CHAPTER 6

Motion in Two Dimensions

You can use vectors and Newton’s laws to describe projectile motion and circular motion.

SECTIONS
1 Projectile Motion
2 Circular Motion
3 Relative Velocity

LaunchLAB iLab Station

PROJECTILE MOTION
What does the path of a projectile,
such as a ball that is thrown, look like?

WATCH THIS! Video

PROJECTILE PHYSICS
Have you ever seen a catapult or trebuchet in action?
Discover the physics of launching projectiles!
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 Go online!
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Chapter 6 • Motion in Two Dimensions 151

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 SECTION 1 Projectile Motion
PHYSICS When you throw a softball or a football, it travels in an arc.
These tossed balls are projectiles. The word projectile comes

4 YOU from the Latin prefix pro–, meaning “forward”, and the Latin
root ject meaning “to throw.”

MAIN IDEA
Path of a Projectile
A projectile’s horizontal A hopping frog, a tossed snowball, and an arrow shot from a bow all
motion is independent of its move along similar paths. Each path rises and then falls, always curving
vertical motion. downward along a parabolic path. An object shot through the air is
called a projectile. You can draw a free-body diagram of a launched
projectile and identify the forces acting on it. If you ignore air resistance,
Essential Questions
after an initial force launches a projectile, the only force on it as it moves
• How are the vertical and horizontal
motions of a projectile related? through the air is gravity. Gravity causes the object to curve downward.
Its path through space is called its trajectory. You can determine a
• What are the relationships between a
projectile’s trajectory if you know its initial velocity. In this chapter, you
projectile’s height, time in the air,
initial velocity, and horizontal distance
will study two types of projectile motion. The top of Figure 1 shows water
traveled? that is launched as a projectile horizontally. The bottom of the figure
shows water launched as a projectile at an angle. In both cases, gravity
Review Vocabulary curves the path downward along a parabolic path.
motion diagram a series of images
showing the positions of a moving object Figure 1 A projectile launched horizontally immediately curves downward, but if it is launched
taken at regular time intervals upward at an angle, it rises and then falls, always curving downward.

New Vocabulary
projectile
trajectory

(t)Visual Ideas/Camilo Morales/Blend Images/Getty Images, (c b)Richard Hutchings/Digital Light Source

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 Independence of Motion
in Two Dimensions
Think about two softball players warming up for a
game, tossing high fly balls back and forth. What does
the path of the ball through the air look like? Because
the ball is a projectile, it has a parabolic path. Imagine
you are standing directly behind one of the players
and you are watching the softball as it is being tossed.
What would the motion of the ball look like? You
would see it go up and back down, just like any object
that is tossed straight up in the air. If you were watch-
ing the softball from a hot-air balloon high above the
field, what motion would you see then? You would see
the ball move from one player to the other at a con-
stant speed, just like any object that is given an initial
horizontal velocity, such as a hockey puck sliding
across ice. The motion of projectiles is a combination
of these two motions.
Why do projectiles behave in this way? After a
softball leaves a player’s hand, what forces are exerted
on the ball? If you ignore air resistance, there are no
contact forces on the ball. There is only the field force
of gravity in the downward direction. How does this
affect the ball’s motion? Gravity causes the ball to
have a downward acceleration. Figure 2 The ball on the left was dropped with no initial velocity. The
Comparing motion diagrams The trajectories ball on the right was given an initial horizontal velocity. The balls have
the same vertical motion as they fall.
of two balls are shown in Figure 2. The red ball was
dropped, and the purple ball was given an initial Identify What is the vertical velocity of the balls after falling for 1 s?
horizontal velocity of 2.0 m/s. What is similar about
the two paths? Look at their vertical positions. The
Investigate a soccer kick.
horizontal lines indicate the equal vertical distances.
At each moment that a picture was taken, the heights Virtual Investigation
of the two balls were the same. Because the change in
vertical position was the same for both, their average
vertical velocities during each interval were also the
same. The increasingly large distance traveled verti-
cally by the balls, from one time interval to the next,
shows that they were accelerating downward due to
the force of gravity.
Notice that the horizontal motion of the launched MiniLABs
ball does not affect its vertical motion. A projectile OVER THE EDGE
launched horizontally has initial horizontal velocity, Does mass affect the motion of a projectile?
Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs, NYC

but it has no initial vertical velocity. Therefore, its

vertical motion is like that of an object dropped from PROJECTILE PATH
rest. Just like the red ball, the purple ball has a down- Are the horizontal and vertical motions of a
ward velocity that increases regularly because of the projectile related?
acceleration due to gravity.
iLab Station

READING CHECK Explain why a dropped object has the

same vertical velocity as an object launched horizontally.

