1  O2  O3  3  1  E   O11  O21  O31  3 º¼ . (5.18)

It is worthy to show here the proposed in 1981 three-constant Chernykh potential,

where the third parameter n 1, 2,3,... is introduced

W  O1 , O2 , O3  P n 2 ª¬1  E   O1n  O2n  O3n  3  1  E   O1 n  O2 n  O3 n  3 º¼ .(5.19)

The proposed in 1972 well-known many-constant Ogden potential

introduces new parameter N 1, 2,3,...
N
W  O1 , O2 , O3  ¦ P D OD
n 1
n
1
n 1
n

 O2D n  O3D n  3 .(5.20)

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

This potential is simplified in the case of incompressible materials

N
W  O1 , O2  ¦ P D OD
n 1
n
1
n 1
n

 O2D n  O1D n O2D n  3 .(5.21)

N
The shear modulus of the elastic body is evaluated by the formula 2P ¦P D
n 1
n
1
n .
55

The Ogden potential is tailored to describe the for different classes of materials – rubbers,
polymers, tissues. It has the sufficiently general structure and for some concrete values of
the elastic parameters is transformed into the simpler potentials.

For example, in 5the case of incompressible materials  O1 O2 O3 1 ,

the Neo-Hookean potential corresponds5 to values N 5 1, D 2 and
the Mooney potential corresponds to values N 2, D1 2, D 3 2 .
5
Return once again to the Signorini studies 5of hyperelastic materials. Signorini fixed
that in pub-lications of 1949 Rivlin utilized the Mooney potential. But in the
5
publication of 1951 Rivlin and Saunders proposed the most general potential for
the incompressible materials.

This potential is known as the Rivlin-Saunders potential.

It includes one elastic constant and the arbitrary function, which have to be matched with
experimental observations

2W  I1 , I 2  h2  I1  3  \  I 2  3 ,(5.22)

where \ is the function of the 2nd invariant of strain tensor  I 2  3.

Note 5.7. The Signorini potential (5.5) corresponds to the particular case of
function \

h1  I 2  3  h3  I 2  3 .
2
\

The three-constant Mooney-Rivlin model

is one of the most known in the nonlinear theory of elasticity.

The elastic potential in this model is defined as follows

C10  I1  3  C01  I 2  3  D1  J  1 ; I 2
2
W J 4/3 I 2 ;

W  O1 , O2 , O3  C10 ª O1 O2 O3 
¬
2/3
O
1
2
 O22  O32   3º 
¼ (5.23)
 C01 ª O1 O2 O3 
¬
4/3
O O
2 2
1 2  O12 O32  O22 O32   3º  D1  O1 O2 O3  1
¼
2

90
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

The elastic constants of the model are linked with the classical constants by relations

2(C10  C01 ) P ; 2 D1 k.

The relations “stresses-invariants” and “stresses-principal stretches”

(the kinds of constitutive equations) are determined by formulas

V 2 J 5/3  C10  C01 J 2/3 I1  B 2 J 7/3C01 BB ª¬ 2 D1  J  1   2 3 J 5/3  C10 I1  2C01 J 2/3 I 2  º¼ 1(5.24)

wW
2C10  O1 O2 O3  ¬Ok  1 3  O1  O2  O3  ¼  2C01  O1 O2 O3  ¬Ok  On  Om  
5/3 7/3
V kk Ok ª 2 2 2 2
º ª 2 2 2

wOk

  2 / 3 Ok  O12 O22  O12 O32  O22 O32  º¼  D1  O1O2 O3  1 (5.25)

Here the indexes knm form the cyclic permutation from numbers 123.

The Mooney-Rivlin model is really the classical one.

This can be seen from Comment 1 at the end of chapter.

One more example of three-constant potential is the potential proposed in 1962 by Blatz
5
and Ko. 5
It is termed as the three-constant Blatz-Ko potential

W  I1 , I 2 , I 3  1 2  PE ª¬ I1  D 1  I 3D  1  3º¼  1 2  P 1  E  ª¬ I 2 I 31  D 1  I 3D  1  3º¼ (5.26)

5
5
where D  O 2P  Q 1  2Q   . 5

As the most of potentials, this potential is tailored for the rubber-like materials, and it
described therefore the large strains.

Note 5.8. When the experimental data are obtained for the wide spectrum of strains
(from very small to the large) and some nonlinear model describes well the interval
of large strains, this does not mean that the small strains are described well also.

A simplified variant of potential (5.26) that corresponds to the choice of two parameters
E 0, Q 1 4  o D 1 2  was proposed in 1975 by Knowles and Sternberg

W  I 2 , I3  1 2  P ª¬ I 2 I 31  2 I 3  5º¼ .(5.27)

Lurie proposed one more simplified variant of (5.26), in which one only parameter E 0
is fixed

91
 5
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
5 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 5 5 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2
5

W  I1 , I 3  1 2  P ª¬ I1  D 1  I 3D  1  3º¼ .(5.28)

Next kinds after the quadratic potentials are the kinds of cubic and more high power of
summands potentials. The good example of such potentials is the shown above Ogden
potential that has the power N.

Another variant of the potential with the power N is the proposed in 1951
multi-constant polynomial Rivlin-Saunders potential.

In the case of compressible materials, it has the form

N N K

¦¦ C  I  3  I 2  3  ¦ Dk  J  1 (5.29)
n m
W  I1 , I 2 , I 3 
2k
nm 1
n 1m 1 k 1

and includes N 2  1  K elastic constants (because C00 0 ).

In the case of incompressible materials, it has the form

N N

¦¦ C  I  3  I 2  3 (5.30)
n m
W nm 1
n 1m 1

and includes N 2  1 elastic constants.

Note 5.9. Let us recall here the formulas for the used above invariants

I1 J 2/3 I1 , I 2 J 4/3 I 2 , J det ui ,k , I1 O12  O22  O32 , I 2 O12 O22  O12 O32  O22 O32 .

Note 5.10. The Mooney-Rivlin potential (4.13) corresponds to the case N 1.

Also, the Neo-Hookean potential follows from (4.29).

The simplest cubic potential is proposed in1993 by Yeoh. It can be named as

the multi-constant Yeoh potential

and includes 2N elastic constants and depends on two invariants

N N

¦M I  3  ¦ K n1  J  1
n
W  I1 , I 3 
2n
n0 1 (5.31)
n 1 n 1

The elastic constants M 10 , K11 corresponds to the classical elastic constants from the
Hookean potential (shear and bulk moduli) M 10 1 2  P , K11 1 2  k .

The variant of potential (5.31) for the incompressible materials  J 1 is as follows

92
 5
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
5
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

¦M I  3 (5.32)
n
W  I1  n0 1
n 1
5
5
In the
5 case N 3, the formula (5.32) includes three only elastic constants and
5
corresponds to the pioneer Yeoh publication.
The case N 1 corresponds to the Neo-Hookean potential for incompressible materials.
5
This potential can be thought as the simpler variant of the multi-constant polynomial Rivlin-
5
Saunders potential and includes three 5elastic constants. At present, it is called
the three-constant Yeoh potential or reduced polynomial Yeoh potential.

The well-known in the mechanics of rubber is 5

the one-function Valanis-Landel potential

3
W  O1 , O2 , O3  ¦ w  O  ,(5.33)
k 1
k

where w is the function that has to be determined from experiment.

The stresses in the incompressible material are evaluated by the formula

V kk Ok wc  Ok   p .(5.34)

The most developed variant of the cubic potentials was firstly proposed by Murnaghan in
1944 for the Cauchy-Green strain tensor H ik .

At present, it is well-known as
5 the five-constant Murnaghan potential

W (H ik ) 1 2  O (H mm )2  P (H ik )2  1 3 AH ik H imH km  B(H ik )2 H mm  1 3 C (H mm )3 (5.35)

or through the first algebraic invariants I k of the tensor H ik

W ( I1 , I 2 , I 3 ) 1 2  O I12  P I 2  1 3 AI3  BI1I 2  1 3 CI13 .(5.36)

Here O , P ,care the Lame elastic constants (constants of the second order),
A, B, C are the Murnaghan elastic constants (constants of the third order).

Note 5.11. The terms “second order” and “third order” corresponds to presence in
(5.35) the Lame elastic constants in the second order summands and the Murnaghan
elastic constants in the third order summands.

Three representations of the Murnaghan potential exist,

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 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

which are distinguishing from (4.36) and using instead A, B, C different notations

   1      l  2m  3
W ( I1 , I 2 , I 3 )  O  2P  I12  2P I 2  nI 3  2mI1I 2  I1 ,
2 3
1 2 4 1
W ( I1 , I 2 , I 3 ) O I1  P I 2  Q 3 I 3  Q 2 I1 I 2  Q 1 I13 ,
2 3 6
1 2 c a 3
W ( I1 , I 2 , I 3 ) O I1  P I 2  I 3  bI1 I 2  I1 .
2 3 3


5 The main invariants I k are linked with the algebraic ones I k by the formulas

  
I1 I1 , I 2 1 2   I12  I 2  , I3 1 6   I13  3I1I 2  2 I 3  .(5.37)

The Murnaghan potential can be meant as the classical one in the nonlinear theory of
elasticity, it describes a large class of industrial materials, is widely used and is thoroughly
commented in the fundamental books on nonlinear solid mechanics.
5
It seems to be the place to show a few 5different modifications of Murnaghan potential
from different theories of elastic deformations. Six modifications can be listed here.

M1. Guz’s modification of Murnaghan potential

This model of deformation process can be referred to the classical theory of elasticity. The
new potential has the form

W ( I1 , I 2 , I 3 ) 1 2  KiklmH ik H lm   c 3 I3  bI1I 2   a 3 I13. (5.38)

Here, H ik is the Green strain tensor, Kiklm is the fourth rank tensor of the second order elastic
constants.
This potential consists of two different nonlinear parts - quadratic and cubic. According to
the author, the quadratic part characterizes anisotropy of material properties in the unloaded
state of a body and corresponds to the potential of a linearly elastic anisotropic body. The
cubic part corresponds to isotropic body.
The Guz’s potential was used for studying the regularities of wave propagation in poly-
crystalline bodies having weak anisotropy of properties in a natural state (so-called quasi-
isotropic bodies).

M2. Mindlin-Eringen’s modification of Murnaghan potential

This modification forms the basis for nonlinear micromorphic theory proposed by Mindlin
and Eringen and goes out the framework of classical elasticity.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

G

The micromorphic medium is described kinematically by the macrodisplacements vector u
and the 2nd rank asymmetric tensor of microdisplacements <. A process of deformation is
defined by three independent tensors –

tensor of macrostrains H ik 1 2   ui ,k  uk ,i  um,ium,k  ,(5.39)

tensor of relative distortions J ik ui ,k  < ik  um,k < mk ,(5.40)

tensor of macrodistortions N ikl < ik ,l  um,k < mk ,l .(5.41)

This theory is built similarly to the classical theory of hyperelasticity. Therefore, the internal
energy is assumed to be the analytical function of tensors (5.39)-(5.41) and so on.

The most important for the next consideration is that the micromorphic continuum turned
out the direct generalization of three well-known microstructural continua:

Cosserat continuum, Cosserat pseudo-continuum, and Le Roux gradient continuum.

M3. Cosserat’s modification of Murnaghan potential

In the Cosserat theory of asymmetric elasticity, some simplifications in the kinematic picture
(4.39)-(4.41) should be done. Only six independent parameters are used here: the vector
G
G

of macrodisplacements u and the vector of macrorotations < . Then two tensors only define
a process of deformation

J ik ui ,k  ikm  Rm  < m  , Rm 1 2  ikm ui,k ,(5.42)

N ikm  ikm < k ,m ,(5.43)

where mikis the conventional Levi-Civita tensor.

The internal energy is assumed as the function of two tensors:
the asymmetric tensor of relative distortion J ik
and the tensor of bending-torsion * km < k ,m.

The next form of the internal energy is used in the Cosserat theory and can be meant as
some modification of the classical Murnaghan potential

95
 5
55 5
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
5 5
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

W J , *  1 2  P  D  J ik J ik  1 2  P  D  J ik J ki  O 2 J kk 
2

2
 1 2  O  H  *ik *ik  1 2  O  H  *ik * ki   E 2   * kk  
3
 Q 1 6   J kk   1 2 Q 2  G1  J ik J ik J kk  1 2 Q 2  G1  J ik J kiJ kk  1 3  2Q 3  G 2  J ik J kmJ mi 
2
 1 3  2Q 3  G 2  J ik J kmJ im  V 1  * kk  J mm  V 2*ik * kiJ mm  V 3*ik *ik J mm .  (5.44)
5 5
Here O , P ,care the Lame elastic constants, Q 1 ,Q 2 ,Q 3 are the Murnaghan elastic5 constants,
D , E , J .H are the linear constants of a micropolar medium,
G1 , G 2 ,V 1 ,V 2 ,V 3 are the nonlinear constants of a micropolar medium.

Historical sketch. The first important step from the classical theory of elasticity to
the theory of asymmetric elasticity has been taken by Voigt, which proposed to use
the tensor of couple stres- ses in addition to the conventional tensor of force stresses.
The general theory of asymmetric elasticity has been developed about more than
one hundred years ago by brothers Cosserat. It is wide adopted that this theory was
anew discovered in 1960 by Truesdell and Toupin. A lot of high quality and well-
known mechanicians have been involved in studies of asymmetric elasti- city that
and the next decades. Most of the problems were solved and well commented. For
exa mple, in Ukraine the well-known publications of Savin and his colleagues can
be noted.
5 Analogously, in Italy the high level publications of Grioli, Ferrarese and
others should be mentioned. It can be noted also many efforts to the development
of asymmetric elasticity have been made by Polish scientists (Nowacki, Wozniak).

M.4. Modification of Murnaghan potential in the Cosserat pseudo-continuum

The transition to Cosserat pseudo-continuum assumes a reduction of some independent

kinematic quantities - the classical vector of macrodisplacements is only saved. The rotation in
this continuum is restri- cted. Therefore, the vectors of macro-rotations and micro-rotations
are identical Rm < m 1 2  mik ui ,k . But the pseudo-continuum safes the couple stresses and
asymmetry of force stresses. All physical cons- tants of the Cosserat continuum are saved also.
G

The internal energy is written using the vector u only

W  H ik , *ik  1 2  P  D  H ik H ik  1 2  P  D  H ik H ki   O 2 H kk 
2

 1 2  O  H  *ik *ik  1 2  O  H  *ik * ki   E 2  * kk  
2

3
 Q 1 6   H kk   1 2 Q 2  G1  H ik H ik H kk  1 2 Q 2  G1  H ik H kiH kk  1 3  2Q 3  G 2  H ik H kmH mi 
2
 1 3  2Q 3  G 2  H ik H kmH im  V 1  * kk  H mm  V 2*ik * kiH mm  V 3*ik *ik H mm . (5.45)

The macro-strain tensor H ik is meant as nonlinear one, the macro-rotation tensor should be
assumed nonlinear, too. But traditionally the macro-rotation tensor is used in the linear
form. Therefore, the bending-torsion tensor is written as *ik 1 2  kmn um,ni .

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

M5. Modification of Murnaghan potential in the Le Roux gradient theory

The next modification is associated with Le Roux variant of the moment theory of elasticity.
Only two tensors define the deformations picture:

the macrostrains tensor H ik 1 2   ui,k  uk ,i  um,ium,k  ,

the microdistortion tensor N ikm ui ,km .

The proposed new potential modification in the Le Roux’s approach is slightly similar to
the Guz’s modification because it consists in separating the linear part and nonlinear part
5
of the deformation process. 5

Coupling 5the process is reflected only in the linear part, which can be explained as
the influence of coupling is very weak. So, the Le Roux’s potential can be written
in the form 5
5

5 2
W  H ik , N ikm  PH ik H ik  1 2  O  H ii   2P M 2 N ikmN ikm  QN
 ikmN kim  
5

 1 3 AH ik H mk H im  BH ik H kiH mm  1 3 C  H mm  
3 (5.46)
4 2 2
 D  H mm   GH ik H mk H miH nn  H H ik H ki  H nn   J  H ik H ki  .

Here O , P ,care Lame elastic constants, M ,Q are new microstructural constants,
are elastic microstructural constants of higher orders.

M6. Modification of Murnaghan potential in the elastic mixture theory

Usually, two modifications of Murnaghan potential are used in the microstructural theory
of mixtures. This theory can be treated as the direct generalization of the classical theory
of elasticity in the case of multi-continuum media. The main hypothesis is that a material
is modeled by the set of interacting and interpenetrating continua.

Consider further the two-phase (two-component) elastic mixtures. Then the kinematic picture
G
of a deformation process is described using two partial displacements vectors u (D ) D 1, 2.
The mixture in whole and its written for the mixture as whole internal energy (potential)
are described using two different kind kinematic parameters - partial strain tensors H ik( D ) and
relative displacements vector vG uG (1)  uG (2) (but other variants can be used; as an example can
be pointed the Tiersten variant)

G
W W  H ik(1) , H ik(2) , v  (5.47)

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

(as a rule, the Latin indexes take values 1;2;3 and Greek indexes – 1;2).
The first modification of Murnaghan potential follows from (5.47), when a cross-
influence is taken into account both in quadratic nonlinear and in cubic nonlinear
parts of the potential (that is, in the linear and quadratic nonlinear parts of
constitutive equations)

    O H D H G 
2 2
W (H ik(1) , H ik(2) , vk ) PD H ik(D )  2 P3H ik(D )H ik(G )  1 2  OD H mm
(D ) ( ) ( )
3 mm mm

 1 3 AD H D H D H D  BD H D  H D   1 3 CD  H D  
( ) ( ) ( )
ik im km
( )
mm
( ) 2
ik
( ) 3
mm

 1 3 A H D H G H G  2 B H G H G H D  C H D  H G   E (v )  1 3 E c(v ) .(5.48)
( ) ( ) ( )
3 ik im km
( ) ( ) ( )
3 mm ik ik
( )
3 mm
( ) 2
mm k
2
k
3

This potential includes seven elastic constants Ok , Pk , E of the second order

and ten elastic constants Ak , Bk , Ck , E c of the third order.

The second mixture modification of Murnaghan potential is simpler than the modification
(5.48):
the cross-influence is taken into account in the quadratic nonlinear parts of the
potential and is neglected in the cubic nonlinear ones (that is, it is taken into
account in the linear part of constitutive equations and is neglected in the quadratic
nonlinear one)

    O H D H G 
2 2
W (H ik(1) , H ik(2) , vk ) PD H ik(D )  2 P3H ik(D )H ik(G )  1 2  OD H mm
(D ) ( ) ( )
3 mm mm
(5.49)
 1 3 AD H ik(D )H im
(D ) (D )
H km  BD H D  H D   1 3 CD  H D   E (v )  E c(v )
( )
mm
( ) 2
ik
( ) 3
mm k
2
k
3

This potential includes seven elastic constants Ok , Pk , E of the second order

and seven elastic constants AD , BD , CD , E c of the third order.

A shown above plenty of potentials is characteristic

for the nonlinear theory of elasticity
and differs this theory from the linear one
where one potential is only used.

At the end, let us repeat the Note that seems important.

Note 5.12. The constitutive equations are evaluated by formulas (3.21),(3.22) for
all kinds of hyperelastic potentials. Therefore, knowledge of the potential means
a knowledge of constitutive equations. The equations of motion (equilibrium),
equations (3.19),(3.20) for the strain tensors, and the depending on the form of
elastic potential constitutive equations form the close system of the equations of
the nonlinear theory of hyperelastic materials.

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

Comments
Comment 5.1. An effect of nonlinear dependence of decreasing the shear stresses when the
torsion angle (deformation) to the level of non-small values is called “the Poynting effect”
owing to Poynting pub-li-cation of 1909, where this effect was described. At that, Poynting
does not mentioned the results of Coloumb (1784), Wertheim (1857), Kelvin (1865),
Bauschinger (1881), Tomlinson (1883), where this effect was also described in one way or
another. But only within the framework of the nonlinear theory of elasticity that admits the
finite elastic deformations, that was developed in 20 century, this effect was satisfactorily
explained by Rivlin in 1951. He used the model of nonlinear elastic deformation which
now is termed “the Mooney-Rivlin model”.

Comment 5.2. The most part of publications on hyperelastic materials realize an approach
based on postulation of the elastic potential (explicit nonlinear dependence of internal energy)
on the nonlinear strain tensors (their invariants or the corresponding principal stretches) that
admits the large strains. Practically all the variants of potentials are tailored with use of the
speculative considerations, can be associated with theoretical modeling of phenomenological
character and assume ultima analysi the next determination of the presenting in the potentials
physical constants by the ways, which are not linked with phenomenological considerations
(mainly, by the experimental ways).

In studies of hyperelastic materials, the Murnaghan potential is used most often. This can be
explained partially by that presence in this potential of the third algebraic invariant permits
to take into account a row of significant nonlinear effects. Also, it became clear with time
that both Murnaghan and his successors thought (being the mechanicians) very important
the experiments on determination of the presented in the potential elastic constants (two
Lame constants and three Murnaghan constants). Therefo- re. to date these constants are
known for many tens of engineering materials.

But not all authors of potentials had so luck as Murnaghan. This can be associated with the
adopted in the theoretical studies practice of speculative analysis and access to experiment at
the final stage of studying the potential. Seeming- ly, not all the initiators of potential were
realized an importance of determination of physical constants. It is known the sentence of
Signorini about the time of starting with experiments – “the later, the better”.

May be, therefore Signorini has been not left an apparent trace of analysis of new constant
from the potential named afterwards the Signorini potential. Despite of some advantage of
its own potential (the potential includes one only constant of the third order, whereas, for
example, the Murnaghan potential includes three constants of the third order), Signorini lost
the struggle against Murnaghan for sympathy of next investigators. The well-known fact of
theoretical physics that for the equal possibilities to describe some physical phenomenon, the

99
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

advantage has the approach, which is using the less number of physical constants, Signorini
has been not used. Later after many tens years of oblivion, the Signorini potential is used
to describe the nonlinear waves in elastic materials.

Further reading
5.1. A rruda, EM & Boyce, MC 2000, Constitutive models of rubber elasticity: a review.
Rubber Chemistry and Technology 72, 504–523
5.2. Arruda, EM & Boyce, MC 1993, A three-dimensional constitutive model for the large
stretch behavior of rub ber elastic materials. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 41, 389–412.
5.3. Bartenev, GM & Khazanovich, TN 1960, On the law of high-elastic deformations of
the net polymers. High-molecular Compaunds, 2, N1, 20-28.
5.4. Blatz, PJ & Ko, WL 1962, Application of finite elastic theory to the deformation of
rubber materials. Trans. Soc. Rheology, 7, N6, 223-251.
5.5. Chernykh, KF & Litvinenkova, ZN 1988, Theory of large elastic deformations. Leningrad
University Press, Leningrad. (In Russian)
5.6. Dynayev, IM 1975, Generalized elastic potential for analysis of structures from resilient
polymers. Izvestiya vuzov. Stroitelstvo i arkhitektura, N2, 52-59. (In Russian)
5.7. Fu, YB 2001, Nonlinear Elasticity: Theory and Applications. London Mathematical Society
Lecture Note Series, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
5.8. Fung, YC 1993, Biomechanics. Mechanical Properties of Living Tissues. Springer, New York.
5.9. Gent, AN 1996, A new constitutive relation for rubber, Rubber Chemistry and Technology,
69, N1, 59-61.
5.10. Green, AE & Adkins, JE 1960, Large Elastic Deformations and Nonlinear Continuum
Mechanics. Oxford University Press, Clarendon Press, London.
5.11. Guz, AN 1986, Elastic Waves in Bodies with Initial (Residual) Stresses. In 2 vols. V.1.
General Problems. V.2. Regularities of Propagation. – Kyiv: Naukova Dumka. (In Russian).
5.12. Hanyga, A 1983, Mathematical Theory of Nonlinear Elasticity. Elis Horwood, California.
5.13. Holzapfel, GA 2000, Nonlinear Solid Mechanics: A Continuum Approach for Engineering.
Birkhauser, Zurich.
5.14. John, F. 1960, Plane strain problems for a perfectly elastic material of harmonic type.
Comms. Pure Appl. Math. 13, N2, 239-296.
5.15. Kappus, R 1939, Zur Elastizitattheorie endlicher Verschiebungen. ZAMM,19,271-
285, 344-361.
5.16.  Lur’e, AI 1990, Nonlinear Theory of Elasticity. North-Holland Series in Applied
Mathematics and Mechanics, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
5.17. Mooney, M 1940, A theory of large elastic deformation. J. Appl. Phys. 11, 582–596.
5.18. Murnaghan, FD 1951,1967, Finite Deformation in an Elastic Solid. John Wiley, New
York.

100
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF NONLINEAR
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

5.19. Novozhilov, VV 1948, Osnovy nielinieinoi uprugosti (Foundations of nonlinear elasticity).

Gostekhizdat, Moscow. (In Russian)
5.20. Novozhilov, VV 1953, Foundations of the nonlinear theory of elasticity. Graylock Press,
Rochester, New York.
5.21. Ogden, RW 1972, Large deformation isotropic elasticity—on the correlation of theory
and experiment for incompressible rubberlike solids. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A Math. Phys.
Sci. A326, N1567, 565–584.
5.22. Ogden, RW 1997, Non-Linear Elastic Deformations. Dover Civil and Mechanical
Engineering, Mineola.
5.23. Rivlin, RS 1948, Some applications of the elasticity theory to rubber engineering.
Collected papers of R.S. Rivlin. in 2 vols. 1997, Springer, Berlin.
5.24. Rivlin, RS 1948, Large elastic deformations of isotropic materials. IV. Further
developments of the general theory. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. A241, 379-397.
5.25. Rivlin, RS 1949, Large elastic deformations of isotropic materials. V. The problem of
flexure. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. A Math. Phys. R. Soc. A195, 463-473.
5.26. Rivlin, RS 1949, Large elastic deformations of isotropic materials. VI. Further results
in the theory of torsion, shear and flexure. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A242, 173–195.
5.27. Rivlin, RS & Saunders, DW 1951, Large elastic deformations of isotropic materials.
VII. Experiments on the deformation of rubber. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. A 243, 865,
251–288.
5.28. Rivlin, RS 1953, The solution of problems in second order elasticity theory. Arch.
Rat. Mech. Anal. 2, 53-81.
5.29. Rushchitsky, JJ 2014, Nonlinear Elastic Waves in Materials. Series “Foundations of
Engineering Mechanics”. Springer, Heidelberg.
5.30. Seth, BR 1935, Finite strain in elastic problems. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, A234,
231-264.
5.31. Signorini, A 1943, Transformazioni termoelastiche finite. Annali di Matematica Pura
ed Applicata, Serie IV, 22, 33-143.
5.32. Signorini, A 1949, Transformazioni termoelastiche finite. Annali di Matematica Pura
ed Applicata, Serie IV. 30,1-72.
5.33. Signorini, A 1955, Transformazioni termoelastiche finite. Solidi Incomprimibili. A
Mauro Picone nel suo 70 ane compleano. Annali di Matematica Pura ed Applicata,
Serie IV, 39, 147-201.
5.34. Signorini, A 1959, Questioni di elasticite non linearizzata. Edizioni Cremonese, Roma.
5.35. Signorini, A 1959, Questioni di elasticite non linearizzata e semilinearizzata. Rendiconti
di Matematica 18 (1-2), 95-139.
5.36. Signorini, A 1960, Transformazioni termoelastiche finite. Solidi Vincolati. A Giovanni
Sansone nel suo 70 ane compleano. Annali di Matematica Pura ed Applicata, Serie
IV, 51, 320-372.
5.37. Treloar, LRG 1944, Stress-strain data for vulcanized rubber under various types of
deformation. Trans. Fara day Soc. 40, 59–70.

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY. PART 2

5.38. Treloar, LRG 1975, The Physics of Rubber Elasticity. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
5.39. Valanis, KS & Landel, RF 1967, The strain-energy function of a hyperelastic materials
in terms of the exten sion ratios. J. Appl. Phys, 38, 2997-3002.
5.40. Yeoh, OH 1993, Some forms of the strain energy function for rubber. Rubber Chemistry
and Technology, 66, N5,754-771.

5
Questions
5.1. C onsider the Seth model and formulate why the existence of the internal energy elastic
potential is important for the models of nonlinear elastic deformation.
5.2. Find the experimental facts that show the applicability of the Neo-Hookean model for
the small strains. Note that, as a rule, the nonlinear models describe well the deformation
process for the large strain and not so well for the small strain.
5.3. Write the constitutive equations that correspond to the John potential. Separate the
nonlinear summands and comment on this nonlinearity.
5.4. Find the experiments that link the new Signorini constant c with the real material.
May be, Signorini wrote some comments in his publications?
5.5. Explain the popularity of the Treloar potential despite its simplicity. Which level of
strains can be described by this potential?
5.6. Describe suitability of statistical approaches as compared with the phenomenological
app roaches that dominate in the nonlinear mechanics of materials. Estimate the work
of statistically substantiated models in the case of small strains.
5.7. Write the list of modern materials which are deformed nonlinearly and admit the large
strains.
5.8. Find the experimental data that show the value of the new constant from the Blatz-Ko
potential. Estimate also the effect of the ratio D on the process of deformation.
5.9. Comment absence of the first invariant in the Knowles-Sternberg potential.
5.10. Comment absence of the second invariant in the Lurie potential.
5.11. Write the constitutive equations that correspond to the Gent and Fung models and
draw the picture stress-strain for the unidirectional tension. Comment a possibility
to model the soft tissue by the elastic material.
5.12. Rivlin proposed a few nonlinear models for elastic materials. Make a list and compare
these models from point of view of the number of constants.
5.13. Estimate the rationality of introduction into the nonlinear models the new functions
(usually the model includes the new constants). Use for comments the shown above
models that include the new function.
5.14. Consider the multi-constant models and comment on the possibility to determine
from experiment five and more elastic constants.
5.15. Try to add to the six variants of modification of the Murnaghan potential some new
modifications that are reported in the new publications and not shown here.

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY

6 SHORT DESCRIPTION
OF LINEARIZED THEORY
OF ELASTICITY
Reference and actual states as6 the 6 primary and basic
notions. Important assumptions. 6 Rule of linearization.
6 6 Strain
and perturbation. Main linearized relations 6 –linearized
6
strains and stresses, linearized equations of motion as well 6
6
as initial and boundary conditions. Division on the cases
6
of large and small non-perturbed (initial) strains. Three
variants of the linearized theory of elasticity for the small
6
initial strains. Main areas of development: stability and
waves. Two most stated and solved problems: internal
instability and fracture of materials with cracks loaded
along the crack plane.
Reference
Reference and and actual actualstates as the
states as primary
the primary and and basic notions.
basic notions. Important
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models of the nonlinear theory of elasticity. The starting important notions are the notions notions.
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small initial str
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equations large and small
of motion as well non-perturbed
as initial and(initial)
boundary strains.
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materials
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small for the
non-perturbed initial
(initial) strains.
strains. Main
Three areas ofprimary basic notions. assump
development:
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of and
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with Two
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stated and ofstrains.
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problems:
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and along-problems:
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internal insta- continuum - permits to identify
of a material
ure of materials with cracks loaded along the ditions.
crackDivision
plane. on the cases of large and small non-perturbed (initial) strains.
the real body with the geometrical variants domain of 3D space,
of the linearized theory which this body
of elasticity foroccupies.
the small In suchstrains. Main ar
initial
a way, the real domain is transforming into some physical abstraction, called the body.problems: internal
development: stability and waves. Two most stated and solved
bility and fracture of materials with cracks loaded along the crack plane.

Suppose the body B in Euclidean space \3 is given.

Definition 6.1. 6.1.
Definition
Definition
Definition
Definition 6.1.Definition
6.1.
6.1. is the mapping of a set B on the domain F B ,t  of
The motion
6.1.
Definition 6.1.
the space \ at a certain time t x F ( XDefinition
3
, t ), X B , t  \1.
6.1.
Definition 6.2. 6.2.
Definition
Definition 6.1.
Definition 6.1. Definition 6.2.
Definition 6.2. Definition 6.2.
on 6.1. Definition 6.2. The
Definition 6.2.image F B ,t  of the mapping F at the moment t is called the
Definition 6.3. 6.3.
Definition Definition 6.2.
configuration.
Definition
Definition 6.3. Definition 6.3.
6.3. Definition 6.2.
Definition 6.2.
Definition 6.3. Definition 6.1.
on 6.2. Definition 6.4. 6.4.
Definition
Definition 6.3.
Definition
Definition 6.3.
6.4.
Definition 6.4. The configuration
Definition 6.4. of a body
Definition 6.3. t is called
at time
Definition 6.3. Definition 6.4.
on 6.3.
THE ACTUAL CONFIGURATION. Definition 6.2. Definition 6.4.
Definition 6.4.
Definition 6.4.
on 6.4. Definition 6.4. The configuration
Definitionof a body at any arbitrarily chosen initial moment
6.3.
is called THE REFERENCE CONFIGURATION.
Definition 6.4.

103
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF LINEARIZED
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY
Definition 6.1.

In the
Definition 6.1. linearized theory of elasticity, the terms REFERENCE STATE and ACTUAL STATE
Definition 6.2.
are used.
Definition 6.2. 6.3.
Definition
The reference state is thought as the initial (non-perturbed, basic) one and, according to
Definition Guz,
6.3.
Definition 6.4.
is labeled by the zero index.
The actual state is thought as the perturbed one. It is not labeled by index, but all quantities
related to this state are written as the sum of perturbed and non-perturbed quantities.
Definition 6.4.
Additionally to these two states, the NATURAL (NON-DEFORMED) STATE is considered.

Note 6.1. The theory of elasticity uses a series of characteristics of the process of
deformation of body (state of body):

vector of displacements

G
u ^u  x , t ` { ^u , u , u ` , u  X , t 
m D 1 2 3 m D
x m  X D , t   X m ,(6.1)

strain tensors
6

H nm ( x , t )
k
1 2   u n ,m
 u m ,n  u n ,i u i ,m  (Cauchy-Green),
6 (6.2)
6
6
HEJ ( X D , t ) 1 2  U E ,J  U J ,E  U E ,G U G ,J  6(Almansi), (6.3)
6

first algebraic invariants of the strain tensors

I1  H ik  H ik g ik , I 2  H ik  H imH nk g ik g nm , I 3  H ik  H pmH inH kq g im g pq g kn .

I1  Hik  Hik g ik , I2  Hik  HimHnk g ik g nm , I3  H ik  H pmHinHkq g im g pq g kn .
(6.4)
I1 tr  H  { H11  H 22  H 33 ; I1 tr  H  { H11  H22  H33 ; I 2 H ik H ki ; I2 Hik Hki ;
I3 det  H  { H ik H kmH mi ; I3 det  H  { Hik HkmHmi .

stress tensors - Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor t nm ( x k , t )(6.5)

and Lagrange-Cauchy stress tensor V ik  X D , t  ,(6.6)

specific internal energy (the potential) e e  H lm  ,(6.7)

G
external forces F  x1 , x2 , x3 , t  ^F  x , x , x , t ` .(6.8)
i 1 2 3

The formulas (6.1)-(6.8) means that

the reference (non-perturbed) state is described mainly by characteristics

104
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF LINEARIZED
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY

umo  x1 , x2 , x3 , t  , H nm
o
 x1 , x2 , x3 , t  ,V iiko  x1 , x2 , x3 , t  ,..., e H nmo  ,... (6.9)

and the actual (perturbed) state is described mainly by characteristics

um umo  umc , H nm H nm
o
c ,V ik
 H nm V iko  V ikc ,..., e  H nm  ,... (6.10)

c ,V ikc ,... are the perturbances.

where umc , H nm

Important assumption 1. The values of perturbances are assumed to be small as

compared with the corresponding values of non-perturbed state.

Important assumption 2. The main functional relations of reference and actual

states are described within the framework of the nonlinear theory of elasticity.

Important assumption 3. Every concrete functional relation y F  x  is identical for

the reference and actual states. That is, the following relations (as a rule, nonlinear)
are valid

yo  
F xo , y  y o  
F x  x o .(6.11)

These assumptions are characteristic for the linearized theory and very important
in the following construction of this theory.

Basing on the representations (6.11),

the RULE OF LINEARIZATION can be formulated.

First, the 2nd relation from (6.11) can be represented by use of Taylor series in the neighborhood
of the reference value xo with taking into account the smallness of perturbance x

y  yo  
F x o  ª¬ F c  x  º¼ x xo
x  1 2  ¬ª F cc  x  ¼º x xo
x 2  " (6.12)
6

6
Second, owing to smallness of perturbances, two first summands in (6.12) are saved and the
1st relation from (6.11) is taken into account. In this way, the formula (6.12) is simplified
to the linear approximated link between perturbances y and x with the coefficient ª¬ F c  x º¼ x x o

that depend on the reference state and does not depend on perturbances

y | ª¬ F c  x  º¼ x xo
x .(6.13)

THUS, THE PROCEDURE OF LINEARIZATION

CONSISTS IN THE CHANGE OF NONLINEAR RELATION (6.11)
ON THE LINEAR RELATIVE TO PERTURBANCES RELATION (6.13).

105
 6 6
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS 6 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF LINEARIZED
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY
6

Next feature of the linearized theory of elasticity is linked with the choice of relations that
have to be linearized. These relations are referred to the kinematic description of deformation
of the body. Consider now the Cauchy-Green strain tensor and write below two variants
once again:

nonlinear variant H nm 1 2   un,m  um,n  un,i ui ,m  ;(6.14)

linear variant H nm 1 2   un,m  um,n  .(6.15)

Let us show some steps in deriving the linearized variant by use of the procedure (6.13).

Note 6.2. It should be born in mind that in this case the quantities y and x are
the tensors of the 2nd rank and the function F is the function of many variables.

The starting formula is nonlinear one H nm 1 2   un,m  um,n  un,i ui ,m  .

Then only the nonlinear summands should be linearized

ª w  un ,i ui ,m  º ª w  un ,i ui ,m  º
F  un ,i , ui ,m  un ,i ui ,m o un ,i ui ,m |  un ,i ui ,m uo « » « » o
¬« wun ,i ¼» uno,i ,uio,m «¬ wui ,m ¼» uno,i ,uio,m (6.16)
o
n ,i ,ui ,m

un ,i ui ,m | uno,i uio,m  uno,i ui ,m  un ,i uio,m .

The next step consists in the allowance of (6.16) in the formula (6.14)
H nm
o
 H nm 1 2  ª¬uno,m  un,m  umo ,n  um,n  F   uno,i  un,i  uio,m  ui ,m  º¼ o
(6.17)
H nm
o
 H nm | 1 2  ª¬uno,m  un ,m  umo ,n  um ,n  uno,i uio,m  uno,i ui ,m  un ,i uio,m º¼

Finally, the expression for the linearized variant of the strain tensor is as follows

H nm 1 2  ª¬un,m  um,n  uno.iui.m  uio.mun.i º¼ (6.18)

or with using the Kronecker symbol

H nm 1 2  ª¬G nl  uno,l  un,m  G lm  umo ,l  um,n º¼ .(6.19)

IMPORTANT DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN THE LINEARIZED AND LINEAR VARIANTS OF THE STRAIN
TENSOR:
THE LINEARIZED VARIANT INCLUDES THE LINEAR DEPENDENCE
OF STRAINS ON THE GRADIENT OF DISPLACEMENTS OF THE NON-
PERTURBED STATE.

106
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF LINEARIZED
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY

The linearized variant (6.19) is the basic one in constructing the kinematics and
then kinetics of the linearized theory of elasticity.

Note 6.3.6 The formula (6.18) can be reduced to the formula (6.15) for the linear
6
theory of elasticity if only the reference (non-perturbed) state is natural (non-
6
deformed). 6
6
6
The three first algebraic invariants (6.4) form next group of the linearized relations. They
follow from the 6representation (6.19) and are written therefore through the components
of the gradient of displacement
6
I1 G nl u o
n ,l u n ,l ,(6.20)
6

I2 2H klo G nl  uno,l  un ,k ,(6.21)

I3 3H klo H lmo G nm  uno,m  un ,k .(6.22)

Note 6.4. The condition of incompressibility I 3 0 is transformed into the equality

o
Gmk G nm  uno,m  un,k 0 ,(6.23)

w
where Gmko det G  2H o .
w G mk  2H mk
o
 ij ij
Next important set of linearized characteristics is the set of components of stress tensors. As
it follows from representation of the strain tensors through the components of the gradient
of displacements, the first candidate on the following using is the Piola-Kirchhoff stress
tensor which form the ordered pair just with the gradient of displacements. Therefore, the
linearized equations of motion are written in the classical form (3.13)

U ui tik ,k  Fi .(6.24)

But it was so happened that the Cauchy-Lagrange stress tensor is usually used in
the linearized theory of elasticity and then the formula of the link between the
Piola-Kirchhoff and Lagrange- Cauchy stress tensors is needed

tik V ij G nj  uno, j   V ijoun , j .(6.25)

SITUATION OPENS THE GREAT POSSIBILITIES TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT
NITIAL (RESIDUAL)
IS SITUATION OPENS STRESSES
THE GREAT BECAUSE THE NON-PERTURBED
POSSIBILITIES TO TAKE INTO STATE ACCOUNTIS
UMED NOT(RESIDUAL)
NATURAL AND CAN BEBECAUSE
CONSIDERED AS THE STATE WITH THE IS
E INITIAL
HISSTRESSES
AL SITUATION OR
Then
OPENS the
THEmotion
STRESSES
PRINCIPAL GREAT equations
POSSIBILITIES
STRETCHES.
THE (6.24)
NON-PERTURBED
IN THIS WAY, TO TAKE can
THE
be
INTO
HUGE
written
STATE
ACCOUNT
PERS-
in the new form that can be considered
SUMED
HE NOT
INITIAL NATURAL
(RESIDUAL) AND CAN
STRESSES
THIS BE CONSIDERED
BECAUSE
SITUATION THE
OPENS AS THE
NON-PERTURBED
THE STATE
GREAT WITH THEIS TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT
STATE
POSSIBILITIES
IVES STRESSES
TIAL AROSE FOR as
OR the new
MECHANICS
PRINCIPAL linearized
OF MATERIALS
STRETCHES. formININTHIS STUDYING
WAY, THE EFFECT
IS SITUATION
SSUMED
NITIAL STRESSES OPENS
NOT NATURAL THE GREAT
AND
THE
ONMECHANICS
MECHANICAL CAN POSSIBILITIES
BE
INITIAL CONSIDERED
(RESIDUAL)
PROCESSES OF AS THETHE
TODEFORMATION.
TAKE
STRESSES INTO HUGE
STATE PERS-
ACCOUNT
WITH
BECAUSE THE
THE NON-PERTURBED STATE IS
CTIVES
E INITIAL THIS
AROSE SITUATION
FOR
(RESIDUAL) OPENS
STRESSES OF THE GREAT
MATERIALS
BECAUSE THE POSSIBILITIES
IN STUDYING TO TAKE
THE INTO
EFFECT IS ACCOUNT
NITIAL STRESSES OR PRINCIPAL
ASSUMED STRETCHES.
NOT NATURAL INNON-PERTURBED
THISAND WAY, THE
CAN BE STATE
HUGE PERS-
CONSIDERED AS THE STATE WITH THE
INITIAL
SUMED THE
NOT INITIAL
STRESSES
NATURAL ON(RESIDUAL)
MECHANICAL
AND CAN BE STRESSES
PROCESSES
CONSIDERED BECAUSE OF
AS THE NON-PERTURBED
DEFORMATION.
THE STATE WITH THE STATE IS
ECTIVES AROSE FOR MECHANICS
TIAL ASSUMED
STRESSES
F INITIAL STRESSES
INITIAL
INITIAL
OR PRINCIPAL
ON MECHANICAL
STRESSES
OF
ui ª¬STRETCHES.
UPECTIVES
NOT NATURAL V ij GAND 
MATERIALS
STRESSES
njAROSE
ORPOSSIBILITIES
PRINCIPAL
o
uCAN
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n, j 
OR
V THIS
BE
IN
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IN STUDYING
o PRINCIPAL
º WAY,
ij unMECHANICS
CONSIDERED
STRETCHES.
,j ¼
OF
THE EFFECT
STRETCHES.
 Fi .(6.26)
AS
THE OF
HUGE
, k DEFORMATION.
IN THIS
THEPERS-
IN THIS WAY, THE HUGE PERS-
STATE WITH THE
MATERIALS
WAY,
IN STUDYING THE EFFECT
THE HUGE PERS-
SITUATION
CTIVES AROSE OPENS
FOR THE GREAT
MECHANICS
OF INITIALOF MATERIALS
STRESSES TOIN TAKE
ON STUDYINGINTO
MECHANICAL ACCOUNT
THE EFFECT
PROCESSES OF DEFORMATION.
NITIAL
INITIAL PECTIVESSTRESSES
(RESIDUAL)
STRESSES AROSE
ON FOR
MECHANICAL MECHANICS
BECAUSE OF MATERIALS
THE NON-PERTURBED
PROCESSES OF DEFORMATION. IN STATE
STUDYING
IS THE EFFECT
MED NOT OF INITIALAND
NATURAL STRESSES
CAN BEON MECHANICAL
CONSIDERED ASPROCESSES
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THE
AL STRESSES OR PRINCIPAL STRETCHES. IN THIS
THIS SITUATION OPENS THE GREAT POSSIBILITIES TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT WAY, THE HUGE PERS-
IVESINITIAL
THE AROSE(RESIDUAL)
FOR MECHANICSSTRESSES OF MATERIALS
BECAUSE THE IN STUDYING
NON-PERTURBED THE EFFECT
107 STATE IS
ITIAL STRESSES ON MECHANICAL PROCESSES
ASSUMED NOT NATURAL AND CAN BE CONSIDERED AS THE STATE WITH THE OF DEFORMATION.
THIS SITUATION OPENS THE GREAT POSSIBILITIES TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF LINEARIZED
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY

Thus, the motion equations relative to the perturbances, which describe the deformation
in the actual (perturbed state), include the stresses and gradient of displacements of the
reference (non-perturbed) state.

