Developing Computational Proficiency with

Multiplication and Division

Students learn to add before they learn to multiply. Therefore, early attempts to multiply may be done
using repeated addition connected to a groups of equal quantities scenario. Since many students will
not be very accurate or speedy when it comes to repeated addition of numbers other than 2s, 5s, or
10s, it is necessary to provide explicit instruction in a variety of other computational strategies.

Sequence for Teaching Multiplication Facts and Strategies

Though there is no one correct way to sequence teaching of the multiplication facts, most researchers
and educators agree that 2s, 5s, and 10s come first, then 1s and 0s. Researcher Susan O’Connell
suggests 2, 10, 5, 1, 0, 3, 4, 6, 9, 8, 7 as the sequence for learning multiplication facts.

In its May 2015 Vol. 21, No. 9 publication, Teaching Children Mathematics, the National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) suggests a similar sequence, but adds square products as
foundational facts to be learned early. See Table 1.

Table 1: Sequence and Strategies for teaching multiplication facts.

Foundational Facts

2s, 5s, 10s Use story problems, arrays, skip counting,

(begin these late in grade 2) and patterns on a hundreds chart, and a
0s, 1s, multiplication squares (2x2, 3x3..) multiplication table to learn these facts.

Derived Fact Strategies

Start with a nearby 2s, 5s, or 10s fact, then

Adding or subtracting a group subtract (or add) the group.
Example, I don’t know 9 x 6, so I think “10 x 6 =
60” and subtract one group of 6 to get 54.
Look for an even factor. Find the fact for half of
Halving and doubling that factor, then double it.
Example, I don’t know 6 x 8, so I think “3 x 8 =
24” and double that to get 48.
Look for a nearby square. Find that fact then add
Using a square product on or subtract off the extra group.
Example, I don’t know 7 x 6. I use 6 x 6 = 36 and
add one more 6 to get 42.
Partition one of the factors into a convenient
sum of known facts, find the known facts and
Decomposing a factor combine the products.
Example, I don’t know 7 x 6. I break the 7 into 2
and 5, because I know 2 x 6 and 5 x 6. Then I
add 12 and 30 to get 42.

Note: There are many interpretations of 3 x 2. In this document the supporting examples will
reference it as 3 groups of 2.
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Knowing the foundational facts, along with properties and strategies, allows students to reason
the facts for 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9. What follows is designed to support the teaching and learning of
foundational facts and computational strategies.

Multiplication: Establish the Foundational Facts and Strategies

Establishing 2s, 5s, and 10s

Effective ways to establish mastery of the 2s, 5s, and 10s foundational facts include frequent
opportunities involving:
• connecting products of 2 to skip counting by 2, products of 5 to skip counting by 5, products of 10
to skip counting by 10 and make use of the Commutative Property of Multiplication
Example: 5 x 3 may not be automatic when thought of as 5 groups of 3, however, thinking of
it as 3 groups of 5 may be determined by skip counting 5, 10, 15. See page 5 for more
detail on the Commutative Property of Multiplication.
• repeated addition on a number line
• observing patterns in a hundreds chart
• recitation during games, jumping rope, counting objects, etc.

Establishing 1s and 0s
a)Multiplying by 1
Once students are comfortable with interpreting 2 x 4 as 2 groups of 4, 5 x 3 as 5 groups of 3, etc.,
they can be led to interpret 1 x 2 as 1 group of 2, and 1 x 5 as 1 group of 5. After students have
worked with enough examples, support students in explicitly understanding multiplying any number
by 1 yields a product equal to the original number (i.e., a number keeps its original identity when
multiplied by 1). Hence, 1 is called the Multiplicative Identity.

b) Multiplying by Zero
Students can think of 0 x 3 = 0 or 3 x 0 as “no groups of 3” as well as “addition of 3 zeros” to generate
products of 0. They may even extend the product pattern.
Example:
4x3 3x3 2x3 1x3 0x3
= 12 =9 =6 =3 =0

