Notes:

Computer : It is an electronic device which processes given data to derive

the required and useful information. During the processing the computer has to
perform various functions like receives data(input) processes data(process)
produces output(information) stores results (storage)

Characteristics of Computers
The characteristics which make computer make indispensable are
1. Speed
The computer is able to process the data and gives the output in fractions
of seconds, such that required information is given to the user on time enabling
the user to take right decisions on right time. Apowerful computer is capable of
executing about 3 million calculations per second.
2. Accurancy
The accuracy of computers is consistently high enough which avoids any
errors. If it all there are errors, they are due to errors in instructions given by the
programmer.
3. Reliable
The output generated by the computer is very reliable, but it is reliable only
when the data, which is passing as input to the computer and the program,
which gives instructions are correct and reliable.
4. Storage Capacity
The computer has a provision to store large volumes of data in the small
storage devices, which have capacity to store huge amounts of data and help
the retrieval of data an easy task.
5. Versatile
Computers are very versatile machines. Computers are capable of performing almost any
task , provided the task can be reduced to a series oflogical steps

6.Automation
Once the instructions fed into computer it works automatically without any
human intervention until the completion ofexecution ofprogram or meets logical
instructions to terminate the job.
7.Diligent
Acomputer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It
can work for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to
be performed, a computer will performevery calculation with the same accuracy.
Due to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of work.
.Von Neumann model First Generation Computers (1950’s)
These computers which used vacuum tubes (valves) as major electronic
component . The advantage of vacuum tubes technology is that it made the
advent of Electronic digital computer. Vacuum tubes were only electronic devices
available during those days which made computing possible.

1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the

computer system. Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the computer
in an organized manner for processing through an input device such as keyboard,
mouse, MICR, OCR, Etc.,
2. Main Memory: It is also known as internal memory. It is very
fast in operation. It is used to store data and instructions. Data has to be fed
into the system before the actual processing starts. It contains a part of the
operating system Software, one or more execution programs being executed,
the data being processed and required by the programs for execution , and
processed data awaiting output.
3. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting
useful information. Similarlythe output produced by the computer after processing
must also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to you in
human readable form through the screen or printer. Again the output is also
stored inside the computer for further processing.
 4. Control Unit (CU) : The next component of computer is the Control
Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion.
Control Unit is responsible for co-ordinating various operations using time
signal. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer programs
and instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the
main memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other
units of the computer to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator
when several users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates
the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they perform the input and
output.
5. Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) : After you enter data through the
input device it is stored in the primary storage. The actual processing of the data
and instruction are performed byArithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations
performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic
and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required.
After processing the output is returned back to storage unit for further processing
or getting stored.
6. Secondary storage: It is also known as auxiliary memory. It is closely
linked withthe main memory. Since main memorycan’t be flooded with unwanted
data at particular moment, same is stored in auxiliary memoryfrom which desired
data is fed to main memory as and when required by it. Thus secondary storage
is used to hold mass of information i.e., system software, application programs,
cinemas, games and data files. Obviously the capacity of secondary storage is
very high compared to main memory. Auxiliary memory usually in the form of
Magnetic disk, Magnetic tape, CD’s, Memory cards, Pen drives Etc.,