THIS SITUATION OPENS THE GREAT POSSIBILITIES TO

TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE INITIAL (RESIDUAL) STRESSES
BECAUSE THE NON-PERTURBED STATE IS ASSUMED NOT
NATURAL AND CAN BE CONSIDERED AS THE STATE
WITH THE INITIAL STRESSES OR PRINCIPAL STRETCHES.
IN THIS WAY, THE HUGE PERS-PECTIVES AROSE FOR
THIS SITUATION OPENS THE MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
THIS TO TAKEIN
SITUATION
GREAT POSSIBILITIES STUDYING
OPENS
INTO THEPOSSIBILITIES
THE GREAT
ACCOUNT EFFECT TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT
OF INITIAL
THE INITIAL (RESIDUAL) STRESSES STRESSES
BECAUSETHE ON(RESIDUAL)
INITIAL
THE MECHANICAL
NON-PERTURBED PROCESSES
STRESSES
STATE OFTHE NON-PERTURBED STATE IS
IS BECAUSE
ASSUMEDAS
ASSUMED NOT NATURAL AND CAN BE CONSIDERED NOT NATURAL
THE ANDTHE
STATE WITH CAN BE CONSIDERED AS THE STATE WITH THE
DEFORMATION.
INITIAL
INITIAL STRESSES OR PRINCIPAL STRETCHES. STRESSES
IN THIS ORHUGE
WAY, THE PRINCIPAL
PERS-STRETCHES. IN THIS WAY, THE HUGE PERS-
PECTIVES
PECTIVES AROSE FOR MECHANICS OF MATERIALS AROSE FORTHE
IN STUDYING MECHANICS
EFFECT OF MATERIALS IN STUDYING THE EFFECT
OF INITIAL
OF INITIAL STRESSES ON MECHANICAL PROCESSES OFSTRESSES ON MECHANICAL PROCESSES OF DEFORMATION.
DEFORMATION.
The partial case was often studied in the linearized theory of elasticity –
the case when the initial (basic) state is uniform.
Then the displacements in this state are expressed through the constant principal
6
stretches Oi const (it is assumed sometimes that Oi are changing slowly in time) as
6
follows 6 6
6

uko xi  Oi  1 G ik .(6.27)

The expression (6.27) generates a row of important relations

H ik 1 2   Oi ui,k  Ok uk ,i  ,(6.28)

1 2  ¨§  Oio 
2
H iko  1¸· G ik ,(6.29)
© ¹

O   3 4   Ok2  1 Ok uko,k ,(6.30)

2
I1 Ok uko,k , I 2 2
k  1 Ok uko,k , I 3

2 3
1 2  §¨  Oio  1 4  §¨  Oio  1 8 §¨  Oio 
2 2 2
I1o  3 ·¸ , I 2o  1·¸ , I 3o  1·¸ .(6.31)
© ¹ © ¹ © ¹

Let us return to the presented above equations of motion. They together with the
constitutive equations form the basic system of equations of the linearized theory
of elasticity. The initial and boundary conditions have the classical form, when the
Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor is used. But the constitutive equations need the special
analysis. This will be done after some discussion about the role of small and large
strains in the linearized theory of elasticity.

108
 6
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF LINEARIZED
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY

First, the distinction between small strains and perturbances should be discussed. So, because
the refere- nce (basic) state admits both the large and small strains, then some problems
can arise in comparing the small strains and perturbances. It seems to be worthy to cite
the note from the book of Guz [11].

Note 6.5. ... in this book, along with the theory of finite strains, the theory of
small strains is used. Moreover, perturbances are also considered small quantities.
This circumstance (small deformations and perturbations) can be (with a fuzzy
understanding of the problem statement) a source of misunderstandings and errors
both in the linearization of the main relations and in interpreting the significance
and accuracy of the results obtained in the framework of the theory of strains. In
this regard, we note that small deformations are understood to mean strains that are
much less than unity (in contrast to the theory of finite strains, where strains can
also be of the order of unity and arbitrarily greater than unity), but not arbitrarily
small, tending to zero (they tend to zero only when external influences are removed,
and then provided that no residual deformation occurs). The perturbations are,
according to the statement of the problem, arbitrarily small quantities. Thus, in
the linearized mechanics of deformable bodies ... although the initial deformations
as deformations of the non-perturbed state are small, they should nevertheless be
considered finite quantities with respect to perturbations.

The linearized theory of elasticity differs two cases

of the non-perturbed (initial, basic) states – THE CASES OF LARGE AND SMALL
STRAINS.

Case of the large strains.

The large strains are described by use of the nonlinear theory of elasticity. This
theory operates with the notions:
“the volumes V o and boundary surfaces S o of the elastic body in the non-perturbed
state”;
“the volumes V and boundary surfaces S of the elastic body in the perturbed state”.
They are assumed here the distinguishing states.

Let us return to the characteristics of states.

First, repeat the formulas (6.9) and (6.10):
the reference (non-perturbed) state is described mainly by characteristics
6
umo  x1 , x2 , x3 , t  , H nm
o
 x1 , x2 , x3 , t  ,V iiko  x1 , x2 , x3 , t  ,..., e H nmo  ,...

and the actual (perturbed) state is described mainly by characteristics

um umo  umc , H nm H nm
o
c ,V ik
 H nm V iko  V ikc ,..., e  H nm  ,... .

109
 6

FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF LINEARIZED

OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY
6

6
Add now four new characteristics:
6
6
for the volume forces Fm Fmo  Fmc ,
6

for the surface forces 6 m 6om  6cm ,

for the ratio of elementary volume of body after and before deformation

V V before  V V before   V after V before c ,

after after o

for the ratio of area of elementary rectangular after and before deformation

S S k before  S S k before    S k after S k before c .

after after o
k k

Now, the linearized relative to perturbances equations of equilibrium

and boundary conditions can be written.
5

ªV ij G nj  u o
 V u º¼  Fi V
o o after
V before
  F V after
V 
before o
0 ,(6.32)
¬ n, j ij n , j
,k
i

in stresses 6io V after V before   6i V after V before  ni ª¬V ij G nj  uno, j   V ijoun , j º¼ ,,(6.33)
o

in displacements  uk  x , x , x S 0 .(6.34)
1 2 3

The equations (6.32) can be complemented by the linearized constitutive equations

and expressions for the strain tensor. They are shown at the first part of this chapter.
This finished the very short description of the case of large strains.

Note 6.6. When the linearized constitutive equations and expressions for the strain
tensor are substituted into the basic equations (5.32), then these last remain the
linear ones.

Case of the small strains.

An assumption on smallness of strains leads to some simplifications of the basic
relations. First, the assumption about smallness of elongations and rotations is
accepted. This means that the components of the Cauchy-Green strain tensor H ik
are much smaller than unity.
Second, the difference between the form of body before and after deformation are
assumed to be ignored. These restrictions and simplifications form

the 1st variant of the theory of small initial (non-perturbed) strains.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF LINEARIZED
OF MATERIALS PART 1 5 THEORY OF ELASTICITY

Thus, the basic equations (6.32),(6.33) are simplified

ªV ij G nj  uno, j   V ijoun , j º  Fi o  Fi 0 ,(6.35)

¬ ¼ ,k

in stresses 6io  6i ni ª¬V ij G nj  uno, j   V ijoun, j º¼ .(6.36)

If the assumption is additionally introduced that the linear variant of Cauchy-Green strain
tensor characterize the initial state, then it means that the initial state is characterized by
the linear theory of elasticity.

Note 6.7. The smallness of the components of the Cauchy-Green strain tensor H ik
does not mean that the state is geometrically linear. This restriction together with
formulated above for the first variant form

the 2nd variant of the theory of small initial (non-perturbed) strains.

If one more assumption is accepted that the rotations H ik are also small, then one more
variant can be formulated –

the 3rd variant of the theory of small initial (non-perturbed) strains.

Finally, a few words about the most developed areas of the linearized theory of
elasticity. Two areas can be undoubtedly mentioned here:
STABILITY and WAVE PROPAGATION.

This has the very rational explanation from point of view of technical applications.

The very important feature of the linearized theory of elasticity is that it can take into
account the existence of initial (residual) stresses. In the engineering practice, the initial
(residual, technological) stresses are the big separate problem. Just therefore, the linearized
theory of elasticity became so important applications. But also many new theoretical results
were obtained and many new mechanical effects were discovered within the framework of
this theory.

Also, the new mechanical problems were stated and solved –

the PROBLEM ON INTERNAL INSTABILITY and
the PROBLEM ON PLANE CRACKS LOADED ALONG THE CRACK PLANE.

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY

Comments
Comment 6.1. It is assumed in this book that according to the criterion of complexity
and similarity of the basic equations, the linearized theory of elasticity is placed between
the linear theory of elasticity and the nonlinear theory of elasticity. The equations of the
linearized theory are constructed by linearizing the equations of the nonlinear theory and
are transformed into equations of the linear theory, provided that the basic state of the body
is undeformed. The same condition is tacitly accepted when obtaining the basic equations
of nonlinear theory. Such an arrangement of the linearized theory is as though supposed
to be the truth.

But there is another truth that does not coincide with that described above. If the basic
state of the body is not assumed to be undeformed, and the deformations of this state are
nonzero and are described by the theory of small or large deformations, then in this case
the theory of deformations superimposed on each other is applied. This theory goes beyond
the framework of the nonlinear theory of elasticity described above. Since both states in
the theory of superimposed deformations are assumed to be nonlinear, the linearized theory
can be considered as a special case of the theory of superimposed deformations. And this
is a different placement of the linearized theory, and it is also true. Such truth in physics
is called a complex truth, in contrast to the more familiar simple truth.

Therefore, it becomes necessary to turn to the concept of truth. It is extremely

fruitful in philosophy, where there are many interpretations of it.

Abstract definition. A thought is called the truth if it is in accord with fact or

reality.

In science, the truth is the goal of scientific cognition and, at the same time, the
independent value that provides a possibility of scientific knowledge. Truth is usually held
to be opposite to falsehood. Such truth is called the simple one. The complex truth assumed
that the thought is true and opposite thought is also true. An example from physics is the
wave and corpuscular theories of light.

Comment 6.2. The usual practice in science is a requirement of some proof of new laws or
new theorems (new truth). The requirement of proof of truth not always existed. The well-
known theorem of the French mathematician Jordan (who worked in the 18th century) that
a simple closed curve divides a plane into two parts (internal and external) was perceived
while obvious and requiring no proof.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF LINEARIZED
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY

Further reading

The main books on the nonlinear theory of elasticity

1. Fu, YB 2001, Nonlinear Elasticity: Theory and Applications. London
Mathematical Society Lecture Note Series, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
2. Green, AE & Adkins, JE 1960, Large Elastic Deformations and Nonlinear
Continuum Mechanics. Oxford University Press, Clarendon Press, London.
3. Hanyga, A 1983, Mathematical Theory of Nonlinear Elasticity. Elis Horwood,
California.
4. Holzapfel, GA 2000, Nonlinear Solid Mechanics: A Continuum Approach for
Engineering. Birkhauser, Zurich. 2006, Wiley, Chichester.
5. Novozhilov, VV 1953, Foundations of the nonlinear theory of elasticity. Graylock
Press, Rochester, New York.
6. Ogden, RW 1997, Non-Linear Elastic Deformations. Dover Civil and
Mechanical Engineering, Mineola.

The earlier papers of Biot MA on the linearized theory of elasticity

1. Biot, MA 1934, Sur la stabilite de l’equilibre elastique. Equations de l’elasticite
d’un milieu soumis a tension initiale. Annales de la Societe Scientifique de
Bruxelles, 54, Ser. B, part I, 18-21.
2. Biot, MA 1938,1939, Theory of Elasticity with Large Displacements and
Rotations. Proc. of the 5th Int. Congress for Applied Mechanics (Cambridge,
Mass., September 1938), pp. 117-122, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
Chapman & Hall Ltd., London 1939.
3. Biot, MA 1939, Theorie de l’elasticite du second ordre avec application a la
theorie du flambage. Annales de la Societe Scientifique de Bruxelles, 59, Ser. I,
104-112.
4. Biot, MA 1939, Nonlinear Theory of Elasticity and the Linearized Case for a
Body under Initial Stress. Philoso losophical Magazine, 27, Ser. 7, 468-489.
5. Biot, MA 1939, Increase of Torsional Stiffness of a Prismatical Bar due to Axial
Tension. J. Appl. Physics, 10, N12, 860-864.
6. Biot, MA 1940, Elastizitatstheorie zweiter Ordnung mit Anwendungen.
ZAMM, 20, N2, 89-99.
7. Biot, MA 1940, The Influence of Initial Stress on Elastic Waves. J Applied
Physics, 11, N8, 522-530.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS SHORT DESCRIPTION OF LINEARIZED
OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY

The main book of Biot MA on the linearized theory of elasticity

1. Biot, MA 1965, Mechanics of Incremental Deformations. Theory of Elasticity and
Viscoelasticity of Initially Stressed Solids and Fluids, Including Thermodynamic
Foundations and Applications to Finite Strain. Willey, New York. (Scanned book
2008).

The earlier papers of Guz AN on the linearized theory of elasticity

1. Guz, AN 1967, General solutions of three-dimensional linearized equations of
theory of elastic stability. DAN UkrRSR, N1, 42-46. (In Ukrainian)
2. Guz, AN 1967, Study of stability of elastic systems by use of three-dimensional
linearized equations of theory of elasticity. Sowiet Appl. Mech., 2, N2, 22-33.
3. Guz, AN 1967, Stability of orthotropic bodies. Sowiet Appl. Mech., 2, N6, 40-51.
4. Guz, AN 1967, On exactness of hypothesis of plane cross-sections in theory
of stability of transversally isotropic rods. DAN UkrRSR, N8, 34-39. (In
Ukrainian)
5. Guz, AN & Babich, IYu 1967, On exactness of Kirchhoff-Love hypothesis in
theory of stability of isotropic shells un der axisymmetric deformations. DAN
UkrRSR, N10, 44-49. (In Ukrainian)
6. Guz, AN 1968, On exactness of basic hypotheses of applied theories of stability
of three-layer plates. DAN Ukr RSR, N1, 40-45. (In Ukrainian)
7. Guz, AN 1968, On exactness of Kirchhoff-Love hypothesis in determination
of critical forces in theory elastic stability. DAN SSSR, 179, N3, 552-554. (In
Russian)
8. Guz, AN 1968, General solutions of three-dimensional linearized equations of
stability of elasto-plastic bodies. DAN UkrRSR, N4, 34-37. (In Ukrainian)
9. Guz, AN 1968, On solving the three-dimensional problems of stability of
transversally isotropic bodies. DAN UkrRSR, N9, 32-36. (In Ukrainian)
10. Guz, AN 1968, On stability of three-dimensional elastic bodies. PMM, N5,
100-110. (In Russian)
11. Guz, AN 1968, On determination of theoretical strength under compression of
reinforced materials. DAN Ukr RSR, N12, 42-46. (In Ukrainian)
12. Guz, AN 1969, On constructing the theory of stability of uni-directed fibrous
materials. Sowiet Appl. Mech., 5, N2, 34-44.
13. Guz, AN & Babich, IYu 1969, On effect of properties of material on value of
critical force for plate. Mekhanika Poly- merov, N2, 72-79. (In Russian)
14. Guz, AN & Babich, IYu 1969, On instability of deformed layered materials.
Sowiet Appl. Mech., 5, N5, 64-74. (In Russian)

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY

15. Guz, AN & Babich, IYu 1969, Stability of transversally isotropic cylindrical
shell under axial compression. Mekhanika Polymerov, N6, 55-65. (In Russian)
16. Guz, AN 1969, On stability of thick plates beyond the limit of elasticity. DAN
UkrRSR, N9, 38-43. (In Ukrainian)
17. Guz, AN 1969, Stability of cylindrical thick-wall shell beyond the limit of
elasticity. DAN UkrRSR, N10, 35-42. (In Ukrainian)
18. Guz, AN 1969, Stability of elasto-plastic bodies. Sowiet Appl. Mech., 5, N11,
11-19.
19. Guz, AN 1969, On stability of deformation of nonlinear viscoelastic three-
dimensional body. DAN UkrRSR, N11, 1003-1006. (In Ukrainian)
20. Guz, AN 1970, On three-dimensional theory of stability of deformation of
materials with rheological properties. Izvestiya AN SSSR. Mech. Tverd. Tela., N6,
104-107. (In Russian)
21. Guz, AN 1970, On condition of application of Euler’s method of studying the
deformation of nonlinearly elastic bodies under finite subcritical deformations.
DAN SSSR, 194, N3, 38-40. (In Russian)

The main books of Guz AN on the linearized theory of elasticity

1. Guz, AN 1971, Stability of Three-Dimensional Deformable Bodies. Naukova
Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)
2. Guz, AN 1973, Stability of Elastic Bodies under Finite Deformations. Naukova
Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)
3. Guz, AN, Gushcha, OI, Makhort, PG & Lebedev VK 1974, Foundations
of Ultrasound Non-Destructive Method of Determination of Stresses in Solids.
Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)
4. Guz, AN, Zhuk, A.P. & Makhort, PG 1976, Waves in Layer with Initial Stresses.
Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)
5. Guz, AN 1977, Foundations of Theory of Stability of Mine Workings. Naukova
Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)
6. Guz, AN 1979, Stability of Elastic Bodies under Omni-Axial Compression.
Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)
7. Guz, AN & Babich, IYu 1980, Three-Dimensional Theory of Stability of Rods,
Plates and Shells. Vyshcha Shkola, Kiev. (In Russian)
8. Guz, AN 1983, Mechanics of Brittle Fracture of Materials with Initial Stresses.
Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)
9. Guz, AN & Babich, IYu 1985, Spatial Problems of Theory Elasticity and
Plasticity. In 4 vols. Vol. 4. Three-Dimensional Theory of Stability of Deformable
Bodies. Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY

10. Guz, AN 1986, Fundamentals of Three-Dimensional Theory of Stability of

Deformable Bodies. Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)
11. Guz, AN 1986, Elastic Waves in Bodies with Initial Stresses. Vol. 1. General
Problems. Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)
12. Guz, AN 1986, Elastic Waves in Bodies with Initial Stresses. Vol. 2. Regularities
of Propagation. Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)
13. Guz, AN 1990, Fracture Mechanics of Composite Materials under Compression.
Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)
14. Guz, AN 1991, Non-classical Problems of Fracture Mechanics. In 4 vols. Vol. 2.
Brittle Fracture of Materials with Initial Stresses. (In Russian)
15. Guz, AN, Kabelka, J, Markus S., Rushchitsky, JJ and others 1992, Dynamics and
Stability of Layered Composite Materials. Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)
16. Guz, AN, Dyshel, MSh & Nazarenko, VM 1992, Non-classical Problems of
Fracture Mechanics. In 4 vols. Vol. 4. Book 1. Fracture and Stability of Materials
with Cracks. Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)
17. Guz, AN, Shulga, NA, Rushchitsky, JJ and others 1993, Mechanics of
Composites. In 12 vols. Vol. 2. Dynamics and Stability of Materials. (In Russian)
18. Guz, AN & Zozulya, VV 1994, Non-classical Problems of Fracture Mechanics.
In 4 vols. Vol. 4. Book 2. Brittle Fracture of Materials under Dynamical Loads.
Naukova Dumka. Kiev. (In Russian)
19. Guz, AN, Babich, S.Yu. & Rudnitsky, VB 1996, Contact Interaction of Elastic
Bodies with Initial Stresses. Vyshcha Shkola, Kyiv. (In Ukrainian)
20. Guz, AN, Kaminsky, AA, Nazarenko, V.M. and others 1996, Mechanics of
Composites. In 12 vols. Vol.5. Fracture Mechanics. A.S.K., Kiev. Naukova
Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian)
21. Guz, AN 1999, Fundamentals of the Three-Dimensional Theory of Stability of
Deformable Bodies. Springer-Ver-lag, Berlin.
22. Guz, AN, Babich, IYu, Babich. D.V., Guz, IA 2001, Mechanics of Composites.
In 12 vols. Vol.10. Stability of Structural Members. A.S.K., Kiev. (In Russian)
23. Guz, AN & Rudnitsky, VB 2004, Contact Problems for Elastic Bodies with
Initial (Residual) Stresses. Melnyk, Khmelnitsky. (In Ukrainian)
24. Guz, AN 2004, Elastic Waves in Bodies with Initial (Residual) Stresses. A.S.K.,
Kiev. (In Russian)
25. Guz, AN & Rudnitsky, VB 2006, Fundamentals of Theory of Contact Interaction
of Elastic Bodies with Initial (Residual) Stresses. Melnyk, Khmelnitsky. (In
Ukrainian)
26. Guz, AN, Babich, SYu, & Glukhov, YuP 2007, Statics and Dynamics of Elastic
Foundations with Initial (Residual) Stresses. PRESS-LINE, Kremenchug. (In
Russian)

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY

27. Guz, AN 2008, Fundamentals of Fracture Mechanics of Composites under

Compression. In 2 vols. Vol. 1. Fracture in the Structure. Litera, Kiev. (In
Russian)
28. Guz, AN 2008, Fundamentals of Fracture Mechanics of Composites under
Compression. In 2 vols. Vol. 2. Related Mechanisms of Fracture. Litera, Kiev. (In
Russian)
29. Guz, AN, Babich, SYu, & Glukhov, YuP 2015, Mixed Problems for the Elastic
Foundation with Initial Stresses. LAMBERT Academic Publishing, Koln. (In
Russian)
30. Guz, AN 2016, Elastic Waves in Bodies with Initial (Residual) Stresses. Edition
in 2 parts. Part 1. General Problems. Waves in Infinite Bodies and Surface Waves.
LAMBERT Academic Publishing, Koln. (In Russian)
31. Guz, AN 2016, Elastic Waves in Bodies with Initial (Residual) Stresses. Edition
in 2 parts. Part 2. Waves in Partially Bounded Bodies. LAMBERT Academic
Publishing, Koln. (In Russian)
32. Guz, AN, Bogdanov, VL & Nazarenko, VN 2017, United Approach in Non-
Classical Problems of Fracture Mechanics. LAMBERT Academic Publishing, Koln.
(In Russian)

Questions
6.1. S ometimes the linear theory of elasticity is called the linearized one. Try to explain
this ambiguity.
6.2. Write in details the rule of linearization for the tensor function.
6.3. Why an infinitesimalness of perturbed quantities is so important for the linearization?
6.4. Why the linearization introduces into the basic equations only the parameters of the
basic state in the linear way? In which case these parameters can be presented as squared
or cubed quantities?
6.5. Describe on the simplest example the troubles in allowance for difference between the
initial and deformed volumes of body and corresponding difference between the initial
and deformed surface of body.
6.6. Estimate on a few examples of the progress in the theory of superimposed elastic states.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Short description of strength of materials

7 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Subject of the strength of materials. Some primary
definitions. Strength. Stiffness. Reliability. Stability. Important
assumptions. Features of the strength of materials as the
technical science. Strength of the structures or structural
members. Classical failure theories: theory of maximum
normal stress, theory of maximum strains, theory of
maximum shear stress, theory of maximum distortion energy,
theory of maximum strain ene rgy, Coulomb-Mohr’s theory.
Modern failure theories (criteria): Drucker–Prager’s yield
criterion, Hill’s yield criterion, Tsai-Wu’s  failure criterion,
Hankinson’s failure criterion, Hoek–Brown’s failure criterion,
Bresler-Pister’s failure criterion, Willam-Warn-ke’s failure
criterion. Structural members: rods, beams, columns,
plates, shells,  and the structures consisting of the rods,
beams, columns, plates, and shells. Tension, compression,
torsion, and bending. Classical example on waves in the
rod: elementary and exact approaches.

Let us start with a basic sentence from the Chapter 2, that the theory of elasticity can be
divided into four parts:

I. The strength of materials.

II. The linear theory of elasticity.
III. The linearized theory of elasticity.
IV. The nonlinear theory of elasticity.

Now, the part I is discussed after the short descriptions of parts II-IV. This has its causes. Part
I uses the simplest approximate models (mainly, one-dimensional ones) and is considered as
a set of standard tools for engineering mechanics. The parts II-IV are built on the stronger
mathematical apparatus and include models of more complicated structure, that can describe
the richer set of mechanical effects. It seems rational to analyze the simplified models after
an analysis of the more exact and full models. Thus, Part I is considered as the last one.

OFTEN, THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS IS THOUGHT AS THE SEPARATE

SCIENCE ON THE STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS OF THE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS.
ANOTHER DEFINITION OF THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS IS AS FOLLOWS:

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Short description of strength of materials

IT IS A SCIENCE ABOUT THE STRENGTH AND RELIABILITY OF MACHINE

PARTS AND STRUCTURES.

So, the used in these definitions terms should be defined in its turn.

Definition 7.1. Strength is the ability of the material to perceive the external load
without failure.
Definition 7.2. Stiffness is the ability of the material to keep its geometric parameters
within acceptable limits under external actions.
Definition 7.3. Reliability is the ability of the structure or the structural members
to function without failure. Reliability includes some restriction – it is considered
under stated conditions for a specified period of time.

If the theory of elasticity has a goal to determine the displacements, strains, and stresses in
the bodies of different shape, then the strength of materials has a goal to study the same
characteristics of bodies at the first steps. But the next steps consist in examination of the
methods of engineering analysis of the bodies in the form of the structures or structural
members for strength, stiffness and stability while meeting simultaneously the requirements
of reliability, economy and durability.

Definition 7.4. Stability is the ability of the material to maintain its shape and
position in external influences.

The strength of materials can be considered as the separate part of the theory of elasticity
sufficiently conditionally only despite a big relationship with the theory of elasticity.

The main problems of the strength of material include generalizing the engineering
experience of machines and structures (machine and structural members), developing
the scientific foundations for the analysis and design of reliable products, improving
methods of assessing strength.

In the theoretical part, the strength of materials is based on the theory of elasticity,
in the experimental part - on the experimental mechanics and materials science and is
used in the design of machines, devices, and structures.

Let us return to the difference between the linear theory of elasticity and the strength
of materials. The common problem of determining the displacements, strains, and
stresses is solved differently. The strength of materials solves it mainly for the beams,
based on several hypotheses of geometric or physical nature. This approach allows
us to obtain, though not in all cases, quite accurate, simple enough formulas to
determine displacements, strains, and stresses.

119
 Definition 7.4.
Definition 7.4.
Definition
Definition 7.4.7.4.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
tion 7.4.
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Short description of strength of materials

At that, the strength of materials, by its practical orientation, pursues goals broader
than the theory of elasticity. The problem is also to provide the correct interpretation
of the resulting information about displacements, strains, and stresses in the future
when assessing the work and practical suitability of the structure or structural member.

The strength of the structures or structural members

is an important part of the strength of materials.

THE STRENGTH OF THE STRUCTURES OR STRUCTURAL MEMBERS is determined

by the FAILURE THEORY - the science of predicting the conditions under which materials
are fallen by external loads. The materials are expected to be fallen brittle or ductile.
Mathematically, it is expressed in the form of various phenomenological criteria of failure.
The main fact in the failure criterion is the surface of failure, expressed through stresses or
strains. The failure surface separates the body from the “damaged” and “undamaged” states.
For a “damaged” state, it is difficult to give an accurate physical definition, a concept that
should be considered a working definition used in the engineering community. The term
«failure surface» used in the strength theory and a similar term that defines the physical
boundary between damaged and undamaged parts of the body are not identical.

The theories of failure of structures or structural members can be divided into

classical and modern ones.

Six theories can be related to the classical theories of failure

of structures or structural members:

CT 1. CTTheory
1. of maximum
CT 1. normal stress. According to this theory, a failure occurs if the
CT CT
1. 1.
maximum normal stress V 1 in some part of the structure exceeds the tensile stress V T of the
material as determined from the test on the uniaxial tension-compression. Alternatively, a
failure occurs if the maximum normal stress V 3 in some part of the structure exceeds the
compressive stress V C of the material as determined from the test on the uniaxial tension-
compression. Then the safe region for the structure is assumed to be

V C  V 3  V 1  V T . (7.1)

Note 7.1. This theory and the next theory of maximum strains deal with the brittle
materials. The rest theories deal with ductile materials.

CT 2. Theory of maximum strains. According to this theory, a failure occurs if the maximum
strains in some part of the structure exceeds the strains of the material as determined from

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the test on the uniaxial tension-compression. Analogically to CT 1, the safe region for the
structure is assumed to be

H C  H 3  H1  H T . (7.2)

CT 3. Theory of maximum shear stress. According to this theory, a failure occurs if the
maximum shear stress in some part of the structure exceeds the shear stress of the material
as determined from the test on the uniaxial tension-compression.
It is also known as the Tresca theory.
CTCT
2. 2.
CT 2.
CTCT2.2.CT 2.
CT 4. Theory of maximum distortion energy. According to this theory, a failureCT 2.
occurs if the
distortion energy per unit volume in some part of structure equals or exceeds the distortion
CT 2.
energy per unit volume at the yield point as determined from the test on the uniaxial
tension-compression. CTCT
3. 3.
CT 3.
CTCT3.3.CT 3. CT 3.
It is also known as the theory of shear energy or Mises-Hencky’s theory.
CT 3.
CTCT
4. 4.
Note 7.2. The strains generate total elastic energy which can be divided into two
CT 4.
CTCT4.4.CT 4. CT 4.
parts: one part causes a change in volume, and the other part causes a change in
CT 4. shape. The distortion energy is the part of the energy that is needed to change the
shape. Remember that the energy is the quadratic nonlinear function of strains.

CT 5. Theory of maximum strain energy. According to this theory, a failure occurs if the strain
energy per unit volume in some part of structure equals or exceeds the strain energy per unit
volume at the yield point as determined from the test on the uniaxial tension-compression.
CTCT
5. 5.
CT 5.
CTCT5.5.CT 5. CT 5.
CT 6. Coulomb-Mohr’s theory. It is based on Mohr’s hypothesis about the dependence of limit
CT 5.
tangent stresses on average normal stresses, and Coulomb’s hypothesis that CTCT6. 6.dependence
this
CT 6.
CTCT 6.CT 6. by internal friction in the structure. The main relation is as followsCT 6.
is 6.caused
CT 6.
W V tan M  c ,(7.3)

G
 nkV k   V 2 is the shear strength (n is the normal with components nk ), V nk2V k  is
2
where W
the normal stress, c is the intercept of the failure envelope with the W axis, and M is the
slope of the failure envelope. The quantity c is often called the cohesion and the angle M  is
called the angle of internal friction.

In the case  M 0, the Coulomb-Mohr’s criterion is reduced to the Tresca’s criterion.

MC
MC 1. 1.
MC 1.
MCMC1.1.
MC 1. MC 1.
121

MC 1.
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Short description of strength of materials

Note 7.3. The classical failure theories have significant limitations for their application
and today are applied very limited. Most often the Coulomb-Mohr’s theory is used.

Many modern failure theories are used nowadays. Most of them use the different combinations
of stress tensor invariants.

Let us formulate only the basic criteria of these theories.

MC 1. Drucker–Prager’s yield criterion is written as follows:

J2 A  BI1 ,(7.4)

where  I1 is the 1st invariant of the stress tensor,  J 2 is the 2nd invariant of

the  deviatoric part of the stress tensor, and A, B are the constants that should be
found from experiments.

This criterion in terms of the principal stresses has the form

1 6  ª¬V 1  V 2   V 2  V 3   V 3  V 1  º A  B V 1  V 2  V 3  .(7.5)
2 2 2
¼

The Drucker–Prager’s yield surface is a smooth version of the Coulomb–Mohr’s yield surface.

MC 2. MC 2. MC 2.
Note 7.4. This criterion was proposed for the soil which is undergone to the plastic
deformation and now is used in the analysis of rock, concrete, polymers, foams,
MC 2. and other pressure-dependent materials.

MC 2. Hill’s yield criterion is proposed for structures with anisotropic properties, which
are deformed plastically. First, it was a straightforward extension of the von Mises yield
MC 2.
criterion and had MC
a quadratic
2. form

MC 2.
F V 22  V 33   G V 33  V 11   H V 11  V 22   2 LV 232  2 M V 312  2 NV 312 1 ,(7.6)
2 2 2

where F, G, H, L, M, N are constants that should be found from experiments, V ik

are the components of the stress tensor.
MC 3. MC 3. MC 3.
Later, this criterion was generalized and became the form
m m m
MC 3. F V 2  V 3  G V 33  V 11  H V 11  V 22 
V  (7.7)
m m m 2
L 2V 1  V 2  V 3  M 2V 2  V 3  V 1  N 2V 3  V 1  V 2 y

MC 3.
MC 3.
MC 4. MC 4. MC 4.
MC 3.
122
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MC 2. Short description of strength of materials
MC
MC2.
2.

Here V k are the principal stresses and are aligned with the directions of anisotropy), V y is the
yield stress. The value of m>1 is determined by the degree of anisotropy of the structure.

It is used in the analysis of metals, polymers, and composites.

MC 3. MC 3.

MC 3. Tsai-Wu’s failure criterion is written in the form

C 3. MC 3. MC 3.
FkV k  FmnV mV n t 0  i, k , m, n 1,...,6  .(7.8)

Here  Fk , Fmn are parameters that should be found from experiments. In the case
when the failure surface is to be closed and convex, the interaction terms  Fmn ! 0
MC 3.
MC
MC3.
3.
must be positive.
MC 4. MC 4.

This criterion is proposed for anisotropic composite materials with different strengths in

4.
tension
MC 4. and compression. MC 4.

The Tsai-Wu’s yield criterion is a particular case of generalized Hill’s yield criterion.

MC 4. Hankinson’s failure criterion is proposed for the analysis of the off-axis uniaxial
MC 4.
compressive failure of wood (based on the study of the spruce). The basic formula for the
MC
MC4.
4.
uniaxial compressive failure of the wood in a direction at an angle D to the grain is as follows

V 0V 90
VD ,(7.9)
V 0 sin 2 D  V 90 cos 2 D

where V 0 and V 90 are the uniaxial compressive strengths of parallel to the grain and
perpendicular to the grain, respectively.

This formula is generalized to the form

V 0V 90
VD , 1.5  n  2.0 .(7.10)
V 0 sin D  V 90 cos n D
n

Note 7.5. Hankinson’s criterion is related to the empirical type of failure criteria.

MC 5.
MC 5. Hoek–Brown’s failure criterion is also the empirical criterion. It is proposed for the
analysis of the failure of rock. The basic formula has the form
MC 5.

V 1 V 3  AV 3  B 2 , (7.11)

where V 1 ,V 3 are the effective maximum and minimum principal stresses, respectively,

and  A, B  are constants which can be expressed through the characteristics of the rock.

123
 MC 5.

FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Short description of strength of materials
5.

Another form of this formula is as follows

MC 5.

Wm 1 2  A V m  W m   B 2 ,(7.12)
MC 5.
where V m 1 2 V 1  V 3  , W m 1 2 V 1  V 3  are the mean normal and maximum shear
stresses, respectively.
5.
MC 5.

The last formula can be transformed into a form similar to the Mohr-Coulomb’s failure
criterion
MC 6.
Wm 1 8 ª«¬  A r A2  16  AV m  B 2  º .(6.13)
»¼

6. MC 6. Bresler-Pister’s yield criterion is proposed for analysis of failure of concrete under

multiaxial stress state, later is extended on the polypropylene and polymeric foams and is
expressed
MC 6. by the formula

J2 A  BI1  CI12 ,(7.14)

MC 6.

where  J 2 , I1 are described in (7.4) and  A, B, C are the constants linked with the characteristics
6. of the concrete. MC 6.

MC 7.
Another form of this criterion is as follows

7. Ve a  bV m  cV m2 ,(7.15)

MC 7.
where V e 3J 2 , V m I1 3 are the equivalent and the mean stresses, respectively.

This criterion is an extension of the Drucker-Prager criterion. 

MC 7.

MC 7. Willam-Warnke’s yield criterion is proposed for the analysis of the concrete and first
7. written in the form.
MC 7.

1 I1 2 1 J2
f   1 d 0 ,(7.16)
3z V c 5 r T  V c

where z is the constant which is linked with characteristics of the material,  I1 is

the 1st invariant of the stress tensor,  J 2  is the 2nd invariant of the deviatoric part of
1
1 ª § 3 3 J3 ·º
the stress tensor,  V c is the yield stress in uniaxial compression, and  T «cos ¨ ¸»
3 «¬ ¨© 2 J 22 3 ¸¹ »¼
t t
is the Lode angle, J 3  is the 3 invariant of the deviatoric part of the stress tensor.
rd

MC 2.
124
MC 2.
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Short description of strength of materials

Note 7.6. The function O is meant as the friction angle depending on the Lode
angle. The quantity B is meant as a cohesion pressure.

This criterion is used in the analysis of concrete and other cohesive-frictional materials such
as  rock,  soil, and ceramics.

It has more abstract forms

§I ·
f  I1 , J 2 , J 3  0 , f J 2  O  J 2 , J 3   ¨ 1  B ¸ . (7.17)
© 3 ¹

Note 7.7. The Willam-Warnke yield criterion can be considered as a combination

of the Mohr-Coulomb and the Drucker-Prager failure criteria.

Thus, the failure theories and criteria are the inherent part of the science “strength
of materials”. They lie beyond the area of interests of the linear theory of elasticity.
This explains the special place of the strength of materials in the science of materials.
Definition 7.5.

Return now to the first definition of the strength of materials and descript the term
“STRUCTURAL MEMBERS”.
Definition 7.5.

In most cases, the structural members are thought of as the RODS, BEAMS, COLUMNS,
PLATES, SHELLS, and the structures consisting of the rods, beams, columns, plates, and
shells.

Definition
Definition 7.5. The rod is an elongated body, the two dimensions of which (height
7.6.
and width) are small compared to the third size (length).In the same sense, the
term “beam” is sometimes used.
Definition 7.6.
Note 7.8.
Definition 7.7. Usually,the term “rod” refers to bodies of elongated shape, which resist
only the forces of tension-compression and torsion.

Note 7.9. Often, the rod working on compression and placed vertically is called
Definition 7.7.
“column”.

Note 7.10. Usually, the term “beam” refers to bodies of elongated shape, which
resist only the forces of bending.

Definition 7.6. The plate is defined as the body of finite or infinite sizes bounded by
two planes symmetric relative to some plane (middle plane; usually, the coordinate
plane Oxy ) one dimension of which (height, thickness) is smaller than two other
dimensions (length and width).

125
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Short description of strength of materials

Thus, the plate is characterized by the length, width, and thickness.

Definition 7.7. The shell is defined as the body of finite or infinite sizes bounded
by two surfaces symmetric relative to some surface (middle surface of the shell) a
distance between which (thickness) is smaller than two other dimensions (length
and width).

Thus, the shell is characterized by the length, width, and thickness.

Three kinds of deformations are studied for the rods and beams –

TENSION-COMPRESSION, TORSION, AND BENDING.

The tension-compression causes the elongation (positive-negative) strains in the rod

and saves the middle line of the rod (no deflection).
The torsion causes the shear strains in the rod and no deflection.
The bending causes the deflection of the beam.

The most of books on the strength of materials set out consistently and in details the
simplified appro- aches and many important examples of engineering analysis of the RODS,
BEAMS, COLUMNS, PLATES, SHELLS, and the structures consisting of the rods, beams,
columns, plates, and shells.

This is exposed on many hundred pages practically in all the books.

Therefore, the reader has a wide field first for the choice and later for studying in
depth tension, compression, torsion, bending of plenty of objects of the strength
of materials.

Because this chapter is devoted to only the short description of foundations of the strength
of materials and is conceived as some supplement to the famous and big books on the
strength of materials, then the con-crete engineering problems on deformation, reliability,
stability are here not discussed.

To demonstrate the difference between the strength of materials and the linear theory of
elasticity the final part of this chapter is devoted to the classical example on the waves
in rod. First, the elementary approach that is characteristic for the strength of materials
is described, and further the exact approach that is characteristic for the linear theory of
elasticity is shown.

126
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Short description of strength of materials

ELEMENTARY THEORY OF WAVES IN THE ROD

Consider the infinite cylindrical rod of the circular cross-section. The lateral surface is
assumed to be free of stress.

The main assumption of the elementary theory is as follows:

A1. Each cross-section rests plane after deformation.

A2. The stresses in this cross-section are distributed uniformly.

Note 7.11. Because the waves are considered, then the additional assumption of
elementary theory should be done: the wavelength has to exceed essentially the
diameter of the rod. Because initially the rod is assumed the infinite and, in this
Definition 7.5.

case, the diameter of the rod can not be fixed, then this restriction introduced the
dimension into the analysis and means that the rod is thin.

Three types of waves can propagate in the thin rod:

LONGITUDINAL, TORSIONAL, FLEXURAL.

Longitudinal waves
Definition 7.6.
The propagation of longitudinal waves occurs along the rod axis Oxy . The waves are described
by

the classical one-dimensional wave equation relative to the displacement u along the rod axis
Definition 7.7.

E  w 2u wx 2  U  w 2 wt 2  ,(7.18)

where E is Young’s modulus, U is the density of rod.

The solution of this equation is given by the D’Alembert’s formula

u  x, t  f     x  vlong t   f     x  vlong t  .(7.19)

Here, the 1st summand describes the wave propagating in the positive direction, the
2nd summand describes the wave propagating in the opposite direction. The phase
velocity of the lon-gitudinal wave is constant and therefore this wave propagates
without dispersion.

127
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Short description of strength of materials

Note 7.12. It is assumed in the elementary theory that, while the longitudinal
wave being propagated, the motion of particles is the same in each cross-section.
This means that the longitudinal

vibrations of this cross-section occur. But in the real rods, the transverse vibrations occur also
and the cross-sections are already not plane. This is taken into account in the exact theory.

Torsional waves

In the elementary theory, they are close to the longitudinal waves by the mathematical
description. When the torsional wave is propagated, the elementary theory assumes only
the rotations of each unchanged cross-section around the axis of the rod. Then the main
variable in the motion of the torsional wave is the rotation of the cross-section that is
characterized by the coordinate x on some angle -  x, t  . The function -  x, t  fulfills the
classical one-dimensional wave equation

P  w 2- wx 2  U  w 2- wt 2  ,(7.20)

where P is the shear modulus.

Thus, the elementary theory describes the torsional wave as the classical volume
shear wave.

Note 7.13. It is worthy to say that the exact theory of the torsional wave is
essentially more complicated.

Flexural waves

The elementary theory of the flexural wave is not so elementary as it is in the cases of the
longitudinal and torsional waves. In this theory, the sole deformation is the bending relative
to the axis of the rod. It is assumed that the cross-sections of the rod are constant and the
axis of the rod is curved.

If to assume that the bending is plane and it occurs in some chosen plane that includes the
axis of the circular rod, then the cylindrical surface can be drawn through the axis of the
rod. This surface divides the rod into two parts. This surface is called the neutral surface.
One part is tensed, the other part is compressed.

128
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Short description of strength of materials

Within these restrictions, the wave motion in the rod is described by the equation
relative to displacement w  x, t  in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the rod
and lying in the bending plane

  EI S   w 4 w wx 4  U  w 2 w wt 2  .(7.21)

Here the notations are used: S is the area of the cross-section of the rod, I is the
moment of inertia of the cross-section relative to the diameter of the rod.

The equation (7.21) is already not the classical wave equation. But it has the solution in
the form of the harmonic wave, which is called the flexural wave

  .(7.22)
w  x , t  wo e
i k flex x Zt

Here wo is the constant arbitrary amplitude, the wavenumber is equal to

k flex 4
U SZ 2 EI Z ª¬vlong  r o / 2  º¼ klong r o
/ 2  (7.23)

and the radius of inertia R I S for the cylindrical cross-section is equal to the
half of the rod radius r o .

First of all, the formula (7.23) testifies that the wavenumber depends nonlinearly on the
frequency, and then the flexural wave is dispersive one.

The restrictions of the elementary theory of flexural wave are quite strong and form
some limits in the applicability of this theory. This causes the essential improvements
in elementary theory. Two brilliant mechanicians – Rayleigh and Timoshenko –
proposed the extensions of the elementary theory that improve its applicability.

Rayleigh proposed to take into account additionally the rotational motion of cross-sections
and introduce into the equation the inertia of rotations of the cross-sections. Then equation
(7.19) is somewhat complicated

  EI S   w 4 w wx 4    U I S   w 4 w wx 2 wt 2  U  w 2 w wt 2  .(7.24)

This equation has also the solution in the form of harmonic wave (7.22), but the
wavenumber here is determined from the new equation and has the form

 k  1 2   k 

flex
2
long
2 ª
«1  1  4Z
¬

2
r k o
long
2
 º»¼ .(7.25)

129
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Short description of strength of materials

Timoshenko proposed to take into account the shear that permits to describe more exactly
an inclination of the axis of the rod under deformation. This complicates essentially the
motion equation in the elemen tary theory. This equation has the form

  EI S   w 4 w wx 4    U I S  1  H  w 4 w wx 2 wt 2    H E 2 I S U  w 4 w wt 4  U  w 2 w wt 2  .(7.26)

Here H 2H 1 Q  is the constant, in which the constant H depends on the shape

of the cross-section of the rod.

The constant H is known for the cylindrical rod H 1.(1). The radius of inertia is known
also. For the cylindrical rod, the equation (7.26) is slightly simplified
2
vlong ^ `
 w 4 w wx 4   1  ¬ª2.(2) 1 Q ¼º  w 4 w wx 2wt 2   (7.27)
 ª¬ 2.(2) 1  Q  vlong
2
º¼  w 4 w wt 4    2 r o  w 2 w wt 2  0.

The equation (7.24) has like to the equation (7.19) the solution in the form of a
harmonic wave, but the relationship between the wavenumber and frequency is
more complicated

k 
2
^ `ª
  r k   ^1  ª¬1.(1)r k `º¼
2
flex
2
klong 1  ª¬ 2.(2) 1  Q  º¼ «1  1  4Z 2 o
long
o 2
long Z 2 1  Q  º¼ » .(7.28)
¬

Note 7.14. Comparison of formulas (7.19),(7.25) with the exact solution shows that
both formulas are very close to the exact solution. This testifies that the Rayleigh
and Timoshenko improvements are taken into account the most important features
of the deformation of the rod under bending.

EXACT THEORY OF WAVES IN THE ROD

Statement of the problem

Consider now the problem on waves in the infinite circular elastic cylinder within the
framework of the linear theory of elasticity without of additional restrictions.

Choose the cylindrical coordinate system OrM z in which the axis Oz is chosen as the axis of
the cylinder. Write the Lame’s equations in cylindrical coordinates for the case of absence
of the mass forces

P ª¬ ' cyl ur   ur r 2    2 r 2   wuM wM  º¼ 

 O  P  w ^
wr  1 r  w wr  rur   1 r   wuM wM    wu z wz  ` 0,

P ª¬ ' cyl uM   uM r 2    2 r 2   wur wM  º¼  (7.29)

 O  P 1 r  w wM ^1 r  w wr  rur   1 r   wuM wM    wu z wz  ` 0,

^
P' cyl u z   O  P  w wz  1 r  w wr  rur   1 r   wuM wM    wu z wz  ` 0.