Take away 3 Take away 3 Take away 3 Take away 3

c) Dividing by 1
Students who have had experience with the unknowns being written in all three of the possible
locations in a x b = c will appreciate that 2 ÷ 1 = ? means the same as 2 = 1 x ?. Their understanding
of the multiplicative identity, tells them that ? = 2. Like multiplication by 1, division by 1 also leaves a
number unchanged (e.g., 2 ÷ 1 = 2, 99 ÷ 1 = 99).

d) Divisions Involving 0
Students can reason about 0 ÷ 2 = ? by asking themselves, “How many groups of 2 yield a total of
0?” This quotative division question is answered by 0 since it takes zero groups of 2 to yield a total
of 0. If students ask the partitive division question, “2 groups of how many yield a total of 0?”, they
again, answer 0. Similarly, 0 divided by any number other than 0 yields a quotient of 0.

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 What is Partitive and Quotative Divison?

Example: 4 x 7 = 28, if 4 represents the number of groups and

7 represents the number of items in each group,
then the result of 28 ÷ 4 is the number of items in each group (partitive)
and the result of 28 ÷ 7 is the number of groups (quotative)
Depending on the context of a problem, you may be finding one or the other.
If not given a context, then one should be considering both types of divisions.

Some students may be curious about division by zero. Guide them to reason that 2 ÷ 0 = ? can be
a partitive division where the quantity per part is unknown. In that case, ask “Zero groups of what
quantity yield a total of 2?” Since this question does not define any number, we say that 2 ÷ 0 is
undefined. If 2 ÷ 0 is a quotative division, then 2 ÷ 0 = ? asks, “How many groups of 0 are in a total of
2?”. Again, this question does not define any number, so 2 ÷ 0 is undefined. Any number other than 0
can replace 2 in the argument above.

A few students may be curious about 0 ÷ 0 = ? By changing this division question to the equivalent
multiplication question, 0 = 0 x ?, students can reason that ? can be 1, or ? can be 2, or ? can be 99.
In fact, ? can be any number. Since the value for ? cannot be determined without further information
0 ÷ 0 is said to be indeterminate.

Establishing the Square Products

Effective ways to establish mastery of these foundational facts include frequent opportunities
involving:
• observing patterns in a hundreds chart
• drawing nested squares and observing the pattern in adding to one square to make the next.

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The following visual summaries show the multiplication facts for 2, 5, 10, 0, and 1, and the facts
established using the commutative property.

Visual Summaries of Sequence for Teaching Multiplication Facts

2s, 5s, and 10s Using Commutative Property 2s, 5s, 10s, 0s, 1s and using
Examples: 2 x 3, 5 x 4 for 2s, 5s, and 10s the Commutative Property
altogether

0s, 1s, and square products Using Commutative Property

Examples: 0 x 5, 4 x 4 for 0s, and 1s

Notice how few facts have

yet to be learned once the
foundational facts and the
Commutative Property have
been learned.

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 Multiplication: Naming and Using Properties

Commutative Property of Multiplication

It is helpful to demonstrate that an expression like 2 x 6 yields the same product as 6 x 2. The fact
that you get the same product when you switch the order of the numbers in a multiplication question
is called the Commutative Property of Multiplication.

Model of 2 x 6 Model of 6 x 2

Using the Commutative Property of Multiplication can reduce the cognitive load for students by
taking advantage of multiplication facts already mastered when learning a new multiplication fact.
For example, students typically learn certain facts before others (e.g., 2-times, and 3-times before
6-times). The models above convince students that 6 x 2 (a new fact) yields the same product as
2 x 6 (a known fact). Similarly, if the student knows 3 x 6 = 18, they can reason that 6 x 3 = 18. By
applying the Commutative Property to known facts, students can reduce the number of new facts they
need to learn.

It should be noted that the Commutative Property does not apply to division (e.g., 10 ÷ 2 does not
have the same value as 2 ÷ 10).

