The document discusses foundation engineering and site investigation. It covers objectives of site investigation, purposes of site investigation, stages of subsurface exploration including reconnaissance, preliminary, and detailed exploration. It also discusses methods of exploration including open excavation and geophysical methods. Types of soil samples and testing are also covered.
The document discusses foundation engineering and site investigation. It covers objectives of site investigation, purposes of site investigation, stages of subsurface exploration including reconnaissance, preliminary, and detailed exploration. It also discusses methods of exploration including open excavation and geophysical methods. Types of soil samples and testing are also covered.
The document discusses foundation engineering and site investigation. It covers objectives of site investigation, purposes of site investigation, stages of subsurface exploration including reconnaissance, preliminary, and detailed exploration. It also discusses methods of exploration including open excavation and geophysical methods. Types of soil samples and testing are also covered.
The document discusses foundation engineering and site investigation. It covers objectives of site investigation, purposes of site investigation, stages of subsurface exploration including reconnaissance, preliminary, and detailed exploration. It also discusses methods of exploration including open excavation and geophysical methods. Types of soil samples and testing are also covered.
Introduction: brief explanations of foundation Engineering.
COURSE CONTENT: OBJECTIVES Students should be able to learn how to: Carry out site investigation or exploration. Know the purpose of site investigation Know the stages of sub-surface exploration Determine the profile of the natural soil deposit in a site Determine the Engineering properties of soil Types of foundation Design of shallow foundation Design of deep foundation What is Site Investigation or Exploration It is the determination of the information about the surface and sub-surface features of the soil for the design and planning of construction technique It also consist of determining the profile of the natural soil deposits at the site, taking the soil samples and determining the engineering properties of the soils. The relevant information is obtained by drilling holes, taking soil samples and determining the index and engineering properties of the soil. Also In-situ tests are conducted.
Those properties of soil which are used in the identification and classification of soil are known as index properties. Index properties are divided into two categories: Properties of individual particles and Properties of soil mass (aggregate properties). Properties of Individual particles can be determined from disturbed sample whereas, aggregate properties should be determined from undisturbed samples. Examples of individual particles properties are Specific gravity, shape and size. Examples of aggregate properties are water content, consistency limit, relative density Engineering properties of soil comprises of physical properties, index properties, strength parameters, permeability characteristics, consolidation properties, modulus parameters, dynamic behaviour etc. Purposes of Soil Investigation 1. To select the type and depth of foundation for a given structure. 2. To determine the bearing capacity of the soil. 3. To estimate the probable maximum and differential settlements. 4. To establish the ground water level and to determine the properties of water. 5. To predict the lateral earth pressure against retaining walls and abutments. 6. To select suitable construction technique. 7. To predict and to solve potential foundation problems. 8. To ascertain the suitability of the soil as a construction material. 9. To investigate the safety of the existing structures and to suggest the remedial measures. Stages of sub-surface Exploration Reconnaissance exploration.
Preliminary Exploration.
Detailed Exploration. Reconnaissance Exploration It is the first step taken in sub-surface exploration, which includes the visit to the site and to study the maps & other relevant records. It help to decide future programme: scope of work, methods of exploration, types of samples to be taken for laboratory test etc. In reconnaissance exploration the following information are obtained: The general topography of the site, the existence of drainage ditches and dumps of debris and sanitary fills. Existence of settlement cracks in the structure already built near the site. The evidence of land slides, creep of slopes and shrinkage cracks. The stratification of soils as observed from deep cuts near the site. The location of high flood marks on the nearby building and bridges. The depth of ground water table as observed in the wells. Existence of springs, swamps, etc at the site. Existence of underground water mains, power conduit, etc at the site. The drainage pattern existing at the site. Preliminary Exploration The aim is to determine the depth, thickness, extent and composition of the soil stratum at the site. The depth of bed rock and ground water table is also determined. Tests are conducted with cone penetrometers and sounding rods to obtain information about the strength and compressibility of the soils. Geophysical methods are also used for locating the boundaries of different strata. Depth of Exploration In multi-storeyed buildings, the depth of exploration D = C(S)0.7 Where D is the depth of exploration, C is a constant equal to 3 for light steel building and narrow concrete buildings. 6 for heavy steel buildings and wide concrete building. S is the number of storeys. Lateral Extent of Exploration The lateral extent of exploration and spacing of bore holes depend mainly on the variation of the strata in the horizontal direction. For small and less important buildings, even one bore hole or a trial pit in the centre may be suffice. For compact buildings, covering an area of about 0.4 hectares, there should be at least 5 bore holes. One at the centre and four near the corners. Methods of Exploration Open excavation methods. Geophysical methods. Open excavation methods In this method of exploration, an open excavation is made to inspect the sub-strata. These methods can be divided into: a) Pits and Trenches b) Drifts and Shafts Pits and Trenches Pits and trenches are excavated at the site to inspect the sub-strata. The size of pit should be sufficient to provide necessary working space. Shallow pits up to 3m can be made without proving any lateral support. For deep pits especially below the ground water table, lateral support in form of sheeting and bracing system is required. Trenches are long shallow pits. As a trench is continuous over a considerable length, it provides exposure along a line. The trenches are more suitable than pits for exploration on slopes. In excavating pits and trenches either manually or mechanically, adequate precautions should be taken against possible accidents due to caving of the ground. Drifts and Shafts Drifts are horizontal tunnels made in the hill-side to determine the nature and structure of the geological formation. Drifts are useful for establishing the minimum excavation limits to reach sound rock and for locating faults and shear zones and buried channels in the river section. Shafts are large size vertical holes made in the geological formation.