130
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Short description of strength of materials

Here ' cyl is the Laplace operator

' cyl {  w 2 wr 2   1 r  w wr   1 r 2  w 2 wM 2    w 2 wz 2  .(7.30)

Assume that radius of cylinder is r o and the lateral surface of the cylinder is free of stresses.
Then the boundary conditions are as follows

V rr  r o ,M , z  V rM  r o ,M , z  V rz  r o ,M , z  0 .(7.31)

Consider now the harmonic waves which propagate in the cylinder along its axis.

Therefore, consider the solutions of equations (7.30) which fulfill

6 the boundary
conditions (7.31) and have the form

ur  r ,M , z , t  U r M , z  ei kr
Zt 
,
uM  r ,M , z , t  U M M , z  e i  kr Zt 
, (7.32)
u z  r , M , z , t  U z M , z  e i  kr Zt 
.

The exact theory considers separately each type of waves in the circular rod –
LONGITUDINAL, TORSIONAL, FLEXURAL.
This introduces some restrictions in analysis of mutual influence of these waves.
Reference and actual states as the primary and basic notions. Important assum
It is adopted that each
Rulewave is linked with
of linearization. the concrete
Strain features ofMain
and perturbation. the motion of relations –lin
linearized
the rod. strains and stresses, linearized equations of motion as well as initial and bounda
ditions. Division on the cases of large and small non-perturbed (initial) strains
variants of the linearized theory of elasticity for the small initial strains. Main a
Note 7.15. The exact approach stability
development: to studyand
ofwaves.
the waves in the
Two most rod and
stated hassolved
the old problems: interna
bility and fracture of materials with cracks loaded along the crack plane.
history. The first and thorough work was the Pochhammer’s work of 1876, after
of which a lot of numerical analysis should be carried out. This is done later by
many mechanicians.

Longitudinal waves

While these waves being studied, it is assumed that the wave motion is symmetric relative
to the axis of the cylinder and the vibrations of particles occur in the plane Orz only. In this
case, the displacement uM are absent and all other
Definition 6.1. basic mechanical functions – displacements,
strains, stresses – depend on two spatial variables r , z and time t .
Definition 6.2.
To find the solution, the scalar wave potentials )  r , z, t  , <  r , z, t  are introduced
Definition 6.3.
ur  w) wr    w 2 < wr wz  , u z  w) wz    w 2 < wr 2   1 r  w< wr  . (7.33)

Definition 6.4.

131
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Short description of strength of materials

These potentials fulfill the classical wave equations for the longitudinal and transverse waves

vL ' rz )   w 2 ) wt 2  0, vT ' rz <   w 2 < wt 2  0, (7.34)

' rz {  w 2 wr 2   1 r  w wr    w 2 wz 2  , vL  O  2P  U , vT P U . (7.35)

These potentials are assumed to have the form of harmonic waves, which propagate
along the axis of the cylinder and have the finite amplitude. Therefore, the amplitude
is chosen in the form of the cylindrical function that has not he singularity at the
axis of the cylinder

   
)  r , z , t  ) o J 0 N L r  e , <  r , z , t  < o J 0 N T r  e
i klong r Zt i klong r Zt
. (7.36)

Here ) o , < o are the constant amplitudes and

NL k L2  klong
2
, NT kT2  klong
2
. (7.37)

The wave of displacement has the form

ur  r , z , t  ª¬) o J 0c N L r   i< o klong J 0c N T r  º¼ e  long  ,

i k r Zt

i k r Zt (7.38)
uz  r , z, t  ª¬i) o klong J 0c N L r   kT2 < o J 0c N T r  º¼ e  long  .

Substitution of solution (7.38) into the boundary conditions (7.31) gives the system
of two equations relative the unknown amplitude factors ) o , < o

) o ª¬ 2 P J 0cc N L r o   O k L2 J 0 N T r o  º¼  2i< o P klong J 0cc N T r o  0,

(7.39)
i) o klong J 0c N L r o   < o  2klong
2
 kT2  J 0c N T r  .

When to equal the determinant of this system to zero, then the characteristic (frequency)
equation can be obtained from which the wavelength or phase velocity of the longitudinal
waves in the cylinder can be found.

The roots of this equation depend nonlinearly on frequency, and each root generates its
special mode of the longitudinal vibrations of the cylinder. Therefore the longitudinal
waves are dispersive and each mode gives its distribution of displacements and
stresses in the cross-section of the cylinder. This distribution depends on the ratio
of the amplitude factors  ) o / < o  and on a choose of the root.

Usually, two limiting cases are considered. For this, the standard formula for the relation
between the wavelength O and the wave number k or the phase velocity v is used

O  2S k   2S v Z  .(7.40)

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Short description of strength of materials

Note 7.16. The limiting cases are considered relative to the ratio of the wavelength
to the radius of cylinder.

Case 1 consists in that the wavelength exceeds essentially the radius of cylinder. Then, the
Bessel’s functions presented in the frequency equation are expanded into series

J 0 N L (T ) r o  1  1 4  N L (T ) r o   1 64  N L (T ) r o   ... .(7.41)
2 4

Because in this case the arguments in the Bessel’s function are small as compared with the
unit, then the approximate formula can be used

J 0 N L (T ) r o  | 1  1 4  N L (T ) r o 
2
,(7.42)

J 0c N L (T ) r o  |  1 2  N L (T )  ª«1   3 8  N L (T ) r o  º» ,(7.43)
2 2

¬ ¼

J 0cc N L (T ) r o  |  1 2  N L (T )  r o ª«1  1 8  N L (T ) r o  º» . (7.44)

2 2

¬ ¼

Further, the expressions (7.42)-(7.44) should be substituted into the frequency equation. Then
the summands which contain the second and higher degrees of the radius of the cylinder
should be neglected, As a result, the new frequency equation within the framework of the
considered approximation is obtained

k2
T
2
 2klong  ª¬N L2   O P  kL2 º¼  2klong
2
N L2 0.(7.45)

It follows from (7.45) that

klong Z v  long ¬ª O  P  k L kT ¼º
2 2
 2O k 2
L  P kT2  , (7.46)

vlong ª¬ P  3O  2 P  º¼ U  O  P  E U . (7.47)

Thus, the first limiting case corresponds to the result of the elementary theory. The
exact theory confirms the statement that the elementary theory is true when the
wavelength is essentially more than the radius of the rod.

It the second approximation is taken into account in the frequency equation that is if to
take into account, as it was done by Pochhammer, the summands with a squared radius of
the rod), then the solution of the frequency equation has the form

 E U  ª¬«1  1 4 Q 2  r o klong  º¼» . (7.48)

2
vlong

133
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 Short description of strength of materials

Note 7.17. This value of the phase velocity corresponds to the elementary theory
with the Rayleigh’s improvement.

Case 2 considers the situation when the wavelength is small as compared with the
radius of the cylinder. This case was studied by Bancroft in 1941. He showed that
the frequency equation is transformed with decreasing the wavelength into the
frequency equation for the Rayleigh surface waves propagating along the surface
of the elastic half-space.
In the general case, the waves are studied numerically that correspond to the first
modes (first roots of the frequency equation).

Torsional waves

Most often, an analysis of this type of waves is restricted by two partial cases. The common
assumption for both cases is that the displacements do not depend on the angle coordinate
M , that is, the motion is axisymmetric one.

The first case assumes an existence only the displacement uM  r , z, t  (the other two are absent).

The second case assumes the existence of two displacements ur  r , z, t  , u z  r , z, t  (the third
displacement is absent).
Further, the first case only is considered.

For this case, the Lame’s equations (7.29) are simplified to one equation relative to the
displacement uM  r , z, t 

ª ' rz  1 vT2  w 2 wt 2  º uM 0 .(7.49)

¬ ¼

The solution of this equation is searched in the form of the harmonic wave with depending
on the radius amplitude

uM  r , z , t  uM  r  ei kz Zt  .(7.50)


This solution exists, if the amplitude fulfills the ordinary differential equation

uM ,rr  1 r  uM ,r  ª¬ kT2  k 2  1 r 2  º¼ uM 0..(7.51)

Because the solution can not have the singularity at the axis of the cylinder, then it can be
expressed through the Bessel function of the first kind and first order

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
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uM  r , z , t  uMo J1  E r  e  
i kz Zt
E kT2  k 2 . (7.52)

The substitution of solution (7.52) into the boundary conditions gives the transcendent
equation relative to the quantity E r o

E r o J 0  E r o  2 J1  E r o  .(7.53)

Thus, the torsional wave is harmonic and propagates with the constant phase velocity.
But at that, the countable set of phase velocities exists because the transcendent
equation (7.53) has the countable set of roots. Also, the amplitude of these waves
is variable (depends on the radius).

The roots are determined numerically. If the first root denote by K tors
(1)
, then the corresponding
phase velocity is determined by the formula

vT 1   K tors r oZ  vT 1   O K tors 2S r o  . (7.54)

(1) (1) 2 2(1)
vtors

This wave is dispersive because the phase velocity depends on frequency, Also, a presence
of wavelength in the formula (7.54) permits to estimate the range of changing the phase
velocity, when the wavelength is changed from very small to very large values. For small
wavelengths, the phase velocity is close to the velocity of the transverse wave. For the large
wavelengths, the phase velocity increases infinitely.

Note 7.18. It is assumed that a motion of the element of the rod occurs in the way
that each cross-section rotates as a single item around the axis of the rod. To take
into account this fact in the exact theory, it is necessary to take into account the
zeroth root. Then the solution is extended by introducing the additional summand
of the form

uM  r , z , t  uMo re   (7.55)
i kz Zt

This formula corresponds to the elementary theory. In practice, this mode is excited
first of all.

Flexural waves

First, the horizontal plane should be chosen in the cylinder, which includes the axis of the
rod and divides the cylinder into two equal parts. Just in this plane, the flexural vibrations
occur. In the elementary theory, this corresponds to the neutral axis. The points of the
horizontal plane vibrate only in the direction normal to this plane. Therefore, it is assumed

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
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that the radial and axial displacements are absent in this plane. The vertical plane, which
also includes the axis of the rod and forms the right angle with the horizontal plane, must
be also chosen. It is assumed that the angle displacements are absent in this plane and the
points belonging to this plane vibrate only in this plane. The angle coordinate is chosen
in the way that the angle reference starts with the vertical plane. Then the vertical plane
corresponds to the value M 0 and the horizontal – to the value M S / 2 .

In this form of describing the problem, the solution the system of Lame equations
(7.29) is searched in the form

ur  r ,M , z , t  U r  r  cos M ei kz
Zt 
, (7.56)

uM  r ,M , z , t  U M  r  sin M e 
i kz Zt 
,(7.57)

u z  r ,M , z , t  U z  r  cos M ei kz
Zt 
. (7.58)

The depending on the radius functions U r  r  ,UM  r  ,U z  r  are expressed through the Bessel
functions

Ur r  A ¬ª J1 N L r  ¼º ,r  B 1 r  J1 N T r   iCk flex J1 N T r  , (7.59)

U M  r   A 1 r  J1 N L r   B ¬ª J1 N T r  ¼º ,r  iCk flex J1 N T r  , (7.60)

U z  r  iAk flex J1 N L r   C ª¬ J 2 N T r  º¼ ,r ,(7.61)

NL k L2  k 2flex , N T kT2  k 2flex .

The substitution of representations (7.59)-(7.61) into the boundary conditions

(7.22) gives a system of three linear algebraic homogeneous equations relative to
constants A,B,C. When the determinant of this system is equated to zero, the
frequency (characteristic) equation is obtained. This equation has a countable set
of roots and the corresponding wavenumbers and modes.

The lowest flexural mode was investigated by Achenbach and Fang. For the small values of
k flex r o (for the small wavenumbers of the lowest flexural mode under the fixed radius of the
cylinder), they obtained the expression

1 2   3O  2P   O  P   k flex r o  .(7.62)
2
kL r o

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS
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They write also that as k flex r o increases the phase velocity of the lowest mode approaches the
velocity of Rayleigh wave.

The shown example of the elementary and exact theory of propagation of waves in
the circular rod (cylinder) demonstrates a deep difference between approaches of the
strength of materials (elementary theory) and the linear theory of elasticity (exact
theory). But it demonstrates also the role of the exact approaches in substantiation
of the practicability of the elementary (simplified) approaches.

Comments
Comment 7.1. Perhaps, when analyzing the basics of the strength of materials as a science,
the question of the adequacy of the studied mechanical phenomenon should be raised to
the real phenomenon regar-ding the chosen system of its characteristics. This usually means
a correct qualitative description of the pheno menon by selected characteristics and a correct
quantitative description of the phenomenon accor- ding to the selected characteristics with
some reasonable degree of accuracy.

If we talk about the adequacy of the model, it is convenient to introduce the concept of
the degree of adequacy of the model. This degree may be understood as a grain of the
model’s truth about selected chara- cteristics or as a correlation ratio of the model and the
real mechanical phenomenon. The whole science of the strength of materials gives a lot
of examples, where the adequacy of the engineering model plays a significant role and is
emphasized in its description.

Comment 7.2. On the utility of the mathematical models of materials mechanics. It is

believed that such models allow persons of a certain intellectual bent to understand the
behavior of mechanical objects better than if it were outlined verbally. This occurs because
mathematical language and, in particular, the language of differential equations has a high
degree of commonality. A scientist who understands such a language immediately has many
associations with similar, well-known to him, situations described by the same equations.

Comment 7.3. The terms of the exact theory and elementary theory should be defined.
Here the exact theory is understood as such, which is based on the model of the linear
theory of elasticity and only on those assumptions in which this model is formulated. The
accuracy of the theory, in this case, is determined not by the accuracy of the description of
the elastic deformation of materials, but by the accuracy of the solutions of mathematical
equations of the linear theory of elasticity. The elementary theory is understood as such,
which is based on the model, the easiest when describing this mechanical phenomenon,

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and does not allow further simplification. At the same time, this model corresponds to the
exact model with additional simplifications and still describes the essence of the mechanical
phenomenon in question.

Just in this sense, the linear theory of elasticity is understood as an exact theory and the
strength of materials as an elementary theory, which imposes additional restrictions as
compared to the linear theory of elasticity, allowing to simplify the mathematical formulations
of this theory.

Further reading is presented in the Foreword

Questions
7.1. T
 ry to add some not shown in this chapter differences between the linear theory of
elasticity and the strength of materials.
7.2. Which criteria of failure you would like to add to the list expounded in this chapter?
7.3. The frames and arches are the objects of the structural (building) mechanics. Should
they be considered as the structural members or as the separate object of the strength
of materials?
7.4. The stability of structures is nowadays the big area in the mechanics of materials. Do
you think, the stability must still be described in the books on the strength of materials
or the readers must use specialized books?
7.5. The same question can be formulated relative to the plates and shells.
7.6. The same question can be formulated relative to the theories of vibrations and waves.
7.7. What is better for studying – to systemize the strength of materials by the mechanical
phenomena (tension, torsion, vibration, wave, etc) or by the object (rod, frame, plate,
shell, etc)?

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. DIFFERENT
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

8 FOCUS ON COMPOSITE
MATERIALS. DIFFERENT MODELS
OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION
Homogeneous and heterogeneous materials. Intermediate
objects of mechanics. Definition of the composite material.
Natural and artificial composites. Structural mecha-nics
of materials. Principle of continualization. Principle of
homogenization. Characte-ristic size of internal structure.
Representative volume. Orthotropic, transversely isotropic,
isotropic materials. Structural models. Averaged elastic
constants. Granular composites: mixture rules, Voight and
Reuss formulas and bounds, Hashin-Shtrikman bounds, Hill
formulas, Dewey formulas, stochastic averaging, Sendeckyi
formulas, Vanin formulas, Christensen formulas, virial
formulas. Fibrous composites: mixture rules, Vanin formulas.
Layered composites: mixture rules, Christensen formulas,
Pobedrya formulas. Structural models: Bolotin model of
energetic continualization, Achen- bach - Hermann model
of effective stiffness, models of effective stiffness of high
orders, asymptotic models of high orders, Drumheller-
Sutherland lattice (noncontinuum) microstructural model,
Mindlin microstructural model, Eringen micromorphic
model (evolution into Eringen-Maugin model), Pobedrya
microscopic model, mixture model.

In this chapter, the composite materials only are considered.

The structures and structural members fabricated from
the composite materials are not discussed.

Classical mechanics of materials divided materials into the homogeneous and heterogeneous
ones. They can be also treated as some kinds of mixtures.

Definition 8.1. The homogeneous materials are understood as materials with the
internal structure of atomic-molecular character (with the characteristic size of the
structure close to atoms or molecules).

That means such materials have the real discrete molecular structure, which is changed
(by use of the procedure of continualization) to the representation by the model of the
homogeneous continuum.

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Definition 8.2. The heterogeneous materials are understood as materials with internal
structure essentially more than molecular-kinetic sizes (sizes of molecules, crystal
lattice, etc).

That means these materials consist of components (phases) and have the macroscopically
inhomogeneous internal structure. As a rule, heterogeneous materials are modeled by the
piece-wise homogeneous continuum, which assumes that each component of internal
structure is also modeled by a homogeneous continuum. Thus, as it was mentioned above,
the procedure of continualization is applied in this case not to material as a whole but to
separate components of the material.

Note 8.1. The intermediate place between the homogeneous and heterogeneous
objects is occupied by the colloid mixtures and micellar solutions. But they can
not be related to the materials.

The composite materials are the typical representatives of heterogeneous materials.

Note 8.2. The most studied heterogeneous mixtures (besides composite materials)
are so-called dispersive mixtures. To these objects, the next ones are included:
suspensions (mixtures of fluid and solid particles), emulsions (mixtures of fluid
with particles of another fluid), aerosols (mixtures of gas with fluid drops), bubble
mixtures (mixtures of fluid with the gas or steam bubbles).

The composite materials are divided into natural and artificial composites.
The true wood from trees as well as the woody plants are
the classical examples of the natural composite materials.
At present, there are a plenty of different kinds of artificial composite materials.

Definition 8.3. The composite materials (composites) are conventionally defined

as consisting of a few components (phases) with differing physical properties. As a
rule, these components alternate many times in the space. The way of alternating,
conditions on the interface, a geometrical form, and the physical properties of
components define the internal structure of the composite.

The idea in producing and using the composite materials is that they can be stronger,
lighter, or less expensive where compared to traditional materials. Mainly, the artificial
composite materials are fabricated according to this idea.

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At this place, the basic concept should be mentioned – all real materials have an internal
structure. Mechanics of composite materials is concentrated on specially designed and having
the specially planned properties materials. As a rule, the internal structure of composite
materials assumes the jumping (stepwise) change of properties of components (phases) on
interfaces and presence the soft and stiff components. The stiff component is considered as
the arming or reinforcing one and is usually called the filler whereas the soft component is
conditionally called the matrix (the binder). A difference in some mechanical properties (for
example, Young modulus) of composite fillers can reach 100 through 1000 and more times.

For example, the most known and commonly used granular composite materials
consist of the matrix reinforced by granules, the fibrous composites consist of the
matrix reinforced by fibers, the layered composites consist mainly of two alternating
layers and the stiffer layer is assumed to be the matrix.

Note 8.3. In the case when some areas of free space (voids) between components
exist, these areas are treated as pores representing one more component, and such
a composite is called the porous composite.

In the real composites, the internal structure is at best close to periodic one. The most
difficult in the continuum description are processes taking the place at an interface.
Macro-, meso-, and micromechanics considered these processes practically from
the same point of view basing on the general physics conceptions. Nanomechanics
introduces into this problem the new features associated with the intermediate state
of interface processes between general physics laws and quantum physics laws.

Note 8.4. Above, the existing at present four branches of structural mechanics
of materials –macro-, meso-, micro-, and nanomechanics – are mentioned. They
will be discussed in the Chapter 9. As the most important similarity of all four
branches of structural mechanics of composite materials can be considered the fact
of applicability of the common for all branches continuum models.

Complexities in the analytical description of mechanical phenomena in composite

materials have resulted in the creation of approximate continuum models which,
on the one hand, save the main physical properties of the system and, on the other
hand, these mo-dels are quite simple and assume the analytical solutions for the
boundary problems.

These models can be divided into the structural models of different orders that are developed
in the mechanics of materials. This distinguishing of models came to the mechanics of
materials from the mecha-nics of composite materials.

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They take into account the internal structure of materials, determine the necessary mechanical
parameters, and solve practically all the important problems. The basic model (structural
model of the first order) is based on assuming the material as a homogeneous continuum,
mechanical properties of which should be determined on the base of standard tests. The
internal structure of composite is displayed here in the same way as it is done for engineering
and building materials (steel, iron, wood, or plastics). Found using the procedure of averaging
properties depend on the basic parameters of internal structure. As it can be seen later, they
are offered mainly in the form of algebraic relationships.

This circumstance permits to foresee on the stage of the design the averaged properties
of composite material.
THESE ABILITIES OF THE MODEL TOGETHER WITH TECHNOLOGICAL
Focus on
Focus on composite
composite materials
materials
POSSIBILITIES FOR DESIGNING THE ENGINEERING Focus COMPOSITE
Focus on
on composite MATERIALS
composite materials
materials

FORMED THE ONE OF MAIN DIRECTIONS IN DEVELOPMENT OF MECHANICS

OF COMPOSITES.

Note 8.5. In most cases when the matter concerns the averaging properties, it is
understood as working within the framework of the classical continuum model of
elasticity.

RETURN NOW TO THE ESSENCE OF THE STRUCTURAL MECHANICS OF

MATERIALS.

It can be characterized by that here the information on the internal structure of a material
is always introduced into the used mechanical models. When structural mechanics is defined
in this way, then a wide class of the materials used in the modern industry is the object
of its interest. This class includes representatives of practically all types of materials shown
in classifications above. To the most characteristic kinds of such materials can be related
the metals, alloys and ceramics, internal structure of which is defined by grains and similar
formations, as well as the composite materials, internal structure of which is defined by
granules, fibers and layers of all the structural levels (macro, meso, micro, nano).

The division of materials by the attribute of the admissible size of fillers in the
internal structure of a material is worthy to be discussed more in detail.

Macromechanics, mesomechanics, micromechanics, nanomechanics are the branches of

structural mechanics of materials and the admissible sizes are as follows:

1. macro: 102  105m (from 1 cm till 10 μm).

2. meso: 103  108 m (from 1 mm till 10 nm).
3. micro: 104  108 m (from 100 μm till 10 nm).
4. nano: 107  109 m (from 100 nm till 1 nm).

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. DIFFERENT
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So, the distinction of four branches of structural mechanics of materials can be

predicted easily. But the most important similarity – applicability of the common
for all branches continuum models - was not predicted. This similarity arises as a
result of scientific and engineering practice.

The macro-description of materials was predominant in mechanics of materials up to 20

century, when meso-description and micro-description were proposed and developed in
the second half of 20 century (the first one owing mainly the in-depth analysis of metals;
the second one owing to the extensive fabrication and application of composite materials).
Both new descriptions are based on understanding the materials as having the internal
structure of meso- and microlevel substance and on assumption that this structure can not
be neglected in mechanical processes studying in meso- and micromechanics. Recent ly, the
thriving development of nanomechanics of materials is observed.

In these circumstances, the role of tools used in transition from the discrete internal
structure to the continuum description and then from the inhomogeneous structure
to homogeneous one becomes very important.

The first tool is known in mechanics as the principle of continualization. It consists in

that the discrete system is changed (modeled) by the continuous system (medium) and for
the continuous system (medium) the corresponding averaged properties are determined.
At that, the geometrical shape of volumes occupied by the discrete and continuum system
must be identical. It should be noted that generally speaking, the initial discrete system
geometrical shape is fuzzy and the final continuum body is assumed to have a well-defined
geometrical shape.

This principle is used widely in continuum physics and in particular in continuum

mechanics. Practically all the models of mechanics of materials are based on the
introduction of a continuum.

The second tool is known in mechanics as the principle of homogenization.

It consists in changing (modeling) the piece-wise homogeneous body, deforming of
each element (piece) of which is described by relationships of continuum mechanics
of materials, by the homogeneous continuous body (medium) and determination of
necessary averaged properties within the framework of the homogeneous continuous
medium. At that, the geometrical shape of volumes occupied by the initial and
final bodies must be identi- cal.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. DIFFERENT

OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

Focus on composite materials

The principle of homogenization is used widely in the mechanics of composite
materials and, more abstractly, in structural mechanics of materials, when it seems
expedient to use the models of homogeneous material.
Focus on composite materials
Note 8.6. The continualization principle is applied to the substance (material) that
is meant as some discrete structure, whereas the homogenization principle is applied
to the material that is meant as some continuum structure. In the first case, the
transition from one description to another one is done not by tools of mechanics
of materials (here the methods of statistical mechanics or molecular physics are
used), whereas in the second case, the transition from one description to another
one is done by tools of mechanics of materials.

But in both cases, the identical tool is used – the tool of the introduction of the
notion of representative volume and following determination of averaged parameters
of the material.

So, the third tool has to be used. It consists in determining the characteristic size of
internal structure and choosing the representative volume.

The characteristic size of the internal structure can be introduced in different ways. One
of the ways is based on introducing “the geometrical parameter h of a structural level.
In the case of reinforced concrete, h characterizes the mean value of minimal diameters
of a cross-section of the metallic armature. In the case of metals, alloys, and ceramics, h
characterizes the mean value of minimal sizes of cells, granules, and other parameters of
structural inhomogeneity. In the case of composite materials with polymeric or metallic
matrix, h characterizes the mean value of minimal diameters of granules for granular materials,
minimal diameters of the cross-section of fibers for fibrous materials, minimal thicknesses
of layers of components for layered composites.”

Note 8.7. The parameter h helps to define the representative volume as one more
tool of structural mechanics of materials. For this purpose, the continuously
inhomogeneous or piece-wise homogeneous body is considered. The problem is
stated to determine the average mechanical parameters of the body.

To provide the averaging correctness, two important restrictions have to be realized:

1. Restriction on the ratio of sizes of the area occupied by the body and area
occupied by the representative volume – the first area must be essentially more
than the second one.

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2. Restriction on the number of inhomogeneities (molecules, formations of

different scales – micro, nano) – the representative volume should contain a
sufficiently large number of inhomogeneities (for example, granules).

Thus, the linear sizes of representative volume must be significantly more the
geometrical parameter h.

Note 8.8. Usually, most of the authors are assuming that exceeding the first value
over the second value on one or more orders gives grounds for the next modeling
and averaging.

Note 8.9. There exist some additional restrictions Focus

that on
provide the
composite averaging
materials

procedure. For example, the variability of mechanical fields in the body must be
taken into account. This results in a restriction on these fields (stress field, strain
field, etc) in the representative volume – they must be uniform.

The averaged properties of the volume are usually attributed to the point at the volume
center. As a result, the averaged properties are evaluated at every point of the body and
these properties should be constant – the body becomes the homogeneous one.

In the Fig.8.1, the structural scheme of inhomogeneous material formed of the

homogeneous matrix and piece-wise layers of the structure matrix-hollow spheres
with different walls is shown

Fig. 8.1 Structural schemes and TEM pictures of functionally graded material

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. DIFFERENT
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

Very often, authors of different publications on materials are showing the color pictures
of representa- tive volumes in the form of cubes filled with discrete particles, which are
looking very nice, but do not image the real discrete structure. As an example, below two
pictures of representative cubes for polycarbonate and polyimide. These polymers are used
in composite materials in the form of a matrix.

Fig. 8.2 Representative cubes for a discrete model of polycarbonate (left picture) and
polyimide (right picture)

Consider now notions and formulas from the classical theory of constitutive equations
needed for the mathematical modeling of composites by the classical elastic continuum.
Focus on composite materials
The rigorous procedure for obtaining such equations will be described
Focus later.
FocusFocus
on on composite
on composite
composite materials
materials
materials

Note 8.10. In the classical theory of elasticity, the constitutive equations describe
only properties of elastic deformation. They couple strains and stresses, and are
obtained as a result of observations in experiments or some theoretical considerations
about the representation of internal energy (energy of deformation).

In the linear theory of elasticity, energy is postulated as the quadratic function of strains.
Respectively, the constitutive equations in this theory are linear and in the conventional
symbols have the form

V ik CiklmH lm .(8.1)

Here, the stress tensor V ik and strain tensor H lm are symmetric tensors of the 2nd
rank; Ciklm is the tensor of the 4th rank and consists of the elastic constants.

The linear relationships (8.1) are called the generalized Hooke law for elastic materials.
Owing to the symmetry of strain and stress tensors, the matrix Ciklm is symmetric. That means
it involves 21 independent constants. Usually, the real materials (and composite materials
especially) have additional attributes of symmetry. The orthotropic, transversely isotropic,
and isotropic materials form the classical types.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS.
Focus on composite DIFFERENT
materials
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

Note 8.11. The crystalline materials permit many types of symmetry. Ten of them
are the most widespread.

For the traditionally used engineering, building, and other materials, the classification which
highlights three mentioned above basic groups of the composite materials, is more often
used. This classification is linked more likely with the potentiality of theoretical analysis,
than with realistic properties of materials. For these three groups namely, analytical methods
were most developed.

Orthotropic materials are symmetric by elastic properties relative to three reciprocally

perpendicular axes. The number of independent constants is equal to 9. The matrix
Ciklm has the form (later the only upper part of the matrix is shown owing to
symmetry relative to the matrix main diagonal)

­C1111 C1122 C1133 0 0 0 ½

° C2222 C2233 0 0 0 °
° °
°° C3333 0 0 0 °°
® ¾ .(8.2)
° C2323 0 0 °
° C3131 0 °
° °
°¯ C1212 °¿

It is well known that the technological progress of composite materials manufacturing

caused a new interest concerning the anisotropic theory of elasticity. In most cases, the
designer requirements favor the creation of modern layered (laminate) and fibrous composite
materials of the complicated microstructure, which in the average sense can be treated as
orthotropic or monotropic.

Transversal isotropic (monotropic) materials have the following symmetry properties:

so-called main axis exists (as a rule, the axis Ox is chosen), and all perpendicular
to this axis planes are isotropic from point of view of elastic properties (that is,
Focus on composite materials
in an arbitrary point of this axis proper ties are the invariable). The number of
independent constants is equal to 5. The matrix Ciklm has the form

­C1111 C1122 C1133 0 0 0 ½

° C1111 C1133 0 0 0 °
° °
° C3333 0 0 0 °
° ° .(8.3)
® C4444 0 0 ¾
° °
° C4444 0 °
° 1 °
° (C1111  C1122 ) °
¯ 2 ¿

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Focus on composite materials

FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. DIFFERENT

Focus on composite materials
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

Isotropic materials are characterized by elastic constants, which don’t depend on

the coordinate system choice. In particular, the tensor Ciklm is invariant relative to
transforms of the rotation and inversion relative to a point, mapping in a plane.
Only scalar or unit tensor G ik has such a property. Tensor Ciklm is written in the form

Ciklm OG ik G lm  P G ilG km  G imG kl  ,(8.4)

5
Focus on composite materials

where
5
C1111 C2222 C3333 O  2 P ; C1212 C2323 C1313 O ;
C1111 C2222 C3333 O  2 P ; C1212
1 C2323 C1313 O ;
C4444 C5555 C6666 (C1111  C1212 ) P .
1
C4444 C5555 C6666 (C11112 C1212 ) P .
2

The number of independent elastic constants is equal to two. The elastic constants O , P ,care
the Lame constants; the constant P is the shear modulus; Lame constants are linked with
Young modulus E and Poisson ratio v by relationships

EQ E P  3O  2P  O
O , P , E , Q . (8.5)
1 Q 1  2Q  2 1  Q  OP 2O  P 

The matrix Ciklm has the form

­C1111 C1212 C1212 0 0 0 ½

° C1111 C1212 0 0 0 °
° °
° C1111 0 0 0 °
° °
° 1 °
(C1111  C1212 ) 0 0
® 2 ¾ .(8.6)
° °
° 1 °
(C1111  C1212 ) 0
° 2 °
° 1 °
° (C1111  C1212 ) °
¯ 2 ¿

or

­O  2 P O O 0 0 0½
° O  2P O 0 0 0 °°
°
°° O  2P 0 0 0 °°
® ¾ .(8.7)
° P 0 0°
° P 0°
° °
°¯ P °¿

This short explanation of the foundations of the theory of constitutive equation in

the linear theory of elasticity seems to be sufficient for the next analysis.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. DIFFERENT
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

It seems useful to show first THE CLASSICAL MODEL that reduced an analysis to the
theory of elasticity with averaged elastic constants. The step from the piece-wise structure
of a material, where each phase of structure is isotropic, to the homogeneous one with
anisotropic of different degrees of anisotropy symmetry of properties (including the case
of isotropy) is considered nowadays as the part of so-called multi-scale analysis. Therefore
the most known theoretical formulas for evaluation of averaged elastic constants may be
helpful and meaningful.

The classical model (structural model of the first order, the model of averaged
constants) is based on assuming the material as a homogeneous elastic continuum.
The mechanical properties should be determined on the base of tests, the procedure
of which is standardized. The features of the internal structure are taken in this
model most simply – in the averaged elastic constants of a homogeneous anisotropic
medium using the principle of homogenization. Of course, the averaged properties
depend on the basic parameters of the internal structure.

Note 8.12. For materials internal structure of which can not be changed significantly
under manufacturing and obtain some essential changes in their properties, the
physi cal properties are not evaluated theoretically. The material is manufactured
and then the set of its physical properties are determined from tests.

The problem of theoretical evaluation of elastic constants arose in the theory of composite
materials as the special problem of prediction and optimization of mechanical properties
composites. It is associated with the artificial origin of composites and the possibility to
regulate the properties while the material being fabricated. In this way the procedure of
evaluation of averaged properties becomes expedient. And in this way, the model of elastic
deformation was complemented by the evaluation of mechanical constants by the parameters
of internal structure.

Note 8.13. It is considered that the constitutive equations and determination of

physical constants for some set of composite materials are related to the fundamental
facts of mechanics of composite materials.

This note explains why the constitutive equations and formulas for evaluation of
elastic constants are shown in this chapter.

FURTHER, THE CLASSICAL FORMULAS FOR EVALUATION OF MACROSCOPIC

(EFFECTIVE) MODULI ARE PRESENTED.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. DIFFERENT
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

So, the conventional practice in the mechanics of materials consists in that physical
constants are determined using special tests. The procedure of tests is standardized.
The problem of evaluation of physical constants arose in the theory of composite
materials as the special problem of optimisation of properties of materials and is
associated with the artificial origin of these materials.

This situation can be commented in this way, that it isn’t necessary to evaluate elastic constants
for materials, the internal structure of which can’t be essentially changed for obtaining of
some important changes in their properties. The material is manufactured, and later the set
of its elastic constants is determined from standard tests.

But for composite materials, the procedure becomes to be expedient.

In this way, the theory of macroscopic moduli has come into being.

Thus, this theory proposes formulas for the evaluation of elastic constants of heterogeneous
materials (as a rule, two-phase). For this effect, it needs knowledge of physical properties
of phases (elastic constants, density) and geometrical parameters of the internal structure
(sizes and form of granule-grain or fiber, etc).

As it was already mentioned above, the granular, fibrous, and laminate (layered)
composite materials are traditionally distinguished.

Maybe it must be added to the prior information that used as the filler granules in granular
materials and used as the filler fibers in fibrous materials can be diverse by their properties
and forms.

For example, granules can have the form of microspheres, but can be also elongated,
and don’t be similar to usual granules. Fibers can be straight or curvilinear, long or
short. Layers can be homogeneous or armed by granules or fibers.

As a rule, for granular composites the model of an isotropic elastic material is adopted,
for fibrous composites - the model of an isotropic or transversely isotropic elastic material,
for laminate composites - the model of an isotropic or transversely isotropic or orthotropic
elastic material.

Consider now the main formulas for the mentioned types of composites.
Usually, the GRANULAR COMPOSITES are analyzed firstly.

150
 Focus on composite materials
Focus on composite materials
Focus
Focus on on composite
Focus
Focus
compositeon
on materials
composite
composite
materials materials
materials

FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. DIFFERENT

OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

The simplest formulas for averaged (effective) constants

Focus on composite for the granular composites are
materials
obtained for the case when the matrix and spheroidal inclusions
Focus on composite are on
isotropic,
materials
Focus compositeand material
materials
Focus on composite materials
is also isotropic as a whole.

Focus on composite materials

Voigt and Reuss have been proposed the simple but crude (inexact) formulas

kVeff cM k M  cI k I , PVeff cM P M  cI P I ,(8.8)

1 cM cI 1 cM cI
 ,  .(8.9)
k Reff kM kI P eff
R PM PI

The used notations are traditional: k O   2 3 P is the bulk modulus, indexes V ( R)

mean the correspondence to the Voigt (Reuss) approach, indexes M  I  correspond
to a matrix (inclusion - filler), cM ( I ) is a volume fraction of a matrix (an inclusion).

Note 8.14. The formulas (8.8),(8.9) express the rule of mixture.

These formulas form the system of inequalities

value by Reuss < real value < value by Voight (8.10)

The formula (8.10) is often called the Reuss-Voight bounds.

The idea of constructing the bounds became the attractive one. Later, the Hashin-Shtrikman
bounds for the bulk and shear moduli were proposed which are some more narrow

k **  k eff  k * , P **  P eff  P * ,(8.11)

1 m 1 n
k ( ) k1(2)  , P ( ) P1(2)  ,
9 1  ac m 9 1  bc n

c1 c2 c1 c2
m  ,n  ,
ª¬1 9  k1  kc  º¼  bc ª¬1 9  k2  kc  º¼  ac ª¬1 2  P1  Pc  º¼  bc ª¬1 2  P2  Pc  º¼  bc

1 1 3 kc  2 P
ac  , bc  .
3 3kc  2 Pc 5 Pc  3kc  2 Pc 

All other formulas are linked with the theoretical scheme used by one or other
authors. Let us show some of them.

Probably, the most complicate formulas were proposed by Hill

3 3cM 3cI
 ,(8.12)
3k eff  4 P eff 3k M  4 P eff 3k I  4 P eff

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. DIFFERENT
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

3cM k M 3cI k I ª cP c P º
  5 « effI M  effM I »  2 0 .(8.13)
3k M  4 P eff
3k I  4 P eff
¬ P  PM P  PI ¼

The complexity consists of that (8.12) is an equation of 4th order for P eff .
Focus on composite materials
Focus on composite materials
Focus on composite materials
More convenient formulas are given by Dewey
Focus on composite materials
Focus on composite materials
°­ ª kI  kM º °½ Focus on composite materials
k eff k M  ®cI (k I  k M ) «1  » ¾ ,(8.14)
¬ k M   4 3 P M
Focus on composite materials
°¯ ¼ °¿
Focus on composite materials
­° 15(1 Q M ) ª¬1   P I P M  º¼ cI ½°
P eff P M ®1  ¾ .(8.15)
°¯ 7  5Q M  2(4  5Q M )  PFocus
I PM  °
Focus on composite materials
¿ composite materials
on

Here, the condition of the smallness of the volume fraction of spherical inclusions
cI (a / b)3  1 is used.

Write further formulas based on procedures of stochastic averaging

3cM cI (k M  k I )
k eff k ! ,(8.16)
 3k  4 P ! 3k c

6cM cI ( P M  P I ) 2  k  2 P !
P eff  P !  , (8.17)
5  P ! 3k  4 P ! 6  k  2 P ! P c

Here the notations  m ! cM mM  cI mI , mc (cI  cM )(mM  mI ) are used.

Some simpler and differing from prior formulas were proposed by Sendeckyi

k eff ¬ª k1c1  3k1  4 P1  º¼  ª¬ k2 c2  3k2  4 P 2  º¼ , P eff P2 DP2 c2  c1 

,(8.18)
ª¬c1  3k1  4 P1  º¼  ª¬c2  3k2  4 P 2  º¼ DP1c1  c2

where

15 1 Q 1 
D .
 7  5Q 1  P1   8  10Q 2  P 2

For the case, when solid spherical inclusions are embedded into an isotropic infinite matrix,
Vanin proposed expressions

4 P 2  k1  k2  2  7  5Q 2  P1  P2 
1  c1  c2
3k2  3k1  4k2  3  7  5Q 2  P 2   8  10Q 2  P1
E eff E2 ,(8.19)
E2  k1  k2  2 E2  4  5Q 2  P1  P2 
1  c1  c2
3k2  3k1  4k2  3P 2  7  5Q 2  P 2   8  10Q 2  P1

3k1k2  4k1P1c1  4k2 P 2 c2

k eff .(8.20)
3k1c2  3k2 c1  4 P 2

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For composites with hollow inclusions, Vanin proposed the next formulas
9k2  4c1 LP 2  6c1k2  7  5Q 2  H
E eff E2
9k2  c1 LE2  12c1k2 1  Q 2  4  5Q 2  H ,(8.21)

12k1k2 ª¬1  q 3  P1  c2 q 3 P 2 º¼  16 P1P 2 ª¬1  q 3  c1k1  c2 q 3 k2 º¼

k eff ,(8.22)
9c1q 3 k1k2  12q 3 P 2 k1  12c1P1k2  12c2 1  q 3  P1k1  16 P1P 2

where q  r1 ro  (( rr11 is the internal radius of inclusion, ro is the external radius of inclusion),

1  4 P 2  3k2  ª¬ 2 1  2Q 1   1  Q 1  q º¼
3

L 1 ,
4 1  Q 1  ª1  q 3 P1  q 3 P 2 º  2 1  2Q 1  P2
¬ ¼

 7  5Q 1  ª¬ P2  1  q  P1 º¼  8 Focus1  q Pon
on3 composite materials
3
10QFocus 2 composite materials
H Focus on composite .
materials
8  10Q 1  7  5Q 1 1  q  P1   7  5Q 1  ª¬7Focus  composite
8  10Q 1  q 3materials
3
 5Q 1 on º¼

More simple formulas for solid inclusions wereFocus on composite materials

obtained by Christensen

°­ 15 1 Q 2  ª¬1   P1 P 2  º¼ °½ Focus on composite materials

P eff P2 ®1  c1 ¾ ,(8.23)
°¯ 7  5Q 2  2  4  5Q 2  P1 P 2  °¿

k eff ^ 
k2  c1  k1  k2  ª1   k1  k2   k2   4 3 P 2  º
¬ ¼  ` .(8.24)
The based on the virial expansion method formulas have the form
ª 3 1 Q m   k f  km  º
k eff km «1  c1 » ,(8.25)
«¬ 2km 1  2Q m   k f 1  Q m  »
¼
ª 15 1 Q m   P f  Pm  º
P eff Pm «1  c1 » .(8.26)
«¬ Pm  7  5Q m   P f  4  5Q m  »¼

Shermergor used the self-consistent method and found expressions for effective elastic
moduli as follows
2
ci 2
ci
¦1 D ª  ki k
1, ¦1 E 1 .(8.27)
i 1

¬
eff
  1º¼ i 1

ª Pi P eff   1º
¬ ¼

Thus, the sufficiently significant experience in the theoretical analysis of effective

moduli is accumulated for the granular composites.

Consider now the FIBROUS COMPOSITES.

They are described usually by the model of transversally isotropic materials.

The linear constitutive equations for this model are written in the form

1 Q 1 Q
H11 (V 11 Q 1V 22 )  2 V 33 ; H 22 (V 22 Q 1V 11 )  2 V 33 ; (8.28)
E11 E22 E11 E22

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. DIFFERENT
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

1 Q* V 13 V 23 V 12
H 33 V 33  2 (V 11  V 22 ); H13 , H 23 , H12 .
E22 E11 G2 G2 G1

Here, an aggregate number of independent elastic constants is five: E11 , E22 , G2 ,Q 1 ,Q 2

Q2 Q 2* E11
(two constants G1 ,Q 2 , are expressed by other constants , G1 ).
E22 E11 2(1  Q 2 )

For fibrous unilateral materials the axis Ox3 is usually chosen in the direction along fibers,
and the index L (longitudinal) is used for the notation of properties along this axis, the
index T (transverse) is used for notation of properties in the plane x1Ox2 .

The simplest formulas again are the Voigt and Reuss ones

ELeff cF EF  cM EM , Q Teff cFQ F  cMQ M ,(8.29)

1 cF cM 1 cF cM
 ,  .(8.30)
ETeff E F EM P eff
LT PF PM

More complicate and exact formulas are proposed by Vanin

Focus on composite materials
Focus on composite materials
Focus on composite materials
Focus on composite materials
2cF cM (Q F Q M ) EM EF
2
ELeff cF EF  cM EM  ,(8.31)
cF EM LF  (cM LM  cF ) EF

2cF (Q M Q F )(1 Q M2 ) EF
Q LT
eff
QM  ,(8.32)
cM EM LF  [cF LM  (1  Q M )]EF Focus
Focus Focus on composite
on composite onmateria
materials
Focus
on composite compos
materials

( k F  P M ) k M  cF P M ( k F  k M )
k Leff Focus ,(8.33)
on composite materials
k F  P M  cF ( k F  k M )

(cM P F  cF P M ) P M 2k eff (1 Q TT
eff
) ELeff
P LT
eff
, ETeff ,,(8.34)
cM ( P F  P M ) EL  4k (Q LT
eff eff eff 2
)

LM 1 Q M  2Q M2 , LF 1 Q F  2Q F2 .

Finally, consider the LAYERED MATERIALS.

The formulas for elastic constants of layered composites look sometimes more complicated, in
the cited books concerned the mechanics of composite materials these formulas are presented.
But in the case of using the model of isotropic material these formulas are quite simple.

The simplest formula is the formula of the rule of mixture. If the height of layer is hk , then
the volume fraction of one phase (layer) is ck hk h, h  h1  h2  . Analogically, if the some
averaged (effective) elastic constant is Aeff and the corresponding constants of layers are Ak
, then the rule of mixture is as follows

Aeff c1 A1  c2 A2 .(8.35)

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. DIFFERENT
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

This rule is used in formulas proposed by Christensen for the modeling of layered composite
materials as the transversely isotropic material. Two effective constants in the plane of isotropy
are described by the formula (8.35). The effective constants in the direction perpendicular
to the plane of isotropy are expressed by the more complicated formulas

c1c2 E1 E2 Q 1 Q 2 
2

E eff c1 E1  c2 E2  , (8.36)
c1 E1 1 Q 12   c2 E2 1 Q 22 

c1Q 1 E1 1 Q 22   c2Q 2 E2 1 Q 12 
Q eff . (8.37)
c1 E1 1 Q 22   c2 E2 1 Q 12 

Postma proposed the following formulas

C11 1 D  h 2  O1  2P1  O2  2P2  ,

C12 1 D  h ª¬ h2O2  O1  2P1   h1O1  O2  2P2 º¼ ,
C22 1 D ^h 2  O1  2P1  O2  2P2   4h1h2  P1  P2  ª¬ O1  P1    O2  P2 º¼` ,
(8.38)
C23 1 D ^h 2O1O2  4  h1O1  h1O1  h1P2  h2 P1 ` ,
C66 hP1P 2  h1P 2  h2 P1  ,
D h ª¬ h2  O1  2 P1   h1  O2  2 P 2  º¼ .

