See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/282575424

Permaculture

Article · December 2013

CITATIONS READS
0 11,477

2 authors, including:

Roslynn G. Brain
Utah State University
55 PUBLICATIONS   58 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

National Extension Sustainability Outreach View project

Utah Extension Sustainability Outreach View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Roslynn G. Brain on 05 October 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Permaculture
Roslynn Brain & Blake Thomas
Department of Environment & Society

What is Permaculture?
Permaculture is a design concept for sustainable, food
producing landscapes mimicking the diversity and resilience
of natural ecosystems. Although concepts included in
permaculture design have been in practice for millenia by
various cultures worldwide, the term “permaculture” as it
is currently understood was first coined in Tasmania by Bill
Mollison and David Holmgren in the mid-1970’s (Nabhan,
2013). Mollison and Holmgren described permaculture
as, “an integrated, evolving system of perennial or self-
perpetuating plant and animal species useful to man” (Mollison
& Holmgren, 1978). The use of the word, and scope of the Texts about permaculture design abound. Popular beginners texts include
definition, has varied greatly since the 1970’s; much like the Permaculture: Principles and Pathways Beyond Sustainability and Gaia’s Garden.
use of ‘sustainability’ and ‘ecology’. Holmgren later expanded
the definition to, “consciously designed landscapes which • Permaculture is a set of techniques and principles for designing
mimic the patterns and relationships found in nature, while sustainable human settlements…though permaculture practitioners
yielding an abundance of food, fibre and energy for provision design with plants, animals, buildings and organizations, they focus
of local needs” (Holmgren, 2003). Additional definitions less on those objects themselves than on the careful design of
from members of the permaculture community include: relationships among them – interconnections – that will create
a healthy, sustainable whole (Hemenway, 2001).
• Permaculture is the conscious design and maintenance
of agriculturally productive systems which have the • A permaculture system is a system that resembles nature and
diversity, stability, and resilience of natural ecosystems. It is based on natural cycles and ecosystems (Holzer, 2004).
is the harmonious integration of the landscape with people
providing their food, energy, shelter and other material and From the above definitions, it can be seen that permaculture
non-material needs in a sustainable way (Bell, 2005). design has evolved beyond food systems to encompass the
broader landscape of architecture and human relationships. Joel
Glanzberg, regenerative design and ecological restoration expert,
emphasized “it is a holistic design approach for all human needs
Permaculture: that works on creating change by shifting underlying patterns”
(Glanzberg, 2013). A holistic design approach demands a shift in
A design process mimicking natural ecosystems. conventional, mechanistic thinking. The theoretical foundations
of permaculture will help shed light on this way of thinking.

1
Version: December 2013 sustainability/2013/17pr
 Another factor that would encourage a group or an
individual to adopt permaculture practices would be
a worldview that included a developed sense of place.
If people feel connected to their community and
environment, they would be more likely to embrace
permaculture. Humans can develop a sense of place by
observing patterns, processes, and cycles within nature.
Humans must reconnect their aspirations and activities
with the evolution of natural systems, regenerating as
opposed to degenerating our landscapes (Glanzberg, 2013;
Mang & Reed, 2012).

Participants in USU Extension’s Permaculture Workshop observe “Sustainability”

the surrounding environment interacting with the campus’s future
permaculture garden site. This includes the watershed, wind strength As world population and resource consumption continue
and direction, seasons, sun cycle and more. to follow an upward trend, the importance of humans
reconnecting with natural systems increases. Problem
Permaculture Theory solving, conflict resolution, and increased stewardship are
required for world populations to continue - or sustain.
Before breaking soil and designing structures, permaculture
practitioners first observe patterns and characteristics of Oftentimes, sustainability is defined as using less, or using
the environment at the chosen site. This includes visiting up capital more slowly. That definition creates an illusion
the site at various times of the day, during various seasons of achievability, and leaves out the most integral elements
and weather conditions, and observing the landscape from of the human race’s ability to sustain itself. Sustainability is
different viewpoints. Following is an elaboration of the theory value laden, and achieving sustainability requires problem
behind permaculture design. solving (Tainter, 2003). Permaculture integrates the
human value aspect by approaching problems through
Worldview and Place ecology, systems thinking, and holistic inquiry. Ethics
and considerations ingrained within those overarching
Observation of our surroundings is often the first approaches, taken from Holmgren (2007) include:
principle presented in permaculture literature (Holmgren, • Land and nature stewardship
2007, McManus, 2010, Bane, 2012). How we perceive, or
• The built environment
observe, our environment is influenced by our worldview.
In other words, the roots of our worldview influence many • Tools and technology
of our attitudes and perceptions toward the environment.
• Culture and education
Because permaculture is a holistic design approach with
a concern for the health of the environment, a group or • Health and spiritual well-being
an individual will be more likely to adopt permaculture
• Finances and economics
principles if they have an environmental worldview.