Input-output Devices

Generally, we give data and program to the computer. So what we give to

the Computer is known as input. Through which device we give the input is
called input device.
Generally we get information from the computer, So what we get from the
computer is called output.
Through which device we get output is called output device.
Input devices
An input device presents data to the processing unit in a machine-readable
form. Although the keyboard is a common input device for a small computer, a
system may also support various other input devices such as Optical Character
Recognition (OCR), Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR), mark
sense reader, etc.
Key board
The keyboard is very much like a standard typewriter keyboard with a few
additional keys. The basic QWERTY layout of characters is maintained to make
it easy for the trained typist to use the system. The additional keys are included
to perform certain special functions such as loading a program, edition a text,
etc. These are known as function keys that vary in number from system to
system.
Optical Character Recognition
Often abbreviated as OCR, optical character recognition involves reading
text from paper and translating the images into a form that the computer can
manipulate. An OCR system enables you to take a book or a magazine article
and feed it directly into an electronic computer file.
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
An MICR can identify characters printed with a special ink that contain
particles ofmagnetic material. This device particularly finds applications in banking
industry. Since the MICR system can recognise only certain character styles,
the characters have to be accurately formed.
Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
Optical mark recognition, also called mark sense reader, is a technology
where an OMR device senses the presence or absence of a mark, such as
pencil mark.
Bar Code Reader
These devices are generally available in super markets, bookshops, etc.
Bar-code readers are photoelectric scanners that read the bar codes or vertical
zebra striped marks, printed on product containers. Supermarkets use a bar
code system called the Universal Product Code (UPC). The bar code identifies
the product to the supermarket’s computer which has a description and the
latest price of the product. The computer automatically tells the Point of Sales
(POS) terminal what the price is.
Digitizing Tablet
This is an input device that enables you to enter drawings and sketches into
a computer. Adigitizing tablet consists of an electronic tablet and a cursor or
pen. A cursor (also called a puck) is similar to a mouse, except that it has a
window with cross hairs for pinpoint placement, and it can have as many as 16
buttons. Apen (also called a stylus) looks like a simple ballpoint pen but uses an
electronic head instead of ink. The tablet contains electronic field that enables it
to detect movement of the cursor or pen and translate the movements into digital
signals that it sends to the computer. Digitizing tables are also called digitizers,
graphics tables, touch tables or simply tables.
 Scanner
Scanner is an input device that can read text or illustrations printed on
paper and translate the information into a form that the computer can use. A
scanner works by digitizing an image - dividing it into a grid of boxes and
representing each box with either a zero or a one, depending on whether the
box is filled in. The resulting matrix of bits, called a bit map, can then be stored
in a file, displayed on a screen and manipulated by programs. Optical scanners
do not distinguish text from illustrations, they represent all images as bit maps.
Therefore, you cannot directly edit text that has been scanned. To edit text read
by an optical scanner, you need an optical character recognition (OCR) system
to translate the image into ASCII characters. Most optical scanners sold today
come with OCR packages.
Mouse
Mouse is a device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a
display screen. It is a small object you can roll along a hard and flat surface. As
you move the mouse, the pointer onthe displayscreen moves in the same direction.
Mouse contains at least one button and sometimes as many as three, which
have different functions depending on what program is running.
Light Pen
Light pen is an input device that utilizes a light-sensitive detector to
selectobjects on a display screen.
Speech input devices
Speech or voice input devices convert a person’s speech into digital form.
These input devices, when combined with appropriate software, form voice
recognition systems. These systems enable users to operate microcomputers
using voice commands.
Output Devices
Output devices receive information from the CPU and present it to the user
in the desired form. Output devices include display screen, loudspeakers,
printers, plotters, etc.
Display Screen
When a program is keyed in, the screen (which is similar to a television
screen) displays the characters. The user can read the program line by line and
make corrections before it is stored or printed on a printer. It is also possible to
bring to the screen a portion of the program stored in the external storage for
editing. Screen sizes differ from system to system. The standard size is 24 lines
by 80 characters. Most systems have provision for scrolling. This facilitates the
user to move the text vertically or horizontally on the screens thus bringing to the
screen the hidden text. Thus the user can scan through the entire file either to
review or to select a particular portion. The cursor on the screen is controlled
by the cursor keys on the keyboard,
 Printer
Printer is a device that prints text or illustrations on paper and in many
cases on transparencies and other media. There are many different types of
printers. Interms of the technologyutilized, printer fall into the following categories.
(i) Ink-jet Printer
Ink-jet printers work by spraying ionized ink on a sheet ofpaper. Magnetized
plates in the ink’s path direct the ink onto the paper in the desired shapes. Inkjet
printers are capable of producing high quality print approaching to that produced
by laser printers. A typical ink-jet printer provides a resolution of 300 dots per
inch, although some newer models offer higher resolutions.
In general, the price of ink-jet printers is lower than that of laser printers.
However, they are also considerably slower. Another drawback of ink-jet
printers is that they require a special type of ink that is apt to smudge on inexpensive
copier paper.
Because ink-jet printers require smaller mechanical parts than laser printers,
they are specially popular as portable printers. In addition, colour ink-jet printers
provide an inexpensive way to print full-colour documents.