For the model of transversally isotropic material, Pobedrya proposed the formulas

O O  O  2P  O2
eff
C1111 eff
C2222 O  2P   ,
O  2P 1  O  2P  O  2P
Focus on composite materials

O O  O  2P 
Focus on composite materials
O 2
eff
C3333 1 1  O  2 P  , C1122
eff
O  , (8.39)
O  2P 1  O  2P  O  2P

1 1
eff
C3311 eff
C3322 O  O  2P  1  O  2 P  , C1133
eff
,
O  2P 1  O  2P 

eff
C1212 P , C1212
eff
1 1P .

Thus, the shown formulas for evaluation of effective elastic modulus are algebraic ones.
They ate quite convenient for engineering analysis and design of composite materials.

Remind that all the procedures of evaluating the averaged properties of composite
materials are based on knowledge of mechanical properties of components of these
materials and other parameters of their internal structure.

Note 8.15. Let us cite the classical Broutman&Krock’s book “It should be understood,
of course, that the mechanical behaviour of the components is not always known
with an accuracy needed by theoreticians. Owing to manufacturing processes, the
properties of components may differ to a certain degree, when the components are

155
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. DIFFERENT
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part of a composite as compared with the isolated state. In view of this, it appears
to the author that it is hardly necessary to require agreement between accuracy to
three significant figures and “precise results”. The agreement represented here with
experimental data, which is within Focus
theonlimit
composite materialsis completely adequate.”
of 5-10%,Focus on composite materials Focus on composite materi

This opinion is a general opinion in nature. In real composites, the properties of an

individual component and a component of specimens formed of the individually taken
material are actually different. First, due to variation in the properties of components during
the production process of manufacturing (sintering, heating, irradiation, etc). Second, due
to the difference between the mechanical properties of granules, fib- res, foils, etc and the
properties inherent to standard specimens of the same material.

This reduces the value of models based on calculation of constants on the base of
mechanical and geometrical parameters of components of the internal structure,
and offers certain advantages over approaches based on experimental determination
of the constants.

Consider later other well-known structural models of composite materials.

Bolotin’s model of energy continualization

Bolotin proposed a variational approach for derivation of basic equations and boundary
conditions, and conversion from microstructure to macrodescription. It was accomplished
on the basis of the concept of simplifying the problem, which was reached by spreading - by
change of a layered plate on one-layered anisotropic plate with characteristics of the stress-
strain state, which are continuously changed with the thickness. The author later defined
more precisely the term energy spreading initially introduced, and this method is now called
the principle of energy continualization.

The constructing of basic equations uses two assumptions: 1. Arming elements are essentially
more rigid than binding layers. 2. The characteristic dimension of microstructure is small
compared to characteristic dimensions of a body and to characteristic lengths of a change
of functions describing a stress-strain state of arming elements. As a result, the continuum
equations of equilibrium for layered composite are obtained as follows

LD k uk*  X D* 0; L3k uk*  h 2 M 3k uk*  X 3* 0 ,(8.40)

where LD k , M 3k are linear differential operators of the 2nd and 4th orders, respectively (the last
operator introduces into the 3rd equation the notion of effective stiffness); displacements uk*
are chosen in the way that in the middle plane of each layer they are equal approximately

156
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. DIFFERENT
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

N
to displacements uk( m ) of this layer; potential energy of the layered body U ¦ U u 
n 1
n
(n)
k

is equal to potential energy of the equivalent qua-si-homogeneous body (the fictitious

N
body) U | ¦ U  uk  ; analogically, components of volume forces X k are Focus
also spread; h is materials
on composite the
n 1

characteristic thickness of reinforcing layers.

Let us stop on the last characteristics h presence of which is very important in

this model: for a two-layered composite with alternating layers – soft and stiff – h
corresponds to the stiff one thickness. Thus, the equations corresponding to the
Bolotin model of effective stiffness include the dimensional quantity equal to the
thickness of a stiff layer. In this way, the model becomes sensitive to transition, for
example, from microlayers in 10 microns to nanolayers in 10 nanometers.

Note 8.16. It turned out afterward that other structural models possess this property
too. But the Bolotin model was the pioneer one.
Focus on composite materials
Also, equations (8.40) have the features characteristic for manyFocus of subsequent structural
on composite materials
theories – they are analogous to equations of the moment theory of elasticity for anisotropic
media because the soluti- ons of these equations include the summands that as if characterize
a momentness of stress-strain state in composite materials. Besides them, the solutions include
two parts: slowly varying inside of the layer and quickly attenuated of the edge effect type.

The principle of energy continualization has considered to be fruitful, and is

subsequently used to formulate various continual models.

Achenbach-Hermann’s model of effective stiffness

This model is the most advanced model of the above-mentioned continual models. The
modern description of this model is different from the first model proposed.

The method of transition from a discrete system of alternating layers or cells with an internal
fiber to a continuum body is the principal method in the model, as in any structural model
though. It includes seve-ral stages. The first stage consists in a representation of displacements
and describing the excitations of local effects. In the case of a fibrous composite of cellular
checkerboard structure, the displacements for the cell (k , l ) in the polar coordinate system
with the origin at the center of the fiber are represented in the form

uif ( k ,l ) ui( k ,l )  r cos 4\ 2fi ( k ,l )  r sin 4\ 3fi ( k ,l ) (r  a ); (8.41)

f ( k ,l ) ( k ,l ) m ( k ,l )4 \ f ( k ,l )  r sin 4 \ f ( k ,l )
uim ( k ,l ) ui( k ,l )  a cos 4\ 2mi ( k ,l )  a sin 4\ 3mi ( k ,l ) ui(r  a)ucos i 4\r 2cos
i  (r2i  a) sin 4\ 3mi ( k3,il ) (r (!r a).a );
uim ( k ,l ) ui( k ,l )  a cos 4\ 2mi ( k ,l )  a sin 4\ 3mi ( k ,l )  (r  a) cos 4\ 2mi ( k ,l )  (r  a) sin 4\ 3mi ( k ,l ) (r ! a).

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. DIFFERENT
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The next step consists in the representation of internal and kinetic energies for cells as
functions of dis-placements introduced in (8.41) . The spreading operation is then carried
out, and energy is determined at the fiber center. The averaged global displacements are then
equated to the displacements at the center of the fiber in the initial discrete cell system.

These averaged displacements define a new homogeneous continuum. The equality

between energies in the discrete and spread cells complete the scheme of energy
continualization. The density of strain energy of the new continuum depends on
the effective moduli, but includes additional constants depending on parameters
of the microstructure and have a sense of effective stiffness. The model (theory) has
therefore named the model (theory) of effective stiffness.

At the final stage of the theory’s construction, Hamilton’s principle is used. On the whole,
continuum theories of different orders were obtained as a function of the number of terms
retained in the representations of the energy densities.

Note 8.17. Some disadvantage of models of effective stiffness (like to the most of
structural models of composite materials is that they describe only the first, lowest,
modes of wave propagation. A series of experiments have confirmed for some time
now, however, that the cont-ribution of the first modes is dominant in the majority
of cases. This is also required the app- roximate models.

Drumheller-Bedford’s models of effective stiffness of high orders

Drumheller and Bedford provide a bibliography on theories of effective stiffness of orders

greater than the first one. They proposed a new approach, which makes it possible to
construct a model of any order and can model stresses in layered composites.

The theory of effective stiffness permitted to investigate the problems of harmonic

wave propagation in infinite layered and fibrous composites using different variants
of the model. At the same time, the exact theory catches these characteristic features
of waves well, and they are observed experimentally.

A variant of the theory, which its authors call the theory of equalized effective stiffness, has
been developed to improve the description of the frequency spectrum to bring the later as
closely as possible to the exact description. This theory approximates well zones of wave
cutting-off and transmission in layered media.

Asymptotic models of high orders

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. DIFFERENT
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

The theory of directionally reinforced (fibrous and layered) composites has been proposed
in the 1970s, which, like the theory of effective stiffness, is based on the expansion of a
displacement vector in some series. It is additionally supposed in this theory that the wave-
length is essentially larger than the typical size of the microstructure.

Depending on the numbers of terms, which are retained in asymptotic expansions

on the obtained small parameter, the theories of various orders are built. The fact
of asymptotic expansion assumed here to be the main, and, in the connection of
this, such a model is related to models, which are based on asymptotic expansions.
This model differs essentially from the model of effective stiffness since here the
displacements contain the gradients of high orders and constitutive equations have
the form of equations of materials of N th order. This assumption ensures averaging
and continualization.

Also, the continuum approach to the layered continua based on asymptotic expansions was
developed. Within the framework of these models, the plane waves in layered composites were
studied. On the whole, such continuum approaches give better exactness in the description
of dispersion curves than many other models.

Sutherland-Bedford: lattice (non-continuum) microstructural models

Theories based on discrete models of lattices form the isolated direction in the microstructural
analysis of composites. A feature of these theories consists in that here the discrete structure
of composites is modeled by the discrete lattice model, too. For the first time the approach,
which used the lattice model, was applied to the layered plates. An introduction of lattices
was based on Bloch and Floquet theorems.

Note 8.18. One should remark that the authors of the non-continuum lattice models
have participated in the construction of many other structural continuum models.

The one-dimensional discrete model of a lattice is proposed for the description of waves
in fibrous materials. As a ground for this model, the fact is taken that in the case of wave
propagation in the direction normal to fibers the last ones work as rigid obstacles similar
to the particles in lattice nodes. This lattice model is developed for the description of a
phenomenon of geometrical dispersion of waves. It is supposed also that a form of fibers
(cross-section) has a small effect on the dispersion and periodicity of fibres in space is essential.
The lattice parameters are proposed to determine from a system of the correspondence to basic
physical parameters of the composite as the medium, through which the waves propagate.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. DIFFERENT
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

For example, four conditions of equality of parameters have to be fulfilled for:

1. The stopping (cut) frequencies of a composite and a lattice.
2. The wave-numbers which correspond to these frequencies.
3. The phase velocities of longitudinal waves in the lattice and the composite.
4. The mean densities of the lattice and the composite.

Note 8.19. It is widely assumed that the continuum theories of composite materials
have some advantages over discrete ones. First of all, for the reason that they are
related to more wide classes of problems and they are more useful than applying in
mechanics mathematical methods. Practically, all structural models are sufficiently
complicated in their constructions. Maybe, that highlights the complexity of
macroscopic processes during the composite materials deformation. Or, probably,
that highlights the level of development of structural mechanics of materials.

Mindlin’s microstructural theory

This theory has a few features:

F1. It uses the new for continuum mechanics mathematical tool – it introduces
the notion of a vector-director.
F2. It is one of the first structural theories, where the isolated cell is used as an
element of a periodic structure.
F3. It was not further developed in theory and had not been likely used in the
practical problems of mechanics. Focus on composite materials
Focus on composite materials
Thus, applicability to the determined cell structure constitutes an essential feature of
Focus on composite materials
this theory. The proposed by Mindlin microstructural theory is based on the analysis of
the cell as a linear variant of a deformable director. This model can be considered as the
essential step in constructing the continual models: if the cell is considered as absolutely
rigid during rotations, the microstructural model is reduced to the Cosserat model of the
moment continuum.

In the general case, the having its microstructure cell is described on the macro-
level by an elastic continuum, the linear deformation of which is characterized by
three independent tensors:

the tensor of macrostrains H ij 1 2   u j ,i  ui , j  ;

the tensor of relative strains J ij u j ,i \ ij ; (8.42)

the tensor of micro-strain gradient N ijk w i\ jk .

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Here, ui are components of the macro displacements vector and \ ij w i/ u /j are the
components micro-strains tensor that is proportional of components of displacements
of the tip of deformable director.

Note 8.20. The classical model of elastic deformation is essentially more simple
and is based only on the macro-strain tensor H ij 1 2   u j ,i  ui , j  .

This continuum theory is constructed based on the formalism of the classical theory of
elasticity on the bases of assigned in the microstructural model kinematic parameters H ij ,\ ij , N ijk
. The insurmountable difficulties should arise in the determination of the physical constants
of the theory. There are 903 constants in the general case (21 independent constants in the
theory of elasticity), and 18 independent constants for the isotropic case (2 independent
constants in the theory of elasticity).

Eringen’s micromorphic model. Evolution into Eringen-Maugin’s model

Approximately at the same time with the above mentioned Mindlin microstructural model,
Eringen and Suhubi proposed a model that they called the micromorphic model. In this model,
the macrocontinuum is described by an elastic medium, each point xk of which is additionally
G
rigged with three deformable directors X K ( or one deformable vector-director X ).

Kinematics of the micromorphic continuum is described by three tensors:

Green classical strain tensor CKL xk ,K xk ,L ; ; (8.43)

two microstrain tensors S KL xk ,K X k ,L , * KLM xk , K X k , LM .

Thereafter, the micromorphic model is constructed in the same way as the previous Mindlin
model. In general, they are very similar. Their fates have been completely different, however,
even despite their obvious abstractness.

The micromorphic theory has found unusual applications in the theory of waves
in piezoelectric materials. The so-called piezopowders with a small compacting
become the granular composite materials. They testify the three-stage evolution of
piezomaterials.

Piezoelectric phenomena were initially associated with crystals; since the structure of
a single crystal satisfactorily characterized the material, however, a question of the
material microstructure didn’t arise here. It might seem, the discovery of piezoceramics

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and the study of waves in these materials could draw attention to the behavior of
the components of the ceramics, i.e., to their internal structure. But assumptions
concerning the mechanical uniformity of a characteristic volume of ceramics and
the domain structure of polarization were found, however, to be sufficient. Again,
the microstructure was found not to be necessary. Only the study and use of the
third generation of piezoelectric materials - the granulated piezoelectric powders -
has finally forced us to consider the microstructure of the material in models of its
piezoelectric behavior. This was done in the framework of the micromorphic theory
by Eringen, Maugin, and others and later was continued for the mixture theory.

It is rather natural to convert the theory ofonpiezoelasticity

Focus to a micromorphic theory. With
composite materials
Focus on composite materials
respect to piezoelectric powders consisting of a mixture of piezoceramic granules and usual
granules of naphthalene or lead, it is expedient to use the microstructural model. In these
Focus on composite materials
powders, the electrical polarization, which is normally modeled by a vector field in physics,
is the determining physical parameter. Moreover, it is easy to represent the domains in the
form of such a microstructural characterristic as a granule. On the whole, the micromorphic
theory elegantly explains several physical effects.

Note 8.21. Where the subject of interest is wave propagation in granular powders such
that the wavelengths are sufficiently close to the characteristic size of the microstructure
(for example, the major diameter of the granule), a good approximation yields another
microstructural model, the model of a mixture. This model gives a good approach
for the linear and nonlinear wave investigation and will be discussed later.

Pobedrya’s micropolar structural theory

The classic micropolar approach arises when the modern procedure of averaging is applied
to the compo- site with the regularly repeated elementary cell. Such an approach was
proposed by Pobedrya. The written in displacements initial inhomogeneous problem of the
linear theory of elasticity

ª¬Cijkl ( x)uk ,l º¼  X i
,j
U ui ,tt ; (8.44)

aij6C jklnul ,n nk  bij6u j Si6 ; ui ( x,0) U i ( x); ui ,t ( x,0) Vi ( x)

is reduced to the recurrent sequence of written in displacements problems of the linear theory
of elasticity for an anisotropic homogeneous medium with some effective elastic moduli

hijmn wm( k,nj)  X i( k ) U wi(,ktt) ; (8.45)

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. DIFFERENT
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(k ) (k )
aij6 h jlmn wm( k,n) ni  bij6 w(jk ) Si6 ( k ) ; wi ( x,0) U i ( x); wi(,kt ) ( x,0) Vi ( k ) ( x) .

Besides, the solution ui ( x, t ) of initial problem (8.44) is linked in sufficiently complicate form
with the solution wi( k ) ( x, t ) of new problem
f w p v j ,k1 ...kq ( x, t ) f
ui ( x, t ) ¦
pq 0
D pq
N ( p)
ijk1 ...kq ([ )
wW p
; vi ¦D
D 0
k
wi( k ) .

Here, the small parameter D is equal to the ratio of the characteristic size of
microstructure and the construction, and [ x D .

The feature of this model is that in the zero approximation the local displacement within
the cell can be evaluated as

ui vi  D N ijk ([ )v j ,k ( x) .

In the notation of equations (8.44) and (8.45) the constitutive equations are absent.
Therefore, the system of equations is not complete. In other notation, when the
problem is written in stre-ses, this problem is reduced to the problem of moment
homogeneous theory of elasticity.

In one’s turn, the moment problem is reduced to a recurrent sequence of problems

of the theory of elasticity in stresses for an anisotropic homogeneous medium with
averaged moduli of mechanical compliances. One considers that the procedure
of evaluation of effective moduli of elasticity and compliance is well developed.
The scheme of the microstructural theory permits, in Pobedrya opinion, to use
successfully the modern numerical methods.

Thus, some fundamental formulations and sentences relative the composite materials are
expounded in this chapter. Also, the basic facts from the theory of effective (averaged)
constants and the main microstructural theories of composite materials are presented here.
They together form only some basis for understanding the theory of composite materials
that is developed in the structural mechanics of materials.

Comments
Comment 8.1. The developed in the mechanics approximate models and structural theories of
elastic deformation of the composite materials are mainly sufficiently simple. The mechanical
tests showed that these models and theories predict some mechanical phenomena quite
satisfactorily. It is worthy to recall the Ukrainian medieval philosopher Grigory Skovoroda,

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who once said: “We should be obliged to God, that He founded the world in such a way
that all that is simple is the truth, and all that is complicated, is not the truth”.

Comment 8.2. It seems to rational to repeat here the basic facts from the structural mechanics
of materials. The structural mechanics of materials is meant as a part of investigations on
the mechanics of materials, in which the internal structure of materials is taken into account
in a quantitative and qualitative sense when the models of materials being constructed and
corresponding problems being studied.

When the structural mechanics of materials is defined in such a way, then the object of its
study is coming to the large class of modern materials, including:

natural composites, like the true wood from trees as well as the woody plants, internal

structure of which is defined by the presence of layers of different properties;
reinforced concrete, the internal structure of which is defined by the presence of armature;
metals, alloys, and ceramics, the internal structure of which is defined by the presence of
grains and other structural components;
composite materials, the internal structure of which is defined by the presence of granules,
fibers, and layers and which include last time nanocomposites, the internal structure of which
is defined by the presence of nanogranules, nanofibers, and nanolayers.

Thus, the science on the mechanical behavior of composite materials is only one big part
of the huge volume of knowledge on materials with the internal structure. Therefore, it is
constructed on the rich prior experience of studying the materials.

Comment 8.3. The John Bernal’s closing remarks at a 1963 science conference on new
material show the philosophical essence of mechanics of materials as the theoretical science.
So, he said:

We, academic scientists, are in a certain sphere. We can continue to be useless to

some extent in the certainty that sooner or later our works will be found some
use. Of course, the mathematician prides himself on his complete futility, but he
is usually the most useful of all. He finds a solution, but he doesn’t care what the
problem is. Sooner or later someone will find a problem, the answer to which is
his solution.

Here we must rethink our goals. We’re talking about new materials, but ultimately
we’re not so much interested in the materials themselves as in the structures in
which they should function. Our theme is primarily the practical requirements and

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

their satisfaction. But how do we know what these requirements are if we do not
know what they can be satisfied? We often like all kinds of things we can’t get.
On the other hand, how do we know that someone needs the substance we got.
… We should be able to provide the requests that we will have, and fulfill them,
so to speak, upfront, invent all sorts of crazy materials, and then find their use.

Further reading
8.1. A chenbach, JD 1976, Generalized continuum theories for directionally reinforced solids.
Arch. of Mech., 35, N4, 257-278.
8.2. Achenbach, JD & Sun, CT 1972, The directionally reinforced composite as a homogeneous
continuum with microstructure. In: Dynamics of Composite Materials. Lee, EH (ed).
ASME, New York, 48-69.
8.3. Atkin, RJ & Crain, RE 1976, Continuum theory of mixtures: basic theory and historical
developments. Quart. J. Mech. and Appl. Math., 29, N2, 209-244.
8.4. Bedford, A & Drumheller, DS 1983, Theories of immiscible and structured mixtures.
Int. J. Engng. Sci., 21, N8, 863-960.
8.5. Bedford, A, Drumheller, DS & Sutherland, HJ 1976, On modelling the dynamics of
composite materials. In: Nemat-Nasser, S, Mechanics Today, Vol.3, Pergamon Press,
New York, 1-54.
8.6. Bedford, A & Sutherland, HJ 1973, A lattice model for stress wave propagation in
composite materials. Trans. ASME. J. Appl. Mech., 40, N1, 157-164.
8.7. Ben-Amoz, M 1975, On wave propagation in laminated composites. - I. Propagation
parallel to the laminates. Int. J. Engng. Sci., 14, N1, 43-56.
8.8. Ben-Amoz, M 1975, On wave propagation in laminated composites. - II. Propagation
normal to the laminates. Int. J. Engng. Sci., 14, N1, 57-67.
8.9. Bhushan, B (ed) 2004, Springer Handbook on Nanotechnology. Springer, Berlin.
8.10. Bolotin, VV & Novichkov, YN 1980, Mechanics of Multilayer Structures. Mashinostroenie,
Moscow. (in Russian).
8.11. Bowen, PM 1976, Mixtures and EM Field Theories. In: Continuum Physics, Vol III,
Eringen, AC (ed). Academic Press, New York, 1-127.
8.12. Broutman, LJ & Krock, RH (eds) 1974-1975, Composite Materials, In 8 vols., Academic
Press, New York.
8.13. Buryachenko, VA, Roy, A, Lafdi, K, Anderson, KL & Chellapilla, S 2005, Multiscale
mechanics of nanocomposites including interface: Experimental and numerical
investigation. Composites Science and Technology, 65, 2435-2465.
8.14. Cattani, C & Rushchitsky, JJ 2007, Wavelet and Wave Analysis as applied to Materials
with Micro- and Nano- structure. World Scientific, London-Singapore.

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

8.15. Christensen, RM 1979, Mechanics of Composite Materials. John Wiley & Sons, New
York.
8.16. Courtney, TH 2000, Mechanical Behavior of Materials. (2nd ed). McGraw Hill, Boston.
8.17. Daniel, IM & Ishai, O 1994, Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials. Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
8.18. Drumheller, DS & Bedford, A 1974, Wave propagation in elastic laminates using a
second order microstruc ture theory. Int. J. Solids Struct., N10, 61-76.
8.19. Drumheller, DS & Sutherland, HJ 1973, Lattice model of a composite material for
the investigation of stress waves propagation. Trans. of ASME, J. Appl. Mech., 40,
N1,157-164.
8.20. Elhajjar, R, La Saponara, V & Muliana, A (eds) 2017, Smart Composites: Mechanics
and Design (Composite Materials). CRC Press, Boca Raton. 
8.21. Eringen, AC & Suhubi, ES 1964, Nonlinear theory of simple microelastic solids, Int.
J. Engng. Sci., 2, N2, 189-203.
8.22. Eringen, AC 1972, Theory of micromorphic materials with memory, Int. J. Engng.
Sci., 10, N7, 623-641.
8.23. Green, AE & Steel, TR1966, Constitutive equations for interacting continua, Int. J.
Engng.Sci., 4, N4, 483-500.
8.24. Guz, AN (ed) 1982, Mechanics of Composite Materials and Structural Elements. In 3
vols. Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian).
8.25. Guz, AN (ed) 1993-2003, Mechanics of Composites. In 12 vols, Naukova Dumka,
Kiev. (In Russian).
8.26. Guz, AN, Markus, S, Kabelka, J, Ehrenstein, G, Rushchitsky, JJ and others 1993,
Dynamics and Stability of Layered Composite Materials. Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In
Russian).
8.27. Guz, AN, Shulga, NA, Kosmodamiansky, AS, Rushchitsky, JJ and others 1993,
Dynamics and Stability of Materials, Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In Russian).
8.28. Guz, AN & Rushchitsky, JJ 2004, Nanomaterials. On mechanics of nanomaterials.
Int. Appl. Mech., 39, N11, 1271-1293.
8.29. Guz, AN & Rushchitsky, JJ 2013, Short Introduction to Mechanics of Nanocomposites.
Scientific&Academic Publishing, Rosemead, CA.
8.30. Jones, RM. 1999, Mechanics of Composite Materials. (2nd ed). Taylor & Francis, London.
8.31. Hegemier, GA & Nayfeh, AN 1973, A continuum theory for wave propagation in
composites.- Case 1: propagation normal to the laminate, Trans. ASME. J. Appl.
Mech., 40, N2, 503-510.
8.32. Hegemier, GA & Bache, TC 1973, A continuum theory for wave propagation in
composites.- Case 2: propagation parallel the laminates. J. of Elasticity, 3, N2, 125-140.
8.33. Hegemier, GA & Bache, TC 1974, A general continuum theory with the microstructure
for the wave propagation in elastic laminated composites. Trans. ASME. J. Appl. Mech.,
41, N1, 101-105.

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

8.34. H errmann, G, Kaul, RK & Delph, TG 1978, On continuum modelling of the dynamic
behaviour of layered composites. Archives of Mechanics, 28, N3, 405-421.
8.35. Hollaway, L (ed) 1994, Handbook of Polymer Composites for Engineers. Woodhead
Publishing, New York.
8.36. 
Hull, D 1981, Introduction to Composite Materials. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
8.37. Katz, HS & Milewski, JV (eds) 1978, Handbook of Fillers and Reinforcements for
Plastics. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York.
8.38. Kaw, AK 2005, Mechanics of Composite Materials. (2nd ed.). CRC, Boca Raton.
8.39. Kelly, A 1985, Composites in context. Composites Science and Technology. 23, 171-199.
8.40. Kelly, A & Zweben, C (eds) 2000, Comprehensive Composite Materials. In 6 vols,
Pergamon Press, Amsterdam.
8.41. Kravchuk, AS, Mayboroda, VP & Urzhumtsev, YS 1985, Mechanics of polymeric and
composite materials. Experimental and numerical methods. Nauka, Moscow. (In Russian)
8.42. Lau, KT & Hui, D 2002, The revolutionary creating of new advanced carbon nanotube
composite. Composites. Part B: Engineering, 33, 263-277.
8.43. Lee, EH 1972, A survey of variational methods for elastic wave propagation analysis
in composites with periodical structures. In: Lee, EH (ed), Dynamic of Composite
Materials, ASME, New York, 1-10.
8.43. Lempriere, B 1969, On practicability of analyzing waves in composites by the theory of
mixtures. Lockheed Palo Alto Research Laboratory, Report No LMSC-6-78-69-21, 76-90.
8.44. Lubin, G (ed) 1982, Handbook of Composites. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company,
New York.
8.45. Matthews, FL & Rawlings, RD 1999, Composite Materials: Engineering and Science.
CRC Press, Boca Raton. 
8.46. Maugin, GA & Eringen, AC 1977, On the equations of the electrodynamics of
deformable bodies of finite ex- Tent. Journal de Mechanique, 16, N1, 101-147.
8.47. McNiven, HD & Mengi, Y 1979, A mathematical model for the linear dynamic
behavior of two-phase periodic materials. Int. J. Solids Struct., 15, N1, 271-280.
8.48. McNiven, HD & Mengi, Y 1979, A mixture theory for elastic laminated composites.
Int. J. Solids Struct., 15, N1, 281-302.
8.49. Milne, I, Ritchie, RO & Karihaloo, B (eds) 2003, Comprehensive Structural Integrity.
In 10 vols, Elsevier, New York.
8.50. Mindlin, RD 1964, Microstructure in linear elasticity. Arch. Rat. Mech. Anal.,16,
N1, 51-78.
8.51. Nalwa, HS 2000, Handbook of Nanostructured Materials and Nanotechnology. Academic
Press, San Diego.
8.52. Nemat-Nasser, S & Hori, M 1993, Micromechanics: Overall Properties of Heterogeneous
Materials. North-Holland, Amsterdam.

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

8.53. N igmatulin, RI 1978, Foundations of Mechanics of Heterogeneous Media. Nauka,

Moscow. (In Russian)
8.54. Nigmatulin, RI 1987, Dynamics of Multi-Phase Media. In 2 parts, Nauka, Moscow.
(In Russian)
8.55. Pobedrya, BE 1984, Mechanics of Composite Materials. Moscow University Publishing
House, Moscow. (In Russian)
8.56. Rushchitsky, JJ (1991), Elements of the theory of mixtures. Naukova Dumka, Kyiv. (in
Russian)
8.57. Rushchitsky, JJ & Tsurpal, S.I. (1998), Waves in Materials with the Microstructure.
S.P.Timoshenko Institute of Mechanics, Kiev. (In Ukrainian)
8.58. Rushchitsky, JJ (1999), Interaction of waves in solid mixtures. App. Mech. Rev., 52,
N2, 35-74.
8.59. Sahimi, M 2003, Heterogeneous Materials. Nonlinear and Breakdown Properties and
Atomistic Modeling. Springer, New York.
8.60. Skudra, AM & Bulavs, FY (1978), Structural Theory of Reinforced Plastics. Zinatne,
Riga. (In Russian)
8.61. Steel, TR (1967), Applications of a theory of interacting continua. Quart. J. Mech.
and Appl. Math., 20, N1, 57-72.
8.62. Steel, TR (1968), Determination of the constitutive coefficients for a mixture of two
solids. Int. J. Solids and Struct., 4, N12, 1149-1160.
8.63. Sutherland, HJ (1979), Dispersion of acoustic waves by an alumina-epoxy mixture.
J. Compos. Mater., 13, N1, 35-47.
8.64. Tiersten, TR & Jahanmir, M (1977), A theory of composites modeled as interpenetrating
solid continua. Arch. Rat. Mech. Anal., 54, N2, 153-163.
8.65. Thostenson, E, Chunyu, L. & Chou, TW (2005), Nano-composites in context (review).
Composites Science and Technology, 65, 491-516.
8.66. Torquato, S (2003), Random Heterogeneous Materials: Microstructure and Macroscopic
Properties, Springer, New York.
8.67. Tsai, SW & Hahn, HT 1980, Introduction to Composite Materials. Technomic, Wesport,
CT.
8.68. Vaia RA & Wagner, HD 2004, Framework for nanocomposites, Materials Today,
N10, 32-37.
8.69. Van Fo Fy, GA 1971, Theory of Armed Materials with Coatings, Naukova Dumka,
Kiev. (In Russian)
8.70. Vanin, GA 1985, Micromechanics of Composite Materials. Naukova Dumka, Kiev. (In
Russian)
8.71. Wagner, HD & Vaia, RA 2004, Nanocomposites: issues the interface. Materials Today,
N10, 38-42.
8.72. Yakobson, BI & Avouris, P 2001, Mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes. In:
Topics in Advanced Physics. Vol. 80. Carbon nanotubes: synthesis, structure, properties,

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODELS OF ELASTIC DEFORMATION

and applications. Dresselhaus, MS, Dresselhaus, G & Avouris, P (eds) 2001. Springer,
Berlin, 287-329.

Questions
8.1.  nlarge on the list of the natural composite materials which are used in private life.
E
8.2. Which artificial composite materials were used in ancient Rome and China empires?
8.3. Write three types of industrial composites most widespread over the world.
8.4. Comment on the situation when macro-, meso-, micro-, and nanomechanics of

composite materials are developed basing on the continuum models. This fact testifies
the conservatism or the power of the continuum approach in mechanics?
8.5.  Comment the diffuseness of the border between the macro-, meso-, micro-, and
nanomechanics of composite materials by the criterion of the characteristic size of
internal structure. Why the ranges of these parts of mechanics are so overlapped?
8.6. Why the theoretical prediction of the mechanical properties of the artificial composite
materials is more important as compared with other types of engineering materials, where
the experimental tests are the main tool in the determination of mechanical properties?
8.7. Try to find the formulas for averaged properties of composite materials which are
proposed for the not classical (isotropic, transversely isotropic, orthotropic) cases of
symmetry.

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODEL OF ELASTIC MIXTURES

9 FOCUS ON COMPOSITE
MATERIALS. STRUCTURAL
MODEL OF ELASTIC MIXTURES
Basic facts. Historical sketch. Diffusional model. Linear
elastic model. Two-phase mixture. Basic assumptions and
hypotheses. Three mechanisms of interaction. Internal
energy. Constitutive equations. Generalized Lame equations.
Physical constants of mixture – isotropic, transversely
isotropic, orthotropic mixture. Eight cases of evaluation of
physical constants. Example on plane longitudinal waves
in fibrous composite.

SOME PRELIMINARY INFORMATION

This continuum structural model of two-component (one-phase) mixtures is marked out
separately for that reason that, among all microstructural models, it is the most developed.
Its basic advantage consists in the fact that it can be constructed similar to the classical
theory of elasticity, and in point of fact it can be meant as the direct generalization of the
one-continuum model on the multi-continuum model with the same set of thermodynamical
parameters.

The direct generalization means that the theory of mixtures includes the results of analysis of
the general problems (including the basic statements, formulation of variational principles,
and problems of well-posedness), the statical problems (including the representations of the
general solutions and the properties of solutions), the dynamical problems (including the
problems of wave propagation), the problems of stability.

Note 9.1. The composite materials are the typical representative of the heterogeneous
materials. The simplest case of the real composite materials is when they consist of
two components. At that, the linear theory of elasticity uses the one-component
model mainly by the approach of averaged (effective) moduli, whereas the model
of the mixture uses the model of the two-component mixture.

Note 9.2. For denoting the real mixture and the mixture as the theoretical model
the same term “mixture” is used.

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Historical sketch. The multi-phase mixtures as an object of studies have the old history
beginning with the Fick (1855) and Stefan (1871) publications. The concept of interpenetrating
and interacting continua forms a theoretical basis. In consequence of that, all developed
within the framework of such conception theories are continuum ones.

THE ESSENCE OF THIS CONCEPT CONSISTS IN THAT

EACH GEOMETRICAL POINT OF A FILLED BY
THE MIXTURE DOMAIN (BODY)
IS SIMULTANEOUSLY OCCUPIED BY TWO (IF A MIXTURE IS TWO-PHASE)
OR THREE (IF A MIXTURE IS THREE-PHASE) PARTICLES (PHASES,
COMPONENTS), BETWEEN OF WHICH THE RELATIVE MOTION OCCURS.

The most number of publications was observed in that part of the mechanics of multi-
phase mixtures, which studies the soils saturated by gas or fluid. Transnational gas and oil
companies nourish the interest of the scientific community to such mixtures. The concept
of mixtures was applied to composite materials already at that time, when for other types
of mixtures - suspensions, emulsions, and others - accumulated a lot of theoretical and
experimental facts.

Therefore, the proposed by Green and Steel first variant of the mixture model of
elastic materials had even not a proper of the matter of elastic deformation name
the diffusional model. The point is that the hypothesis on the diffusional character
of the transmission of force pulse from one phase to another phase (so-called the
force interphase interaction) is natural for the fluid-saturated porous materials and
is adopted for solid mixtures from there.

Unfortunately, authors of the diffusional model have not been paid attention to
some contradiction between the hypothesis of diffusivity for a force pulse and a
more global hypothesis of elasticity for deformation of the mixture. The elasticity
can’t have as consequence the energy atte-nuation, whereas the diffusional force
pulse is directly proportional to a relative velocity of phases and, therefore, it
introduces into the full energy some term testifying the energy scatte-ring in an
elastic material. This circum-stance was the implicit cause of the inadequateness
of the proposed diffusional model with observed effects in conventional composite
materials. The diffusional model has been gone the full cycle of evolution, and at
present is remembering very seldom.

Construction of the adequate to composite materials mixture theory was begun by Lempriere,
Bedford, Stern publications, in which the shear model of the force interaction between phases
was proposed. For layered composites an intuitive structural one-dimensional model was

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composite
Focus
Focus
ononmaterials
on composite
composite
composite
Focus materials
materials
materials
on composite materi
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. STRUCTURAL
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODEL OF ELASTIC MIXTURES

constructed, where was observed that owing to the distinction of shear properties of layers,
the macro interaction force arises between contacting layers, and it is directly proportional
to a difference of macrodisplacements in layers. In terms of the phenomenological mixture
model, that means the force interaction between phases is directly proportional to the
difference of phase displacements. This mechanism was called the shear mechanism by its
physical nature. As it was turned out, the shear mechanism introduces not dissipation into
mixture full energy and don’t contradict the basic concept. It describes well the geometrical
dispersion phenomenon, everywhere observed in wave processes in composite materials.
The shear model demonstrates the high practicability of the mixture concept to composite
materials and shows the close interlink between the microstructural mixture theory and
other various approaches in the mechanics of composites.

The slightly more general concept of the linear model of elastic two-phase mixtures
was proposed in the works of Bedford and Rushchitsky. First of all, there was shown
that the basic hypothesis of a linear elastic deformation admit only two mechanisms
of the force interaction - shear and inertial.

The inertial interaction mechanism is caused by distinction in inertial properties

of phases. It can be introduced formally by taking into account the phase cross-
interaction in mixture kinetic energy as a whole. This mechanism is essential in
many types of mixtures and was taken into account in many models.

Consider now the TWO-PHASE (TWO-COMPONENT) MIXTURES.

First, the basic assumptions of any mixture theory should be adopted:

A1. Th
 e microstructure of a two-component composite can be described by two
continua, the material particles of which are placed simultaneously at each
geometric point of a domain and interact with each other.
A2. Each continuum is characterized by its own set of field characteristics of the
partial density UDD , the partial vector of displacements uG (D ) and the partial
tensors of the stresses V ik(D ) , strains H ik(D ) , and rotations Zik(D ) Here and later, the
Greek superscripts and Latin subscripts are equal to 1 and 2, and 1,2, and 3,
respectively.

Note 9.3. Following traditions of mechanics of heterogeneous media, the parameter

is named partial if it characterizes one phase only.

For the well-posed description of a mixture, three hypotheses also are formulated:

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 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. STRUCTURAL
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODEL OF ELASTIC MIXTURES

H1. A ll properties of a mixture should be the mathematical consequence of mixture

phases properties.
H2. To describe the motion of a separately taken component, this component
should be mentally isolated from the rest of a mixture with the condition that
interaction between phases is taken into account.
H3. The motion of a mixture is described by the same balance equations as the
motion of separately taken phase.

The basic equations of the theory of mixtures are derived, assuming the laws of
mass, momentum, angular momentum, and energy conservation are valid for the
mixture.

The first three laws are always written for each component separately. The theoriesFocus
of any
on composite material

mixtures are divided into two parts, depending on the law of energy conservation written
either for each component separately or for a mixture as a whole. This division is essential
because of its effects.

In the case “separately” the theory used the physical constants of each phase, whereas
Focus on composite materials

in materials
Focus on composite the case “as a whole” the phase constants aren’t be used. In the first variant, minus
consists in that theoretical constants may differ very markedly from the real one,
plus in return consists in that these constants were long ago written in handbooks.
In the second variant, minus consists in that the complete set of physical constants
have to be determined from special experiments, plus consists in that the constants
will more or less precisely correspond to the concrete composite material.

Writing the basic equations needs an introduction of some classical notions and symbols.
Let the mixture fills the body with a volume V . The motion of each phase of the mixture
will be described relative to the fixed orthogonal Cartesian coordinates. The basic equation
is assumed as the equation of energy balance. It is considered as a consequence of previous
balance equations (mass, momentum, angular momentum), if the energy scattering isn’t
taken into account in the mixture. Since it is usually assumed that the mixture is elastic
deformed only, hence it is not taken into account.

The assumption about the elastic character of deformation led to the theory of elastic
mixtures. In turn, the assumption about the linearity of deformation and all other processes
simplifies the basic system of equations.

In the linear elastic model, the mixture as a thermodynamical system is described by two
kinematical parameters: the partial strain tensors H ik(D ) and the relative displacements vectors
 uk(1)  uk(2)  . Therefore, the internal energy of the mixture as a whole is represented as a
function of these parameters

173
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. STRUCTURAL
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODEL OF ELASTIC MIXTURES

U = U  H ik(1) , H ik(2) , uk(1)  uk(2)  .(9.1)

From an analysis of internal energy (9.1), a few important formulas can be obtained, which
are consequences of some thermodynamic hypotheses


d U =  w U / wH ik(D )  d H ik(D )   w U / w  uk(1)  uk(2)  d  uk(1)  uk(2)  ,

V (D )
ik  w U / wH (D )
ik , R(1)
k  w U / w u (1)
k u (2)
k  d u (1)
k  uk(2)  ,
1 2
U
2 D ,E 1 ¬
^
¦ ªw 2 U  0  / wH ik(D )wH nm( E ) º¼ H ik(D )H nm( E ) 

2 ª¬w 2 U  0  / wH ik(D )w  uk(1)  uk(2)  º H ik(D )  uk(1)  uk(2)  
¼

 1
`
2 ª¬w 2 U  0  / w  uk(1)  uk(2)  w  um(1)  um(2)  º  uk(1)  uk(2)  um(1)  um(2)   d 3 U+ "
¼ 3!

These formulas permit to write the constitutive equations for a linear anisotropic mixture
can be written as

V ik(D ) ( x, t ) ciklm
(D ) (D ) (3) (G )
H lm ( x, t )  ciklm H lm ( x, t ) (D  G 3) .(9.2)

In the linear theory, an interaction between mixture phases is described by three mechanisms.
They are introduced into the linear theory using phenomenological considerations. The
interaction force is represented as a sum of two forces, which characterize a change of kinetic
and internal energies owing to the phase interaction, respectively From the kinetic energy
consideration follows that the interaction of the phases is displayed by the presence of a
new additive term in the kinetic energy, which has the form of added mass energy. This
mechanism is called the inertial mechanism. The second mechanism consists in the cross
in-fluence of one phase strains on stresses of another phase. It is displayed in constitutive
equations (9.2). The third mechanism was initially offered for the one-dimensional model.
Here, the interaction force is directly proportional to the relative displacement of phases at
each point. This force in the layer composite, along layers of which the shear wave propagates,
is the shear force over the boundary between layers. This mechanism is therefore called
the shear mechanism. Owing to Bedford’s works the theory with such a type of interaction
mechanism is called the Bedford theory.

The mass in the solid mixtures is assumed usually invariable. Therefore, the balance equation
for mass is trivial. The balance equations for momentum and momentum of momentum
are written for each phase separately.

Finally, the basic system of equations of the linear theory of elastic mixtures is constituted
from the coup-led system of six equations of the motion

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. STRUCTURAL
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODEL OF ELASTIC MIXTURES
Focus on composite materials

Focus on composite materials

wV ik(D ) ª § w 2uk(1) w 2uk(1) · º w 2uk(D )
 Fk(D )  (1)D « E k  uk(1)  uk(2)   U12 ¨ 2
 ¸» UDD Focus on composite materials
wxi ¬ © wt wt 2 ¹ ¼ wt 2
Focus on composite materials

and six linear constitutive equations (1.58), thus giving six coupled hyperbolic differential
equations of the 2nd order

ª § w 2u (1) w 2u (1) · º w 2uk(D )

H lm,i  Fk(D )  (1)D « E k  uk(1)  uk(2)   U12 ¨ 2k  2k ¸ »
Focus on composite mater
(D ) (D )
ciklm (3) (G )
H lm ,i  ciklm UDD ..(9.3)
¬ © wt wt ¹ ¼ wt 2

Consider now the simplest case of the isotropic mixture. Then the basic equations (9.3) are
some generali-zation of classical Lame equations and have the form of six coupled hyperbolic
partial differential equations of the 2nd order

G G G
PD 'u (D )   OD PD  grad div u (D )  P3'u (G ) 

G G G G G
  O3P3  grad div u (G )  E  u (G )  u (D )   UDD  U12  u,(ttD ) U12u,(ttG ) . (9.4)

The next important fragment of this theory is the physical constants.

It seems to be worthy to repeat here the note from Chapter 8 devoted to the composite
materials.

Note 9.4. It is considered that the constitutive equations and determination of

physical constants for some set of composite materials are related to the fundamental
facts of mechanics of composite materials.

This note explains why the constitutive equations and formulas for evaluation of
elastic constants are shown in this chapter.

For the classical three cases of symmetry of material, the model includes the
following mechanical constants:

Isotropic mixture. 10 independent constants: Ok , Pk , E , UDD , U12

Transversally-isotropic mixture. 20 independent constants: c11( nkk) , c3333

(n) (n)
, c1313 , E1 E 2 , E 3 , UDD , U12 .

Orthotropic mixture. 33 independent constants: cmmkk

(n) (n)
, c1212 (n)
, c1313 (n)
, c2323 , E n , UDD , U12 .

There exist a few different approaches to the determination and clearing up of a

(D )
physical sense of constants E n , ciklm , U12 and a common position on the method of
determination of partial densities UDD .

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 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. STRUCTURAL
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODEL OF ELASTIC MIXTURES

Let us comment this position. In the beginning, to focus the attention on stresses and to
remember that theoretically, each phase of a mixture occupies simultaneously with another
phase the elementary (unit) volume fully, whereas really all phases together occupy the
same elementary volume and each phase occupies only its part of the Focus elementary
on Focus volume.
composite
on materialsmaterials
composite
All partial quantities are therefore not quantities acting over a given phase. They
s on composite materials Focusare spread materials
on composite
(D )
over all unit volumes. For example, the partial stress tensor V ik should be considered as
only some characteristics from aFocus mixture model.materials
on composite To go to real stresses acting over the real
phase, it is required to know the volume fraction of a given phase cD . Then real stresses
V ik(D )real acting in a given phase of a mixture are equal to V ik(D ) real V ik(D ) cDFocus
.Focus
Focus Focus
onon
Focus
on oncomposite
on composite
composite
composite materials
materials
composite materials
materials
materials
Focus on composite

Focus on composite materials

Analogously, each partial density UDD is not equal to the density of the separate phase UD . It
Focus on on
composite materials
is the density of a separate phase spread over all unit volume. Therefore,
Focus
Focus on theon
composite
composite
Focus on
Focus partial density
materials
materials
composite materials
composite materials
is calculated by the formula Focus on composite
Focus onmaterials
composite materials

UDD UD cD .(9.5)

Let us now start with the simplest formulas for evaluation of the physical constants,
based on the simplest considerations and deterministic concept.