Tracing thinking further ‘upstream’, from our worldview,

to our experiences that formed that view, can enrich the
dialogue taking place among advocates for sustainably
built environments (Mang & Reed, 2012). Ecological
problems and designs have been traditionally addressed
through mechanical means (Berry, 1981). For example,
designing factory-style farming facilities via mechanical
order. streamlines efficiency in producing a single product.
However, it also creates dependency on inputs, unused
waste, minimizes biological exchange and increases
vulnerability in the wake of ecological disturbance.
Biological solutions to problems are often overlooked
due to a worldview with a mechanical preference. This
preference for man-made, mechanical solutions is not Designing a permaculture site at USU following an observation of the
biological and social patterns interacting with the site.
conducive to the adoption of permaculture theory.

2
Permaculture Principles
Permaculture literature often contains listed principles. Most of Design from Patterns to Details
the principles have core similarities among various authors and By stepping back, we can observe patterns in nature and
experts. Listed below are twelve principles adapted from Dave society. These can form the backbone of our designs, with
Holmgren (Holmgren, 2007). Holmgren’s list encompasses the details filled in as we go (McManus, 2010). Thoughtful
all essential elements of permaculture. The twelve ethics and design is a way of addressing and solving many of our
principles follow:
problems at the source.

Observe and Interact Integrate Rather than Segregate

Design should consider different seasons, times of day, and This requires the recognition of complex connections in
cultures. Ways to work and design with existing patterns in nature, and making beneficial use of those interactions.
nature should be considered. We must brainstorm the many functions that each element
can perform.
Catch and Store Energy
Renewable ways of capturing and utilizing energy should be Use Small and Slow Solutions
a priority. Energy, which gives us the ability to work, should
Smaller systems are easier to maintain than big ones, making
never be wasted. True costs (i.e. negative externalities, human
better use of local resources and producing more sustainable
welfare, habitat protection, etc.) should be a central part of
outcomes (McManus, 2010). Also, be sure to take adequate
energy dialogue. Infrastructure improvements, retrofitting,
time through observation and seeking local knowledge in
passive design, and alternative storage techniques should be
finding solutions.
prioritized.

Obtain a Yield Use and Value Diversity

Design should focus on principles of self-reliance. Producing Diversity fosters resilience. A society rooted in monoculture
an agricultural yield is necessary for independence and is vulnerable to unexpected change. Permaculture seeks
continuity. Yields are encouraging, and they create ‘positive to understand past, present, and potential biological and
feedback loops’ (Holmgren, 2007). cultural diversity.

Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback Use Edges and Value the Marginal
With better understanding of how positive and negative A point where two systems meet is often a place where
feedbacks work in nature, systems can be designed that are productivity and stability can be found. Rather than
more self-regulating, thus reducing the work involved in disregarding the marginal, we should look for ways to
repeated and harsh corrective management (Holmgren, 2007). make use of its diversity and productivity.

Use and Value Renewable Resources and Creatively Use and Respond to Change
Services We can have a positive impact on inevitable change by
We live as a result of the ability of the living world to regenerate carefully observing, and then intervening at the right time
(Glanzberg, 2013). A diversified use of renewable resources, at (McManus, 2010). We must not seek to take away the self-
an appropriate level of use, can help us limit our consumption. determination of land in the process.

Produce No Waste
Look for ways to make waste a useful input in our system,
rather than just an output. Recycling, composting, and reducing
waste are increasingly important as population increases.