Associative Property of Multiplication

This property says that you can group numbers in whatever order you want when multiplying.
7x2x5 7 x 2 x 5 Most people find it easier to compute 7 x 10 than 14 x 5.
= (7 x 2) x 5 = 7 x (2 x 5) The brackets do not have to be included. They are used here to show
= 14 x 5 = 7 x 10 which numbers are associated first.
= 70 = 70

Distributive Property of Multiplication Over Addition or Subtraction

This property says you can multiply a sum by multiplying each of the addends and then add the
partial products. For example, 6 x (3 + 2) is equal to 6 x 3 + 6 x 2. The examples below show how
decomposing a number allows us to take advantage of the Distributive Property.
Example 1: When learning the fact Example 2: This property is
7x7 7 x 7 = 49, a student 7 x 23 especially useful for
= (5 + 2) x 7 may think of 5 groups = 7 x (20 + 3) multiplying larger
= (5 x 7) + (2 x 7) of 7 and 2 more = (7 x 20) + (7 x 3) numbers. Here, a
= 35 + 14 groups of 7. = 140 + 21 student can think “7
= 49 = 161 groups of 20 and 7
groups of 3”.

For more detail about the Distributive Property and visual justification for using this strategy, see
Pictorial Strategy for Multiplying All Types of Numbers on page 9.

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 Multiplication: Connecting Computational Strategies and Properties
*Many steps are included for understanding but these steps do not have to be written. Students may
use less formal notation.
Strategy Examples* Additional Information
6x2
As the number of addends increases, the
Skip Counting 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12
student is less likely to use repeated addition
or skip counting. Many students will use skip
Students may use their
counting only for 2s, 5s, and 10s, and prefer
fingers to keep track of
one of the strategies outlined below for the
the six 2s as they skip
other facts.
count.

It is helpful to support students with

6x2
understanding the connection between the
Repeated Addition =2+2+2+2+2+2
partial sums 2, 2 + 2, 2 + 2 + 2, ... to the skip
= 12
count “2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12”.

7 x 2 may seem easier

Switching the order of a multiplication question
as
is sometimes done to determine unknown
Commutative Property = 2 x 7
facts.

6x7 If a quantity is halved, then doubled, the end

=3x7x2 result is the same as the starting quantity (e.g.,
Half then Double = 21 x 2 6 halved is 3, then 3 doubled is 6). This makes
= 42 strategic use of the Associative Property and
decomposes an unknown multiplier.
3x7
Anchor of 2s, 5s, or = (2 +1) x 7
10s plus a group =2x7+1x7
= 14 + 7
= 21
9x7 Start with a nearby anchor of a 2s, 5s, or 10s
Anchor of 2s, 5s, or = (10 - 1) x 7 fact, then add or subtract one or more groups.
10s minus a group = 10 x 7 – 1 x 7 This makes strategic use of the Distributive
= 70 – 7 Property and decomposes an unknown
= 63 multiplier.
8x7
Anchor of 2s, 5s, or = (10 – 2) x 7
10s plus or minus = 10 x 7 – 2 x 7
more than one group = 70 – 14
= 56

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 Multiplication: Choosing Which Computational Strategy to Use

Being flexible in using strategies is a great skill. Many computational strategies depend on breaking
larger numbers down to smaller or friendly numbers (decomposing the number), then applying the
Distributive or the Associative Property. Which particular strategy a student chooses will depend on
which particular facts the student has already mastered. The best strategy for decomposing factors
depends on which number facts the student knows. The following chart illustrates that multiple
strategies can be used for the same product.

Multiple Strategies for the Product 6 x 7

Strategy Anchor of 5 Perfect Perfect Anchor of 5 Half then

Plus a Group Square Square Plus Two Double
Plus a Group Minus a Groups
Group

Example 6x7 6x7 6x7 6x7 6x7

Decompose = (5 + 1) x 7 = 6 x (6 + 1) = (7 – 1) x 7 = 6 x (5 + 2) =3x7x2

Use the =5x7+1x7 =6x6+6x1 =7x7–1x7 =6x5+6x2 = 21 x 2

Distributive or = 35 + 7 = 36 + 6 = 49 – 7 = 30 + 12 = 42
Associative = 42 = 42 = 42 = 42
Property
6 is near the 6 x 7 is near 6 x 7 is near 7 is near the 6 is even, so
Student
anchor of 5 the square the square anchor of 5 take half, then
Thinking
product 6 x 6 product 7 x 7 double

Visual summaries of the various decomposing strategies are shown below and illustrate the fact that
more than one strategy can be used for some of the facts. If the Commutative Property was used as
well, the first and third charts will have more facts filled in.