Case 1. The layered composite with layers assumed to be plane. Layers’ properties are as
follows: Lamé constants O m , P m , density U m , layer thickness 2h (the 1st layer); Lamé constants
O f , P f , density U , layer thickness 2G (the 2nd layer). It is also supposed in this model
f

that the cross interaction stress-strain and inertial interaction are absent ciklm (3)
0, U12 0 .
This composite material is modeled by the transversally isotropic elastic body with averaged
constants.
The following formulas are obtained based on the approach described above for an effective
moduli evaluation

ª O f O f  O m  º ª O f O f  O m  º
cf
11 c «O  2P  c
f f f m
» , c12f c «O  c
f f m
» ,(9.6)
«¬ D »¼ «¬ D »¼

O f  O m  2P m  O f
 2 P f  O m  2 P m  P f Pm
c13f cf , c33f cf , cf cf ,
D D 44
c P m  cm P f ,
f

1 f G
2
 c11  c12f  c f P f , c f , cm
h , D c m  O f  2P f   c f  O m  2P m 
h G h G

(formulas for cikm can be obtained from cikf by change f o m, m o f ).

The constants E k are calculated by formulas

3  O f  2 P f  O m  2 P m  3P f P m
E1 E2 , E3 .(9.7)
Dh  G 
2
c m
P f  c f P m h  G 
2

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. STRUCTURAL
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODEL OF ELASTIC MIXTURES

The formulas (9.7) show that constants ciklm

(D )
are determined through mechanical properties of
layers and their volume fractions, whereas the interaction between phases and the transmission
of the force pulse from one component to another component coefficients E3 are inversely
proportional to the square of microstructure characteristic size.

Case 2. The fibrous composite with the small volume fractions of uniformly distributed fillers
which are assumed to be strong in tension and weak by shear and bending. The formula
for calculation of the cons-tant E3 is as follows

Pm 1  H 2  1 h 2 
2

E3  .(9.8)
1 1 1 3 1
ln H  H 2  H 4   1  H 2   P m P f 
2

2 2 8 8 8

where Pm , P f are shear moduli of the matrix and fiber, G is the fiber radius, s is the distance
between fibers, H G h  , h 2  3 2S  s 2 .
Focus on on
Focus co
Focus
Focus
Case 3. The on composite
fibrous materials composite with ideal contact with the matrix and placed
unidirectional
in knots of he-xagonal lattice fibers. WavesFocusare on
propagating along fibers. Properties of the
composite materials

matrix (subindex 1) and fibers (subindex 2): Lamé constants PD , OD , density UD , fiber radius
r1, the distance between centers of fibers 2r2Focus
. on composite materials
Focus on composite materials
Focus on composite materials
Focus on composite materials
The constitutive equations are written for the transversally isotropic body and have the form
Focus on composite materials
(D ) (D ) (G )
V xx cDD u x,x c u
12 x , x (D , G 1, 2;D  G 3) ,(9.9)

where

cDD nD  OD  2 PD    OD2 E  , c12  O1O2 E  ,,(9.10)

1 ª
E
n1n2 ¬
n2  O1  2 P1   n1  O2  2 P 2   P 2 n1 º¼ , n1 r 1
2
r22  , n2 ¬ r2  r1  r2 ¼ .
ª 2 2 2
º

The shear interaction coefficient E is as follows

 r2  r1 
3
8n1P1P2 § 2 r2 1·
E , Q ¨  ¸ (9.11)
r1 ª¬ r1P 2  4 P1Q  r2  r1  º¼ r2  r1 © 3 r2  r1 4 ¹

Case 4. The layered composite with plane layers. Constitutive equations are supposed in
the form (9.9) with allowance for transversal isotropy of the mixture. For three constants
the formulas are written as follows

cDD nD ED   OD2 E  , c12  O1O2 E , E  E1 n1    E2 n2  , ED OD  2PD , nD ª¬ hD  h1  h2 º¼ ..(9.12)

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. STRUCTURAL
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODEL OF ELASTIC MIXTURES

The force interaction coefficient is proposed to calculate according to the formula

3P1P 2
E ,(9.13)
 n2 P1  n1P2  h1  h2 
2

which coincides with the formula (9.7).

Note 9.4. The above formulas for effective constants are very simple. But this
simplicity is caused by the very simple theoretical schemes used and by strong
restric- tions on the mixture model.

Case 5. Stochastic approach. This model assumes that the geometrical structure of a mixture
has a stocha- stic and slightly differing from the regular structure character. The approach
developed before for averaged moduli calculation is used. It is supposed that the small
difference of mixture components properties, also fluctuations of the tensor of elastic
constants of an initial heterogeneous elastic medium are neglected.

For the granular structure, the physical constants are determined as follows

§ KD 2 2 PD 2 · PD 2
(D )
ciklm ¨  ¸ G ik G lm  G G  G G  ,
© K 3 P ¹ P il km km il

§ K1 K 2 2 P1 P2 · P P
(3)
ciklm ¨  G G  1 2 G ilG km  G kmG il  , (9.14)
¸ ik lm
© K

3 P ¹ P

KD  K  K G  PD  P  PG 
 O  2P 
2
KD (1)G , PD (1)G , E 2 5c1c2 a 2  2 P 2 ,
K1  K 2 P1  P2

for the layered composites

ED 2 3c1c2 a 2 P , E 3 2 3c1c2 a 2  O  2 P 

,(9.15)

for the fibrous composites

Focus on composite materials

 O  2P  4 3c1c2 a P ,(9.16)
2
ED 4c1c2 a 2
 2P , E3
2 2
Focus on composite
FocusFocus onmaterials
composite
on composite materials
materials

for another variant of fibrous composites

1  Q ª  2  c1  3  4Q  4 f [ m 2  2n 2 º
2 ¦
ED «  sin mS c1 sin nS c1 » ,(9.17)
c1c2 a E ¬ 12 1 Q 
2
c2S m ,n 1 mn  m  n 
2 2
»¼

where E ,Q are averaged elastic constants, a is expressed through  c1c2  , [ 1  2Q  1 Q  .

1

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS
Focus ON COMPOSITE
on composite MATERIALS. STRUCTURAL
materials
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODEL OF ELASTIC MIXTURES

Focus on composite materials

Note 9.5. Some more complicated and closed to the describedFocus onabove
Focuson stochastic
composite
composite materials
materials
Focus on composite materials
approach was realized for granular composites with an ellipsoidal form of granules.

Thus, the theoretical approach to the determination of elastic constants of the theory of
two-phase mixtures is sufficiently successful. Of course, it is complemented by classical
experimental procedures, that in this case are used mainly the wave propagation techniques.
This can be seen, for example, in the books shown in Further readings.
Focus on composite materials

Case 6. Three-layered composites. Layers are assumed to be plane, elastic homogeneous, and
isotropic. Two layers are basic; they alternate. The third layer is inserted between these layers,
it models the thin interface layer cemented of two basic layers.
Focus on composite materials
The properties of the third layer are taken into account in formulas for constants
of a two-component mixture

(D )
c1111 nD  OD  2 PD    OD2 E   no  Oo  2 Po  kG2 ,
(3)
c1111  O1O2 E   no  Oo  2 Po  k1k2 , (9.18)
UDD nD UD  no Uo kG , U12
2
no Uo k1k2 ,

Here, the subindex 0,1,2 denote belonging to the 3rd, 1st, and 2nd layers;

no 2ho h , nD hD h , h h1  h2  2ho , kD N o N , ND hD 3PD , N N1  N 2 ,

E ª¬ O1  2 P1  n1 º¼  ª¬ O2  2 P 2  n2 º¼ , 2hk is the layer thickness.

Note 9.6. In assuming ho 0 the known formulas for two-layered composite can
be obtained.

In this model, the presence of the inertial mechanism of interaction between mixture phases
is displayed. This fact can be commented in the way that neglecting the third thin interface
cemented layer in the basic scheme causes the new modeling mechanism of interaction
between mixture phases. Now the more general statement can be formulated: the inertial
mechanism arises in cases when the condition of an ideal contact between mixture components
is violated. One such violation is the presence of the thin interface layer, but that can be
so-called debonding or delamination also.

Case 7. McNiven-Mengi model approach for layered composites. This is the variant taking
into account all three interaction linear mechanisms in the mixture theory. The mixture is
assumed transversal isotro- pic one. It contains 19 physical constants: fifteen independent
constants of the cross interaction ciklm
(D )
, two constants of the shear interaction E k , and two
constants of the inertial interaction U12 .
(k )

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. STRUCTURAL
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODEL OF ELASTIC MIXTURES

Formulas for evaluations of four last constants are as follows

3r1r2 3E1 E2 U1r22  U 2 r12 U1 E22  U 2 E12

E1 E3 , E2 , U12(1) U12(3) , U12(2) .(9.19)
'2r '2 E 5r 2 5E 2

Here the notations rD PD nD , r r1  r2 , ' h1  h2 ( hD is the layer thickness),

nD hD ' , ED  OD  2PD  nD , E E1  E2 are used.

Focus on composite materials

Note 9.7. These formulas are obtained in the approach
Focus valid
on composite only for large time
materials
wave propagation.

For other constants the formulas are offered:

Focus on composite
Focus materials
on composite materials
Focus on composite materials
Focus on composite materials
nD ED   OD2 E  , c1122
Focus on composite materials
(D )
c1111 (D )
nD OD  EG E  ,
nD OD   OD E  ,
Focus on composite materials Focus on com
(3)
c2211 n1O2  E1 E  , c1133
(D ) 2

(1)
c1313 (2)
 c1313 (3)
 2c1313  r1r2 r  , (1)
c1313 (2)
c1313 (3) (3)
 c1313 c1313 0, (9.20)
U 2 c3333
(1)
 U1c3333
(2)
ª¬ U1 U 2  U12(1)  U1  U 2  º¼  cE 2
f   U E E E ,
(1)
12 1 2

Uc (1)
2 1313 Uc (2)
1 1313
ª¬ U1 U 2  U (1)
12  U1  U2 º¼  c   U  r r r  ,
r 2
f
(1)
12 1 2

cfr   r1r2 U1U2   ª

¬  r1 U1    r2 U2  º¼ , cfE   E1E2 U1U2   ª
¬  E1 U1    E2 U2  º¼ .

Case 8. Two approaches based on the experiment. It is assumed in the first approach that the
real mixture isn’t necessarily two-phase or not necessary two phases are in the ideal contact,
but two dominant phases exist always. The essence of the approach consists in that it proposes
to determine the physical constants using the parameters of dispersion curves obtained
in a few experiments on samples made of real materials. It is needed in the approach to
determine experimentally the dependencies of phase velocity of plane longitudinal, transverse
horizontal, and transverse vertical waves on frequency. To calculate four unknown constants,
it is necessary to observe experimentally four characteristics of the dispersion curve:

1. The value v1 (0) v1o of the phase velocity for Z 0 (that is, the phase velocity of a
basic mode for very small frequency);
2. Two values v1f , v2f of the phase velocity of both modes (1st and 2nd waves) for
Z o f (that is, for very large frequency);
3. The value Zcut of the cut off frequency of the 2nd wave.

The question arises what are zero and infinite frequencies in experiments, that is, very
small and very large frequencies. In this case, the value of a characteristic dimension of a
microstructure lCDM of the tested material should be used. Usually, when lCDM is significantly
(two or more orders) smaller than a wave-length and therefore this wave can be referred

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. STRUCTURAL
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODEL OF ELASTIC MIXTURES

to long waves for this material, then corresponding to this wave-length frequency can be
treated as very small. When lCDM is close (one or fewer orders) to the wavelength and this
wave is a so-called short wave, then corresponding to this wave-length frequency can be
treated as very large. By the way, in this case, we are approaching the wave-lengths when
the continual approach is no longer valid.

This approach proposes to determine the physical constants from relations

a1  a2  2a3 v   U  U  ,
o 2
1 11 22

 U22  U12  a1   U11  U12  a2  2 U12 a3 ª v    v  º ª U

f 2 f 2
U 22  U12  U11  U 22  º¼ ,
¬« 1
¼» ¬
2 11

(9.21)
a1a2  a32 v  v 
f 2
1
f 2
2 ª¬ U11 U 22  U12  U11  U 22  º¼ ,
E  U11  U 22 
Zcut .
U11 U 22  U12  U11  U 22 

Let us consider now three classical cases of material symmetry.

Isotropic mixture

It is necessary to determine eight constants:

a1 O1  2P1 ; P1 ; a2 O2  2P2 ; P2 ; a3 O3  2P3 ; P3 ; U12 , E

through two sets in fours of above-described

Focuscharacteristics (one for the P-wave (longitudinal
on composite materials

wave) and one for either the SH-wave (transverse horizontal wave) or the SV-wave (transverse
vertical wave) ).
Focus on composite m
Transversal-isotropic mixture

It is necessary to determine eighteen constants:

c11( nkk) , c3333

(n) (n)
, c1313 , E1 E 2 , E3 , U12

through five sets in fours of the above-described characteristics ( in each set, one for a
longitudinal wave (P-wave) and one for either a transverse horizontal wave (SH-wave) or a
transverse vertical wave (SV-wave) ).

Note 9.7. Here and later the redundancy of the number of equations relative to
constants is seeming since the fourth equation from (9.21) for different types of
waves will be the same owing to the same mechanism of phase interaction. The cut-
off frequency for any type of wave is determined by parameters UDE of kinetic energy

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. STRUCTURAL
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODEL OF ELASTIC MIXTURES

and coefficients of shear interaction E k . The last depends only on the symmetry of
the mechanical properties of the mixture and don’t depend on a wave type. For
example, for longitudinal and trans-verse waves identical relation between Zcut and
UDE , E k will be obtained. Now, the number of equations becomes already seeming.

Orthotropic mixture

It is necessary to determine 31 independent constants:

(n)
cmmkk (n)
, c1212 (n)
, c1313 (n)
, c2323 , E n , U12

through nine sets in fours of the above-described characteristics ( P-wave, SH-wave, and
SV-wave in three coordinate directions).

The 2nd approach is close to the 1st approach.

The main distinction consists in that the second one assumes the constant U12 is no
G
more the scalar but the vector U12  U12(1) , U12(2) , U12(3)  and matrixes ciklm
(3) (4)
, ciklm are no more
equal but can be obtained one from other by a transposition.

The essence of this approach consists in that for one part of constants the formulas are
proposed, which are based (as all previous formulas) on an analysis of the microstructure.
For the second part of constants, the experimental dispersion curves for waves propagating
in directions along the layers and normal to layers should be used. The standard set of three
polarized plane waves is assumed - the P-wave, the SH-wave, and the SV-wave.

Two basic characteristics of dispersion curves are proposed to use:

the value c 2 of the phase velocity for Z 0
2
c2 S  U11  U 22  , S ¦ SDE ,(9.22)
D E
, 1

the value ZD of cut-off frequency of one mode

ED  U11  U 22 
ZD 
2
. (9.23)
U11 U 22  U12(D )  U11  U 22  Focus on composite materials
Focus on composite materials

The written in (9.22) quantity S will be:

4
for the P-wave in the direction of the abscissa axis S ¦c
n 1
(n)
1111 ;

4
for the SV-wave in the direction of the abscissa axis S ¦c
n 1
(n)
1313 ;

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for the SH-wave in the direction of the abscissa axis S 1 ¦  c1111

4
(n) (n)
 c1212 ; 2n 1
Focus on composite materials
4
for the P-wave in the direction of the applicate axis S
Focus on composite materials ¦c
n 1
(n)
3333
;

4
Focus on composite materials
for the SV- and SH-waves in the direction of the applicate axis S ¦c (n)
1313
.
Focus on composite materials n 1

From mentioned approaches follows that though proposed formulas are applicable to some
limited classes of microstructures they can be used for many real materials analysis.

The based on experiments approach has any visible restrictions on a microstructure

but such experiments are seldom.

Let us fix some micro-composite materials, to which the mixture model has
been applied and for which physical constants of this theory has been calculated:
aluminum - tungsten, boron - phenol-carbon rosin, Thornel - phenol-carbon rosin,
quartz - phenol rosin, nylon - glass, stainless steel - Epon 828 rosin, Solitan113 -
glass, Solitan113 - nylon, etc.

Some useful relations for mixture theory constants

Now, we will write two relations linked physical constants of the same granular material, but
calculated within the framework of two different models - the isotropic model of effective
elastic moduli (the structural model of the 1st order) and the model of a two-phase isotropic
elastic mixture (the structural theory of the 2nd order). These relations have been already
written, but they have been not specially commented and not collected together

 O1  2P1    O2  2P2   2  O3  2P3  O eff

 2 P eff  ,(9.24)

P1  P2  2 P3 P eff .(9.25)

Also, the effective constants are linked with the macroscopic phase velocities of longitudinal
and transverse plane polarized waves by formulas

 vL 
2
O eff
 2 P eff  U eff ,  vT 
2
P eff U eff ,(9.26)

U eff [1 U1  [ 2 U 2 U11  U 22 .

Also, it is appropriate to note that relations (9.24),(9.25) appear not only in formulas
for calculation of physical constants but also in the process of solving of a quite different
problem in the mixture theory - the problem of beam torsion, what testifies the general
character of mentioned relations.

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Of course, the classical constants O eff , P eff , U eff are more available - for a real material
they can be either taken from the handbooks, or determined from standard
experiments, or calculated from effective moduli theory formulas. That defines such
a feature of relations (9.24),(9.25) :

THEY ARE CONVENIENT FOR THE TEST OF EXACTNESS AND VALIDITY OF

MIXTURE THEORY CONSTANTS Ok , Pk OBTAINED IN SOME OTHER WAY.

Finally, let’s remember the well-known maxim that in science examples are no less revealing
than rules and consider the example of an analysis of plane longitudinal wave in a composite
material within the linear theory of elastic mixture.

The plane elastic harmonic wave was the

Focus on first typematerials
composite of wave that was studied in the theory
FocusFocus
on composite
Focus materials
on composite materials
on composite materials
of mixtures as applied to the composite materials. In the most of next works, the plane
Focus on composite materials
wave was chosen to demonstrate some features of wave propagation in the different kinds
Focus on composite materials
of composite materials. Focus on composite materials

Focus on composite materials

The definition of plane waves in the nonclassical approach (forFocus
the model of elastic
on composite mixtures)
materials

is similar to the classical one. But in the mixture, the motion is composite
Focus on already described
materials by two
displacement vectors, each phase of a mixture has its vector. In the plane wave, these vectors
are not necessary collinear. However, the plane front of a wave should be the same for both
vectors. The representation of the plane wave is therefore as follows

G G
u (D ) ( x, t ) u o (D ) ei[ Zt  (9.27)

G G G G
( u o (D ) are the arbitrary constant vectors; [ k ˜ r ; r is the radius-vector of the point x {  x1 , x2 , x3  ).

Let us focus on the characteristic example of the plane waves in an isotropic mixture
and assume that the waves propagate in the direction of the coordinate axis Ox1.

G
In this case, the partial displacement vectors u (D ) depend only on two variables

G
u (D ) { ^uk(D ) ( x1 , t )` . (9.28)

By the substitution of (9.28) into the equations of motions, we get three uncoupled systems
D  G 3

 UDD  U12  u1,(Dtt )  U12u1,(Gtt)  (OD  2PD )u1,11

(D ) (G )
 (O3  2 P3 )u1,11  E  u1(D )  u1(G )  0, (9.29)

 UDD  U12  um(D,tt)  U12um(G,tt)  PD um(D,11)  P3um(G,11)  E  um(D )  um(G )  0 (m 2,3). (9.30)

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Each of the obtained systems is coupled separately and, as expected, each of them describes
the independent propagation of three types of plane waves – longitudinal, transverse
horizontal, and transverse vertical ones.

The systems (9.29), (9.30) can be written in a form which is invariant for the wave type

 UDD  U12  uk(D,tt)  U12uk(G,tt)  aD( k )uk(D,11)  a3( k )uk(G,11)  E  uk(D )  uk(G )  0 (9.31)

a (1)
m Om  2Pm , am(2) am(3) Pm  .

The last system has a solution in the form of harmonic waves

5

um(D ) ( x1 , t ) (D )
Aom e
 (m)
 i kD x Zt   l (k ( m ) ) A(G )ei kG( m ) xZt  .(9.32)
G om

The wavenumbers kD( m ) are determined from the dispersion equation

M 1( m ) k 4  2 M 2( m ) k 2Z 2  M 3( m )Z 4 0,  (9.33)

§ E ·
a1( m ) a2( m )   a3( m )  , 2 M 2( m ) a1( m ) U11  a2( m ) U 22   a1( m )  a2( m )  2a3( m )  ¨ 2  U12 ¸ , 
2
M 1( m ) (9.34)
©Z ¹

§ E ·
M 3( m ) U11 U 22   U11  U 22  ¨  U12 ¸ ,
©Z
2
¹
§ 1 l  k2( m )  ·
and the coefficients of the matrix of amplitude ¨ ¸ are determined
Focusdistribution
¨ l  k1( m ) 
on composite materials
1 ¸
by a simple © ¹

Focus on composite materia

algebraic formula
( 1)D
ª a ( m )  k ( m ) 2  E  U Z 2 º
l  kD( m )  « D »
D DD
. (9.35)
«
¬ a 3
(m)
 k D 
(m) 2
 E »
¼
The main features of these waves are:

 ere exist two simultaneous modes which differ by the wave-numbers kD( m ) (D
F1. Th
fixes the number of a mode, while m characterizes the type of a wave).
F2. A distinction of the wavenumbers is identical to a distinction of the phase
velocities - the 1st mode is slow and the second mode is faster essentially.
F3. Both modes are essentially dispersive waves.
F4. M ixture filters one of the modes, it is cut off for the low frequencies, leading
off the frequency Zcut
*
E  U11  U 22  U11 U 22 , which is called the cut off frequency.
F5. Two modes propagate in each phase and with their amplitudes, the matrixes
of amplitudes distribution are given by formula (9.35) and depend essentially
nonlinearly on frequency. As a consequence, the energy of modes is pumped
from a mode to a mode with changing of frequency.

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The characteristic view of the depending on frequency coefficients l  k1(1) , Z  and

and l  k1(2) , Z 
l  k1(1) , Z  and l  k1(2) , Z  can be seen in Fig. 9.1 for fibrous composite materials (the composite
with volume fraction 0.2 of microfibers Thornel-300 (left plot) and nanofibers
in the form of zigzag nanotubes (right plot)).

Note 9.8. All the above-described effects (especially, the wave dispersion effect)
have a structural character and the waves are linear. If we assume that dispersion
in materials can be constructional, geometrical, and viscoelastic, then the dispersion
observed in mixtures is geometrical one.

1.1
5
1.075
4
1.05
3
1.025
2
21010 41010 61010 81010 11011
1 0.975
0.95
1108 2108 3108 4108 5108 6108

1 1

0.5 0.8

0.6
1108 2108 3108 4108 5108 6108
0.4
-0.5
0.2
-1

21011 41011 61011 81011 11012

Fig. 9.1. Amplitude coefficients via frequencies for plane waves in composites

Each mode of the plane longitudinalFocus

wave propagates
on composite in both phases of the mixture.
materials

In the 1st phase of a mixture, the 1st mode is the running wave, is defined with exactness
Focus on composite materials
to the amplitude and propagates as

u1(1) ( x1 , t ) Ao(1)1 e
 (1)
 i k1 x Zt  .(9.36)

In the 2nd phase of a mixture, the 1st mode is similar to the wave (9.36), but with same
feature that it has additionally a special amplitude coefficient that depends om properties
of the mixture, frequency and wavenumbers

u1(2) ( x1 , t ) l (k1(2) ) u1(1) ( x1 , t ) .(9.37)

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The 2nd mode in the 2nd phase of a mixture is the running wave, is defined with exactness
to the amplitude and propagates as

u2(2) ( x1 , t ) Ao(2)
 (2)
 i k1 x Zt  ,(9.38)
1 e

In the 1st phase of a mixture, the 2nd mode is similar to the wave (9.38), but with same
feature that it has additionally a special amplitude unknown coefficient that depends om
properties of the mixture, freque- ncy and wavenumbers

u2(1) ( x1 , t ) l (k1(1) ) u2(2) ( x1 , t ) .(9.39)

Thus, four modes (waves) in the mixture are characterized by two arbitrary amplitudes.

It is necessary to drawn an attention to two features of plane wave phase velocities in the
mixtures.

The first feature consists in that the phase velocities of both modes tend for high
frequencies to some finite values.
The second feature testifies the link of the mixture theory as the structural theory
of the second order with the effective moduli theory as the structural theory of
the first order.
These two models of elastic deformation of the composite material describe the
significant wave effects in this material. In the case of analysis of the plane harmonic
waves, wave effects are shown under different circumstances, as evidenced by the
experimental observations. The mo-del of the one-phase linearly elastic isotropic
body is true at the low frequencies (in the conditions of the so-called long-wave
approximation). Waves in this approximation are non-dispersive (wave velocities
are constant for all frequency values). The model of the two-phase linearly elastic
isotropic mixture is true in a range of not as small frequencies as in the case of
the first model. Each type of wave breaks down into two modes (fast and slow)
and each mode exists in both phases of the material. The ex-periment for fibrous
composite material fixes two modes in the matrix and two modes in fiber. At the
same time, in the experiment, fast mode comes on the outlet of the sample earlier,
and slow - later. Both modes are essentially dispersive. Thus, each model is correct
and should only be used to analyze waves in different cases of frequency selection
- frequencies can be either small for one model, or large for another.

At that, at the small frequencies (consequently, at the large wavelengths) the phase velocity
of the 1st mode tends to be the value of the phase velocity given by formulas of the effective
moduli theory.

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The last question to be discussed here is associated with experiments with plane waves in
materials. The only materials for which experiments were thorough and extensive are the
composite ones. Therefore, the wave dispersion was one of the most studied phenomena
in the composite materials.

Let us formulate a few comments.

The first one deals with the observation of wave phenomena in tests with real
materials. The prevailing point of view consists in that any observation should be
concentrated on some chosen phenomena and the description or the statement
of this observation is based on some theoretical scheme. The theory defines what
should be observed.
The second comment consists in that when being wished to observe certain wave
phenomenon, it turned out to find (very difficult and very often) the real material
in which this phenomenon will be shown isolated. The real wave picture is always
more complicated as is the theoretical scheme. This becomes apparent when the
wave dispersion in composite materials is studied. In experiments with plane and
volume waves, the dispersion of different nature – geometrical, viscoelastic, and
constructional – seems too much difficult for separation.

Definition 9.1. The geometrical dispersion in materials is called the dispersion which
arises owing to the presence in materials both of the internal structure and the
interaction of waves with elements of the structure.
Definition 9.2. The viscoelastic dispersion in composite materials is usually the effect
of the viscoelastic properties of the matrix of composites.
Definition 9.3. The constructional dispersion arises when waves interact with the
boundary surfaces of the constructions.

The third comment focuses on the special role of the wavelength as a parameter, which
determines the bounds of applicability of all theoretical schemes of wave propagation. As a
consequence, the frequency ranges, with which the experiments were realized, are essential
in experiments.

Thus, the proposed example of using the linear theory of mixtures in analysis of
composite materials demonstrates the great involvement and efficiency of this theory
in the study of the wave propagation in composites.

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Comments
Comment 9.1. The studies of the composite materials had one collateral consequence:
they have been demonstrated very expressive the well-known physical principle –
the same physical object can be investigated with the aim of different physical
models depending on that which phenomenon in the motion of this object is the
main goal of a study.

As applied to the composite materials, this principle was transformed in such a way:
the same composite material can be described by a few tens of the various and,
sometimes, very exotic models; all these models will be reasonable and expedient
within the framework of some restrictions, which should be thoroughly fixed, and
the procedure of such fixing is usually called the fixing of the model practicability
boundaries.

One important consequence from observed plenty of models is worthy of special attention: the
same material in its description by different models will be described within the framework
of each model by its own set of physical constants. Very often, sets for two distinct models
have any coincided constant. The determination of full sets of constants is the lamest point
for microstructural theories. There exists the subconscious persuasion that material constants
are the thing in itself (das Ding an sich) and should not depend on choosing the model of
this material. For example, the traditionally understood density in the number of theories
is changed on the set of densities.

THEREFORE, THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE RELATIVITY OF

USED FOR THE DESCRIPTION OF MATERIALS SET OF PHYSICAL
CONSTANTS MUST BE CONSIDERED THE ONE OF UNEXPECTED
VALUE IN STRUCTURAL MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS.

Comment 9.2. The observation noted in this chapter in the experiment on two waves with
different speeds in fiber and the same waves, but other amplitudes, in the matrix of the
composite material confirm the credibility of the structural theory of the mixture. On the
other hand, since the accidental coincidence of theoretical result and experimental observation
is unlikely, it can be said that the reason for the coincidence is that the structural model
of the mixture, in this case, is correct.

At the same time, caution should not be forgotten when concluding experimental observation.
There is a story about the physicist, which believes that 60 is divided into all numbers. He
notes that 60 is divided into 1,2,3,4,5,6. Next, he checks a few other numbers and selects
10,15,20,30 taken as he counts at random. Since 60 is divided into these numbers, he
considers the experimental data sufficient - 60 is divided into all numbers

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODEL OF ELASTIC MIXTURES

Further reading
9.1. A tkin, RJ & Crain, RE 1976, Continuum theory of mixtures: basic theory and historical
developments. Quart. J. Mech. and Appl. Math., 29, N2, 209-244.
9.2. Bedford, A & Drumheller, DS 1983, Theories of immiscible and structured mixtures.
Int. J. Engng. Sci., 21, N8,863-960.
9.3. Bedford, A, Drumheller, DS & Sutherland, HJ 1976, On modelling the dynamics of
composite materials. In: Nemat-Nasser, S, Mechanics Today, Vol.3, Pergamon Press,
New York, 1-54.
9.4. Ben-Amoz, M 1975, On wave propagation in laminated composites. - I. Propagation
parallel to the laminates. Int. J. Engng. Sci., 14, N1, 43-56.
9.5. Ben-Amoz, M 1975, On wave propagation in laminated composites. - II. Propagation
normal to the laminates. Int. J. Engng. Sci., 14, N1, 57-67.
9.6. Bowen, PM 1976, Mixtures and EM Field Theories. In: Continuum Physics, Vol III,
Eringen, AC (ed). Academic Press, New York, 1-127.
9.7. Cattani, C & Rushchitsky, JJ 2007, Wavelet and Wave Analysis as applied to Materials
with Micro- and Nano- structure. World Scientific, London-Singapore.
9.8. Drumheller, DS & Bedford, A 1974, Wave propagation in elastic laminates using a
second order microstructure theory. Int. J. Solids Struct., N10, 61-76.
9.9. Green, AE & Steel, TR1966, Constitutive equations for interacting continua, Int. J.
Engng.Sci., 4, N4, 483-500.
9.10. Hegemier, GA & Nayfeh, AN 1973, A continuum theory for wave propagation in
composites.- Case 1: propagation normal to the laminate, Trans. ASME. J. Appl.
Mech., 40, N2, 503-510.
9.11. Hegemier, GA & Bache, TC 1973, A continuum theory for wave propagation in
composites.- Case 2: propagation parallel the laminates. J. of Elasticity, 3, N2, 125-140.
9.12. Hegemier, GA & Bache, TC 1974, A general continuum theory with the microstructure
for the wave propagation in elastic laminated composites. Trans. ASME. J. Appl. Mech.,
41, N1, 101-105.
9.13. Herrmann, G, Kaul, RK & Delph, TG 1978, On continuum modelling of the dynamic
behaviour of layered composites. Archives of Mechanics, 28, N3, 405-421.
9.14. Lee, EH 1972, A survey of variational methods for elastic wave propagation analysis
in composites with periodical structures, In: Lee, EH (ed), Dynamic of Composite
Materials, ASME, New York, 1-10.
9.15. Lempriere, B 1969, On practicability of analyzing waves in composites by the theory of
mixtures, Lockheed Palo Alto Research Laboratory, Report No LMSC-6-78-69-21, 76-90.
9.16. McNiven, HD & Mengi, Y 1979, A mathematical model for the linear dynamic
behavior of two-phase periodic materials, Int. J. Solids Struct., 15, N1, 271-280.
9.17. McNiven, HD & Mengi, Y 1979, A mixture theory for elastic laminated composites.
Int. J. Solids Struct.,15, N1, 281-302.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS. STRUCTURAL
OF MATERIALS PART 1 MODEL OF ELASTIC MIXTURES

9.18. R ushchitsky, JJ 1991, Elements of the Theory of Mixtures, Naukova Dumka, Kyiv. (In
Russian)
9.19. Rushchitsky, JJ & Tsurpal, SI 1998, Waves in Materials with the Microstructure,
S.P.Timoshenko Institute of Mechanics, Kiev. (In Ukrainian)
9.20. Rushchitsky, JJ 1999, Interaction of waves in solid mixtures. App. Mech. Rev., vol.
52, N2, 35-74.
9.21. Steel, TR 1967, Applications of a theory of interacting continua, Quart. J. Mech.
Appl. Math., 20, N1, 57-72.
9.22. Steel, TR 1968, Determination of the constitutive coefficients for a mixture of two
solids, Int. J. Solids Struct., 4, N12, 1149-1160.
9.23. Sutherland, H 1979, Dispersion of acoustic waves by an alumina-epoxy mixture, J.
Compos.Mater., 13, N1, 35-47.
9.24. Tiersten, TR & Jahanmir, M 1977, A theory of composites modeled as interpenetrating
solid continua. Arch. Rat. Mech. Anal., 54, N2, 153-163.

Questions
9.1. W hy the theory of mixture is related to the structural theories of the second order?
9.2. Write the energy of deformation of the mixture for the case, when each component
of the mixture is described separately.
9.3. Why the linear theory of elastic mixture includes only three linear mechanisms of
interaction – inertial, shear, and the mutual influence of partial strains?
9.4. The most known way of determination of the physical constants of the linear theory of
elastic mixture is based on the tests on plane wave propagation. Find on the alternative
technique for evaluation of the physical constants
9.5. Comment the unusual in physics case when the theory of mixture admits the density
as the vector quantity (in three different directions the density is different).
9.6. Find the experiments testifying the presence of two modes of the plane elastic waves in
the composite materials. Sometimes, these modes are called the acoustical and optical
ones. Comment these terms.
9.7. Show cases when the only one of three basic kinds of dispersion (geometrical, viscoelastic,
constructional) is prevailing.

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 NANOMECHANICS OF MATERIALS

10 FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS

NANOMECHANICS
OF MATERIALS
Basic facts. Definitions of nanomaterials. Nanotechnology.
Mechanisms of production of nanomaterials. Fullerenes.
On internal structure. Nanoformations. Nanotubes.
Exa- mples of nanoformations of complex structure.
SWCNT and MWCNT of complex shape: T1. Straight
shape. T2. Locally bent shape. T3. Waved shape.T4.
Coiled shape. T5. Re-gularly bent shape. T6. Branched
shape. T7. Beaded shape. Nanofiber in the form of
multi-level nanocomposite. Cup-stacked type carbon
nanofiber. Fishbone-like (herring- bone-like) nanofiber.
Nanocomposite materials. Five groups classification.
An example of modeling of fibrous nanocomposite of
complex structure. Whiskerized microfibers. Bristled nano
wires. Bristled nanocentipedes. Shish-kebab-like structure.
An example of modeling of granular nanocomposite of
complex structure.

SOME PRELIMINARY INFORMATION

An unusualness of nanomechanics needs of unusual statement.
Let us start with the information from the page of European Commission.
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/nanotech/index_en.htm

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Nanomaterials are chemical substances or materials that are manufactured and

used at a very small scale (down to 10,000 times smaller than the diameter of a
human hair). Nanomaterials are developed to exhibit novel characteristics (such
as increased strength, chemical reactivity or conductivity) compared to the same
material without nanoscale features.
Hundreds of products containing nanomaterials are already in use. Examples are
batteries, coatings, anti-bacterial clothing, etc. Analysts expect markets to grow
considerably in the near future. Nano innovation will be seen in many sectors
including public health, employment, and occupational safety and health, information
society, industry, innovation, environment, energy, transport, security, and space.
Nanomaterials have the potential to improve the quality of life and to contribute
to industrial competitiveness in Europe.

Note 10.1. The most part of facts presented in this chapter corresponds to the
Focus on new materia
book Guz&Rushchitsky on nanomechanics which is shown in the Further reading.

Note 10.2. The prefix nano- means one milliard part (nano in Greek means dwarf).
In words nano-technology, nanomechanics, and nanomaterial the prefix nano- is
associated with the length – 1 nanometer is equal to 1˜109 meter.

Many publications are pointing at Richard Feynman as scientist first predicted the development
of nanotechnology. In his known lecture in 1959 entitled “There’s plenty of room at the
bottom” (made at a mee-ting of the American Physical Society) Feynman predicted the basic
principle of nanotechnology:

“The principles of physics, as far as I can see, do not speak

against the possibility of maneuvering things atom by atom.”

From the position of present-day, it can to assert that in that time the necessary elements
of analysis of the substance nanostructure were not yet existed. The main tools in the work
with nanomaterials – the electron microscopes – were produced relatively not long ago.
The first scanning electron microscope was developed in 1942 and was came available at
60-ies. The suitable for work with nanomaterials scanning atomic force microscope (AFM)
and scanning tunneling electron microscope (STEM) were developed at 80-ies.

Note 10.3. AFM was invented by Binnig and Rohrer (IBM Zürich) in 1981, STEM
was invented later in 1986 by Binnig, Quate, and Herber. The invention of both
microscopes was awarded in 1986 by the Nobel Prize in Physics.

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As the second precursor of nanotechnology, Eric Drexler is considered. He acted as an

organizer of the new direction in technology and wrote:

“Nanotechnology is the principle of atom manipulation

atom by atom through control of the structure of matter at
the molecular level. It entails the ability to build molecular
systems with atom-by-atom precision, yielding a variety of
nanomachines.”

The building “atom-by-atom” is referred to as the molecular nanotechnology, and the

keyword here is “self-assembly”.

Thus, the nanotechnology is just a part of material science that allows producing the
nanomaterials.

Different definitions of nanotechnology exist.

The most laconic one is proposed by Ramsden: “engineering with atomic precision”.

One of the problems of any technology is revealing the physical, chemical, mechanical
and other regularities for determination and utilization in practice the most effective and
efficient industrial processes.

Note 10.4. The word “nanotechnology” was coined by Taniguchi in 1983 to describe
the lower limit in ultra-precision engineering.

The initial declarations about nanotechnology as the principally new and potentially
destructive can be for all related to the sphere of scientific publicity and reality of the nearest
future. Many different points of view relative to this future exist, from very optimistic to
very pessimistic ones. Also, the different opi- nions exist in the most realistic directions in
nanotechnology. One of such points of view is in the separation of five directions:

1. Molecular nanotechnology. 2. Nanomaterials and nanopowders. 3. Nano- Electronics.

4. Nanooptics and nanophotonics. 5. Nanobiometrics.

So, the notion of nanomaterial is the basic one and must by discussed logically and
multilaterally. This discussion isn’t done adequately, at least, from point of view of mechanics.
The situation has the next explanation: because the experience to work with a matter on
the atom, molecular, and macromolecular levels was available first of all at representatives
of different branches of chemistry and physics, then the overwhelming number of works in
nanotechnology belongs to chemists and physicists and reflects the specificity of chemistry
and molecular physics.

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At least, six mechanisms of production of nanomaterials are well-known additionally to

the mechanism of molecular nanotechnology: 1. Plasma arching or plasma ionization.
2.Chemical vapor deposition. 3.Electrodeposition or galvanization. 4. Synthesis sol-gel.
5. Ball milling (mechanical destruction). 6. Using natural nanoparticles.

Let us return to nanomaterials. A theoretical interpretation of nanomaterials must be founded

on some initial concept. Such a concept can consist in that all the materials are arranged of
particles, which in turn consist of plenty of atoms. The particles (formations) can be visible
or invisible to the naked eye depending on their size. As a rule, materials have grains of the
size, changing from hundreds of microns to centimeters.

Note 10.5. Because nanoparticles can be the basis both for nanomaterials and for
nanopowders, then it is necessary to note that in mechanics the powders are considered
as the loose (free-flowing) medium, whereas the materials are characterized by the
Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of
stability of the shape. Usually, the powders are transforming into the materials by
the special processing (crimping, sintering, irradiation et cetera). The nanomaterials
and nanopowders have the granule sizes 1-100 nm, at least in one coordinate, and
normally in all three coordinates.

Many authors are noting that nanomaterials as materials with the characteristic size of internal
structure, measured in nanometers, are not something new in science. But understanding
that separate formations of oxides, metals, ceramics, and other substances are nanomaterials,
is occurred relatively lately. For example, the usual (black) carbon has been discovered at
the beginning of 1900-ies. The fumed silica (powder) – the component of silastic – is the
nanomaterial, too. It is commercially available from 1940-ies. But the fact that they both
have the size of particles measured in nanometers was comprehended only lately.

It is worthy to say that the size of particles is not the single characteristic of nanoparticle
or nanocrystal or nanomaterial. As an example, one quite important and specific property
of the significant number of nanomaterials should be mentioned.

THE TYPICAL NANOMATERIALS ARE CHARACTERISTIC BY THAT MOST

OF ATOMS ARE LOCATED OVER THE GRAIN SURFACE, WHEREAS
THE USUAL MATERIALS ARE CHARACTERISTIC BY THAT ATOMS ARE
LOCATED OVER ALL THE GRAIN VOLUME.

The well-studied class of nanoparticles is the carbon particles. For a long time, science
considers three types of carbon: diamond, graphite, amorphous carbon. In 1985, the high-
symmetric carbon molecule C60 in the form of a sphere (like the football) with carbon
atoms on the surface was discovered. It contains 60 atoms from 5-atom rings, divided by

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the 6-atom rings. Such type molecules were called fullerenes. The fullerenes became studied
very productive. Investigations of fullerenes were awarded in 1997 by the Nobel Prize in
chemistry. Farther, the number of kinds of fullerenes was increasing, to present it counts
many thousands.

Fullerenes can deposit over a surface and form the monolayer. The fullerene
molecules form carbon nanotubes, which can be considered as allied to carbon. The
molecular structure of carbon is like to sheet of chicken wire – this is the sheet made
of carbon 6-atom rings. The conventional graphite consists of single sheets forming
the layered material with sliding layers. When the graphite sheets are rolling up
to the ring and the ends are adjoining, then they form nanotubes – the molecules
with a multitude of atoms C10000  C1000000 . The nanotubes are distinguishing by way
of rolling (twisting), length, and diameter. The internal cavity can be also different
and tubes can have not one only sheeting. At ends, the fullerene atoms are arranging
in the form of semi-sphere. These sheetings can be twisted differently and form
different structures – zig-zag, chiral, armchair.

ON THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE

The approach to materials based Focus

on principle of materials
on composite continualization was recomprehended in
twenty century, when the mechanics of composite materials was throve. First of all, the
importance of internal structure of materials was accepted. For this goal, the geometrical
parameter h was introduced, which characterizes the mean value of minimal diameters of
granules for materials of granular structure, minimal diameters of cross-sections of fibers
for materials of fibrous structures, minimalFocus thicknesses
Focus
onon
Focus on
new
newnewofmaterials.
layers
materials. for materials
Nanomechanics
Nanomechanics
materials. of of
Nanomechanics ofof layered
materials
materials
materials

structure. This resulted in division of the mechanics of materials on macro-, meso-, and
micromechanics. For each
Focus part ofmaterials.
on new mechanics, the limits
Nanomechanics of variations of parameter h were
of materials

proposed: Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

Macro:
Macro: 102 m t h t 105 m ; Meso: 103 m t h t 108 m ; Micro: 104 m t h t 108 m .(10.1)

Progress in nanotechnologies made possible the processing of nanocomposite materials and

the development of theoretical analysis of this kind of material. At present, classification
(10.1) is supplemented by the next formulation:

Nano: 107 m t h t 109 m .(10.2)

Note 10.6. Let us note that the atom level (distance between atom planes in the
crystal lattice) has the order one or more angstrom ( 1010 m ); therefore, the nanolevel
in (10.2) is condition
ally bounded by 109 m.

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Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics OF MATERIALS
of materials

NANOFORMATIONS

Consider now the most known type of nanoformations: the carbon nanotube (CNT). They
are divided into two types: the single-walled (SWCNT) and the multi-walled (MWCNT).

In Fig. 10.1, three types of SWCNT are shown schematically, but with the exact
indication of the structure (arrangement of atoms and values of parameters n, m) –
zig-zag (10;0), armchair (5;5), and chiral (14;5).

Fig.10.1. Schematic and real pictures of SWCNT.

The Fig.10.2 shows the real nanotubes in the matrix.

Fig.10.2. SWCNT, 4-layer and 6-layer MWCNT in the matrix

Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

us on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials Focus on new materials. Nanomechan

Let us show here that besides carbon nanotubes to present many other ones of the diverse
chemical structure are explored.

For example, in Fig.10.3 the nanotube La0.7 Sr0.3MnO3 is shown on the right. On the left,
the image of nanowire with the external shell from nanotube La0.7 Sr0.3MnO3 and the core
from MgO .

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Focus on on
Focus
Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials new materials.
new Nanomechanics
materials. of materials
Nanomechanics of materials

s on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

Fig.10.3. Examples of nanotubes.

Fig.10.4. Nanotubes in the matrix

Nanotubes are successfully applied to product new nanocomposites. For example, in Fig.10.4,
the nanomaterial is shown consisting of an aluminum alloy matrix with depo-sited into
alloy nanotubes.

Among nanomaterials produced by mechanical dispersing, the metal oxides must be noted.
In nanoceramics, the zirconium oxide ZrO2, alumina Al2O3, and aluminum titanate oxide
AlTiO3 are used.

One of the applications of nanoparticles, the obtained by the sol-gel mechanism titanium
oxide TiO2, consists of Fig.10.4. Nanotubes in the matrix that they form the film to cover
the living bone. The modifications of nanostructure of film are shown in Fig.10.5.

Fig.10.5. The film of titanium oxide

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Note 10.7. The Fig.10.5 shows two features of nanofilms: a thickness of nanofilm
has always the nanosize and also the forming of film nanorods have the nanosize;
the perpendicular or angular to the film’s external surface arrangement of nanorods
is characteristic of nanofilms.

One more of many variants of arrangement – an angular arrangement – is shown

in Fig.10.6 for three types of nanofilms.

Fig.10.6. Three types of nanofilms.

Focus
Focus on new
on new materials.
materials. Nanomechanics
Nanomechanics of materials
of materials
Among different technologies of production of nanomaterials, the less known, perhaps, is
associated with the natural nanoparticles. These nanoparticles are assumed as materials with
pores about 10 nm in size, in which the middle size molecules can permeate. As examples
of utilized in nanotechnology natural nanomaterials, the zeolites (aluminum silicates) and
sheet silicates (phyllosilicates) can be shown.