3
Permaculture in Practice Stack Functions
If you are interested in incorporating permaculture Stacking functions, or companion planting, is a great way to reduce
design concepts into your own landscape, the following your external inputs. What this means is to consider the entire
list of examples can serve as a basis for brainstorming. spectrum of benefits any plant can provide, and also to consider
what that plant needs to thrive. Do the same for several plants
and determine whether any one plant can meet the nutritional or
Harvest Rainwater structural needs of another, when interplanted closely together.
A basic start to harvesting rainwater is to build or purchase a
catchment system, such as a barrel attached to your household A great example of stacking functions can be taken from the
eaves trough runoff point (See www.water.utah.gov for further Native American tradition of a Three Sisters Garden of corn,
information on water harvesting laws for Utah). However, to beans and squash. Corn provides a natural pole for beans,
maximize use of your catchment system, design your landscape beans fix nitrogen in the soil that other plants use, and squash
in a manner that naturally harvests rainwater as well. This provides a natural ground cover to reduce weeds, retain soil
includes building infiltration basins, also known as swales moisture, to serve as a natural mulch, and the prickly hairs help
(indented gardens), as opposed to mounds (elevated gardens). deter pests. The result is known as “overyielding,” where the
Swales can be connected to runoff points in your landscape to combined yield of all three crops grown together on the same
maximize natural rainwater harvesting. An advanced concept land is generally higher than what any one of the crops could
of this is to build a diversion swale. According to Brad produce in the same area of land if planted alone (Nabhan,
Lancaster (2013; p.73), “a diversion swale is built slightly off- 2013). Lastly, the three sisters also nutritionally complement
contour, allowing a portion of the water to soak into the soil each other. Beans are rich in protein, balancing a lack of needed
locally while moving surplus water slowly downhill from one amino acids found in corn; corn provides carbohydrates; and
place to another, infiltrating water all along the way.” This squash yields vitamins from the fruit and oil from the seeds.
helps slow water flow, decreases water inputs and associated
costs, and prevents erosion.

Rainwater Harvesting Formula:

To calculate the amount of rainwater you could harvest on your
own rooftop and/or landscape, consider the following formula:

CATCHMENT AREA (in square feet) x AVERAGE ANNUAL

RAINFALL (in feet) = TOTAL RAINWATER FALLING ON
THAT CATCHMENT IN AN AVERAGE YEAR (in cubic feet).

If your annual rainfall is measured in inches, divide inches of rain

by 12 to get annual rainfall in feet (Lancaster, 2013).

A Three Sisters Garden at the UMass Amherst Campus, Massachussetts - part

of the University’s Permaculture Initiative (www.UMassPermaculture.com)

Design a Plant Guild

A plant guild draws concepts of design from forest ecosystems.
Begin with a canopy layer, such as large fruit and/or nut trees.
Under this layer, plant dwarf fruit trees. As highlighted by Gary
Nabhan (2013, p. 132), “A dwarf fruit tree may sequester as much
as 28 pounds of CO2 a year, while a larger semi-dwarf or full-sized
tree will sequester between 220 and 260 pounds annually.” Under
and around the low tree layer, plant a shrub layer (such as currents
and berries). Next, surround these with herbs (primarily perennial
Garden basins/swales form a living sponge of mulch and vegetation. herbs) and root vegetables, and complete the whole system with
Basins are designed to infiltrate water quickly so there are no problems with a ground cover, soil surface layer such as strawberries. You can
mosquitoes or anaerobic soils. These basins, with their spongy mulch and
also build up in a vertical layer using grape vines or cucumbers.
soil-burrowing plant roots, infiltrate all water within 20 minutes (© Rainwater
Harvesting for Drylands and Beyond; www.harvestingrainwater.com)

4
Herb Spirals Community Rebuilds also sources their straw bales (an
agricultural co-product that was previously a bi-product)
Herb spirals are compact vertical gardens allowing for locally – within 100 miles. The organization also builds
individualized management of wind and water flow. Use with pine-bark beetle-killed wood sourced from within 100
a solid material, such as rocks or used bricks, to build the miles. Native plant species and rain gardens are the focus
spiral frame. Ensure the center of the spiral is the highest of landscapes surrounding Community Rebuilds’ houses.
point. Plant herbs that thrive in dryer soils and full sun Lastly, the builds are completed by student interns, creating
at the top and use the various angles and heights to plan a succession model of systems-thinking sustainable builders.
where to plant herbs depending on their sun and water
dependence. The stone or brick walls provide heat retention,
insulating the plant roots from cold snaps. Herb spirals Summary
can also be built as swales that indent into the ground.
Remember, in the northern hemisphere, water runs off Permaculture is more than food production – it is a design process
in a clockwise direction, so be sure to build your spiral in that can be applied to organizations, homes, and landscapes.
this same manner to work with the natural flow of water. This article aimed to highlight the theoretical and applied
elements of permaculture. Permaculture’s three ethics succinctly
present the roots that hold together all that has been presented:
• Care for the earth
• Care for the people
• There are limits to growth (Holmgren, 2007)

To care for the earth and people, and to recognize limits to growth,
is to realize our need for regeneration. Regeneration of food and
landscapes, as opposed to degeneration, is a necessary standard
for environmental sustainability and applied permaculture.