BORING FOR EXPLORATION
When the depth of exploration is large, boring are used for exploration. A vertical bore hole is drilled in the ground to get information about the sub-soil strata. Samples are taken from the bore holes tested in a laboratory. The bore hole may be used for conducting in-situ tests and for locating the water table. Extensometer or pressure meter may also be installed in the bore hole for the measurement of deformation in the sub-strata.
A number of geophysical methods are used in preliminary investigation of sub-soil strata. The methods can be used to for the location of different strata and for a rapid evaluation of the subsoil characteristics. The geophysical methods can be broadly divided into two categories: • Seismic method • Electrical resistivity method. Seismic method: It is based on the principle that the elastic shock waves have different velocities in different materials. At the interface of two different materials, the waves get partly reflected and partly refracted. Seismic methods of subsurface exploration generally utilise the refracted waves.
Electrical resistivity method: The electrical resistivity ( ) of a conductor is expressed as
Where R= electrical resistance (ohms), A = area of cross section of thr conductor (cm2) , L = length of conductor (cm), electrical resistivity (ohm-centimeter). The resistivity of a material depends upon the type of material, its water content and the concentration of dissolved ions and many other factors. Rocks and dry soils have a greater resistivity than saturated clays. Electrical resistivity methods is of two types: Electrical profiling method and Electrical sounding method Note: Electrical resistivity is the reciprocal of conductance. Detailed Exploration The purpose of the detailed explorations is to determine the engineering properties of the soils in different strata. It includes an extensive boring programme, sampling and testing of the samples in a laboratory. Field test, such as vane shear test, plate test and permeability test, are conducted to determine the properties of the soils in the natural state.
SUB-SOIL INVESTIGATION REPORT
A sub-soil investigation report should contain the data obtained from bore holes, site observations and laboratory results. A soil exploration report generally consists of the following: Introduction, which gives the scope of the investigation. Description of the process, structure, the location and the geological conditions at the site. Details of the field exploration programme, indicating the number of borings, their locations and depths. Details of the methods of exploration. General description of the sub-soil conditions as obtained from in-situ test, such as standard penetration test, cone test. Depth of the ground water table and the changes in water levels. Discussion of the results. Recommendation about the allowable bearing pressure, the type of foundation or structure. Conclusions. The main findings of investigations should be clearly stated. It should be brief but should mention the salient points. Limitation of the investigations should also be briefly stated. Bearing Capacity A foundation is that part of a structure which transmits the weight of the structure to the ground. A foundation is required for distributing the loads of the superstructure on a large area. The foundation should be designed such that (1) the soil below does not fail in shear and (2) the settlement is within the safe limits. The pressure which the soil can safely withstand is known as the allowable bearing pressure. Basic Definitions • Ultimate Bearing Capacity( ): The ultimate bearing capacity is the gross pressure at the base of the foundation at which the soil fails in shear. • Net Ultimate bearing Capacity( : it is the net increase in pressure at the base of foundation that causes shear failure of the soil. It is equal to the gross pressure minus overburden pressure.
• Net Safe Bearing Capacity ( It is the net soil pressure which can be safely applied to the soil considering only shear failure. Where F = FACTOR OF SAFETY • Gross safe Bearing capacity ( It is the maximum gross pressure which the soil can carry safely without shear failure. It is equal to the net safe bearing capacity plus the original overburden pressure. Net safe Settlement Pressure ( It is the net pressure which the soil can carry without exceeding the allowable settlement. The safe settlement pressure is also known as safe bearing pressure. Net allowable bearing Pressure ( The net allowable bearing pressure is the net bearing pressure which can be used for the design of foundation. The net allowable bearing pressure is also known as the allowable soilnpressure or allowable bearing pressure or allowable bearing capacity. SUB SOIL INVESTIGATION REPORT A sub soil investigation report should contain the data obtained from bore holes, site observations and laboratory results.
It should contain the discussion of the results. The discussion should be clear and concise. The recommendations about the type and depth of foundation, allowable soil pressure and expected settlements should be specific. The main findings of the report are given in conclusions.
A soil exploration report generally consists of the following:
Introduction, which gives the scope of the investigation.
Description of the proposed structure, the location and the geological conditions at the site.
Details of the field exploration programme, indicating the number of borings, their location and depths.
Details of the methods of exploration
General description of the subsoil conditions as obtained from in-situ test, such as standard penetration test, cone test.
Details of the laboratory test conducted on the soil samples obtained and the results obtained.
Depth of the ground water table and the changes in water level.
Discussions of the results
Recommendation about the allowable bearing pressure, the type of foundation or structure.
Conclusions. The main findings of investigations should be clearly stated. Limitations of the investigations should also be briefly stated