The aluminum silicates have the crystalline structure formed from the tetrahedral
fragments of molecules of silica SiO2 and alumina Al2O3. These molecules are united
by the common vertexes into the three-dimensional skeleton penetrated by cavities
and canals, in which the water molecules and metal cations and others are placed.
Aluminum silicates are used, particularly, as the molecular sieves.

The example of three-dimensional nanocomposite is shown on Fig.10.7. Its feature is that

it belongs to the class of optical materials and that it has the complex structure of silver
film on glass substrate.

Fig. 10.7. The silver film on a glass substrate.

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EXAMPLES OF NANOFORMATIONS OF COMPLEX STRUCTURE

Choose one class of nanoformations – the class of carbon nanotubes (CNT).

Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

In part, this class is already described before, where the focus has been on the straight
CNT and nanoformations of them. Here we can also give data on CNT in terms of the
diversity of their form.

CNT can be divided by the shape into seven types:

T1. Straight shape. T2. Locally bent shape. T3. Waved shape.
T4. Coiled shape. T5. Regularly bent shape. T6. Branched shape. T7. Beaded shape.

T1. The straight CNT’s are considered earlier.

T2. The CNT’s of the locally bent shape are the straight-shaped tubes that have locally
(sharply) changed direction at an acute angle (so-called kink-connection of tubes, which
here is understood as a deviation from the straight shape at an acute angle) or branched
out (one straight tube branched out into two straight, forming a sharp angle). At the same
time, two branches may have a different internal atomic structure (for example, the zig-zag
SWCNT passes after the break into the armchair SWCNT).

For example, Fig. 10.19 schematically depicts two angled SWCNT - the first
nanotube is a compound at the armchair (bottom) and zig-zag SWCNT (top); the
second is formed as the branching of two zig-zag SWCNT.

Fig.10.8. The SWCNT of the locally bent shape

The Fig.10.8 also shows that a pentagon appears in the standard hexagonal structure
of the SWCNT’s at the site of the kink.

T3. The CNT of the waved shape is formed quite often when they are created without the
influence of external forces. The first example of the wave-shaped tubes is shown in Fig.10.9.
Here are the bars of nanobands formed from MWCNT. Together, the nanobands form a
mat on the substrate, the height of the strips is 100 microns. It is believed that the strips
bend when reaching a certain length.

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Fig.10.9. The CNT of the waved shape

MWCNT’s can also form a structure of the type of twisted tangles with the random
curvature of each tube. This structure is shown in Figure 10.10.

Fig.10.10. The MWCNT’s as the twisted tangles

Fig.10.11. The well-ordered SWCNT

The Fig.10.11 shows that, when compacted, the nanomaterial can take on the form of a
well-ordered material in some direction.

The Fig.10.12 shows a lattice from CNT, in which more than 80% of the tubes
are not straight, but periodically bending.

Fig.10.12. The periodically bending CNT

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The Fig. 10.13 demonstrates another morphological form of material from CNT. Here, the
bundles of straight CNT are interspersed with wave-shaped CNT.

Fig.10.13. The bundles of CNT

T4. The fourth type of CNT is a spiral-shaped tube. The reason for the formation of such
tubes is due to the formation of a pentagon-hexagon pairs in the lattice of carbon atoms.
Theoretically, it is proven that then helicoid forms of tubes are formed, and these forms are
Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials
stable. The length and pitch of the spiral can be different for the same type of nanotube.
In Fig.10.14. just this kind of CNT mixture of different shapes, different type, length and
spiral step is shown.

Fig.10.14. The spiral-shaped CNT

The Fig. 10.15 shows on the left the tip of CNT and on the right shows two CNT’s with
the same step, but varying diameters and slightly shifted phases.

Fig.10.15. The spiral-shaped CNT

T5. The CNT of the regularly bent shape. Such tubes are used in the miniature devices,
at the tips of AFM of high resolution, etc.

In Fig.10.16 on the left is a zig-zag SWCNT of the regularly bent shape is shown,
which is self- organized in the form of serpentine, and on the right the same
SWCNT forming the lattice.

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Fig.10.16. The regularly bent shape CNT.

The Fig.10.17 shows the group of CNT of the united shape – spiral-shaped and
regularly bent shape simulataneously. Here a small group of the bun-bound spiral-
shaped CNT is also curved in certain places.

Fig.10.17. The CNT of united shape.

T6. CNT of branched shape. There are simple branches of the type T,Y,L and more complex.
Previously in T2, the straight-line CNT had already discussed, which branch out at an acute
angle (branching type Y). Other types of branching nanotubes will also be shown here.
The branching can be both symmetrical and asymmetrical. Most often, these nanotubes
are formed and used in the integrated electrical circuits of the nano-level. It is believed
that branching CNT’s are promising as nano-diodes, nano-transistors, nano-cablings, etc.
Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

The Fig.10.18 shows on the left a system of branching nanotubes with different branches
and a typical Y-shaped branching on the right.

Fig.10.18. The branching CNT.

T7. CNT of beaded shape. It is intended to apply such CNT’s as fillers in nanocomposites
to improve the mechanical or electrical properties of the composite, as the presence of beads
should prevent the CNT’s from sliding in the matrix.

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 NANOMECHANICS OF MATERIALS

Fig.10.19. The CNT of beaded shape.

The Fig.10.19 shows on the left a MWCNT with beads with a diameter of 100 to
200 nm and on the right - a small elongated bead on a 15-layer CNT.

The Fig.10.20 shows on the left the beginning of the left side of the bead on the 15-layer
CNT and on the right the end of the right side of the same CNT.

Fig.10.20. The MWCNT of beaded shape.

Focus on new materials. Nan

Fig.10.21. The CNT of beaded shape.

The Fig.10.21 depicts CNT’s from left to right: with spherical beads, with cube beads, with
beads of multifaceted shape, with beads in the form of flowers.

NANOFIBER IN THE FORM OF MULTI-LEVEL NANOCOMPOSITE

One of the variants of nanofiber in the form of multi-level nanocomposite is presented in

Fig.10.22. This composite nanofiber consists of many SWCNT. The nanofiber is technologically
formed as a result of multi-level manufacturing. In the first stage, the SWCNT group is
grouped into nano-array by twisting with a twisting angle of 10c In the second stage, several
groups of CNT-nanolattices together with a polymer matrix with twisting are combined into
a nano-wire with a volume fraction of 54.6%. In the third stage, the nano-wires group was
impregnated with a polymer matrix and assembled in the micro-fiber also with a twisting
CNT volume fraction of 33.2%.

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The Fig.10.22 shows on the right schematic the structural elements at all stages of
producing the nanocomposite in the form of the nanofiber (SWCNT o SWCNT
nano-array o SWCNT nano-wire o SWCNT micro-fiber)

On the left, Fig.10.22 shows the cross-section structure for SWCNT nano-wire and
SWCNT micro-fiber, as well as cross-section sizes: SWCNT - 1.38 u109 m , nano-array
- 1.48 u108 m , SWCNT nano-wire 1.69 u107 m , and SWCNT micro-fiber - 1.93 u106 m .

Fig.10.22. The SWCNT nanofiber.

Note 10.8. In the study of a multi-level nanocomposite the discrete models are used
only in the study of the properties of the isolated SWCNT. Within the framework
of the concept of continualization, these properties are presented as the values
characteristic of continuum approximations in the continuum solid mechanics.

In all subsequent stages of analysis (SWCNT nano-array - SWCNT nano-wire -

SWCNT micro-fiber) of the presented in Fig.10.22 multi-level nanocomposite,
approaches, methods and models of micromechanics composites are applicable.

CUP-STACKED TYPE CARBON NANO-FIBERS (CSNF)

These fibers are manufactured in Japan by GSI CREOS Corporation and have been named
for manufacturing technology. Their schematic form is presented in Fig.10.23. The CSNF
technology can be summarized as follows.

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At first, from graphite nets form shells in the form of a truncated hollow cone,
in the subsequent these shells are put into each other and connected. Thus, a
hollow cylinder of a circular cross-section is formed, consisting of a large number
of truncated conical shells. With this technology, the thickness of the CSNF is
determined by the difference in the radius of the cross-section of the conical shell.

The left part of Fig.10.24 presents the fishbone-like (herringbone-like) nanofiber in another
foreshortening, the right part shows the form of the fiber in the TEM.

Interaction between individual conical layers is also carried out by the forces of
interatomic interaction between carbon atoms, which are part of separate conical
layers.

Fig.10.23. The cup-stacked type carbon nanofiber.

Fig.10.24. The fishbone-like (herringbone-like) nanofibers

So, the shown information on the typical nanoformations has a goal to demonstrate the
diversity of nanomaterials and nanostructural composite materials and represents the very
small part of in-formation which the reader can see in the books from Further reading at
the end of this chapter.

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It should be noted that the relating to the problem of the development of new materials
scientific-technical direction on making the nanomaterials is very well developing. Its feature
is making such materials, which include the nanoformations (the minimal sizes of cross-
sections of which are a few nanometers). Transition to nanolevel generates a need to take
into account in making and studying the nanoformations of the features of their atom and
molecular structure.

NANOCOMPOSITE MATERIALS
As a rule, owing to the presence of so fine structure, the nanoformations can’t successfully
function independently as engineering materials. The usual way is as follows:

the nanocomposites are making, in which the filler (reinforcing elements) are the
nanoformations, united in the integral composite material by the binder (matrix). In
most investigations of nanocomposites, the diverse polymer compositions are used.

THUS, FROM POINT OF VIEW OF MECHANICS, THE NANOCOMPOSITES

OCCUPY THE SPECIAL PLACE IN THE NANOMECHANICS OF MATERIALS.

Therefore, attracting mechanics to studying nanomaterials is the necessary stage in the

nanotechnology and nanomaterials progress and has for an object providing the transition
from nanomaterials to an ana-lysis of structural members made of nanomaterials.

On the final stage of making new materials, the only such materials can be considered as
the evidently perspective, which are the engineering materials, that is, the materials from
which with an application of certain technologies can be made the different structural
members (rods, plates, shells, bulk elements, and so on).

In this connection, in the process of making new engineering materials, one of

the oldest sciences – mechanics – has a significant place, because at present the
problems of mechanics of materials and structural members are related to competence
of mechanics. Thus, it seems to be evident and perspective the functioning of
nanomaterials as the engineering materials in the form of nanocomposites.

Some examples of nanoformations are shown above. They are chosen by reason that most
of them are used as fillers (reinforcing elements), when the nanocomposites being produced
basing on different bin- ders (matrixes).

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A plenty of distinguishing by the shape and structure nanoformations exist. This

complicates the classification of nanocomposites because the existing and future
nanocomposites should be taken into account. The international computer base
on nanocomposites is in the state of active forming. Therefore, the classification of
nanocomposites, which could be an overall or exhausting one, seems to impossible,
while being used this base.

Below the consisting of five groups classification is shown.

G10.1. Nanocomposites in the form of matrix dispersion-stiffened by separate particles

(nanoformations) for a quite small volume fraction of nanoformations

Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

This group of nanocomposites is widely used in researches of different scientific centers. As
a matrix, the diverse polymer compositions are utilized.

In Fig.10.25 the examples of nanocomposites of the 1st group with the same matrix –
the rosin EPDM (ethylene propylene diene monomer) are shown.

Fig.10.25. Nanocomposites with different dispersive phases

The nanoformations (fillers) are different: in the upper line on the left the nanocomposite
with dispersive phase from the black graphite CB29 is shown and on the right – from the
silicium oxide Silica210, in the lower line on the left the nanocomposite with dispersive
phase from the silicium oxide Silica150 and on the right – from calcium particles Cal20.

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Fig.10.26. Hybrid nanocomposite.

The nanocomposites of the first group can be used as a matrix in producing the new
nanocomposites. In this ca-se, on the next stage of producing the new composites, other
nanoformations should be additionally considered as fillers.

An example of such a hybrid nanocomposite is shown in Fig. 10.26. Its matrix consists of
the dispersive mixture of polycarbonate rosin and graphite nanofibers. As the reinforcing
fibers, the graphite microfibers are used.

While the nanocomposites of the 1st group being studied, first the procedure of continualization
is carried out for each separate nanoparticles. As a result, the nanoparticles are described
by the model of a homogeneous material with averaged constants. On the whole, the
nanocomposite is described by the model of piece-wise homogeneous material. At the
next stage, the procedure of homogenization is carried out, which leads to the model of a
homogeneous material with averaged constants.

If the technology of producing the nanocomposites of the 1st group do not form
the directions of preferred reinforcing, the model of homogeneous isotropic material
can be used for such nanocomposites. In this case, the Young modulus and Poisson’s
ratio of the material are determined by values of these constants for matrix and
nanoparticles as well as the volume fractions of the filler – the nanoparticles.

If the technology of producing the nanocomposites of the 1st group forms the
directions of preferred reinforcing, then the nanocomposites can be modeled by the
model of homogeneous transversally isotropic material in presence of one direction
or the model of homogeneous orthotropic material in presence of three directions.
The Fig.10.27 shows an example of one preferred direction of reinforcing with the
use of a magnetic field.

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Fig.10.27. The nanocomposite with preferred reinforcing.

This nanocomposite is made of the polymer matrix (the material – polymethyl siloxane or
silicon oil) with weak reinforcing of graphite fibers (vapor-grown carbon fibers) of diameter
150 nm. On the left, the internal structure before of application of the magnetic field, and
on the right – after application of magnetic field – is shown.

G10.2. Layered nanocomposites

Definition 10.1. The layered nanocomposites are thinking as the nanocomposite

materials, in which the geometrical sizes of reinforcing elements (filler) in one
direction are essentially (on several orders) less than their sizes in two other mutually
perpendicular directions.

Note 10.9. In the case of layered nanocomposites, the terms reinforcing element
(filler) and binder (matrix) have a sufficiently conditional character, because both
filler and matrix from geometri-cal point of view are the layers made of differing
materials. Therefore, in the layered nanocomposites, the reinforcing elements are
thinking as the layers with more stiff material. Correspondingly, the matrix is
thinking as the layers with less stiff material.

When the layered nanocomposites being formed of separate monolayers made of materials
in the form of nanocomposites of the 1st group, then the monolayers of these materials
with a small volume fraction can be chosen as the matrix.

Note 10.10. Let us note that even for the same matrix and also for the same particles
of nano-formations (fillers) the monolayers of nanocomposites of the 1st group
can be materials with distinguishing stiffness parameters owing to distinguishing
volume fraction of fillers.

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While the layered nanocomposites being studied, then the fact should be taken into account
that the monolayer’s materials are already mode led by materials with averaged properties.
Thus, the layered nanocom posites are modeled by the model of piece-wise homogeneous
materi- als. Therefore, in an analysis of nanocomposites of the second group the transition
from the second model to the third one using the procedure of homogenization is necessary.

Fig.10.28. Layered nanocomposite

The Fig.10.28 shows the layered nanocomposite (a little line below corresponds to 50 nm)
with the mat- rix made of AESO (acrylate epoxide soybean oil), which is weakly reinforced
(with the volume fraction 5%) by packages made of the clay strips separated by triglyceride
molecules.

The Fig.10.29 shows the layered nanocomposite consisting

Focus of Nanomechanics
on new materials. very clearlyof materials
marked nanolayers
of cooper and niobium of hight 75 nm.

Fig.10.29. Layered nanocomposite cooper - niobium

Definition 10.2.
G10.3. Fibrous nanocomposites

Definition 10.2. The fibrous nanocomposites are thinking as the nanocomposite

materials, in which the geometrical sizes of reinforcing elements (filler) sizes in two
mutually perpendicular directions have the same order and these sizes are essentially
(on several orders) less than their size in the third mutually perpendicular direction.

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For the fibrous nanocomposites, in contrary to the layered ones, the notions of reinforced
elements (fillers) and binder (matrix) are sharply identified, because here the reinforcing
elements are the different fiber-like nanoformations are used, including sufficiently long and
comparatively short nanoformations. As a matrix, the diverse materials are using – from
polymer to ceramic or metallic materials, including the nanocomposites of the first group.

While the carbon or other nanotubes being used as the fillers in the fibrous nano-composites,
then in an analysis of nanocomposites the procedure of continualization is first applied,
which is realized by methods of solid-state physics. In this approach, the nanotubes are
modeled by the homogeneous material with averaged properties.

Note 10.11. When mechanics of composite nanomaterials being constructed in

a sense noted above, then different approaches and methods are utilized, which
correspond to different scientific directions and scientific positions of single
scientists. Nevertheless, despite such diversity of scientific directions, in constructing
of mechanics of composite materials two basic principles (two basic concepts) are
applied – the principle of continualization and principle of homogenization, which
were formulated in Chapter 9.

The principle of continualization is in that the discrete system is changed (modeled)

by the continuous system (medium) and for the continuous system (medium) the
corresponding averaged properties are determined.

The principle of homogenization is in changing (modeling) the piece-wise homogeneous

system, deforming of each element (piece) of which is described by relationships of
continuum mechanics of solids, by the homogeneous continuous system (medium) and
determination of necessary averaged properties within the framework of the homogeneous
continuous system (medium).

A matrix is also modeled by the homogeneous material with averaged properties, including
the variant when the matrix is a nanocomposite material of the 1st group.

Within the framework of the shown chain of models, the fibrous nanocomposites
are modeled by the piece-wise homogeneous material. At the end of the chain, an
analysis of the fibrous nanocomposites is reduced with the use of the procedure of
homogenization to an analysis of homogeneous materials with averaged properties.

Note 10.12. The manufactured of single-wall and multi-wall nanotubes diverse

fiber-like nanoformations (nanoensembles, nanoropes, nanobundles, nano-wires,
nanofibers, etcetera) are utilized.

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The number of diverse fiber-like nanoformations, which are used as the reinforcing elements,
is so huge that it seems at present impossible to classify them by the structure and shape.
Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

The Fig.10.30 shows one only example of hybrid nanocomposite “polycarbonate rosin -
graphite fibers” is shown. It can be referred to as the fibrous nanocomposites. In the left,
the perpendicular to the fiber direction cross-section is shown, in the right – the parallel
to the fiber direction cross-section.

Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

Fig.10.30. Hybrid fibrous nanocomposite.

The general approach of constructing the mechanics of nanocomposites permits to propose

a variant of the program of studying the fibrous nanocomposites. According to the program,
the first stage is in the application of the procedure of continualization for each nanotube,
included in the nanoformation. This procedure is realized by methods of solid-state physics.
As a result, each nanotube is modeled by a homogeneous material with averaged properties.

At the next stage, the procedure of homogenization is carried out by taking into account
the modeling at the first stage and the corresponding modeling included in the fiber-like
nanoformation part of the matrix, which results in modeling this nanoformation by a
homogeneous material with averaged properties.

For the shown sequence of approaches, the fibrous nanocomposite (fiber-like nanoformations
+ matrix) becomes the piece-wise homogeneous material. Therefore, the final stage consists
in the application of the procedure of homogenization and modeling the nanocomposite
by a homogeneous material with ave- raged properties.

Fig.10.31. Closely packed fibrous nanocomposite.

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For an example, the form of external surface of fibrous nanocomposite, which is closely
packed (60% matrix and 40% fibers) and made of the polymeric matrix PET (polyethylene
terephthalate) and polymeric nanofibers LCP (liquid crystalline polymer) is shown in the
left in Fig.10.31.

In the right of Fig.10.31, another example is shown – the composite material with clearly
marked fibers of complex geometrical shape, theoretical modeling of which seems to be
the complex problem.

In closing to the very short information about the fibrous nanocomposites, it seems to be
worthy to add that in some cases the fiber-like nanoformations have so complex spatial
geometrical shape, that their theoretical analysis is seemingly impossible or practical.

G10.4. Granular nanocomposites

Definition 10.3. The granular nanocomposites are thinking as the nanocomposite

materials, in which the geometrical sizes of reinforcing elements (filler) sizes in
three mutually perpendicular directions have the same order.

In particular, the nanocomposites of the 1st group can be referred to as the granular ones,
if the nanoparticles in them have the geometrical sizes in three mutually perpendicular
directions have the same order and granule-like shape.

The reinforcing elements (fillers) in granular nanocomposites can be separate

nanotubes or more complex granule-like nanoformations.

Fig.10.32. Granular nanocomposite.

As an example, in Fig.10.32 the granular nanocomposite is shown that is made of the rosin
EPDM (ethylene propylene diene monomer) and reinforced by granules of the silicium
oxide Silica 185.

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When the granular nanocomposites being studied, then the sequence of approaches is applied,
which are utilizing the procedure of continualization and homogenization analogously to
similar situations in the fibrous nanocomposites.

It should be also taken into account that the cited above as applied to the fibrous
nanocom-posites detailed information can be equally referred to as the granular
nanocomposites.

G10.5. Complex nanocomposites

In some cases, the nanocomposites have so complex internal structure (not only the structure
can be complex, but the shape of reinforcing elements too), that its understanding and
description with the use of traditional theoretical approaches seem to be very difficult. These
nanocomposites form the fifth group.

Fig.10.33. The hollow nanofiber microsphere.

Here the only one example of the more complicated case, when hierarchial constructing the
final granule has a multilevel character (from the nanolevel to the mic- rolevel), is shown
in Fig.10.33, where the SEM image of the hollow nanofiber microsphere is presented.

It is obvious, while these nano-composites being studied, that the experimental methods
should be applied. But some cases exist when certain theoretical analysis is possible, what
will be discussed in the next chapters.

Thus, above, the one of possible variants of nanocomposite classification is stated.

Such variants are necessary to orientate more clearly in results reported in very
numerous publications. The proposed above classification seems the author’s
sufficiently appropriate one.

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An example of fibrous nanocomposite of complex structure

Consider the certain type of fibrous composite materials of a complex structure, namely
this will be the composites with standard polymeric matrix and fibers of a quite specific
structure. The fibers consist of three components: the stiff core, sufficiently stiff non-thin
covering of the core, and densely placed over the covering long hairlets, which have the
cross-section of one or more orders less of the cross-section of fiber without hairlets (core
plus covering).

So, the nanocomposite material is further considered, in which the matrix is epoxy rosin
and the fillers are the “bristled” nanowires from CdTe covered by hairlets from SiO2 .
But first, the analogical object of micromechanics of composite materials should be described
and commented. Namely, the microcomposite material should be considered, in which the
matrix is the same epoxy rosin and the fillers are the “whiskerized” (covered by graphite
hairlets-whiskers) graphite fibers.

At the first step, the multi-level homogenization is realized for both types of
composites owing to their comparatively identical structures.

It is assumed that the procedure of continualization is applied both to the nanowires

(microfibers), and to each nanohairlet (to the “bristle” on the fiber-core) and microfiber (to
the “whiskers” on the fiber-core). Therefore, each of components of composite (fiber-core
– solid cylinder; coating of core – hollow cylinder; zone consisting of matrix and single
microwhiskers or nanohairlets; matrix) is analyzed within the model of homogeneous material.

Further, the microwhiskers and nanohairlets are modeling by the periodic system of
directed along the core radius thin elastic fibers, which are in the perfect mechanical
contact with the matrix.

The next step in modeling consists in homogenization of the zone, filling the area between
the matrix and the basic fiber and occupied by mixture “bristle-matrix” (“whiskers-matrix”).
The filled by this mixture area is modeled as the piece-wise homogeneous one in the form
of a finite number of embedded one into other cylinders with distinguishing mechanical
properties.

The final step in modeling consists in homogenization of the structural cell of composite
material in the form of a multi-component solid system “matrix – a finite number of coatings
– two-layer fiber (core and coating)” and evaluation of averaged mechanical properties of
composite material.

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Note 10.13. The developed procedure of multi-step (multi-level) modeling of fibrous

composites is based on the similarity of final products of technologies of forming
the covered by whiskers microfibers and covered by bristle nanowires (the terms
“whiskerized” and “bristled” are proposed by scientists discovered such microfibers
and nanowires) – this product is the fiber covered by hairlets.

The procedure of multi-level modeling is based on the possibility of a theoretical scheme

for evaluation of averaged constants with the use of the Kolosov-Muskhelishvili complex
potentials (commonly considered as one of the effective instruments of the classical plane
theory of elasticity).

Note 10.14. The proposed modeling has the feature that the whiskered microfibers
were studied before from point of view of mechanics of composites and are utilized
in some advanced technologies, whereas the bristled nanowires are discovered lately
by chemists in laboratory conditions. At present, the geometrical parameters among
many necessary parameters of bristled nanowires are known only. Nevertheless,
if to take into account the unusual properties of the containing the whiskerized
microfibers composites, then the unusual applications of nanocomposites containing
Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of mat
the bristled nanowires can be forecasted, too. Note in advance that the theoretical
analysis permits to forecast of the high values of some elastic moduli for both types
of composites in hand.

Now, a few words on whiskers, nanohairlets, whiskerized microfibers and bristled nanowires.

Microwhiskers

A few tens years ago, the whiskers were commented as the new achievement in the
materials science, very promising in the improvement of properties of composite
materials and very expensive.
The whiskers have a classical definition.

Definition 10.4. The whiskers grow in some conditions fibers in the form of single
Definition 10.4.
crystal; such a crystal has a fiber-like or oblong shape; the ratio of its minimal
length to its diameter is 10:1 and more; the maximal area of cross-section is 7.9 u105
square inch (if assume the cross-section to be circular, then the diameter is not
exceeding 30 microns). Besides graphite whiskers, the metallic and ceramic ones are
the most known.

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Definition
Definition 10.4. 10.4.
Definition 10.4.
OF MATERIALS PART 1 NANOMECHANICS OF MATERIALS

So, the whiskers form the special class of microlevel materials with high mechanical strength.
They are very fast because they are the perfect crystals and their extremely small diameters
give a very small possibility to forming the defects, which weaken very the big crystals. In
experiments with whiskers from SiC the value of strength on tension was fixed more than
300 MPa and Young modulus – more than 1 TPa. The discussed further whiskers from
graphite of mean diameter 1 micron have such properties: density U 2.25 ˜103 kg / m3 , Young
modulus E 1.0 TPa , shear modulus G 0.385 TPa, TPa, Poisson ratio Q 0.30 .

The whiskerization as applied to the graphite fibers was proposed as the special
type of additional reinforcement. The reason was as follows: the graphite fibers are
often used together with matrixes from different rosins and this type of composites
has the low shear strength owing to bad properties of adhesion between fiber and
matrix. The whiskerization procedure consists in joining the whiskers to fibers
in composite materials and intension to increase in this way the contact surface
between graphite fibers and matrix. When the technique of whiskerization being
used, the four effects of whiskerization were fixed:

Fig.10.34. The whiskerized graphite fibers. about 1:330.

1. It changes the contact surface of the basic fiber with a matrix. 2. It changes the chemical
properties of the basic graph- ite fiber surface. 3. The integral link between whiskers and
fibers is very high. 4. It improves the properties of the shrin-kage inclined reinforced plastics
increasing their strength and elastic moduli.

It is observed that whiskerization of different graphite fibers in composites with epoxy matrix
increases the shear strength on the contact surface between matrix and fibers by 3-5 times.
The Fig.10.34 shows the whiskerized graphite fibers in the scale

Bristled nanowires

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Fig.10.35. The bristled nanowires

These nanoformations are thought of as the nanowires covered by long nanohairlets. The
basic wire consists of material CdTe. The covering of the basic wire system of nanohairlets
is formed from silica SiO2. The authors of pioneer publication showed wit and called such
constructions “the bristled nanocentipedes”.

Two types of nanocentipedes is reported, which are distinguishing by the way of stabilization
of the construction as a whole (MSA- and TGA-types of stabilization). The first type is
characteristic by the diameter of basic wire 4.5 – 6.5 nm, the second type – 3 nm.

The Fig.10.35 presents the first type of construction in the form of the basic fiber with the big
number of almost parallel hairlets, which as if growing from the basic fiber perpendicularly to
the fiber direction. The system “basic nanowire from CdTe – covering made of nanohairlets
from SiO2” consists in fact of three components – basic nano wire CdTe forms the solid
core-fiber, which is joined with covering from silica hairlets SiO2 in the form of a solid
shell, which in covered by hairlets (a bristle). On the shown in Fig.10.35 case, the core
diameter is about 3 nm, the shell turn is thickness – 15 nm, the hairlet length – 32 nm.

Thus, the whiskerized microfibers and bristled nanowires have similar geometrical
structures – forming the system of long hairlets around the main fiber and increasing
the diameter of the main fiber owing to forming some shell-coating the main fiber.
Both constructions can be used as fillers in manufacturing the composite materials
with the same goal: to improve the low shear strength between the wire-fiber and
polymeric matrix.

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Fig.10.36. The covered by nanofibers

Let us show also the covered by nanohairlets nanofibers from polyalkyltiorene (P3AT).
The Fig.10.36 shows the obtained on STEM images of nanofibers, made of P3AT for three
cases of chemical structure, which are indicated at the left upper angle of the image.
These images are identical by the geometrical shape with images from Fig.10.34 and Fig.10.35.

Note 10.15. It seems to be quite appropriate to note that tradition - to give the
non-standard names for the covered by nanohairlets nanoformations (fibers and
granules) - is started in microformations, in which the microhairlets and covered by
microhairlets fibers are named the whiskers and the whiskerized fibers, respectively.

As it was noted above, the covered by nanohairlets nano wires the authors named the bristled
nanocentipedes. Above, the structure of complex nanofibers is shown named by authors cup-
stacked-type and fishbone-like (herring bone-like).
Later the covered by nanohairlets nanogranules (micelles) will be considered, which the
scientists, created these nano granules are named the knedel-like nanogranules.

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Most likely, the authors of obtained P3AT-nanofibers covered by nanohairlets were not
knowing the existence of the cited above names and named the structure as the shish-kebab-like.

Seemingly, some part of physics-chemists likes this name, because before the structure of
shish-kebab type were described by other authors (physics-chemists too) for fibers nanohairlets
made of polyolefines.

Despite the complexity of the problem of modeling of nanocomposites filled

by the nanofibers of unusual shape, the mechanics of materials is able in some
approximation to analyze some models and propose the formulas for the averaged
(effective) elastic constants.

Structural scheme of nanocomposite reinforced by the “bristled” nanofibers

It is based on the assumption that for the fibrous composite materials both with whiskerized
microfibers, and bristled nanowires the fibers in matrix form the double-periodic structure.
Because here the fibers are assumed to be infinitely long, then such structures can be classified
in the cross-section plane. Usually, the quadratic or hexagonal lattices are considered,
consisting of periodically repeating in two directions cells.

Two groups of problems are as a rule arising in such an analysis.

Group 1. It is associated with modeling the nanocomposite within the framework

of one cell. In this case, the composite material is assumed to consist of matrix
and fiber, but the fiber is the composite structure too and consists of different
components (fiber-core – solid cylinder; fiber covering – shallow cylinder; area
consisting of matrix and single hairlets joined with the covering).

Group 2. It is associated with modeling of the interaction of single cells in the

double-periodic system, corresponding to nanocomposite as a whole. As a rule,
such modeling is used in the case of composites with the densest arrangement of
fillers (for composites with the high volume fraction of fillers).

Therefore, in an analysis of unilateral fibrous nanocomposites with bristled nanofibers the

next additional reason should be taken into account.

Before the conclusion was formulated on the unreasonableness of numerical analysis

for nanocomposites with the high volume fraction of fillers. It was based on the fact
that at present the nanocomposites with small volume fraction are created, because
in the transition to high volume fraction many problems arise (for example, the
necessary adhesion on the interface can not be provided or uniting the nanofibers
with their approach can not be prevented).

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The conclusion is formulated basing on existing choice of matrixes and fillers.

Therefore, the next model of double-periodic structure, which permits to take into
account both the high and small volume fraction of fillers, should be considered as
the model allowing the concrete numerical analysis in the complete form.

Let us stress that the next approach is based on the continuum models of all the components
of the four-component system “basic fiber – covering in the form of shell – covering in the
form of mixture of hairlets and matrix – polymeric matrix”, in which the components are
in the state of full mechanical contact.

The corresponding structural scheme for the described above nanocomposite is shown on
Fig.10.37 with indication of the chosen system of coordinates. The Fig.10.37a represents the
cell with three components – matrix from epoxy rosin EPON828 – covering from hairlets
SiO2 – fiber from covering SiO2 and core CdTe. The Fig.10.37b and Fig.10.37c show the
additional aspects of the structural model of cell: the compound solid fiber from core and
covering as well as the scheme of arrangement of hairlets of the fiber, which corresponds
to a real arrangement of nanohairlets or microwhiskers on the basic fiber

Fig.10.37. The structural scheme

The next step in modeling the cell consists in homogenization of covering in the form of
thin and long hairlets. Its necessity is because the covering is formed of a mixture of matrix
elastic material and directed along radius elastic hairlets in the form of rectilinear wires.
Here the assumption seems to be evident that the properties of formed of mixture hollow
cylinder will change with radius.

The problem of finding the averaged mechanical properties of such a mixture is not simple
and has not adequate solutions up to now. The quite close to this composition is the
axisymmetric composition in the form of pipe made of many layers with distinguishing
properties, which was earlier studied in mechanics of composites. The most known result of
averaging is based on the assumption that the properties are changing continuously along
the radius.

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materials
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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS Focus on new materials.

FOCUS ON Nanomechanics of materials
NEW MATERIALS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 NANOMECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

Therefore, the approximate approach is used further, which is based on the simplest
procedure theory of mixture – evaluation of averaged values of mechanical constants
by the mixture rule. Such values correspond to the lower estimate, since the hairlets
are like consoles and resist to shear to a great extent than it is taken into account
in averaged moduli for the adopted approach.

First of all, it is necessary to note that the scheme, including the fiber with hairlets arranged
periodically in the fiber cross-section and along the vertical coordinate, differs from the
classical scheme of infinite long fibers, in which the fibers are smooth. Therefore, to pass
to the classical model, some assumptions are needed:

A1. A
 ll the hairlets are continualized and thought of as elastic rods of the same
length lo .
A2. The hairlet radius ro and length lo are determined more or less exactly.
A3. The length of the side L of the cell-square is fixed.
A4. All the hairlets are arranged periodically axisymmetric in the cell-square (M
hairlets in number) and periodically with a pitch zo by vertical coordinate.

The pitch values can change from zero (touching hairlets) to the hairlet diameter. Assume
further that zo 2ro and average the vertical system of hairlets, what is resulting in values
of averaged volume fractions and shear modulus for the hairlet

co S r02  4r0 ˜ 2r0  S 8 ; (10.3)

Gp coGo  1  co  G(4) .(10.4)

It is adopted here that the upper indexes fix the belonging to: 1 – fiber core, 2 –
fiber, 3 – covering with hairlets, 4 – matrix. The lower zero index denotes the
belonging to the hairlet.

The values (10.3) are attributed to the strip-hairlet and further the four-component scheme
“fiber core – fiber covering – covering – matrix” is considered. To realize the scheme, it is
necessary to average the covering properties, that is, to apply the procedure of homogenization,
which models the mixture of hairlets and matrix material by the homogeneous elastic
material with averaged properties.

Theoretical multicomponent models

So, the structural scheme includes two-component fiber, covering, and matrix. This situation
needs the development of a corresponding multi-component model.

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Restrict the analysis by fibrous unilateral elastic composites with fibers of identical shape
arranged in the matrix by the deterministic way and formed the periodic system and utilize
the model of infinite long fi-bers. In this case, most of the classical models assume the
composite as two-component composition – the matrix with embedded fibers. Such models
can be called two-component models.

The next set of models – let call them the three-component models – is associated with the
presence in many classes of composites so-called coverings of fibers (each fiber is surrounded
by the special shell). This shell can have different origin and if it is created artificially, then
its destination is to improve the mechanical contact between matrix and filler. Usually, its
mechanical properties are distinguishing both from the properties of the matrix, and the
properties of fillers. Most often, the covering thickness is about 0.1 diameter of the fiber.

In composites with a metallic matrix, the covering has mainly a goal to decrease the
rate of chemical reactions between matrix and fiber. The metallic matrix and fibers
are chosen in the way that their mutual solvability and ability to react chemically
were either absent or very small.
In composites with the polymeric matrix, the coverings are used mainly in the form
of binding agents(intermediate binding thin shell between matrix and fiber). A
result of such linking is increasing the adhesion in this intermediate area between
matrix and fiber. In turn, this increases the mechanical properties of the composite.

Fig.10.38. The composite with metallic matrix

Fig.10.39. The composite with polymeric matrix

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In Fig.10.38 and Fig.10.39, the typical photos for the fiber with special covering
are presented.
The Fig.10.7 shows the microstructure of composite with metallic matrix “matrix
from alloyTi40A – fibers from boron with covering from BN”.
The Fig.10.8 shows the composite with a polymeric matrix. Here, the photo of a
crosssection of the fiber Borsic (fiber from boron covered by the thin shell from
SiC) is shown.

Thus three-component models correspond to certain classes of composites.

Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

The feature of the application of theFocus

four-component model to nanocomposites with complex
on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

fillers consists in that it instead one thin covering-shell between matrix and fiber introduces
two non-thin shells – one models the solid covering of basic fiber and other models the
area between the first covering and matrix, which is filled by a mixture of matrix material
and a big number of hairlets.

In this case, THE MAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THREE-COMPONENT

AND FOUR- COMPONENT MODELS IS IN THAT THEY ARE INTENDED
FOR DISTINGUISHING TYPES OF COMPOSITES – WITH SMOOTH
FIBERS AND FIBERS COVERED BY HAIRLETS.

Note 10.16. It for improving the contact conditions the diverse technologic ways
are provided, including the application of the special covering on the reinforcing
fibers to increase the adhesion of polymeric matrix and fibers. Utilizing as a filler
the special fibers covered by bristle increases many times the adhesion area owing
to the increasing surface of hairlets and increases at one time the binding between
matrix and fibers.

To develop the four-component model, the procedures for constructing the three-component
model for unilateral fibrous elastic composites. This is developed and used to describe the
presence of covering on the fiber as the third component (the 1st component – matrix, the
2nd component – fiber). The model uses the results of the plane problem of the theory of
elasticity, where the main tool of analysis is the Kolosov-Muskhelishvili complex potentials.
In the representation of complex potentials, the Weierstrass double-periodic functions and
their writing in the form of series are used

1 ª 1 1 º
„ z   ¦«  » ; (10.5)
m , n «  z  2mZ1  2nZ2   2mZ1  2nZ2  »¼
2 2 2
z ¬

1 f f
O 2 k  2„(2 k 1) ( z )
„ z   ¦ D k ,0 z 2 k ; M  z  C0 z  C2 O 2]  z   ¦ C2 k  2 . (10.6)
z2 k 1 k 1  2k  1!

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It can be said that the four-component model is some generalization of three-component

one in the sense that it introduces
Focus oninstead one
new materials.covering two ofones.
FocusNanomechanics
on new materials. materials
Nanomechanics of materials
Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials
Determination of averaged elastic
Focus constants
on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials
Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials
Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

The representations of complex potentials are the basis of the next theoretical analysis:
Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

In area 1 (fiber core) in the form of regular in this area (circle) harmonic function
through the usual power series
Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

f
z 2 k 1
M(1)  z  ¦ a Focus
(1)
2k  ^. (10.7)
(1)
a materials.
, new
on 2k
Nanomechanics of materials
k 0 2k  1

In area 2 (stiff fiber covering) in the form of representation of regular in this area
(ring) function through the Laurent series

f
M(2)  z  ¦a (2 s ) 2 k 1
2k z , a2(2k s )  ^. (10.8)
k f

In area 3 (soft layer) in the form of representation of regular in this area (ring)
function through the Laurent series
f
M(3)  z  ¦a
k f
(3) 2 k 1
2k z , a2(3)k  ^. (10.9)

In area 4 (matrix) in the form of representation of double-periodic function through

the Weierstrass function

§1 f
z 2 n1 ·
M(4)  z  a0(4) z  O 2 a2(4) ¨  ¦D n,0 ¸
©z n 1 2n  1 ¹
(10.10)
f f
z 2 n 1 f
O 2k 2
¦¦ a2(4)k 2O 2 k 2D n,k  ¦ a2(4)k 2 ,
k 1 n 1 2n  1 k 1  2k  1 z 2k 1

where O  2r (3) L  ; D n ,k are known from the theory of Weierstrass functions constants.

After some procedures, the averaged shear modulus G G12 V

12 H12  can be determined
within the framework of used approximation

b
G G(4) ; (10.11)
ªc
¬
(4)
 2  c (4)
 G (4) G(3)  º¼

ª c(4)  2c(3)   c(4)  G(4) G(3) º  4c(2) 8c(1)

b ¼ 1  G G  .
¬
(3) (2)  1  G (3) G(2) 1  G(2) G(1) 

Note that the volume fraction is denoted by c( k ).

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From the obtained for the four-component model formula (10.11) the corresponding
formulas for classical three-component and two-component models can be obtained:

The three-component model (component 3 is absent, that is, the volume fraction of soft
covering is zero)
Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

b on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

Focus

G G(4) ; (10.12)
ªs
¬
(4)
  2  s (4)   G(4) G(2)  º¼

4c(1)
b ª c(4)  2c(2)   c(4)  G(4) G(2) º 
¬ ¼ 1  G G  .
(2) (1)

The two-component model (components 2 and 3 are absent, that is, the composite consists
of matrix and fibers only)

G G(4)
2  c(4)  c(4) G(4) G(1)   . (10.13)
c (4)

 2c (4)
 G
(4) G(1) 
Note 10.17. The formulas (10.12),(10.13) coincide with the corresponding classical
formulas.

Finally, let us draw the attention of readers to the next concluding facts:

Fact 1. Th
 e whiskerized microfibers and bristled nanowires are quite similar from the
point of view of mechanics of composite materials if these fibers and wires
are used in the form of reinforcing elements in producing the composites.
Fact 2. For the fibrous composites reinforced by covered of hairlets fibers, some
adequate structural and theoretical models can be built, which permit to
evaluate the averaged constants of composite material with properties of
transversal isotropy.
Fact 3. The carried out numerical analysis of fibrous composite materials shows
that rein- Forcing by the whiskerized microfibers can increase essentially
the shear properties of composite material. At that, the significantly less
(about two orders) number of fibers is needed in comparing with the case
of using the smooth fibers from the same material.
Fact 4. The utilizing of bristled nanowires can occur very perspective in the production
of nanocomposites with polymeric matrix, because the shear properties of
these novel materials will be sufficiently high.
Fact 5. The utilizing of both the covered by a bristle of thin hairlets microfibers and
the nanowires of the same structure have some advantage over the smooth
reinforcing fibers, which can not be displayed in continuum models and
can be fixed in experimental observations only:

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a presence of the bristle as a great number of thin hairlets increases essentially

(in tens times) the contact surface between matrix and fibers.
In turn, this surface is the area of action of adhesion forces and the significant
increase of adhesion area must increase the strength limit of composite
material for lon- gitudinal shear.

An example of granular nanocomposite of complex structure

Consider the certain type of granular composite materials of a complex structure. Namely,
the nanoparticles of knedel-like type– the sphere-like nanogranules dense covered by the long
nanohairlets in the form of bristle – and the granular nanocomposites reinforced by these
particles. Since in the pioneer works such particles are called micelles, the used term should
be explained.

Micelles, clusters, micellar systems. The term micelle was introduced in chemistry
as far back as in 1913 (initially as the solution of ether oil in water). At present,
the micelle is meant in nanochemistry as one of the types of colloid nanoclusters.
The nanocluster is thought of as the nucleus including more than two atoms.
The nanoclusters are distinguishing by two types – isolated and united in the
nanostructure. To the isolated nanoclusters, the molecular clusters, colloid clusters,
and gas ligandless clusters (including the carbon clusters and fullerenes) are referred.

The colloid nanoclusters have sizes of 1-100 nm and are forming in solutions. They are stable
- do not de- posit and coagulate - and poorly interact with other clusters. The hydrophilic
and hydrophobic colloid clu sters are distinguishing. The surface of colloid nanoclusters is
usually exposing by ligands and SAS (surface -active substances). The colloid nanosystems
include also the microemulsions and micellar systems, which are forming by the use of
SAS. For a certain level of SAS concentration, the molecules of SAS form the mi celles
spontaneously. The micelles have the sphere-like shape, but for the high concentrations of
SAS they can form also other shapes: cylindrical, hexagonally packed cylindrical, lamellar
(layered), and so forth.

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Fig.10.40. The micelle.

The micellar structures make nanostructures including from tens to hund- reds of molecules
forming the micelle. The micelles are referred to as the self -organizing nanosystems. In the
micelles, the molecules of SAS are oriented in the radial direction from the micelle center.

The Fig.10.40 presents the shell cross-linked knedel-like micelle consist of the mixture (fifty-
fifty in weight) of polymers PEG-g-PAA-b-(PPF-co-PS) and PFCE. This micelle is self-created
when the nanopure water being added into the mixture. The diameter of a polymeric micelle
is equal to 17-18 nm; the diameter of the knedel-like micelle is equal to 22-26 nm.

It is known that the hairlets should correspond to the sizes of atoms from the chain.

The structural scheme of bristled knedel-like nanogranule.

So, the geometrical structure of micelle can be thought of as the core covered by the dense
bristle of hairlets, which are not always rectilinear (they are sometimes bent), but directed
perpendicularly to the core surface.

The micelle as a type of covered by nanohairlets nanoformation-nanomolecule is further

considered from point of view of application as reinforcing the matrix element in nanocomposite
materials. In some sense, this application is an object of the future. But the covered by
hairlets reinforcing elements of microlevel (whiskerized microfibers) were for a long time
are an object of the future.

Nevertheless, all three types of reinforcing elements – the covered by whiskers

microfibers, the bristled nanowires and the bristled knedels – nanogranules – are
united by the common technological idea:

they have the same feature in geometrical structure, consisting in increasing the
main core (fiber, granule) diameter owing to the formation by the long hairlets
the shell-covering and in the existence of the system of hair-lets around the new
fiber (granule).

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Therefore, all three formations can be used in constructing the composite materials with
an identical goal:

TO IMPROVE THE LOW SHEAR STRENGTH BETWEEN POLYMERIC

MATRIX AND REINFORCING ELEMENTS.

The structural scheme for a bristled knedel-like nanogranule is based on the idealization of
geometrical and mechanical characteristics of the granule.

The nanogranule is geometrically represented in the form of a sphere of the radius Ra (а –

arming granule), which is densely covered by spherically symmetric thin fibers of diameter
2rc (c – covering) in a few tens less of the sphere radius and length of which lc in a few
times exceeds the sphere radius.

The corresponding scheme of such a granule is shown in Fig.10.41. This picture can be
thought of as the model of knedel-like micelle presented in Fig.10.40.

Fig.10.41. Structural scheme of a micelle.