2s, 5s, or 10s Anchor Square Product 2s 5s, or 10s Anchor Half
plus or minus Anchor plus or minus plus or minus then Double
1 group 1 group 2 groups

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 Multiplication and Division: Strategies for Larger Numbers

Rename Numbers to Multiply and Divide by 10, 100, 1000 Mentally

Students learn early that 10 ones can be traded for a ten, 10 tens can be traded for a hundred, and
10 hundreds can be traded for a thousand.

Gap Closing J/I Representing and Renaming Whole Numbers Student Book p.18

Using trading of units and flexibility in renaming numbers, students can make sense of multiplication
and division by 10, 100, and 1000.

52 tens
52 x 10 can mean 52 tens can be written as 520 so the answer is 520

can mean 630 hundreds

630 x 100 630 hundreds can be written as so the answer is 63 000
63000

can mean how many 63 000 can be thought

63 000 ÷ 100 hundreds are in of as 630 hundreds so the answer is 630
63 000?

can mean how many 520 can be thought of

520 ÷ 10 tens are in 520? as 52 tens so the answer is 52

Multiplying Double-Digit Numbers

The following strategies are related to strategies shown earlier for single-digit multiplication. Again,
several strategies can be used for the same fact.
*Many steps are included for understanding but these steps do not have to be written. Students may
use less formal notation.
Strategy Examples* Additional Information
14 x 25
= 14 x (20 + 5)
Decompose to Use Known = 14 x 20 + 14 x 5 Use a known multiplier as an anchor then
Facts = 280 + 70 use the distributive property.
= 350
14 x 25
“Quadruple then Quarter” and “Half then
= 14 x 100 ÷ 4
Double” strategies are both based on
Scaling Up and Scaling Down = 1400 ÷ 4
keeping equivalence while using numbers
= 350
that are easier to work with mentally.

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Pictorial Strategy for Multiplying All Types of Numbers

The following chart contains examples of how an open partitioned array can be used to find a product
by decomposing larger whole numbers, decimals, fractions, and algebraic expressions.

Many steps are included for understanding but these steps do not have to be written

Whole Numbers Decimal Numbers Fractions Algebra

Decompose
using 14 x 25 7.1 x 8.5 2 1/4 x 3 1/2
friendly =(10 + 4)x(20 + 5) = (7 + 0.1) x (8 + 0.5) = (2 + 1/4) (3 + 1/2) (c + 2)(c + 3)
numbers

Use an open
array

Determine
partial
products

Add partial 200 + 80 + 20 +

56 + 3.5 + 0.8 + 0.05 6 + 1 + 3/4 +1/8 c² + 3c + 2c + 6
products 50
= 60.35 = 7 7/8 = c² + 5c + 6
= 350

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Standard Algorithm

Whole Numbers Decimal Numbers Fractions Algebra

2 1/4 x 3 1/2
= 9/4 x 7/2
= 63/8
= 7 7/8

• Multiply 4 x 25. • Multiply 5 x 71

• Multiply 1 x 25 and • Multiply 8 x 71 and c² + 3c + 2c + 6
move 25 over 1 move over one • Convert to improper = c² + 5c + 6
place value position place value position fractions.
since it is really 10 x • Add lined up digits • Multiply numerators
25 or 250. • Put the decimal and multiply • Multiply using
• Add lined up digits. in by adding denominators “FOIL”
the number of • Simplify fractions if Multiply the
decimal places in necessary F irst terms,
the question and • Convert the O uter terms,
counting over that improper fraction to I nner terms,
many places from a mixed fraction if L ast terms,
the right. desired or required. • Collect like terms.

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