(ii)Laser printer
Laser Printer utilizes a laser beam to produce an image on a drum. The light
of the laser alters the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits. The drum is
then rolled through a reservoir of toner, which is picked up by the charged
portions of the drum. Finally, the toner is transferred to the paper through a
combination of heat and pressure. This is also the way copy machines work.
Because an entire page is transmitted to a drum before the toner is applied,
laser printers are sometimes called page printers. There are two other types of
page printers that fall under the category of laser printers even though they do
not use lasers at all. One uses an array of LEDs to expose the drum, and the
other uses LCDs. Once the drum is charged, however, they both operate like a
real laser printer.
One of the chief characteristics of laser printers is their resolution - how
many dots per inch (dpi) they lay down. The available resolutions range from
300 dpi at the low end to 1,200 dpi at the high end. By comparison, offset

printing usually prints at 1,200 or 2,400 dpi. Some laser printers achieve higher
resolutions with special techniques known generallyas resolution enhancement.
In addition to text, laser printers are very adept at printing graphics.
However, you need significant amounts of memory in the printer to print high-
resolution graphics. To print a full-page graphic at 300 dpi, for example, you
need at least 1 MB (megabyte) of printer RAM. For a 600-dpi graphic, you
need at least 4 MB RAM.The speed of laser printers ranges from about 4 to
20 pages of text per minute (ppm). Atypical rate of 6 ppm is equivalent to
about 40 characters persecond (cps).