Consider further the granular isotropic nanocomposite made of isotropic matrix and reinforcing
the matrix bristled knedel-like nanogranules. Isotropy of nanocomposite is guaranteed of
the granule isotropy and their arrangement in the form of a cubic lattice, which is repeated
in three mutually perpendicular directions.

As was noted in the analysis of structural scheme for nanocomposite reinforced by

the bristled nanofibers, in modeling by the cubic lattice two groups of problems
arise as a rule.

Group 1 is associated with modeling the nanocomposite within the limits of one cell.
Group 2 is associated with modeling of the interaction of single cells in the three-periodic
system (in this case, the cubic one), which corresponds to the whole composite.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS
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Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of material
Thus, the marked above testifies that the offered in this book BASIC APPROACH
IN CONSTRUCTING OF MECHANICS OF NANOCOMPOSITES is quite
efficient because one of its positions consists in the active using the results and
methods of structural mechanics of microcomposites.

Consider further the poorly reinforced nanocomposite and analyze the only single isolate
cell. This nanocomposite has the feature:

Focus
Focusonon
new materials.
new Nanomechanics
materials. ofof
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materials
the space among nanohairlets is filled by the matrix material and interaction of
matrix and nano- hairlets is resulting in formingFocusthe new
onnew
material
newmaterials.
materials.
with properties materialsFocus on n
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Focus
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on new Focus
materials.
materials. on
Nanomechanics
Nanomechanics Nanomechanics
of materials
of materials
intermediate between properties of matrix and hairlet.

If denote the hairlet length as lc and introduce the quantity Rc Ra  lc , then the new
material fills the area between two spheres of radiuses Rc , Ra . The obtained in this way sphere
can be meant as the non-thin covering of granule core. As a result of the modeling, the
nanocomposite material is assumed consisting of three components:

matrix, covering, reinforcing granule-core.

The simplest and quite available model of covering is the model of homogeneous
isotropic material, when the properties of covering can be averaged by the mixture
rule. In this problem, the volume fractions of components should be evaluated what
is the pure geometrical problem, in which the number of hairlets and radiuses Rc , Ra
should be given and which is simple to solve.

Theoretical schemes of nanocomposite reinforced by the “bristled knedel-like” nanogranules

This scheme is necessary to evaluate the averaged elastic constants. The averaged density is
evaluated in a standard way by the mixture rule with known densities of a matrix, covering
and granule-core as well as their volume fractions.

To evaluate the averaged bulk k ( ) and shear P ( ) moduli of nanocomposite reinforced

by bristled knedel-like nanogranules, the described by Christensen scheme for two-
component granular composites is applied. In this way, the generalization of this
scheme in the case of three-component granular composites is constructed.

It is assumed that the infinite space with a spherical cavity of the radius Rm (m – matrix) is
filled by the isotropic elastic material with averaged constants (Lame moduli O , P or bulk
k 1 3  3O  2P  and shear P moduli), which have to be determined.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 NANOMECHANICS OF MATERIALS

Into the spherical cavity, the hollow sphere of external radius Rm and internal radius
Rc is inserted, which is filled by the matrix material with elastic properties km , Pm .

Further, into this hollow sphere, one more hollow sphere with an external radius
Rc and internal radius Ra is embedded, which is filled with the covering material
(a mixture of matrix and hairlets) with elastic properties kc , Pc .

Finally, in the hollow sphere of radiuses Rc  Rm the solid sphere of the radius Ra is
embedded, which is filled by the material of reinforcing core with elastic properties
ka , Pa .

The procedure of the theoretical determination of averaged bulk and shear moduli is the direct
generalization of the classical procedure.
Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

Thus, the three-component model is analyzed:

(solid sphere-core of radius r Ra ; hollow sphere Ra d r d Rm , filled by matrix and
hairlets; infinite space with a spherical cavity Focusofonradius r Rm filled
new materials. by the ofmatrix
Nanomechanics materials
Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials
Focus on new on
materials. Nanomechanics of materials
material). Focus new materials. Nanomechanics of materials

Focus
Focuson new
newmaterials.
materials.Nanomechanics of
ofmaterials
Within the framework of this model, theonprocedure of Nanomechanics
Focus on new materials. Nanomechanics of materials
determination materials

of the averaged elastic moduli can be realized.

The formula for the averaged bulk modulus k is written as follows

ª km   4 3 Pm º¼ K1 1  cm 
k km  ¬ ,(10.14)
K 2  K1 1  cm 
1
ª 3ka  4Pc c º ª 3k  4Pc 4 c º
K1 «  a » « kc a  Pc a »  k m ;
¬  c a
3 k  k 1  cm¼ ¬ 3  c a
k  k 3 1  cm ¼
1
ª 3ka  4Pc с º ª 3k  4Pc 1 4 с º 4P
K2 «  a » « kc a  Pc a »  m ,
¬ 3 kc  ka  1  сm ¼ ¬ 3  kc  ka  Ra 3 1  сm ¼
3
3

ca , cm are the volume fractions of arming element (granule) and matrix, respectively.

Note 10.18. The formula (10.14) is not very lengthy and is quite suitable for
computer realization.

If to assume that covering is absent  Pc kc 0 , then from formula (10.14) and expressions
for K1 , K2 the more simple formula follows

ª km   4 3 Pm º¼ K1 1  sm 
k km  ¬ .(10.15)
K 2  K1 1  sm 

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS
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The expression for evaluation of averaged shear modulus can be obtained by the similar
procedure

ª 63 26 Q m º
P Pm « k1b  k 2b  k4b » ,(10.16)
¬ 5 1  2Q m  5 1  2Q m  ¼

where from the adopted notations k2ac , k3ac , k4ac , k2cac , k3cac , k4cac , k2ccac , k3ccac , k4ccac ,
k1cm , k2cm , k3cm , k4cm , k1ccm , k2ccm , k3ccm , k4cccm , k1cccm , k2cccm , k3cccm , k4cccm , k1ccccm , k2ccccm , k3ccccm , k4ccccm ,
k1 cm , k2 cm , k3 cm , k4 cm , k1 cm , k2 cm , k3 cm , k4 cm , k3mm , k4mm , k3cmm , k4cmm , k1b , k2b , k3b , k4b

owing to their unhandiness only a few of first and last ones are shown

6Q a  7  10Q c   6Q c  7  10Q a  18Q a 1  2Q a  7  10Q c  Pc 18Q c

k2 ac   ;
1  2Q c  7  10Q a  1  2Q a 1  2Q c  7  10Q a  Pa 1  2Q c
21 90Q a 1  2Q a 12Pc
k3ac   ;
7  10Q a 1  2Q a 7  10Q a Pa
6Q a  3  4Q c    7  10Q a  5  4Q c  18Q a 3  4Q c 5  4Q c Pc
k4 ac  2 ;
1  2Q c  7  10Q a  1  2Q a 1  2Q c 1  2Q c Pa
.
1 ª k2cm  k3cm k1cm  k1cm k3cm  º 1 ª k4 mm  k3mm  k3cmm  º

k1b «  k3cm » «1  c »

k1cm « k2cm k1cm  k1cm k2cm » k3mm ¬ k4 mm k3mm  k3cmm k4mm ¼
¬ ¼
1 k2cm  k4cm k1cm  k1cm k4cm  º
ª
k3mm  k3cmm
 «  k4cm » ;
»¼ k4cmm k3mm  k3cmm k4 mm

k1cm « k2cm k1cm  k1cm k2cm
¬
Focus on new kmaterials. c
3 mm  k3 mm Nanomechanics of materials
k4b .
k4c mm k3mm  k3cmm k4 mm

If to assume the covering is absent. then the classical

more simple formula follows from formula (10.16)

ª 15ca   Pa Pm   1 º
P Pm «1  » .(10.17)
¬« 7  5Q m  2  4  5Q m  Pa Pm  ¼»

Thus, the main advantage of nanocomposites reinforced by bristled knedel-like

granules should be sought in essential improving adhesion between matrix and
granules, because the contact surface of bristled granule exceeds on a few orders
the contact surface of the smooth granule.

On some feature observed in the nanocomposite

When the nanoformations and matrix are united into a nanocomposite, the phenomena
occur on interfaces with the participation of more deep-laid mechanisms that it takes a
place, for example, in the case of microcomposites. The point is that in the general case
the nanoformations (for example, MWCNT’s) consist of a system of curvilinear layers, in
turn, each layer consists of a system of atoms, interaction among which is determined by

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS
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the force of interatomic interaction. Therefore, when the nanoformations and matrix being
composed into a nanocomposite, then seemingly the interaction of atoms of the “end” layer
of atoms on nanoformation with the neighboring atoms of the polymeric matrix must occur
owing to forces of interatomic interaction.

Thus, some intermediate layer arises from materials of nanoformations and polymeric
matrix, inside of which, the interaction of atoms of nanoformations and a polymeric matrix
is observed.

This forms an essence of some feature that is associated with a specific property
of nanoformations: they have a molecular structure, in which the most of atoms
are located at the surface, and therefore the nanoformations are active and interact
with molecules of the matrix.

First, the existence of feature in hand was reported and commented by A.N.Windle.
It seems therefore to be fair to cite two important paragraphs from his report.

“… She compared the influence of nanotubes on composite properties with other types of
nanoparticles, and emphasized the point that the huge specific surface area of nanosized
particles means that a large proportion of the surrounding polymer is very close indeed to
an interface, or in her parlance, much of the matrix is, in fact, an interface, with properties
different from the bulk matrix”.

“… Very approximately, for each 10% of nanofillers that is added to a composite, about
30% of the matrix will have its properties modified! But also, as loadings approach 30% a
significant proportion of polymer molecules will be attached to more than one nanoparticles.
No wonder it is so difficult to mix more than 15% nanotubes into a polymer melt. So
much for nanoparticles, what about nanotubes? … Here we have to ask ourselves the
hard question: as to whether there is any reason why unaligned CNTs should enhance the
mechanical properties of a composite more than nanoparticles of carbon black or silica?...”

THUS, THE CNTS TRANSFORM ABOUT 30% OF THE MATRIX INTO THE NEW
MATERIAL WITH MODIFIED PROPERTIES AS COMPARED WITH THE MATRIX
PROPERTIES.

Consider three examples relating to this new feature of nanocomposite material.

The first example shows in Fig.10.42 “the side-walled cross-linked nanotubes into the
polymer in a mode that could be more fully integrated and where the system is hybrid
polymer”. The second example shows schematically in Fig.10.43 the molecular structure of
nanocomposite crystallic polyethylene - CNT.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS
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Fig. 10.42. Side-walled cross-linked nanotubes

into the polymer

Fig. 10.43. Molecular structure of nanocomposite

crystallic polyethylene – CNT

Fig. 10.44. The CNT pulled out from the matrix.

The third example represents the CNT pulled out from the matrix. It is shown that a thin
layer (about 3 nm) of polymeric material (matrix) adheres to the surface of CNT. The
Fig.10.44 illustrates the existence of formation as if new fiber consisting of the core-nanotube
and not a small interface between CNT and matrix.

Comments
Comment 10.1. The continualization in nanomechanics is realized within the approach
“BOTTOM-UP” that is characteristic just for nanomechanics. The approaches “BOTTOM-
UP” and “TOP-DOWN” are generally known in the technology. Sometimes, “BOTTOM-
UP” is commented as “nucleation and growth”, and “TOP-DOWN” is commented as
“comminution and dispersion”.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS
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The approach “BOTTOM-UP” consists in making of materials, starting with the smallest
particles up to more massive formations. In this approach, the most essential is the basis –
the aggregate of the smallest particles and their character. The basis forms the foundation
for constructing the more massive volumes of material. This basis is called the bottom.

The transition from description of the nanotube as the discrete system and the discrete
matrix to the nanotube as the continuum nanorod-fiber in the continuum matrix
can be meant as the transition from the continuum bottom (atoms of nanotube
and matrix) to the more massive formation – structural part of the nanocomposite
material.

This is looking as opposed to the procedure of forming the continuum macro (meso, micro)
rod -fiber in the continuum matrix of the composite materials. Here another approach
is used – the approach “TOP-DOWN”. It consists in making of materials, starting with
the large volumes of material (bulk materials, source of raw materials) in direction to the
smaller formations (pieces) of material. The rough material is pressed, cut, found or in some
different way formed into pieces or products. In this approach, the most important is the
tool resources, by which the lower limit in sizes of product or material piece is determined.

So, the continuum micro (meso, micro) rod-fiber is formed of the bulk material
that is continualized on the scientific base, when the ergodic theorem is valid and
all averaged parameters are evaluated on the substantiated positions.

Thus, continualization of nanoformations seems problematic in many cases and their physical
properties both evaluated and determined from the indirect tests should be considered
critically. This forms the first basic feature of a continuum description of nanocomposite
materials from point of view of mechanics of materials. This feature of the continuum
description of nanoformations gas to be taken into account while the nanocomposite
materials being studied.

Further reading
10.1. B uryachenko, VA, Roy, A, Lafdi, K, Anderson, KL & Chellapilla, S 2005, Multiscale
mechanics of nanocom - posites including interface: Experimental and numerical
investigation. Composites Science and Technology, 65, 2435-2465.
10.2. Cattani, C & Rushchitsky, JJ 2007, Wavelet and Wave Analysis as applied to Materials
with Micro or Nano- structures. World Scientific Publishing, Singapore-London.
10.3. Cleland, AN 2003, Foundations of Nanomechanics. From Solid-State Theory to Device
Applications. Series “Advanced Texts in Physics”. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 NANOMECHANICS OF MATERIALS

10.4. C url, RF 1997, Dawn of the fullerenes: conjecture and experiment (Nobel lecture).
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl., 36, N15, 1566-1577.
10.5. Daniel, IM & Ishai, O 2006, Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials. 2nd ed.
Oxford University Press, New York-Oxford.
10.6. Drexler, EK 1990, Engines of Creation, the Coming Age of Nanotechnology. Fourth
Estate, London.
10.7. Guz, AN, Rushchitsky, JJ & Guz, IA 2010, Introduction to Mechanics of Nanocomposites.
SP Timoshenko Institute of Mechanics, Kiev. (In Russian)
10.8. Guz, AN & Rushchitsky, JJ 2011, Establishing foundations of the mechanics of
nanocomposites (review). Int. Appl. Mech., 47, N1, 2-44.
10.9. Guz, AN & Rushchitsky, JJ 2011, Analysis of structurally complex nanocomposites
(review). Int.Appl.Mech., 47, N4, 351-409.
10.10.  Guz, AN & Rushchitsky, J 2013, Some fundamental aspects of mechanics of
nanocomposite materials. J. of Nanotechnologies, 24, special issue “Nanocomposites
2013”, 1-15.
10.11.  Guz, AN & Rushchitsky, J 2014, On features of continuum description of
nanocomposite material. J. of Research in Nanotechnology, 1, N1, 50-60.
10.12. Guz, IA, Guz, AN & Rushchitsky, J 2013, Effect of a special reinforcement on the
elastic properties of micro- and nano composites with polymer matrix. The Aeronautical
Journal, 117, N1196, 1019-1036.
10.13. Handbook of Nanophysics. 2011, In 7 vols. Ed.Sattler, KD. CRC Press, Taylor&Francis
Group, Boca Raton- London.
10.14. http://nepp.nasa.gov/whisker 2007.
10.15. Koo, JH 2006, Polymer Nanocomposites: Processing, Characterization, and Application.
McGraw-Hill, New York.
10.16. Ladden, S 2009, Knedel-Like Nanoparticles. Math.-Wiss. und Werkstofftech. 40, N3, 45.
10.17.  Lau, KT & Hui, D 2002, The revolutionary creating of new advanced carbon
nanotube composite. Composites. Part B: Engineering, 33, 263-277.
10.18. Lau, K, Li, HL, Lim, DS & Hui, D 2003, Recent research and development on
nanotube/polymer composites Annals of Eur. Acad. Sci.1, N1, 318-333.
10.19. Nalwa, HS 2000, Handbook of Nanostructured Materials and Nanotechnology. Academic
Press, San Diego.
10.20. Nanostructured Materials. 2009, Ed. Wilde, G. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
10.21. Nystrom,AM, Bartels, JW, Du, WJ & Wooley, KI 2009, Perfluorocarbon-Loaded
Shell Crosslinked Knedel -Like Nanoparticles: Lessons regarding Polymer Mobility
and Self-Assembly. J. Polymer Science: Part A: Polymer Chemistry. 47, 1023-1037.
10.22. Polymer Nanocomposites. 2009, Eds. Mai, Y-W & Yu, Z-Z. Woodhead Publishing
Lim., Cambridge.
10.23. Polymer Nanocomposites Handbook. 2008, Eds. Gupta, RK, Kennel, E & Kim, K-J.
CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 NANOMECHANICS OF MATERIALS

10.24. Ramsden, J 2010, Nanotechnology. Ventus Publishing ApS, Copenhagen.

10.25. Srivastava, D, Wei, Ch & Cho, K 2003, Nanomechanics of carbon nanotubes and
composites. Appl. Mech. Rev. 56, 215-229.
10.26. Thostenson, ET, Li, C & Chou, TW 2005, Nanocomposites in context (review).
Composites Science and Technology, 65, 491-516.
10.27. Tjong, SC 2009, Carbon nanotube reinforced composites. Metal and ceramic matrixes.
Wiley-VCH Verlag, Weinheim.
10.28. Vaia, RA & Wagner, HD 2004, Framework for nanocomposites. Materials Today.
4, N10, 32-37.
10.29. Valavala, PK, Clancy, TC, Odegard, GM & Gates, TS 2007, Nonlinear multiscale
modeling of polymer materials. Int. J. Solids Str. 44, 1161-1179.
10.30. Wagner, HD & Vaia, RA 2004, Nanocomposites: issues the interface. Materials
Today, 4, N10, 38-42.
10.31. Wilson, N, Kannangara, K, Smith, G, Simmons, M & Raguse, B 2002, Nanotechnology.
Basic Science and Emerging Technologies. Chapman & Hall / CRC, Boca Raton -
London.
10.32. Windle, AH 2007, Two defining moments: A personal view by Prof. Alan H. Windle.
Composites Science and Technology. 67, N4, 929-930.

Questions
10.1. L ook for the novel tools (besides AFM, STEM) of seeing the objects of nanolevel.
10.2. Which branches of modern science are involved in the study of nanomaterials?
10.3. Write a few arguments for the importance of the location of atoms of nanoformations
over the external boundary in mechanical modeling the nanomaterials.
10.4. Find the example of MWCT with the maximal number of layers. Starting with which
number of layers the nanotube becomes the object of micromechanics?
10.5. Estimate the progress in producing the new nanocomposite materials. Which new directions
in using the nanoobjects you can see in the modern applied science on materials?
10.6. Look for new information on types of whiskers.
10.7. Try to find some new kinds of nanoformations with an unusual name (like to “knedel-
like or “shish-kebab-like”).
10.8. Formulate a difference between the structural and theoretical schemes in description
of nanocomposite materials.
10.9. Why the validity of the principle of continualization and principle of homogenization
is the crucial point in modeling of nanocomposite materials? You think, the description
of the SWCT as a continuum object is true or not?
10.10. In your opinion, using the averaged moduli in modeling of nanocomposite materials
will be still the dominated technique? Show an example of the more complicated
structural models.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

11 FOCUS ON NEW
MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF AUXETIC MATERIALS
On phenomenon of auxeticity of material. Negative
Poisson’s ratio. Three basic mecha- nical phenomena.
Short historical and bibliographic information. Auxetic
materials from the position of the linear theory of elasticity.
Classical procedures of introducing the elastic moduli.
Reunderstanding (refinement) of procedures of estimating
the values of elastic moduli in the modern linear isotropic
theory of elasticity. Auxetic materials from the position of
the nonlinear theory of elasticity. Universal deformations
of simple shear, uniaxial and omniaxial tensions for three
basic nonlinear models (two-constant Neo-Ho- okean,
three-constant Mooney-Rivlin, five-constant Murnaghan).
Comparison of theore tical and experimental results.

On phenomenon of auxeticity of material

The auxetic materials can be defined as some subclass of nontraditional materials. This
subclass includes the metamaterials, which include the mechanical metamaterials, which in
turn include the auxetic materials.

The auxetic materials are deformed elastically exhibiting the unconventional property
of increa sing the cross-section (growing swollen) of a cylindrical or prismatic sample
under uniaxial tension, whereas in the conventional materials this cross-section
decreases (grows thin).

This is shown in Fig.11.1, where two left pictures show the deformation of traditional
material, and two next pictures show the deformation of nontraditional (auxetic)
material. The point is that the property of the decrease is described in the linear
theory of elasticity by use of the Poisson’s ratio. A change of the decrease of cross-
section on the increase of one means a change of positive values of Poisson’s ratio
on the negative ones.

239
 elastic moduli in the modern linear isotropic theory of elasticity. Auxetic materials from
the position of the nonlinear theory of elasticity. Universal deformations of simple shear,
uniaxial and omniaxial tensions for three basic nonlinear models (two-constant Neo-Ho-
okean, three-constant
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICSMooney-Rivlin, five-constant Murnaghan).
FOCUS ONComparison of theore
NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS
tical PART 1
and experimental results. OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

Fig.11.1. Deformation of the sample under tension.

But the auxetic materials can not be associated only with description in the framework of
the linear theory of elasticity, where the Poisson’s ratio is the elastic constant. Recently, the
term “negative ratio of the transverse strain to the longitudinal one” is often used instead
of the term “negative Poisson’s ratio”.

The demonstration of auxeticity of foam as increasing the volume of sample from a foam
under tension is often used. It is shown in Fig.11.2.

Fig.11.2. Demonstration of deformation of the foam sample.

These pictures are really very demonstrative because they show two basic features.
The feature 1 consists in that the sample length is possibly not sufficient to create
the classical conditions of the test on the universal deformation of uniaxial tension-
compression.
The feature2 can be meant as follows: the longitudinal and transverse strains are
seemingly not sufficiently small.

An essential part of studies of auxetics consists in the finding of diverse variants of internal
structure that is further studied by methods of molecular physics and computational
simulations. The most po-pular is the so-called hexagonal system (It is shown in Fig.11.3;
left – before stretching, right – after stretching). Just this structure is given by different
authors to illustrate the auxeticity.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
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Fig.11.3. Demonstration of auxeticity of the hexagonal structure.

Let us turn on the fact that the first observed auxetic materials were the foams which are
characterized by the small value of density and the porous internal structure. In the next
studies, the new auxetics were revealed, the density of which was also small. But it was
shown later that small density is not the defining property of auxetics, because the significant
part of foams has not the property of auxeticity. The defining characteristics of auxetics is
the special internal structure of this material.

In mechanics the internal structure of materials can appear on two different stages
of modeling the materials. First, on the stage of changing the discrete structure of
a material by the continuous one ( that is, when the notion of the continuum is
introduced according to the principle of continualization). Second, on the stage of
modeling the piece-wise inhomogeneous continuum by the homogeneous continuum
(that is, when the principle of homogenization is applied).

The first stage is usually associated with methods of molecular physics, whereas the second
stage is a standard one in the mechanics of composite materials. This is peculiar to all the
materials that are studied in mechanics. For the presence in the material property of auxeticity,
its internal structure has to change under deformation by the special way exhibiting the
unusual (nontraditional) mechanical effects.

Note here that mechanics of materials studied traditionally first the elastic deformation
and this concern both traditional (non-auxetic), and nontraditional (auxetic) materials.
As far as the number of known nonauxetic materials exceeds the number of auxetic ones
on many orders, then the term “unusual effect” is looking appropriate. In contrast to the
traditional effects that count tens, the effects of auxeticity are observed as now in the identical
mechanical problems in three types of such problems that are realized expe- rimentally and
described theoretically.

An identity consists in that the samples from material must be compared when the internal
structure of the material in cases “auxetic-nonauxetic” is differing by the only geometrical
shape of pores.

This case is shown in Fig.11.4 for the sample from the polyurethane foam (left – traditional
structure, right – auxetic structure).

241
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

Fig. 11.4. Two structures of the polyurethane foam.

Thus, the auxeticity is generated by the special kind of internal structure of the
material and appears in three basic mechanical tests on the deformation of material
– swelling under tension, hardening under indentation, synclastic and anticlastic
deformation of the thin flexible plate).
Test 1 is described above and shown in Fig.11.1.

Fig. 11.5. Test on indentation.

Test 2 on indentation (statical Hertz’s problem, problem on hardness by Rockwell -Brinell-

Wikkers) and impact (dynamical Hertz’s problem) shows the effect of hardness of auxetics in
the contact zone. Within the framework of the theory of elasticity, this problem is solving
numerically with the given exactness.

A scheme of test that exhibits the essential difference in the degree of indentation of the
spherical indentor into the traditional (left) and auxetic (right) materials is shown in Fig.11.5.

Test 3 on synclastic and anticlastic deformation of flexible elastic plate is stated within the
assumption that the plate is quadratic in plan and is loaded by the balanced system of
three forces – one force is applied at the center of the plate and directed upward, whereas
two other identical forces are applied at the centers of two opposite ends of the plate and
directed downward.

242
 Focus on new materials. Mechanics of

FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS

OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

Fig. 11.6. Test on synclastic and anticlastic deformation.

Within the framework of the theory of flexible plates, this problem is solving numerically
with the given exactness. The simple experiment that exhibits the essential difference in
deformation of the plate from the traditional and auxetic materials is shown in Fig.11.6
(left- traditional material, right – auxetic material).

The shown above information on auxetics permits to state that their first-
use definition is based on the secondary fact – the negativity of Poisson’s
ratio that also is the term from only the linear theory of elasticity.
The primary fact consists in the existence of the special internal
structure and presented above basic mechanical effects.

Short historical and bibliographic information

The term “auxetic material” was introduced by Evans in 1991 for materials with a negative
Poisson ratio (NPR). At present, Wikipedia and other sources propose for such materials
the name “auxetics”. Both names come from the Greek word DX[KWLNR] (that which tends
to increase).

One of the first mentions of materials with NPR can be found in two works of
Gibson, Ashby, and others of 1982.

A description of the real foam-type materials with NPR was reported practically
simultaneously in 1987 by Lakes and Wojciechowski.
The works of Lakes and Wojciechowski of 1987 can be considered as the fundamental
ones in the area of the auxetic materials.

In the following years, the scientific journals regularly reported on new materials
with Poisson’s ratio with a value of less than -1. The state-of-the-art in the science
on auxetic materials is shown in a row of review articles and one monograph.

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 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

A feature of foams is the low density (for example, the density of aluminum is 2.7 g/cm3,
where as of the grey open cells polyurethane foam - 0.0027 g/cm3). Many auxetics described
in the scientific literature have a low density, too. This feature just as the property to increase
in transverse direction under longitudinal loading (it is measured in the classical theory of
elasticity by the Poisson’s ratio) can be meant as the result of a special internal structure
of the material, which in most cases is described by anisotropic continuum. But in some
cases, the continuum can be considered as conditionally isotropic (in fact, anisotropic) and
then a definition of the auxetics as the materials with NPR becomes conditionally correct.
As it is well known, the
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxeti
the
us on new materials. transversally
Mechanics of auxeticisotropic
materials elastic continua are described by three Poisson’s ratios, the
orthotropic ones – by six Poisson’s Focusratios
on newand so on.
materials. In theofobserved
Mechanics auxetics, the Poisson’s
auxetic materials
ratio has different negative values (from -0/7 for the foam (Lakes) to -12.0 for the polymer
polytetra- fluoroethylene (Evans)).

Practically all researchers (working mainly in material sciences) of auxetics trust firmly in
the correctness of restrictions of the classical theory of elasticity on values of Poisson ratio,
where the values less of 1 and more than 1 2  are forbidden (most cited is the famous book
of Landau and Lifshits). At the same time, the values essentially less 1 do not provoke
objections from these researchers (see, for example, some reviews from Further reading in
this chapter). By the way, these reviews show the recent understanding of the auxetics with
a discussion of their nature and applications.

Because the foams have the narrow applications, the following attention was
concentrated on po-lymers and composites, in which the internal structures can
be formed that transform the composites into the auxetics.

One of the promising directions consists in creating the cushioning materials (body
armors, knee-caps, packing materials, and so on). The gaskets and compactions
made of auxetics seem to be perspective. Some rocks and minerals as well as the
specially manufactured metamaterials are related now to auxetics.

AUXETIC MATERIALS FROM THE POSITION OF THE LINEAR THEORY OF

ELASTICITY

The presented short information on auxetics shows that their definition is based on the
secondary fact – the negativity of the Poisson ratio, which corresponds to the model of the
linearly elastic body. The primary fact consists in observation in the standard for mechanics of
materials (which does not depend on the model of deformation) experiment of longitudinal
tension of a prism that the transverse deformation of a prism is positive (a material as if
swells) in contrast to the classical materials, where it is negative.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
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Note 11.1. The hypothetic possibility of auxetic materials was discussed essentially
earlier in some books on the theory of elasticity (for example, in the classical books
of Love and Lurie).

Classical procedures of introducing the elastic moduli

Perhaps, the eldest and exhausting procedures are shown in classical Love’s book. Let us
save the adopted at that time notations and write according to Love the internal energy of
deformation of the linearly elastic isotropic body W in the form

O  H xx  H yy  H zz   2P  H xx2  H yy2  H zz2   P  H xy2  H xz2  H yz2  .(11.1)

2
W

Here the standard representation of the Hooke law through the Lame moduli O , P is taken
into account
5

Xx O'  2 PH xx , Yy O'  2PH yy , Z z O'  2PH zz , X y 2 PH xy , Z x 2 PH zx , Yz 2 PH yz . (11.2)

The notation of dilatation is also commonly used ' H xx  H yy  H zz .

Let us repeat the classical procedure of introducing the Young modulus and Poisson’s ratio.
Toward this end, the cylinder or prism of any shape is considered. Let the axis is chosen
in direction Ox and the prism is stretched at the ends by a uniform tension T . Because the
lateral surface of the prism is assumed to be free of stresses, then the stress state of a prism
is uniform and is characterized by only the stress X x T (other stresses are zero ones). In
this case, the Hooke law becomes simpler

T O'  2PH xx , 0 O'  2PH yy , 0 O'  2PH zz .(11.3)

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

An expression for dilatation isonobtained

Focus by adding
new materials. allofthree
Mechanics auxeticequalities
materials (11.3)
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

T  3O  2P  ' o ' T  3O  2P  .

The substitution of the last expression for dilatation into the first equality (11.2) gives relations

O P  3O  2P 
T T  2 PH xx o T H xx .(11.4)
3O  2 P OP

The expression (11.4) represents the elementary law T EH xx of link between tension and
deformation of the prism, in which the Young modulus E is used. Comparison of this law
with relation (11.4) gives the classical expression for the Young modulus through the Lame
moduli

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 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic material
. Mechanics of auxetic materials Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

P  3O  2P 
E .(11.5)
OP Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

The substitution of new

Focus on expression for dilatation
materials. Mechanics into
of auxetic the second and third equalities (11.2)
materials

gives relations Focus

Focus on new
on new materials.
materials. Mechanics
Mechanics of auxetic
of auxetic mate
materials

O
H yy H zz H xx ,(11.6)
2O  P 

which express the classical Poisson’s law on the transverse compression under the longitudinal
extension and permit to introduce the Poisson’s ratio

H yy H zz O
V .(11.7)
H xx H xx 2O  P 

Note 11.2. The formula (11.7) is one of the many classical formulas of the linear
theory of elasticity but it is a very important one for the theory of auxetic materials.
It expresses the fact that the ratio of the transverse and longitudinal deformations
characterizes the feature of the process of deformation. If these deformations are
small, then this ratio can be named the Poisson’s ratio. But in cases of not small
deformation the Poisson’s ratio can not be used.

Let us repeat now the procedure associated with introducing the second universal
(uniform) deformation – the uniform compression. Note that the first universal
deformation is considered above and consists in the unilateral tension.

Thus, the body of arbitrary shape is considered, to all points of which the constant pressure
 p is applied. In this body, the characterized by stresses X x Yy Z z  p, X y Yz Z x 0
uniform stress state arises. The Hooke law becomes simpler

p O'  2PH xx ,  p O'  2PH yy ,  p O'  2PH zz , (11.8)

H xy H yz H zx 0 .

The relations (11.8) can be transformed into

3 p  3O  2P  H xx  H yy  H zz  o  p ª¬O   2 3 P º¼ ' .

In this way, the modulus of compression k is defined

k O   2 3 P .(11.9)

The classical Love’s reasoning, which is repeated in most of the books on the linear theory
of elasticity, is based on the representation of moduli O , P , k through moduli E ,V

246
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS
5

EV E E Focus on new materials. Mechanics of aux

O ,P ,k .(11.10)
1  V 1  2V  2 1  V  3 1  2V 

The formulas (11.10) are commented in Love’s book (page 104) as follows: “If V
were ! 1 2, k would be negative, or the material expands under pressure. If V were
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
 1, P would be negative, and the function W would not be a positive quadratic
function. We may show that this would also be the case if k were negative. Negative
values V are notonexcluded
Focus by Mechanics
new materials. the condition ofmaterials
of auxetic stability, butFocus
such values have not
on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic m
been found for any isotropic material.”

Because the comments of negativity of Poisson ratio is found in the books on the theory
of elasticity very seldom, therefore a few sentences from the Lurie’s book (page 117) are
worthy to be cited:

“A tension of the rod with negative v (but the more thanFocus 1) on

Focuswould
new be accompanied
materials.
on new Mechanics
materials. by
of auxetic
Mechanics materials
of auxetic materials
increasing of transverse sizes. Energetically, the existence of such elastic materials is not
excluded.” …“In hypothetic material with Q  1, the hydrostatic compression of the cube
would be accompanied by incre-asing its volume.”

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

Note 11.3. The Poisson ratio is denoted in the theory of elasticity by V “sigma”
and v “nu”. Love uses V , whereas Lurie uses v . Further, Love’s denotation is used.

Not all authors of books on the linear isotropic theory of elasticity discuss the restrictions on
changing the Poisson ratio (for example, Germain, Nowacki, or Hahn does not make this).

But in many books, the discussion is presented and all authors start with the same postulate:

in the procedure of restrictions in changing the Poisson’s ratio, the primary

requirement is a positiveness of internal energy W .

The representation of energy can be different for different elastic moduli. For example,
Leibensohn, Love, Lurie choose the pair O , P and use the representation (11.1). Landau and
Lifshits use the pair k , P . In all cases, W has a form of a quadratic function with coefficients
composed of elastic moduli.

Thus, in most cases, the expression (11.1) is analyzed. It is assumed that the sufficient and
being in line with experimental observations condition is a condition of positiveness of
Lame moduli

O ! 0, P ! 0 .(11.11)

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

And further, the formulas (11.10) are considered, in which without controversy the Young
modulus is assumed positive E ! 0. Then positiveness of expressions 1  V ! 0, 1  2V ! 0 provides
validity of formula (11.11), from which the well-known restriction on the Poisson ratio
follows

1  V  1 2 .(11.12)

Note 11.4. The most comprehensive and modern treatment of the theory of
elasticity is offered in the book of Hetnarski and Ignaczak of 2011. The constitutive
relations and classical restrictions on elastic constants are discussed in subsection
3.3 “Constitutive relations”.

Let us recall that all the elastic moduli in the classical linear isotropic theory of elasticity
are always positive. The obvious contradiction between the assumption of negativity of the
Poisson’s ratio and the pri-mary statement on the positivity of Lame moduli (11.11) in
the condition when the Poisson’s ratio is defined by formula (11.7) is commented in the
classical theory of elasticity anybody. To all appearance, this situation is occurred owing to
the incredibility of negative values of only one elastic modulus O , P , E , k .

Two experimental approaches to determine the value of the Poisson’s ratio for
concrete material are used at the present time.
5

The 1st approach is the older one. It is based on the experimental determination of Young,
shear, and compression moduli and subsequent calculation of the Poisson’s ratio by formulas
E 1ª E º
(11.10) V  1, V «  1» . Here the problem of exactness of calculation arises. Let us
2P 2 ¬ 3k ¼
cite the Bell’s book: “Remind of the Grüneisen’s conclusion that the errors of r1% in values
E and P result in the error of 10% in the value of the Poisson’s ratio.”

Therefore, the 2nd approach seems to be more preferable, which is associated with Kirchhoff’s
experiments of 1859 and in which the Poisson’s ratio is determined from the direct experiment
on simultaneous bending and torsion.

Let us recall once again that the primary phenomenon in the determination of the
Poisson’s ratio is the contraction of a sample (transverse deformation of a sample)
under its elongation (its longitudinal deformation).

Reunderstanding (refinement) of procedures of estimating the values of elastic moduli in the

modern linear isotropic theory of elasticity

248
 Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS

OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

Let us proceed from that by now the experimental and theoretical (within Focusthe framework
on new materials. Mechanics
Focus on newof auxe
materi
Focus
Focus on
ew materials.
Focus
of
onon
Focus new
molecular
Mechanics
new of auxetic
materials.
materials.
physics)
materials
Mechanics
Mechanics
verifications
of of
auxetic
are
materials
auxetic materials
reported that the linearly elastic materials with NPR
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
Focus
Focus on new onFocus
new materials.
materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
exist. Therefore, further the Mechanics
term of auxetic
on new materials.
“modern materials
Mechanics
theory ofof auxetic materials
elasticity” is used in contrast to the
“classical theory of elasticity”, where the negative values of Poisson’s ratio were not discussed.
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
Save in following the initial postulate: in the procedure of restrictions in changing of Poisson
ratio, the primary requirement is the requirement of positivity of internal energy W

O  H xx  H yy  H zz   2P  H xx2  H yy2  H zz2   P  H xy2  H xz2  H yz2  ! 0 .(11.13)

2
W 5

Reject now the sufficient (and not necessary) condition of positivity of (11.13) internal
energy W , when the positivity of Lame moduli O , P is assumed and suppose the general
condition of positivity of (11.13) when one of the moduli can be negative.

Because the Lame modulus P has a physical sense of the shear modulus and until
now the facts
Focus of observation
on new its negativity
materials. Mechanics (a shear
of auxetic in the direction opposite to the
materials

direction of shear force) are not reported, then it is positive

P ! 0.(11.14)

This condition can be also substantiated theoretically on the base of analysis of universal
(uniform) deformation of simple shear. To describe the simple shear, the coordinate plane (for
example, xOy ) should be chosen and only one non-zero component u x , y of the displacement
gradient should be given. This can be commented geometrically as deformation of an elementary
rectangle ABCD with sides dx, dy parallel to the coordinate axes into the parallelogram ABcC cD
, which results in the longitudinal shift of the rectangle side BC . Then the shear angle
(BABc J is linked with the component u x , y in a next way u x , y tan J W and H xy 1 2 W . The
Hooke law becomes the simplest form V xy 2PH xy and the corresponding representation of
internal energy is as follows W 1 2  PW 2 . The positivity of shear modulus (11.14) follows
from the positivity of energy W .

Return now to the primary definition of the Poisson ratio (11.7) through the Lame moduli
O , P , which is found from the problem of unilateral tension. In this case, the internal energy
has the form

O  H11  H 22  H 33   2 P  H112  H 222  H 332 

2
W
2

O  H11  2VH11   2P H112  VH11   VH11 
2 2
 (11.15)
O 1  2V  H112  2 P 1  2V 2  H112 ªO 1  2V   2 P 1  2V 2  º H112 ! 0 .
2 2
¬ ¼

249
 Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS

OF MATERIALS PART 1 on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
Focus OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

Here, the expression in the brackets should be positive

2 1  2V 2 
5
O 1  2V   2 P 1  2V 2  ! 0 o O 
2
P ! 0 . (11.16)
1  2V 
2

The formula (11.16) permits to formulate some refinements.

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
Refinement 1. If the Poisson ratio V is assumed to be possible negative and the
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic ma
shear modulus P is positive, then according to definition (11.7) the Lame modulus
O can be negative and not exceed by its absolute value the shear modulus
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
5
O  P .(11.17)
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

Refinement 2. If the Poisson’s ratio V is assumed to be possibleFocus negative

on newand the Mechanics of aux
materials.

shear mo-dulusFocus
is positive, then theMechanics
on new materials. condition of positivity
of auxetic materialsof internal energy (11.15)

admits arbitrary negative values of the Poisson’s ratio (because the coefficient ahead
of P is always positive). The case 1  2V 0 o V 0.5 is the peculiar one – the value
of modulus O is practically not restricted in its neighborhood.
5
Refinement 3. The Lame modulus O is already restricted from below according to
(11.17), but also the additional condition (11.16) exists

O  ª 2 1  2V 2  1  2V  º P .(11.18)
2
¬ ¼

The condition (11.18) is less strong: the coefficient ahead of P exceeds 1 for all negative V
Definition 7.5.
(in condition (11.17), this coefficient is equal to 1). Therefore, the condition (11.17) remains.

Turn to formula (11.9), which expresses the compression modulus k through the
Lame moduli O , P .
It follows from (11.9) that the modulus k will be negative if only the negative
Lame modulus O exceeds  2 3 P by the absolute value

k O   2 3 P  0 o O !  2 3 P 0,667 P .(11.19)
Definition 7.5.
nition 7.6. 5
Comparison with restrictions (11.17) and (11.18) on the absolute values of negative
Definition 7.5.
Lame modulus O in the case of negative values of the Poisson’s ratio V shows that
(11.19) does not conflict with (11.17) and (11.18).
nition 7.7.
Refinement 4. If the Poisson’s ratio V is assumed to be possible negative and the
shear mo-dulus P is positive, then the compression modulus k can be negative.

Definition 7.6.

Definition 7.6.

250

Definition 7.7.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
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5

It follows from formula (11.5), which expresses the dependence of the Young modulus E on
the Lame moduli O , P , and formula (11.9), which expresses the dependence of compression
modulus k on the Young modulus E and Poisson’s ratio V , that the Young modulus can be
also negative. The situation becomes clearer if the moduli O , E and k are written through
P and V

2V 2 1 V
O P, E 2 1  V  P , k P .(11.20)
1  2V 3 1  2V

Finally, a few statements in the modern linear theory of elasticity can be formulated.

Statement 1. Seemingly, the auxetics should be defined by the primary physical

phenomenon of positivity of transverse deformation of a prism, which is observed
in the standard in mechanics of materials experiment of longitudinal tension of
a prism. In this case, the auxetics will be associated not only with the isotropic
elastic materials.

Statement 2. In the case of auxetic materials, the Lame modulus O is always negative
and the Young E and compression k moduli are negative when the negative Poisson’s
ratio is less than -1: V  1.

Statement 3. The classical conclusions from the positivity of the elastic moduli
in the isotropic classical theory of elasticity should be refined and not used in the
modern theory of elasticity, where most of elastic moduli can be negative. In this
case, the restrictions (11.14) and (11.17) can be used.

Statement 4. When the problems of the linear isotropic theory of elasticity being
studied for auxetic materials, then at least two elastic moduli for these materials
should be determined from the direct experiments (unilateral tension, omnilateral
compression, simple shear, torsion).

THE MAIN CONCLUSION FROM ANALYSIS OF THE AUXETIC MATERIALS

WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE LINEAR THEORT OF ELASTICITY IS AS
Definition 7.5.
FOLLOWS:

The procedures of estimating the values of elastic moduli from the classical linear isotropic
theory of elasticity should be re-understood (refined) in the modern theory of elasticity,
in which the existence of auxetic materials is recognized. These refined procedures should
be based on the general postulate on the positivity of internal energy of deformation of
the material. This postulate permits an existence of new mechanical effects: expansion of
the standard sample-rod under unilateral tension and expansion of the standard sample-
Definition 7.6.

251

Definition 7.7.
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
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cube under hydrostatic compression as well as an existence in the isotropic linearly elastic
materials of the arbitrary negative values of Poisson ratio V , what is accompanied by the
negative values of the Lame O , Young E and compression k moduli.

AUXETIC MATERIALS FROM THE POSITION OF

THE NONLINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

The starting point in the nonlinear approach is that the first publications on auxetics linked
the auxeticity with the negativity of the Poisson’s ratio. A prevalent majority of scientists
identify up to this time auxeticity of elastic materials with the negativity of the Poisson’s
ratio. A few publications only exist, where the nonlinear models are used.

But the linear theory (model) of elasticity has an important restriction on the value
of in the classical experiment on the rod deformation (it is shown in Fig.11.1):
it must be small (for traditio- nal materials, it is restricted to 3% from the initial
length of rod). The shown in Fig. 11.1 experiment demonstrates that deformations
of the rod are not small and elongation reaches tens percent of the initial length of
the rod. Such elongations can be correctly described only in the nonlinear theory
Definition 7.5.
of elasticity.

Note once again that the auxetic materials are studied mainly by methods of molecular
physics, computer simulations, and material science. The contribution of specialists from the
mechanics of materials looks very small. Furthermore, only the methods of linear models
of the mechanics of materials are used. This situation allows us to predict that the use of
the notions and methods of nonlinear mechanics of materials can be promising.

The
Definition facts
7.6. stated above permit the formulation of the following goal:
to use the nonlinear models of deformation of elastic materials that will allow taking
into account the non-small strains within the framework of classical experiments
on three universal deformations: simple shear, uniaxial tension, multiaxial tension.
Definition 7.7.
Therefore, it seems to worthy to repeat some words on the universal deformations

Universal deformations (uniform deformations, universal states) occupy a special place in the
theory of elasticity just owing to their universality. It consists in that the theoretically and
experimentally determined elastic constants of material in samples, in which the universal
deformations are created purposely, are valid also for all other deformed states both samples
and any different products made of this material. It is considered therefore that the particular
importance of universal deformation (their fundamentality) consists in a possibility to use
them in the determination of properties of materials from tests.

252
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS
5

In the theory of infinitesimal deformations, the next kinds of universal deformations

are studied in detail: simple shear, simple (uniaxial) tension-compression, uniform
volume (omniaxial) tension-compression. In the linear theory of elasticity, the
experiment with a sample, in which the simple shear is realized, allows determining
the elastic modulus shear P . The experiment with a sample, in which the uniaxial
tension is realized, allows determining the Young elastic modulus E and Poisson’s
ratio v . The experiment with a sample, in which the uniform compression is realized,
allows determining the elastic bulk modulus k .