Glossary of Terms
Garden Swale - Indented gardens that act as water
infiltration basins.

Herb Spiral - Herb spirals are compact vertical gardens

allowing for individualized management of wind and water
flow.
University of Massachussetts’ campus permaculture garden also features
an herb spiral. This serves as a space organizer, visual attraction and
Permaculture - A design concept mimicking natural
walkway for the campus garden - stacking functions!
ecosystems.

Permaculture in Utah Plant Guild - Polyculture that blends several to many plant
species working together.
A good example of permaculture concepts in action can
be seen with Community Rebuilds, a nonprofit building Regenerative Development - Designing human
energy-efficient straw bale housing for income-qualifying environments that restore and regenerate as opposed to
families in Moab, Utah. Community Rebuilds follows an degenerating the surrounding environment
environment-focused interactive housing design, taking
into account water systems (with a focus on rainwater Straw Bale Construction - A method of building using
harvesting), sun cycles (building with passive solar), and bales of straw as insulation. R-values (which gauge material
material sourcing. For material sourcing, Community insulating potential) typically range from 20-50.
Rebuilds uses recycled products and agricultural co-products
in each build. They use earth removed for excavation of Systems Ecology - Systems ecology is an interdisciplinary
the home site when available by screening it and applying it field of ecology, taking a holistic approach to the study of
back onto the walls as an ingredient in their earthen plasters. ecological systems, especially ecosystems.

5
 Sources
Bane, P. (2012). The permaculture handbook. British Lancaster, B. (2013). Rainwater harvesting for drylands
Columbia, Canada: New Society Publishers. and beyond: Guiding principles to welcome rain into your
life and landscape. Volume 1 2nd Edition. Tucson, AZ:
Bell, G. (2004). The permaculture way: Practical steps to Rainsource Press.
create a self-sustaining world. Hampshire, United Kingdom:
Permanent Publications. Mang, P., & Reed, B. (2012). Designing from place: A
regenerative framework and methodology. Building Research
Berry, W. (1981). Solving for pattern. In The gift of the & Information, 40(1), 23-38.
good land: Further essays cultural & agricultural, 134-149.
Berkely, CA: North Point Press. McManus, B. (2010). An integral framework for permaculture.
Journal of Sustainable Development, 3(3), 162-174.
Glanzberg, J. (2013, March). Permaculture and regenerative
design. Presentation at Permaculture Interactive Series, Mollison, B., & Holmgren, D. (1978). Permaculture one:
Moab, UT. A perennial agriculture for human settlements. Tagari
Publications.
Hemenway, T. (2001). Gaia’s garden: A guide to home-scale
permaculture. White River Junction, Vermont: Chelsea Nabhan, G. (2013). Growing food in a hotter, drier land:
Green Publishing Company. Lessons from desert farmers on adapting to climate
uncertainty. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green
Holmgren, D. (2003). Permaculture: Principles and pathways Publishing.
beyond sustainability. Holmgren Design Services.
Tainter, J. (2003). A framework for sustainability. World
Holmgren, D. (2007). Essence of permaculture. Holmgren Futures, 59(3-4), 213-223.
Design Services.

Holzer, S. (2004). Sepp holzer’s permaculture: A practical

guide to small-scale, integrative farming and gardening.
White River Junction, Vermont: Chelsea Green Publishing
Company.

Utah State University is committed to providing an environment free from harassment and other forms of illegal discrimination based on race,
color, religion, sex, national origin, age (40 and older), disability, and veteran’s status. USU’s policy also prohibits discrimination on the basis of
sexual orientation in employment and academic related practices and decisions. Utah State University employees and students cannot, because of
race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, disability, or veteran’s status, refuse to hire; discharge; promote; demote; terminate; discriminate in
compensation; or discriminate regarding terms, privileges, or conditions of employment, against any person otherwise qualified. Employees and
students also cannot discriminate in the classroom, residence halls, or in on/off campus, USU-sponsored events and activities. This publication is
issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Noelle E. Cockett, Vice President for Extension and Agriculture, Utah State University.

6
View publication stats