(ii) Line Printer

Line printers are high-speed printers capable of printing an entire line at
one time. A fast line printer can print as many as 3,000 lines per minute. The
disadvantages of line printers are that they can print only one font, they cannot
print graphics, the print quality is low, and they are very noisy.
(iii) Thermal printer
Thermal printers are printers that produce images by pushing electrically
heated pins against special heat-sensitive paper. Thermalprinters are inexpensive
and are used in most calculators and many fax machines. They produce low-
quality print, and the paper tends to curl and fade after a few weeks or months.
Plotter
Plotter is a device that draws pictures on paper based on commands from
a computer. Plotters differ from printers in that they draw lines using a pen. As a
result, they can produce continuous lines, whereas printers can only simulate
lines byprinting a closely spaced series of dots. Multicolour plotters use different-
coloured pens to draw different colours.
Sound Cards & Speakers
An expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate and output
sounds. Sound cards are necessary for nearly all CD-ROMs and have become
commonplace on modern personal computers. Sound cards enable the computer
to output sound through speakers connected to the board, to record sound
input from a microphone connected to the computer, and manipulate sound
stored on a disk.
Nearly all sound cards support MIDI, a standard for representing music
electronically. In addition, most sound cards are Sound Blaster-compatible, which
means that they can process commands written for a Sound Blaster card, the de
facto standard for PC sound
3D audio
3D audio is a technique for giving more depth to traditional stereo sound.
Typically, 3D sound, or 3D audio, is produced by placing a device in a
room with stereo speakers. The device dynamically analyses the sound coming
from the speakers and sends feedback to the sound system so that it can readjust
the sound to give the impression that the speakers are further apart.
3D audio devices are particularly popular for improving computer audio
where the speakers tend to be small and close together. There are a number of
3D audio devices that can be attached to a computer’s sound card
Memory unit
Memory means storage of data and the program. In computer’s memory
both data and programs are stored in the binary form. The binary system has
only two values 0 and 1. These are called bits.
As human beings we all understand decimal system but the computer can
only understand binary system. It is because a large number of integrated circuits
inside the computer can be considered as switches, which can be made ON, or
OFF. If a switch is ON it is considered 1 and if it is OFF it is 0. A number of
switches in different states will give you a message like this: 110101 10. So
the computer takes input in the form of 0 and 1 and gives output in the same
form, i.e., 0 and 1 only. Every number in binary system can be converted to
decimal system and vice versa; for example, decimal number 9 means 1001 .
Therefore, it is the computer that takes information or data in decimal form from
you, converts it into binary form, processes it, producing output in binary form
and finally again converts the output to decimal form.
Abit is an acronym for binary digit, which stands for one binary piece of
information. This can be either 0 or 1. Memory unit is made up of several small
storage locations called cells. Each of these cells can store a fixed number of
bits called word length.
Each cell has a unique number assigned to it called the address of the cell
and it is used to identify the cells. The address starts at 0 and goes up to (N-1).
You should know that the memory is like a large cabinet containing as many
drawers as there are addresses of memory. Each drawer contains a word and
the address is written on outside of the drawer.
Memory sizes(Capacity):
The size of memory is termed in terms KB,MB,GB etc.,
1 Byte = 8 bits
1 Kilo Byte(KB) = 1024 Bytes(210)
1 Mega Byte(MB) = 1024 KB
1 Giga Byte(GB) = 1024 MB
1 Tera Byte(TB) = 1024 GB
1 Peta Byte(PB) = 1024 TB
1 Exa Byte(EB) = 1024 PB
1 Zetta Byte(ZB) = 1024 EB
1 Yotta Byte(YB) = 1024 ZB
 Byte is used to store one character such as (alphabets (a-z),digits (0-9) or
special symbols +,-,$,% etc).You know that each cell of memory contains one
character or 1 byte of data. So the capacity is defined in terms of byte or
words. Thus 64 kilobyte (KB) memory is capable of storing 64 x 1024 = 32,768
bytes. (1 kilobyte is equal to 1024 bytes). A memory size ranges from few
kilobytes in smallsystems to several thousands of Giga bytes in large mainframeand
super computers.
Suppose a memory card size is 2 GB means that it can store
2GB = 2 x 1024 MB
= 2 x 1024 x 1024 KB
= 2 x 1024 x 1024 x 1024 Bytes
= 2147483648 bytes
There are two kinds of computer memory: primary and secondary.
Primary Memory
Primary Memory is also known as internal memory or main memory.
As soon as the computer is switched off, the contents of the primary memoryis
lost. You can store and retrieve data much faster with primary memory
compared to secondary memory. Primary memory is more expensive than
secondary memory. When the computer is doing any job, the data that have tobe
processed are stored in the primary memory. This data may come from aninput
device like keyboard or from a secondary storage device like a floppy disk,
memory card or pen drive etc.,.
The primary memory itself is implemented by two types of memory
technologies. The first is called Random Access Memory (RAM) and the otheris
read only memory (ROM). A more appropriate name for RAM is RWM(Read
Write Memory), the CPU can write and read information fromany primarymemory
location implemented using RAM. The other part of primary memory is
implemented using ROM which stands for Read Only Memory.
(a) Random Access Memory (RAM) : The primary storage is referredto
as Random Access Memory (RAM) because it is possible to randomly selectand
use any location of the memory directly to store and retrieve data. It takessame
time to any address of the memory as the first address. It is also called
read/write memory. The storage ofdata and instructions inside the primary storageis
temporary. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer is
switched off. The memories, which loose their content on failure ofpower supply,are
known as volatile memories. So now we can say that RAM is volatile memory.
(a) Read Only Memory (ROM) : There is another memory in computer,which is
called Read Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PCthat form the