While being passed from the linear model of very small deformations to the models of
non-small (mode rate or large) ones, that is, from the linear mechanics of materials to
nonlinear mechanics of materials, the universal states permit to describe theoretically and
experimentally many nonlinear phenomena. The history of mechanics testifies the experimental
observation in the XIX century of the nonlinear effects that arose under the simple shear
and were named later by names of Poynting and Kelvin. After about a hundred years in the
XX century, these effects were described theoretically within the framework of the nonlinear
Mooney-Rivlin model.
Focus
Focus onnew
Focus
on new
on materials.
new
materials.
Focus Mechanics
materials.
Mechanics
on new ofauxetic
Mechanics
of
materials. auxetic materials
of auxetic materials
materials
Mechanics of auxetic materials
The mechanics of composite materials is one Focus
moreFocus
area
on of
newon application
new materials.
materials. of of
universal
Mechanics
Mechanics of auxetic
auxetic materials
materials
new materials. Mechanics of deformations.
auxetic materials The simplest and most used model, in this case, is the model of
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
averaged (effective, reduced) moduli. In the theory of effective moduli, the composite
5 materials of the complex internal stru- cture with internal links are treated usually
as the homogeneous elastic media. A possibility to create in such media the states
with universal deformations was used in the evaluation of effective moduli by
different authors and different methods. It was found that it is sufficient for isotropic
composites to study the energy stored in the elementary volumes of composites under
only two kinds of universal deformations: simple shear and omniaxial compression.

To describe the experiments where the universal deformations of simple shear,

uniaxial tension, and omniaxial compression are realized it is necessary first to recall
here some essentials of nonlinear mechanics of materials (see Chapter 4).

A body is termed some area V of 3D space R 3 in each point of which the density of
mass U is given (the area occupied by the material continuum. The Lagrangian ^xk `
or Eulerian ^ X k ` coordinate systems can be given in R 3. In the theory of deformation
of a body as a change of its initial shape, the notions are utilized that are associated
with a geometry of body (kinematic notions) and with the forces acting on the
body from outside and inside (kinetic notions). The notions of the configuration
F , the vector of displacement uG ^uk `, the principal extensions Ok , the strain tensor
H ik are referred to as the notions of kinematics. The external and internal forces as
well as the tensors of internal stresses refer to the notions of kinetics.

253
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

Definition 6.1.
The configuration of body at a moment t is called the actual one, whereas the configuration
of body at arbitrarily chosen initial moment t o is called the reference one. The coordinates
Definition 6.2.
of the body point before deformation is denoted by xk .
Definition 6.3.
It is assumed that after deformation this point is displaced on uk  x1 , x2 , x3 , t  . Then the vector
with components uk is
Definition called the displacement vector and the coordinates of the point after
6.4.
deformation are presented in the form [k xk  uk  x1 , x2 , x3 , t  . The frequently used Cauchy-
G
Green strain tensor is given by the known displacement vector of u  xk , t  in the Lagrangian
coordinates ^xk ` and in the reference configuration

H nm  xk , t  1 2   un ,m  um,n  un ,i um,i  . (11.21)

As a result, the deformation of the body is given by nine components of displacement

gradients ui ,k .

Such a description of deformation is used in most of the models of the theory of

elasticity. But the process of deformation can be described also by other parameters
of the geometry change of the body. It seems meaningful to use the first three
algebraic invariants of the tensor (1)

(1 2) ª H mnG mn   H ik H ik º ª H mnG mn   H ik H ik º , A3
2 2
A1 H mnG mn , A2 det H mn ,(11.22)
¬ ¼¬ ¼

which can be rewritten through the principal values of the tensor (11.21) H k by the formulas

A1 H1  H 2  H 3 , A2 H1H 2  H1H 3  H 2H 3 , A3 H1H 2H 3 .

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
The often-used invariants I1 , I 2 , I 3 of the tensor H k are linked with the algebraic invariants
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
of the same tensor by relations Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

I1 3 2H nn 3 2 A1 ; I 2 3 4H nn  2(H nnH mm  H nmH mn ) 3  4 A1  2( A12  A2 );

(11.23)
I3 det G pq  2H pq 1  2 A1  2( A12  A2 )  (4 / 3)(2 A3  3 A2 A1  A13 ).

In several models of nonlinear deformation of materials, the elongation coefficients (principal

extensions) defined as a change of length of the conditional linear elements (the infinitesimal
segments that are directed arbitrarily) are used

Ok 1  2H k .(11.24)

A simpler formula Ok  1 | H k is valid for the case of linear theory. Additionally to

three para-meters above, in threes, parameters should be introduced that characterize
a change of the angles between linear elements and areas of elements of coordinate
surfaces.

254
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FocusFocus
on newon materials.
new
Focus onmaterials.
FOCUSnew ON Mechanics
materials.
Mechanics
NEW of auxetic
Mechanics
of auxetic
MATERIALS. materials
ofMECHANICS
auxetic
materials materials
OF MATERIALS PART 1 on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
Focus OF AUXETIC MATERIALS
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

It seems to be necessary to show the very often usedFocus

Focus on new materials. Mechanics on new materials
of auxetic
notation materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
of the gradient of the
displacements
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic material
ª1  u1,1 u1,2 u1,3 º
«Focus on new materials. Mechanics
»
F « u2,1 1  u2,2 Focus
u2,3 »on new materials.
of auxetic materials
Mechanics of auxetic materials (11.25)
«¬ u3,1 u3,2 1  u3,3 »¼

and notation of the left Cauchy-Green strain tensor B = F FT associated with it.

The most used are two tensors of internal stresses: the symmetric Cauchy-Lagrange
tensor V ik , that is measured on the unit of area of the deformed body, and the
nonsymmetric Kirchhoff tensor tik , that is measured on the unit area of the
undeformed body.

Universal deformation of simple shear

The experiments on simple shear are realized on the sufficiently long beam of quadratic
cross-section, in which the uniform deformation is created on some distance from the ends.
The lower side of the beam is fixed rigidly and the surface tangential constant load T2 is
applied to the upper side.

The deformation of the beam can be described by one component of the deformation
gradient u1,2  wu1 wx2  The component u1,2 and the shear angle J are linked as follows

u1,2 tan J W ! 0.

In the linear theory, the shear angle is assumed to be small and then J | tan J W .

The Cauchy-Green strain tensor is characterized by only three nonzero components

H11 1 2   u1,1  u1,1  u1,k u1,k  1 2   u1,2u1,2  u1,3u1,3  W 2 ;
H12 H 21 1 2   u1,2  u2,1  u1,k u2,k  1 2 W .
The principal extensions are written through the shear angle by formulas O1 1, O2 O3 W .

Universal deformation of uniaxial tension

A rod in the form of a straight long (of circular or quadratic cross-section) cylinder with
the axis in direc- tion of the axis Ox1 is considered when the lateral surface of the rod is
free of stresses. The rod is stret-ched in the axial direction. Then the uniform stress-strain
state is formed in the rod except for the area near the ends. It is characterized by only one
nonzero component V 11 of the stress tensor and two nonzero com ponents H11 , H 22 H 33 of the
strain tensor (or two principal extensions O1 , O2 O3 ).

255
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

On the Young modulus and Poisson’s ratio.

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

The classical expression for the Young modulus through the Lame moduli is as follows
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

E ª¬ P  3O  2 P   O  P  º¼ . (11.26)

The next formula expresses the classical Poisson’s law on the transverse compression under
Focus
Focus on newon new materials.
materials. Mechanics
Mechanics of auxe
the longitudinal extension and permits to introduce the Poisson’s ratio
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
V  H yy H xx   H zz H xx   O 2   O  P  .(11.27)
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

Note 11.5. The Poisson’s ratio isFocus oneonofnew

thematerials.
characteristics
Mechanicsof
of linear deformation of
auxetic materials

elastic material and is considered as the basic notion of linear elasticity. But the ratio
of transverse
Focus on newstrain to the
materials. longitudinal
Mechanics of auxetic one can be used in any model of nonlinear
materials

elasticity (and not only elasticity). In this case, this ratio will have its representation
in each model and possibly will not be constant quantity for any level of strain.

Universal deformation of uniform (omniaxial) compression-tension

A sample has the shape of a cube, to sides of which the uniform surface load (hydrostatic
compression) is applied. Then the uniform stress state is formed in the cube. The normal
stresses are equal with each other V 11 V 22 V 33 , and the shear stresses V ik  i z k  are absent.
This type of universal deformation is defined by the following components of displacement
gradients

u1,1 u2,2 u3,3 H ! 0; u1,1  u2,2  u3,3 3H e; uk ,m  wuk wxm  0  k z m  (11.28)

The Cauchy-Green strain tensor is as follows

H11 H 22 H 33 H  1 2  H 2 ; H ik 0  i z k  , (11.29)

and the algebraic invariants are written in the form

H11    H 22    H 33  ; I 3 H11   H 22   H 33  (11.30)

2 2 2 3 3 3
I1 H11  H 22  H 33 e; I 2

The principal extensions are equal with each other

O1 O2 O3 .(11.31)

Consider further three most known nonlinear models of hyperelastic deformation.

256
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

These models are related to the models of hyperelastic materials. This class of materials is
characterized by the way of introduction of constitutive equations. First, the function of
kinematic parameters (elastic potential, internal energy) is defined, from which later the
constitutive equations are derived mathematically and substantiated physically.

Two-constant Neo-Hookean model (model 1)

The elastic potential of the Neo-Hookean model is defined as follows

C1  I1  3  D1  J  1 ; I1
2
W J 2/3 I1 ; J det ui ,k ;
(11.32)
W  O1 , O2 , O3  C1 ª O1 O2 O3 
¬
2/3
O 1
2
 O22  O32   3º  D1  O1 O2 O3  1 .
¼
2

where the elastic constants of the model are linked with the classical elastic constants
by relations 2C1 P ; 2 D1 k .
Focus on new materials. Mec
The constitutive equations have the form

V nm 2C1 J 5/3 ª¬ Bnm  1 / 3 I1G nm º¼  2 D1  J  1 G nm ;

(11.33)
V nn 2C1 J 5/3  On  1 / 3 I1   2 D1  J  1 . Focus on new materials. Mechanics
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

It is considered that this model describes well the deformation of rubber under
the principal extensions up to 20% from the initial state. Since these extensions
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
are linked with the principal values of the strain tensor by relation (2) Ok 1  2H k ,
then it is assumed Ok  1 | H kk approximately with exactness to d 1% in the cases of
universal deformations for the Neo-Hookean model, what is true in the case of linear
theory too. Because the extensions in the linear theory are two orders less, then this
observation testifies the fact that the Neo-Hook-ean model extends essentially the
area of allowable values of strains as compared with the Hookean model.

Three-constant Mooney-Rivlin model (model 2)

The elastic potential of the Mooney -Rivlin model is defined as follows

C10  I1  3  C01  I 2  3  D1  J  1 ; I 2
2
W J 4/3 I 2 ;

W  O1 , O2 , O3  C10 ª O1 O2 O3 
¬
2/3
O
1
2
 O22  O32   3º 
¼ (11.34)
 C01 ª O1 O2 O3 
¬
4/3
O O
2 2
1 2  O12 O22  O22 O32   3º  D1  O1 O2 O3  1 ,
¼
2

257
 Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS

OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

where the elastic constants of the model are linked with the classical constants by
relations 2(C10  C01 ) P ; 2 D1 k .

The stresses are determined by formulas

V 2 J 5/3  C10  C01 J 2/3 I1  B  2 J 7/3C01 BB 

(11.35)
 ¬ª 2 D1  J  1   2 3 J 5/3  C10 I1  2C01 J 2/3 I 2  ¼º 1;

wW
2C10  O1 O2 O3  ¬Ok  1 3  O1  O2  O3 ¼  2C01  O1 O2 O3  ¬Ok  On  Om  
5/3 7/3
V kk Ok ª 2 2 2 2
º ª 2 2 2

wOk
  2 / 3 Ok  O12 O22  O12 O22  O22 O32 º¼  D1  O1O2 O3  1 . (11.36)

Here the indexes knm form the cyclic permutation from numbers 123.

The Mooney-Rivlin model is a classical one. This can be seen from the next historical sketch.
5
An effect of nonlinear dependence of decreasing the shear stresses when the torsion
angle (deformation) to the level of non-small values is called “the Poynting effect”
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
owing to his publication of 1909, where this effect was described. At that, Poynting
does not mention the results of Coloumb (1784), Wertheim (1857), Kelvin (1865),
Bauschinger (1881), Tom-linson (1883), where this effect was also described in
one way or another. But only within the framework of finite elastic deformations,
that was developed in 20 century, this effect was satisfactorily explained by Rivlin
in 1951. He used the model of nonlinear deformation which now is termed “the
Mooney-Rivlin model”.

Five-constant Murnaghan model (model 3)

The elastic potential in the Murnaghan model has the form

W (H ik ) 1 2  O (H mm )2  P (H ik )2  1 3 AH ik H imH km  B(H ik )2 H mm  1 3 C (H mm )3 ;
(11.37)
W ( I1 , I 2 , I 3 ) 1 2  O I12  P I 2  1 3 AI 3  BI1 I 2  1 3 I13 .

The Cauchy-Green strain tensor H ik and five elastic constants (two Lame elastic
constants O , P and three Murnaghan elastic constants A, B, C ) are used in this potential.

The Murnaghan model can be considered as the classical one in the nonlinear theory of
hyperelastic materials. It takes into account all the quadratic and cubic summands from the
expansion of the internal energy and describes the deformation of a big class of engineering
and other materials. If to unite the data on the constants of the Murnaghan model, shown
in different books, then the sufficiently full informati- on can be obtained on many tens
of materials.

258
 Focus
Focus
Focus
Focus on
Focus
on
on
on new
on
new
new materials.
new
newmaterials.
materials. Mechanics
materials.
materials. Mechanics
Mechanics
Mechanics of
Mechanics
of
of
of auxetic
of
auxetic
auxetic
auxetic materials
auxetic materials
materials
materials
materials

FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS

OF MATERIALS PART 1 Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic
OF AUXETIC materials
MATERIALS
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic mate
The following materialsFocus
are used inmaterials.
on new the numerical evaluations
Mechanics below (elastic constants
of auxetic materials

are shown):

1. Rubber – P 20 МPа, k 2.0 GPа.

2. Foam – O 0.58 ˜109 , P 0.39 ˜109 , k 0.84 ˜109.
3. Foam – O 0.58 ˜109 , P 0.39 ˜109 , A  1.0 ˜1010 , B 0.9 ˜1010 , C  1.1 ˜1010.
Polystyrene – O 3.7 ˜10 , P 1.14 ˜10 , A  1.1 ˜10 , B  0.79 ˜10 , C  0.98 ˜10 .
9 9 10 10 10
4.
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic m
SIMPLE SHEAR

Description by model 1. In this case, J (1  W )2, I1 1  2W 2. Then expressions for displacement

gradients F and components of tensor В are simplified

ª1 W W º ª1  2W 2 W W º
« »
F «0 1 0» , ȼ « W 1 0» .
« »
«¬0 0 1 »¼ « W 0 1 »¼
¬

As a result, the components of stress tensor have the form

2C1 1  W 
10/3
V 12 V 21 V 13 V 31 W ; V 32 V 23 0;

8 / 3 C1 1  W  W  1W  2 D1W W  2  ;
10/3
V 11 (11.38)
  4 / 3 C1 1  W  1 2W W  2 D1W W  2  .
10/3
V 22 V 33

The formulas (11.38) show that the Poynting effect (when the values of shear angle increase
from the sufficiently small values to the moderate ones, then the shear stress depends
nonlinearly on the shear angle) is described by the Neo-Hookean model because equation
(11.38) demonstrates just this nonlinear dependence for the moderate values of shear angle.
The Fig.11.7 shows the dependence of the shear stress on the shear angle V 12  W for the
silicon rubber (in all the plots, stress corresponds to 1 MPa).

Fig. 11.7. The dependence of the shear stress

on the shear angle (model 1).

259
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

Description by model 2. The expressions for displacement gradient F and components of

tensor В are the same as for the Neo-Hookean model. As a result, the expressions from
formula (11.34) are simplified

1  W  1  W  ª 2  1  W 2 º
2 2
O1 1, O2 O3 1  W ; J ; I1 1  2W 2 ; I 2
¬ ¼

and components of the stress tensor have the form

C10 1  W 10/3 WW  C01 1  W 14/3 1

1  44WW WW ;; (11.39)
10/3 14/3
V V 2 2
V 12
12 V 21
21 2C10 1  W  2C01 1  W 

01  14/3 WW 22 ;; on
14/3
V V 2

FocusCon 1  W materials.
new Mechanics of auxetic materials
V 23
23 V 32
32 2C01 1  W  Focus new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

2C10 1  W 10/3 44 // 33 11 
(11.40)
    WW  22WW 2   22 D
D11WW 11 
 22WW  
10/3
V 2

11 2C10 1  W 
V 11  Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

rials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

1  W   4 / 3  3  5W  5W 2  4W 3  2W 4  , (11.41)
14/3
echanics of auxetic materials
2C01

V 22 V 33 2C1 1  W  ª1  W   1  2W 2  1  1  W 
2
¬
4/3

4/3

¼ 
 1º  2 D1W 1  2W  . (11.42)

Thus, the Mooney-Rivlin model (that is more complicated as compared with the Neo-
Hookean model) describes the more complicated stress state, which is characterized by six
components of the stress tensor. This model describes well-knownFocusnonlinear effects.
on new materials. The of auxetic mater
Mechanics

Poynting effect follows from the representation of the shear stresses by formula (11.39).
The Kelvin effect follows from formulas (11.41), (11.42).

Also, formula (11.40) describes one more nonlinear effect: an initiation of shear stresses
V 23 V 32 . The Fig.11.8 shows the nonlinear dependence of the shear stress V 12 on the shear
strain W , that is built for the silicon rubber. A comparison with Fig.11.7, which corresponds
to the Neo-Hookean model, shows that the Mooney-Rivlin model describes the more
essential deviation from the linear Hookean description of simple shear.

Fig. 11.8. The dependence of the shear stress

on the shear angle (model 2).

Description by model 3. The Cauchy-Green strain tensor is characterized by three components

260
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

H 22 1 2   u2,2  u2,2  uk ,2uk ,2  1 2 W 2 ; (11.43)

H12 H 21 1 2   u1,2  u2,1  uk ,1uk ,2  1 2 W . (11.44)

To calculate the stresses, it is necessary to write the potential (11.34) with allowance for
the formulas (11.43), (11.44)

W  H ik  1 2  O H 22   P ª¬H 22   H12   H 21  º  (11.45)
2 2 2 2
¼

 1 3 A ªH 22  H12H12  H 21H 21  H12H 21    H 22  º B ª H 22    H12    H 21  º H 22  1 3 C  H 22  ;

3 2 2 2 3
¬ ¼ ¬ ¼

W (W ) 1 2  PW 2  1 8 ¬ª O  2 P   A  B ¼º W 4  1 24  > A  3B  C @W 6 . (11.46)

The Lagrange stress tensor is determined by the formula V ik  xn , t  wW wH ik and has two
nonlinear components

 O  2 P  H 22  A ª¬H 22   1 3 H12H12  H 21H 21  H12H 21  º 

2
V 22
¼

 B ª3  H 22    H12    H 21  º  C (H 22 ) 2 (11.47)
2 2 2
¬ ¼

1 4  ª¬ 2  O  2 P    A  2 B º¼ W 2  1 4  A  3B  C W 4 ;

V 12 2 PH12   1 3 A  H12  H 21   2 BH12  H 22 ; (11.48)

V 12 V 21 PW  1 6  A  3B W 3. (11.49)

The shear stress contains the linear and nonlinear summands and describes the simple shear.
The nor-mal stress describes the change of volume under deformation and testifies the break
of the state of simple shear under the nonlinear description of deformation. To build the
plots of dependence (11.49) cho- ose two nonstandard for the Murnaghan model materials
– foam and polystyrene – which can experience not only the small by values strains but
also the moderate ones.

Fig.11.9 The shows a dependence of the shear stress on the shear angle (foam left
and polystyrene right).

261
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

Fig. 11.9. The dependence of the shear stress on the shear angle (model 3).

Note 11.6. (to dependence V 12  W for models 1 – 3). These models describe the
nonlinear Poynting effect. At the same time, many scientists working with auxetic
materials report the experimental dependences that coincide quantitatively with the
shown here theoretical dependencies.

CONCLUSION to dependence V 12  W for models 1 – 3. The developed in mecha-

nics of materials nonlinear models of deformation of elastic materials can be
recommended for the description of auxetic materials.

UNIAXIAL TENSION

Description by model 1. The formulas O2 O3 , J O1O22 , I1 O12  2O22 are valid and the normal
stresses are given by the formulas

 2 3 P  O1O22  O  O22   k  O1O22  1 ; (11.50)

5/3
V 11 1
2

 1 3 P  O1O22  O  O22   k  O1O22  1 . (11.51)

5/3
V 22 V 33 1
2

If to assume that the normal stresses on the outside of the sample are absent

 1 3 P  O1O22  O  O22   k  O1O22  1 0

5/3 2
1 (11.52)

then V 11 3k  O1O22  1 .(11.53)

It follows from (11.53) that the Poynting-type effect (when the principal extensions
increase from the sufficiently small values to the moderate ones, then the normal
stress in the direction of tension depends nonlinearly on these extensions) is described
by the Neo-Hookean model.

262
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

Note 11.7. In model 1 the stretching in the longitudinal direction stress depends
on two principal extensions – longitudinal and transverse.

The Fig.11.10 shows a dependence of the longitudinal stress on principal extensions and is
built for the rubber with allowance for that the value  P 3k  0.00334 is very small compared
to the unit. Then formula (11.52) is simplified to the form

1 / 2 1  2H11 
2
H 22  1 / 2 .(11.54)

The Fig.11.11 corresponds to formula (11.52) and shows a dependence of the longitudinal
principal extension on the transverse principal extension.
FocusFocus
on new
onmaterials. Mechanics
new materials. of auxetic
Mechanics materials
of auxetic materials

Note that silicon rubber is characterized by the big difference between values of shear and
bulk moduli that can reach a hundred times. Therefore, the new material is chosen further
for the numerical analysis – the foam, which values of elastic constants is characterized by
about equal by the order.
The Fig.11.11 shows that with an increase of extension O1 the increase of extension O2 slows.

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

Fig. 11.10. The dependence of the longitudinal stress

on principal extensions (model 1, rubber).

Fig. 11.11. The dependence of the longitudinal stress

on principal extensions (model 1, foam).

It looks, in this case, to be illogical to neglect the first summand in Eq. (11.52).
Note that the ratio  O2 / O1  corresponds in the linear theory to the Poisson’s ratio.

263
 Focus
FOUNDATIONS OF on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

Description by model 2. The uniaxial tension in the direction of the abscissa axis is characterized
by parameters: O2 O3 , J O1O22 , I1 O12  2O22 , I 2 O24  2O12O22 , B11 O12 ,  BB 11 O14 . The normal
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
stresses are given by the formulas

V 11 2C10  2 3  O1O22  O  O22  

5/3 2
1
(11.55)
 2C01  O1O22   O   2 3 O O   5 3 O   2 D  O O  1 ;
7/3 4 2 2 4 2
1 1 2 2 1 1 2

 2 3 C10  O1O22  O  O12  

5/3
V 22 V 33 2
2
(11.56)
 2C01  O1O22  1 3 O22  O22  O12   2 D1  O1O22  1 .
7/3

Assume that the normal stresses over the sample outer surface are absent. Then equation
(11.55) is simplified to the form

2C01  O1O22  O  O24   6 D1  O1O22  1 . (11.57)

7/3
V 11 1
4

The last formula testifies: the Mooney-Rivlin model describes the Poynting-type
effect. Two elastic constants are presented in formula (11.57) in contrast to the
Neo-Hookean model, where the shear modulus was absent.

Note 11.8. In both models – Neo -Hookean and Mooney-Rivlin – the tension in
the longitudinal direction stress V 11 depends already on two principal extensions.

Fig. 11.12. The dependence of the longitudinal stress on principal

extensions (model 2, silicon rubber).

The Fig.11.12 shows a dependence of the longitudinal stress on principal extensions is built
for the silicon rubber. It coincides practically with Fig.11.10 (Neo-Hookean model) and
shows that the constant C01 of the Mooney-Rivlin model effects not significantly on the stress
V 11 and the dependence (11.55) rests the weakly nonlinear within the accepted restri- ctions.
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

The equation (11.56) can be transformed into the form

O16  O13 / V 2  ª 2C10 / 6 D1  3 V 4   2C01 / 6 D1  3 V 2 º V 4 (V 2  1) 0; (11.58)

¬ ¼

264
 Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS

Focuson
Focus onnew
newmaterials. Focus on
materials.Mechanics
Mechanics new materials.
ofauxetic
of auxetic Mechanics of auxetic materials
materials
materials
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

ª 2C / 6 D  3 V 4  º
 O2 O 1  , O13 1/ 2V 2 r 1/ 2V 2 1  «
10 1
V » V 4 (V 2  1).
« new materials.3Mechanics
Focus on » of auxetic materials
¬   2C01Focus
/ 6 D1  V 2 ¼
on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

Note 11.9. The corresponding toFocus

the on
model 1 plot Mechanics
new materials. from Fig.11.11
of auxetic is practically
materials

identical with the plot corresponding to the model 2.

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

Description by model 3. The uniaxial tension is characterized by three nonzero components

of the strain tensor H kk and one non-zero component of the stress tensor V 11. Then the
constitutive equations are some- what simplified and have the form
O ª¬ H11  H 22  H 33  I1 º¼  2 PH11  A  H11  
2
V 11
(11.59)
¬ ^
 B ªH11   H 22    H 33 
2 2 2
¼ `
( º  2H11 I1  C  (  2H 22H11  2H 33H11  .

0 O I1  2 PH 22  A  H 22   B  (  2H 22 I1   C  (  2H 22H 33  2H 22H11  ; (11.60)

2

0 O I1  2 PH 33  A  H 33   B  (  2H 33 I1   C  (  2H 22H11  2H 22H 33  . (11.61)

2

Let us remind that in the linear theory of elasticity, corresponding to the Hookean
model, the constitutive equations are significantly simpler

V 11 O I1  2 PH11 ; 0 O I1  2 PH 22 ; 0 O I1  2 PH 33 . (11.62)

Apply further to the nonlinear equations (11.59)-(11.61) the procedure of analysis of the
state of uniaxial tension that is used in the linear theory of elasticity as applied to equations
(11.62). Subtraction of equation (11.61) from equation (11.50) gives the formula

 
0 2 P  H 22  H 33   A  H 22    H 33   2 B  H 22  H 33  H11  H 22  H 33  ,
2 2

from which follows the equality of components of transverse strains H 22 H 33.

Addition of formulas (11.59)-(11.61) results in the following formula

V 11  3O 2 P   ª¬ A 3B C  3O 2 P º¼ ªH11  2 H 22  º  ª¬ 2 B  3O  2 P º¼ H11 2H 22  

2 2 2
¬ ¼
(11.63)
 ¬ª 4C  3O  2 P  ¼º ª H 22   2H 22H11 º H11  2H 22 .
2
¬ ¼

Substitution of formula (11.63) into the relation (11.59) gives new relation

§ 2O  3P ·
B  C ¸  H11  
2
V 11 EH11  ¨ A 
© OP ¹
 (11.64)
O § 4O 2P 2P · 2 2  O 2 P 
A B C H    B  C  H11H 22 .
OP ¨© O O ¸¹ 22 OP

265
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

The last relation shows that model 3, like the models 1 and 2, describes the
Poynting-type effect.

The Fig.11.13 shows a dependence among the longitudinal stress V 11 and strains H11 , H 22
V 11 V 11 (H11 , H 22 ) for the foam and polystyreneFocus
andonthe
newmoderate values ofofstrains.
materials. Mechanics auxetic materials

Both plots demonstrate an essential nonlinearity under moderate strains.

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

Focus on new materials. Mechanics

Focus on new of auxetic
materials. materials
Mechanics of auxetic materials

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

Fig. 11.13. The dependence of the longitudinal stress on strains (model 3, foam left, polystyrene
right).

Write now the constitutive equation (11.59) with allowance for equality H 22 H 33 and transform
it into the form of quadratic equation relative to the ratio H 22 / H11

§ H 22 ·
2
ª¬  OP  H11  BC  º¼ H  O H11  BC 
¨ ¸ 2
22
 0.
H
© 11 ¹  A  6 B  4C  H 11  A  6 B  4C 

The solution of this equation has the form

H 22 H11  ^
 ª¬ O  P  / H11   B  C  º¼  A  6 B  4C ` u
ª  A  6 B  4C  ª¬O / H11   B C º¼ º» (11.65)
u «1 r 1  2
.
«
¬ ª¬ O  P  / H11   B  C  º¼ »
¼

Thus, equation (11.65) shows that the ratio ( H 22 / H11 ) is not constant in the
Murnaghan nonlinear model.

The plots in Fig.11.14 shows a dependence of the ratio ( H 22 / H11 ) on the strain H11
. They are built for the foam and polystyrene for the moderate strains. The plots’
main feature: the ratio ( H 22 / H11 ) is decreased essentially from the initial value, which
corresponds to the Poisson ratio for small strain, to the negative values under the
moderate values of longitudinal strain. So, the ratio, that is treated as the Poisson’s
ratio for small strain, in the case of moderate strain becomes the characteristics of
the transition of the material from the category of conventional materials into the
category of nonconventional materials.

266
 FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

THIS CAN BE CONSIDERED AS THE NEW REVEALED THEORETICALLY

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
NONLINEAR EFFECT.

Fig. 11.14. The dependence of the ratio ( H 22 / H11 ) on the strain H11 (model 3, foam left,
polystyrene right).

Thus, an analysis of universal deformation of uniaxial tension for the model 3 revealed the
new property:

the material with conventional properties under small strains is transformed under
moderate strains into the nonconventional
Focus(auxetic) material.
on new materials. The uncommonness
Mechanics of auxetic materials

of this observation consists in that usually the material is considered either the
conventional or the nonconventionalFocus
during allmaterials.
on new the process of deformation.
Mechanics of auxetic materials
Focus
Focusonon
new materials.
new
Focus Mechanics
materials. Mechanics
on new materials. ofof
auxetic materials
auxetic
Mechanics ofmaterials
auxetic mate

Let us compare the plots from Fig.11.14 with the experimental data shown here as Fig.11.15
(depen-dence of the ratio ( H 22 / H11 ) on the strain H11, see in Further reading), where the
deformation of the foams was studied for the finite strains with increasing the longitudinal
strain H11 from 0.1 to 1.4.
Note that the theoretical plots are constructed for the range from H11 0 to the moderate
values 0.23 (foam) and 0.33 (polystyrene). This comparison shows that H 22 / H11  increases
within the range H11   0.0; 0.3 . Thus, model 3 describes some experimental observation of
the foam.

Fig. 11.15. The experimental dependence of the ratio ( H 22 / H11 ) on the strain H11 in the
foam.

267
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

The plots in Fig.11.16 show the dependence of longitudinal and transverse strains. Three
stages can be marked out:

Stage 1. A decrease of transverse strain becomes slower under transition into the
moderate strains. Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
FocusHon new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
Stage 2. The strain 22 reaches the local minimum and further increases.
Stage 3. When the strain H11 continues to increase, the strain H 22 possesses zero value
and further increases possessing already the positive values.

The shown feature confirms once again the new mechanical effect –
a transition of the material under its deformation to the level of moderate values
of the longitudinal stretching from the class of conventional materials into the class
of the auxetic materials.
In other words, the standard sample in conditions of universal deformation of
uniaxial tension is deformed for small strains as if it is made of the conventional
material (its a cross-section is decreased) and with increasing the values of longitudinal
stretching to the moderate values, the sample cross-section starts to increase, what
is the characte ristic just for auxetic materials.

The plots from Fig.11.16 can be compared with the plot, obtained experimentally.

Fig. 11.16. The dependence of the strain H 22 on the strain H11 (model 3, foam left, polystyrene right).

This experiment deals with the new metamaterials which were created from the soft silicon
rubber. The samples were deformed in conditions of uniaxial compression up to moderate
values of longitudinal strain 0.35. The shown in Fig.11.17 plot shows a dependence of
longitudinal and transverse strains. Comparison of plots from Fig.11.16 (uniaxial stretching)
and Fig.11.17 (uniaxial compression) demonstrates the common property of forming the
hump in the area of negative values of tra-nsverse strain, which is transformed with the
increasing values of longitudinal strain roughly into the straight line in the area of positive
values of transverse strain.

268
 Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
Focus on new materia
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
Focus on new materials.
Focus Mechanics
on new of auxetic materials
materials.MECHANICS
Mechanics of auxetic materials
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS.
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

Fig. 11.17. The experimental dependence of the longitudinal and transverse strains.

Thus, the nonlinear Murnaghan model describes within conditions of uniaxial tension
some nonlinear phenomena of deformation, which can be linked with the properties of
deformation of auxetic materi-als. Note that the shown feature is clearly visible only within
the framework of the Murnaghan model, but the Neo-Hookean and Mooney -Rivlin models
also describe the hump formation, as it can be seen in Fig.11.11.

MULTIAXIAL TENSION

Description by model 1. In this case O1 O2 O3 , J O13 , I1 3O12 and the normal stress is equal

V 11 2 D1 (O13  1). (11.66)

The formula (11.66) describes the Poynting-type effect relative to the bulk modulus (the
dependence of V 11 on the extension O1 is evidently nonlinear). The Fig.11.18 shows a
dependence of longitudinal stress on the longitudinal principal extension and is built for the
silicon rubber. The plot testifies that model 1 describes the nonlinear change of the sample
volume while being subjected to the universal deformation of uniform compression-tension.

Description by model 2. In this case O1 O2 O3 ,, J O13 , I1 3O12 , I 2 3O14 and they are true for
any Fig.11.18. The dependence of the longitudinal nonlinear model. The formula for the
normal stress stress on the longitudinal principal extension coincides with the analogous
formula for model 1 and verifies the nonlinear dependence of tension stresses on the
principal extension.

Description by model 3. The components of displacement gradients and Cauchy-Green strain

tensor are as follows
u1,1 u2,2 u3,3 H ! 0; u1,1  u2,2  u3,3 3H e; uk ,m  wuk wxm  0  k z m 
;
(11.67)
H11 H 22 H 33 H  1 2  H ; H ik
2
0 i z k  .

269
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS Focus on new materials. Mechanics
FOCUSof auxetic
ON NEW materials
MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials

The corresponding algebraic invariants of the Cauchy-Green tensor are written in the form
Focus Focus on newMechanics
materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
Focus on2 new materials. onon
Mechanics
Focus newnewofmaterials.materials ofof
auxetic Mechanics
materials. auxetic
auxetic materials
materials
       
2 2
I1 H11  H 22  H 33 e ; I 2 H11  H 22  H 33
Focus on new materials.2
1/ 3 e ; Mechanics of auxetic materials
Focus on new materials. MechanicsFocus ofon
auxetic .(11.68)
materials
new materials. Mechanics of auxetic materials
H11   H 22   H 33  1 / 9  e3 .
3 3 3
I3

The formulas for invariants (11.68) allow writing the potential in the simpler form

W (H )  3 2  3O 2 P  H 2    9 2  O  3P  A 9 B 9C  H 3 
  3 2   4  3O  2 P    A  9 B  9C   H 4  (11.69)
  3 4  A  9 B  9C  H 5  1 8  A  9 B  9C  H 6 .

The stresses are evaluated by the formulas

V 11 V 22 V 33  3O 2 P  H   3 2  3O2 P   A 9 B 7C   H 2 
  A  9 B  7C   H 3  (1 4) H 4  ; V 12 V 23 V 31 0.

Thus, the normal stresses only are nonzero and they contain the linear and nonlinear
summands.

The interdependence between the first invariant of the stress tensor V kk and the parameter
of the multiaxial tension e has the form
V kk  3O 2 P  e  ª¬1 2  3O 2 P  
(11.70)
 1 / 3 A 9 B 7C  º¼ e 2  A 9 B 7C  ª¬1 / 9 e31 108 e 4 º¼ .

The plots in Fig.11.19 show a dependence V kk (e) for the foam and polystyrene and are
evaluated by formula (11.70). It follows from them that they are similar to the parabola with
a vertex in a positive half of the plane V kk Oe . The parabola right branch of then passes into
the negative half of the plane. Both plots have the “hump” in a positive half of the plane.
p

Fig.11.19. The dependence V kk  e .

A presence of the “hump” testifies that the nonlinear Murnaghan model describes the
transition of the material of the sample-cube from the class of conventional materials
into the class of auxetic materials. The fact is that the sample is compressed for the
small values of uniform tension and in the following increase of the tension strain
the sample swells. But this phenomenon is characteristic of only auxetic materials.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

SOME CONCLUSIONS FROM ANALYSIS OF THE AUXETIC MATERIALS WITHIN

THE NONLINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY
Focus on new materials. Mechanics of auxetic mate
Conclusion 1. Th
 ree nonlinear models are used in the analysis. They describe the nonlinear
Poynting- type effects in conditions of three used above universal deformations
and the moderate strains. This agrees quantitatively with experimental observations
of nonlinear dependencies V  H in auxetic materials for the moderate strains.

Conclusion 2. In the case of uniaxial and omniaxial tension, the nonlinear Murnaghan
model describes the transition of the material from the class of conventional
materials into the class of the auxetic materials. This occurs when the material
is deformed to the level of moderate values of the longitudinal stretching. In
other words, the shown experiments and proposed theoretical analysis testify
that the standard sample in conditions of the universal deformation of uniaxial
tension is deformed for small strains as if it is made of the conventional material
(its cross-section decreases) and with increasing the values of longitudinal
stretching to the moderate values, the sample cross-section starts to increase,
what is the characteristic just for auxetic materials.

Thus, the use of models of the nonlinear theory of elasticity to a description of the deformation
of the auxetic materials shows that this theory supplements essentially the primary description
by the linear theory of elasticity which was prevailing in studies of mechanical behavior of
the auxetic materials for last decades.
At that, the nonlinear theory is able to explain some new mechanical effects observed in
experiments with the auxetic materials.

Let us note finally that for last years the auxetic materials are transformed from
the category of “red herring” to the category of materials with very interesting and
advanced applications.
For example, the applications in the sport and military areas are described in the
fresh review reports which are included in Further reading.

Comments
Comment 11.1. The last four chapters (chapters 8-11) are devoted to the foundations of
the mechanics of three classes of new (non-traditional, non-conventional, non-classical)
materials. The basics are defined as describing the features of new materials and modeling the
deformation of these materials within the theory of elasticity. The focus was on determining
the location of the study class of materials in the stru-cture of the theory of elasticity. It was

271
FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

believed that the choice of a particular model of elastic deformation (binding the material
to different models of the theory of elasticity) is decisive, because further in solving certain
problems a well-developed apparatus of the theory of elasticity works.

Here, the composite materials, materials with the internal structure of nanolevel (nanomaterials),
auxetic materials are considered. Of course, not all new classes of materials are considered.
The metamaterials in general, functionally gradient materials, smart materials, and others are
noteworthy. The analysis of each of these classes of new materials enriched the mechanics
of materials.

For example, the composite materials have brought a clearer understanding into the mechanics
that in different conditions the same material can be described by different models. In
this case, the knowledge of mechanical properties (mechanical passport) of the material is
not inherent (immanent). In different conditions, the material is characterized by different
passports. The second innovation from composite materials is that the properties of the
material can theoretically be predicted in a large range. This chan-ged the stereotype of
the mechanics of materials that first the material produced and further its properties are
determined experimentally.

Nanomaterials also brought to the mechanics a clearer understanding of the importance of

justifying a continuum description of the material. The stereotype of mechanics, according
to which the continuum description of the material is the basis of the mechanics of materials
and the possibility of such description has long been proven, in the nanomechanics of
materials no longer works. Auxetic materials have enriched the mechanics of materials with
at least two novelties. First, they resurrected the long-forgotten possibility of non-classical
deformation in the theory of elasticity, associated with the negativity of the Poisson’s ratio.
Secondly, the analysis of auxetic materials shows that in all other similar conditions, the
same material can have the properties of traditional (conventional) material at a small level
of deformation and, with large deformations, exhibit the properties of a non-traditional
(non-conventional) material. In fact, the same material may belong to two classes of materials
at the same time.

Historical experience shows that new materials are being created in increasing quantities. This
poses new challenges to the mechanics of materials in the modeling of new materials, which
in the vast majority of cases means that the deformation of such materials are described by
tools of the theory of elasticity.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS FOCUS ON NEW MATERIALS. MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

Further reading
11.1. A
 lderson, A & Alderson, KL 2007, Auxetic materials. I. Mech. E.: J. Aerosp. Eng.
221, N4, 565 – 575.
11.2. An introduction to auxetic materials: an interview with Professor Andrew Alderson
2015, AZoMaterials, August 29.
11.3. Anurag, C, Anvesh, CK & Katam, S 2015, Auxetic materials. Int. J. for Research in
Appl. Science & Eng. Technology, 3, N4, 1176 – 1183.
11.4. Babaee, S, Shim, J, Weaver, J, Chen, ER, Patel, N & Bertoldi, K 2013, 3D Soft
Metamaterials with Negative Poisson’s Ratio. Advanced Materials. 25, N36, 5044-5049.
11.5. Cabras. L & Brun, M 2014, Auxetic two-dimensional lattices with Poisson’s ratio
arbitrarily close to –1. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A, 470, 20140538, 1 – 23.
11.6. Carneiro, V., Meireles, J & Puga, H 2013, Auxetic Materials - A Review. Materials
Science - Poland, 31, N4, 561 – 571.
11.7. Cattani, C & Rushchitsky, JJ 2007, Wavelet and Wave Analysis as applied to Materials
with Micro or Nano- Structures. World Scientific Publishing, Singapore-London.
11.8. Christensen, RM 1979, Mechanics of Composite Materials. Wiley, New York.
11.9. Dagdelen, J, Montoya, J, de Jong, M & Persson, K 2017, Computational prediction
of new auxetic materials Nature. Communications, 323. 1 – 8.
11.10. Dudek, KK, Attard, D, Caruana-Gauci, R, Wojciechowski, KW & Grima, JN 2016,
Unimode metamaterials exhibiting negative linear compressibility and negative thermal
expansion. Smart Materials and Structures, 25, N2, 025009.
11.11. Duncan, O, Shepherd, T, Moroney, Ch, Foster, L, Venkatramam, P, Winwood,
K, Allen, T & Alderson, A 2018. Review of auxetic materials for sports applications:
expanding options in comfort and protection. Ap plied Sciences, 8, N6, 941-973.
11.12. Encyclopedia of Smart Materials. In 2 vols. 2002, Wiley, New York.
11.13. Evans, KE 1991, Auxetic polymers: a new range of materials. Endeavour, 15, 170-174.
11.14. Flügge’s Encyclopedia of Physics. Vol. VIa/I. Mechanics of Solids 1973, Springer, Berlin.
11.15. Jiang, L, Pearson, D & MacKay, K 2013, Modeling of impact properties of auxetic
materials. Defence Research and Development Canada Contract Report “DRDC
ATLANTIC CR 2013-103”.
11.16. Germain, P 1973, Cours de mechanique des milieux continus. Tome 1. Theorie generale.
Masson et Cie Editeurs, Paris.
11.17. Gibson, LJ, Ashby, MF, Schayer, GS & Robertson, CI 1982, The Mechanics of
Two-Dimensional Cellular Materials. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. A 382, 25-42.
11.18. Gibson, LJ & Ashby, MF 1982, The Mechanics of Three-Dimensional Cellular
Materials. Proc Roy. Soc.. Lond. A 382, 43-59.
11.19. Greaves, GN 2013, Poisson’s ratio over two centuries: challenging hypotheses. Notes
and Records of Roy. Soc., 67, N1, 37-58.
11.20. Grima, JN 2010, Auxetic metamaterials. European Summer Campus, Strasbourg,
France,1-13. http://www.auxetic.info

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

11.21. Guz, IA, Rodger, AA, Rushchitsky, JJ & Guz, AN 2008, Developing the mechanical
models for nanomaterials. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. A: М
ath., Phys. and Eng. Sci. 365
(1860). 3233-3239.
11.22. Hahn, HG 1985, Elastizitätstheorie. Grundlagen der linearen Theorie und Anwendungen
auf eindimensionale, ebene und räumliche Probleme. B.G. Teubner, Stuttgart.
11.23. Hauk V. (ed) 1997, Structural and Residual Stress Analysis. Elsevier, Amsterdam
(e-variant 2006).
11.24. Hetnarski, RB & Ignaczak, J 2011, The Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. CRC Press,
Boca Raton.
11.25. Holzapfel, GA 2006, Nonlinear Solid Mechanics. A Continuum Approach for Engineering.
Wiley, Chichester
11.26. Lakes, RS 1987, Foam Structures with a Negative Poisson’s Ratio. Science. 235,
1038-1040.
11.27. Landau, LD & Lifshits, EM 1970, Theoretical Physics. In 10 vols. Vol. VII. Theory
of Elasticity. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
11.28. Leibensohn, LS 1942, Short Course of the Theory of Elasticity. Gostechizdat, Moscow-
Leningrad. (In Russian)
11.29. Lim, TC 2015, Auxetic Materials and Structures. Springer, Berlin.
11.30. Liu, Q 2006, Literature Review: Materials with Negative Poisson’s ratios and Potential
Applications to Aero- space and Defense. Defense Science and Technology Organization,
Victoria, Australia.
11.31. Liu, YP & Hu, H 2010, A review on auxetic structures and polymeric materials.
Scientific Research and Essays, 5, N10, 1052-1063. http://www.auxetic.info.
11.32. Love, AEH 1944, The Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. 4th ed. Dover Publications,
New York.
11.33. Lurie, AI 2005, Theory of Elasticity. Series “Foundations of Engineering Mechanics”.
Springer, Berlin.
11.34. Materials. Special issue “Auxetics 2017 – 2018”.
11.35. Metamaterials Handbook - Two Volume Slipcase Set. Capolino, F (ed). 2009, CRC
Press, Boca Raton. 
11.36. Mooney, M 1940, A theory of large elastic deformations. J. Appl. Phys. 11, N9,
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Questions
11.1. Th
 e auxeticity is explained as arising owing to the special internal structure of a
material. Therefore, three basic appearances of auxeticity can be thought of as an
effect of only this structure. Please, read the newest reports on auxetics and look for
new appearances of auxeticity.
11.2. Which theoretical postulate forbids the negative values less than -1 in the linear
theory of elasticity?

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OF MATERIALS PART 1 OF AUXETIC MATERIALS

11.3. W hy shown in Fig.11.2. demonstration of deformation of the foam sample is contrary

to the basis of the linear theory of elasticity?
11.4. Write the names of several real natural materials with properties of auxeticity.
11.5. Choose the nonlinear model differing from three models used in this chapter and
repeat the procedure of analysis of universal deformations.
11.6. Try to explain the fact that the material with the internal structure which allows the
existence of effects of auxeticity does not show these effects for very small deformations.
Maybe this structure becomes sensitive starting with some finite values of strains?

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