ROM. The storage of program and data in the ROM is permanent. The ROM
stores some standard processing programs supplied by the manufacturers to
operate the personal computer. The ROM can only be read by the CPU but it
cannot be changed. The basic input/output program is stored in the ROM that
examines and initializes various equipment attached to the PCwhen the switch is
 turned ON. The memories, which do not lose their contenton failure of power
supply, are known as non-volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory.
(b) PROM : There is another type of primary memory in computer, whichis called
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is notpossible to
modify or erase programs stored in ROM, but it is possible for youto store your
program in PROM chip. Once the programs are written it cannotbe changed and
remain intact even if power is switched off. Therefore, programs or instructions
written in PROM or ROM cannot be erased or changed.
(c) EPROM : This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which
overcome the problem of PROM and ROM. EPROM chip can be
programmed time and again by erasing the information stored earlier in it.
Information stored in EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light.
This memory can be reprogrammed using a special programming facility. Whenthe
EPROM is in use, information can only be read.
(d) EAPROM : This stands for ElectricallyAlterable Programmable Read Only
Memory. This concept is same as that of EPROM. The only difference isthat the
memory can be altered using electrical signals. The whole of the memoryneed not
be erased.
(e) Cache Memory : The speed of CPU is extremely high compared tothe access
time of main memory. Therefore, the performance of CPU decreases due to the
slow speed of main memory. The decreases the mismatch in operating speed, a
small memory chip is attached between CPU and Main memory whoseaccess time
is very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called CACHE memory.
CACHE memories are accessed much faster than conventional RAM.It is used to
store programs or data currently being executed or temporary data
(b) Registers : The CPU processes data and instruction with high speed.
There is also movement of data between various units of the computer. It is
necessary to transfer the processed data with high speed. So the computer usesa
number of special memory units called registers. They are not part of the main
memory but they store data or information temporarily and pass it on as directedby
the control unit.
Secondary Storage(Auxiliary Memory)
You are now clear that the operating speed of primary memory or main
memory should be as fast as possible to cope up with the CPU speed. These
high-speed storage devices are very expensive and hence the cost per bit of
storage is also very high. Again, the storage capacity of the main memory is also
very limited.
Often it is necessary to store hundreds of millions of bytes of data for the
CPU to process. Therefore, additional memory is required in all the computer
systems. This memory is called auxiliary memory or secondary storage.
In this type of memory the cost per bit of storage is low. However, the
operating speed is slower than that of the primary memory. Huge volume of
data are stored here on permanent basis and transferred to the primary storageas
and when required. Most widelyused secondary storage devices are magnetictapes,
magnetic disks and floppy disks, Compact disks and Pen drives etc.,
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tapes are used for large computers like mainframe computers
where large volume of data is stored for a longer time. In PCs also you can use
tapes in the form of cassettes. The cost of storing data in tapes is inexpensive.
Tapes consist of magnetic materials that store data permanently. It can be 12.5mm
to 25 mm wide plastic film-type and 500 meter to 1200 meter long which iscoated
with magnetic material. The deck is connected to the central processor and
information is fed into or read from the tape through the processor. It issimilar
to cassette tape recorder.
Advantages of Magnetic Tape
Compact : A 10-inch diameter reel of tape is 2400 feet long and is able to
hold 800, 1600 or 6250 characters in each inch of its length. The maximum
capacity of such type is 180 million characters. Thus data are stored much more
compact on tape
Economical : The cost of storing characters on tape is veryless as comparedto
other storage devices.
Fast : Copying of data is easier and fast.
Long term Storage and Re-usability : Magnetic tapes can be used forlong
term storage and a tape can be used repeatedly with out loss of data.
Magnetic disk
You might have seen the gramophone record, which is circular like a diskand
coated with magnetic material. Magnetic disks used in computer are madeon the
same principle. It rotates with very high speed inside the disk drive. Dataare stored
on both the surface of the disk. Magnetic disks are most popular fordirect access
storage. Each disk consists of a number of invisible concentric circles called
tracks. Information is recorded on tracks of a disk surface in the form of tiny
magnetic sports. The presence of a magnetic sport represents onebit (1) and its
absence represents zero bit (0). The information stored in a disk can be read
manytimes without affecting the stored data. So the reading operation is non-
destructive. But if you want to write a new data, then the existing data iserased
from the disk and new data is recorded.
Floppy disk
It is similar to magnetic disk discussed above. It is 3.5 inch in diameter. The
capacity of a 3.5 inch floppy is 1.44 mega bytes. It is cheaper than any other
storage devices and is portable. The floppy is a low cost device particularly
suitable for personal computer system.
Optical Disk
With every application and software there is greater demand for memory
capacity. It is the necessity to store large volume of data that has led to the
development ofoptical disk storage medium. Optical disks can be divided intothe
following categories.
 (i) Compact Disk/Read Only Memory (CD-ROM): CD-ROM disksare
made of reflective metals. CD-ROM is written during the process of
manufacturing by high power laser beam. Here the storage density is very high,
storage cost is very low and access time is relatively fast. Eachdisk is
approximately 4 1/2 inches in diameter and can hold over 600 MB of data. Asthe
CD-ROM can be read only we cannot write or make changes into the data
contained in it.
(ii) Write Once Read Many (WORM): The inconvenience that we cannot
write any thing in to a CD-ROM is avoided in WORM. AWORM allowstheuser to
write data permanently on the disk. Once the data is written it can neverbe erased
without physically damaging the disk. Here data can be recorded from
keyboard, video scanner, OCR equipment and other devices. The advantage of
WORM is that it can store vast amount of data amounting to gigabytes. Any
document in a WORM can be accessed very fast.
(iii) Erasable Optical Disk : These are optical disks where data can be
written, erased and re-written. This also applies a laser beam to write and re-
write the data. These disks may be used as alternatives to traditional disks.
Erasable optical disks are based on a technology known as magnetic optical
(MO). To write a data bit on the erasable optical disk the MO drive’s laser
beam heats a tiny, precisely defined point on the disk’s surface and magnetizesit.
Flash drive: Flash drives have many names — jump drives, thumb drives,pen
drives, and USB keychain drives. Regardless of what you call them, they allrefer to
the same thing, which is a small data storage device that uses flashmemory
and has a built-in USB connection.
Flash drives are typically no more than two to three inches in length andless
than an inch in width. Their size and shape may resemble a thumb or a smallpen
(which is where the names “thumb drive” and “pen drive” come from).
Flash drives are also very thin, often having a depth of less than a centimeter.
Because of their small form factor, they are highly portable and can easily fit in a
pocket or on a keychain (hence the name “keychain drive”).
Nowadays flash drives can store several gigabytes of information. Since
they are small in size but have large storage capacities, flash drives have replaced
most previous portable data storage mediums such as floppy disks and removable
hard disks like Zip disks. Because they have a built-in USB connection, flash
drives also don’t require a special disk drive to be used. Instead, they can be
used on any computer with a USB port, which nearly all modern computers
have. Below is the diagram of a pen drive
 Language/software
Introduction
In the previous lessons we discussed about the different parts and
configurations of computer. It has been mentioned that programs or instructions
have to be fed to the computer to do specific task. So it is necessary to provide
sequence of instructions so that your work can be done. We can divide the
computer components into two major areas, namely, hardware and software.
Hardware is the machine itself and its various individual equipment. It includes
allmechanical, electronic and magnetic devices such asmonitor, printer, electronic
circuit, floppy and hard disk. The physical parts, which you can see and touch,are
collectively called hardware. Software, on the other hand, refers to the
instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to do. In this lesson wewill
discuss about the other part, namely, software.
What is Software ?
As you know computer cannot do anything without instructions from the
user. In order to do any specific job you have to give a sequence of instructionsto
the computer. This set of instructions is called a computer program. Softwarerefers
to the set of computer programs, procedures that describe the programs
how they are to be used. We can say that it is the collection of programs, which
increase the capabilities of the hardware. Software guides the computer at every
step where to start and stop during a particular job. The process of software
development is called programming.
You should keep in mind that software and hardware are complementaryto
each other. Both have to work together to produce meaningful result. Another
important point you should know that producing software is difficult and
expensive.
Software Types
Computer software is normally classified into two broad categories.
· Application Software
· System software
Application Software: Application Software is a set of programs to carryout
operations for a specific application. For example, payroll is an application
software for an organization to produce pay slips as an output. Application
software is useful for word processing, billing system, accounting, producing
statistical report, analysis of numerous data in research, weather forecasting,etc.
In later modules you will learn about MS WORD, Excel, Power Point, etc. All
these are application softwares.
Another example of application software is programming language. Amongthe
programming languages COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) is
more suitable for business application whereas FORTRAN (Formula
Translation) is useful for scientific application. We will discuss about languagesin
next section.
 System Software: You know that an instruction is a set of programs thathas
to be fed to the computer for operation of computer system as a whole.When
you switch on the computer the programs written in ROM is executed which
activates different units of your computer and makes it ready for you towork on it.
This set of program can be called system software. Therefore systemsoftware may
be defined as a set of one or more programs designed to controlthe operation of
computer system.
System software are general programs designed for performing tasks suchas
controlling alloperations required to move data into and out of the computer. It
communicates with printers, card reader, disk, tapes etc. monitor the use of
various hardware like memory, CPU etc. Also system software are essential forthe
development of applications software. System Software allows application
packages to be run on the computer with less time and effort. Remember that
it is not possible to run application software without system software.
Development of system software is a complex task and it requires extensive
knowledge of computer technology. Due to its complexity it is not developed in
house. Computer manufactures build and supply this system software with the
computer system. DOS, UNIX and WINDOWS are some of the widely used
system software. Out of these UNIX and Windows-NT are multi-user operating
systems whereas DOS and WINDOWS are single-user systems.
What is Language ?
You are aware with the term language. It is a system of communication
between you and me. Some of the basic natural languages that we are familiar
with are English, Hindi, Oriya etc. These are the languages used to communicate
among various categories of persons. But how you will communicate with your
computer. Your computer will not understand any of these natural languages for
transfer of data and instruction. So there are programming languages specially
developed so that you could pass your data and instructions to the computer todo
specific job. You must have heard names like FORTRAN, BASIC, COBOLetc.
These are programming languages. So instructions or programs are written in a
particular language based on the type of job. As an example, for scientific
application FORTRAN and C languages are used. On the other hand COBOLis
used for business applications.
Programming Languages
There are two major types of programming languages. These are Low
Level Languages and High Level Languages. Low Level languages are further
divided in to Machine language and Assembly language.
Low Level Languages
The term low level means closeness to the way in which the machine has
been built. Low level languages are machine oriented and require extensive
knowledge of computer hardware and its configuration.
(a) Machine Language
Machine Language is the only language that is directly understood by the
computer. It does not needs any translator program. We also call it machine
code and it is written as strings of 1’s (one) and 0’s (zero). When this sequenceof
codes is fed to the computer, it recognizes the codes and converts it in to
electrical signals needed to run it. For example, a program instruction may looklike
this:
1011000111101
It is not an easylanguage for you to learnbecause of its difficult to understand.It is
efficient for the computer but very inefficient for programmers. It is consideredto the
first generation language. It is also difficult to debug the program written in this
language.
Advantage
The only advantage is that program of machine language run very fast
because no translation program is required for the CPU.
Disadvantages
1. It is very difficult to programin machine language. The programmer hasto
know details of hardware to write program.
2. The programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a program
which results in program errors.
3. It is difficult to debug the program.
(b) Assembly Language
It is the first step to improve the programming structure. You should knowthat
computer can handle numbers and letter. Therefore some combination ofletters
can be used to substitute for number of machine codes.
The set of symbols and letters forms the Assembly Language and a translator
program is required to translate the Assembly Language to machine language.
This translator program is called ‘Assembler’. It is considered to be a second-
generation language.
Advantages
1. The symbolic programming ofAssembly Language is easier to understand
and saves a lot of time and effort of the programmer.
2. It is easier to correct errors and modify program instructions.
3. Assembly Language has the same efficiency of execution as the machine
level language. Because this is one-to-one translator between assembly language
program and its corresponding machine language program.
Disadvantages:
1. One of the major disadvantages is that assembly language is machine
dependent. Aprogram written for one computer might not runin other
computerswith different hardware configuration.
High Level Languages
You know that assembly language and machine level language require deep
knowledge of computer hardware where as in higher language you have to
know onlythe instructions in English words and logic of the problem irrespectiveof
the type of computer you are using.
Higher level languages are simple languages that use English and
mathematical symbols like +, -, %, / etc. for its program construction.
You should know that any higher level language has to be converted to
machine language for the computer to understand.
Higher level languages are problem-oriented languages because the
instructions are suitable for solving a particular problem. For example COBOL
(COmmon Business Oriented Language) is mostlysuitable for business oriented
language where there is very little processing and huge output. There are
mathematical oriented languages like FORTRAN (Formula Translation) and
BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) where very large
processing is required.
Thus a problem oriented language designed in such a waythat its instruction
may be written more like the language of the problem. For example, businessmenuse
business term and scientists use scientific terms in their respective languages.
Advantages of High Level Languages
Higher level languages have a major advantage over machine and assembly
languages that higher level languages are easy to learn and use. It is because that
they are similar to the languages used by us in our day to day life.
Compiler
It is a program translator that translates the instruction of a higher level
language to machine language. It is called compiler because it compiles machine
language instructions for every program instructions of higher level language.
Thus compiler is a program translator like assembler but more sophisticated. It
scans the entire program first and then translates it into machine code.
The programs written by the programmer in higher level language is called
source program. After this program is converted to machine languages by the
compiler it is called object program.
A compiler can translate only those source programs, which have been
written, in that language for which the compiler is meant for. For example
FORTRAN compiler will not compile source code written in COBOLlanguage
Object program generated by compiler is machine dependent. It means
programs compiled for one type ofmachine will not run in another type. Therefore
every type of machine must have its personal compiler for a particular language.
Machine independence is achieved by using one higher level language in different
machines.
Interpreter
An interpreter is another type of program translator used for translating
higher level language into machine language. It takes one statement of higher
level languages, translate it into machine language and immediately execute it.
Translation and execution are carried out for each statement. It differs from
compiler, which translate the entire source program into machine code and does
involve in its execution.
The advantage of interpreter compared to compiler is its fast response to
changes in source program. It eliminates the need for a separate compilation
after changes to each program. Interpreters are easy to write and do not require
large memory in computer. The disadvantage of interpreter is that it is time
consuming method because each time a statement in a program is executed thenit is
first translated. Thus compiled machine language program runs much fasterthan an
interpreted program.