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 n Vectors In Two Dimensions

Begin Begin
vx
ax = 0

ay
vy +y

+x

Figure 3 To describe the motion of a

horizontally launched projectile, the x- and
y-components can be treated independently.
Horizontally Launched Projectiles
The resultant vectors of the projectile are Imagine a person standing near the edge of a cliff and kicking a
tangent to a parabola. pebble horizontally. Like all horizontally launched projectiles, the
Decide What is the value of ay? pebble will have an initial horizontal velocity, but it will not have an
initial vertical velocity. What will happen to the pebble as it falls from
the cliff?
Separate motion diagrams Recall that the horizontal motion
of a projectile does not affect its vertical motion. It is therefore easier to
analyze the horizontal motion and the vertical motion separately.
Separate motion diagrams for the x-components and y-components of a
horizontally launched projectile, such as a pebble kicked off a cliff, are
shown on the left in Figure 3.

PhysicsLABs Horizontal motion Notice the horizontal vectors in the diagram on the
left. Each of the velocity vectors is the same length, which indicates that
LAUNCH AN the object’s velocity is not changing. The pebble is not accelerating
INVESTIGATION horizontally. This constant velocity in the horizontal direction is exactly
FORENSICS LAB How can physics what should be expected, because after the initial kick, there is no
reconstruct a projectile’s launch?
horizontal force acting on the pebble. (In reality, the pebble’s speed
would decrease slightly because of air resistance, but remember that we
ON TARGET are ignoring air resistance in this chapter.)
DESIGN YOUR OWN LAB What
factors affect projectile motion? READING CHECK Explain why the horizontal motion of a projectile is
constant.
iLab Station

Vertical motion Now look at the vertical velocity vectors in the diagram
on the left. Each velocity vector has a slightly longer length than the one
above it. The changing length shows that the object’s velocity is increas-
ing and accelerating downward. Again, this is what should be expected,
because in this case the force of gravity is acting on the pebble.
Parabolic path When the x- and y-components of the object’s motion
are treated independently, each path is a straight line. The diagram on
the right in Figure 3 shows the actual parabolic path. The horizontal and
vertical components at each moment are added to form the total velocity
vector at that moment. You can see how the combination of constant
horizontal velocity and uniform vertical acceleration produces a trajec-
tory that has a parabolic shape.

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 PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES
MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS
When solving projectile problems, use the following strategies.
1. Draw a motion diagram with vectors for the projectile at its initial position and its final position.
If the projectile is launched at an angle, also show its maximum height and the initial angle.
2. Consider vertical and horizontal motion independently. List known and unknown variables.
Motion Equations
3. For horizontal motion, the acceleration is ax = 0.0 m/s2. If the projectile is launched at an angle,
its initial vertical velocity and its vertical velocity when it falls back to that same height have the Horizontal (constant
same magnitude but different direction: vyi = -vy f. speed)
x f = v tf + x i
4. For vertical motion, ay = -9.8 m/s2 (if you choose up as positive). If the projectile is launched
at an angle, its vertical velocity at its highest point is zero: vy, max = 0. Vertical (constant
acceleration)
5. Choose the motion equations that will enable you to find the unknown variables.
Apply them to vertical and horizontal motion separately. Remember that time is the same v f = v i + a tf
for horizontal and vertical motion. Solving for time in one of the dimensions identifies the x f = x i + vitf + _1 atf2
2
time for the other dimension. vf2 = vi2 + 2a(xf – xi)
6. Sometimes it is useful to apply the motion equations to part of the projectile’s path. You can
choose any initial and final points to use in the equations.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1 Find help with square roots. Math Handbook

EXAMPLE PR
A SLIDING PLATE You are preparing breakfast and slide a plate on the countertop.
Unfortunately, you slide it too fast, and it flies off the end of the countertop. If the
countertop is 1.05 m above the floor and it leaves the top at 0.74 m/s, how long
does it take to fall, and how far from the end of the counter does it land?

1 ANALYZE AND SKETCH THE PROBLEM

Draw horizontal and vertical motion diagrams. Choose the coordinate system
so that the origin is at the top of the countertop. Choose the positive x direction

ROBLEM
in the direction of horizontal velocity and the positive y direction up.

KNOWN UNKNOWN Begin

vx
xi = yi = 0 m ax = 0 m/s2 t=?
ax = 0
vxi = 0.75 m/s ay = -9.8 m/s2 xf = ?
vyi = 0 m/s yf = -1.05 m
ay +y
2 SOLVE FOR THE UNKNOWN vy
Use the equation of motion in the y direction to find the time of fall. +x
yf = yi + _
1
ay t2
2

2(yf - yi )
√ a_
▼

t= Rearrange the equation to solve for time.

y


2(-1.05 m - 0 m)
= √__ = 0.46 s Substitute y f = -1.05 m, y i = 0 m, ay = -9.8 m/s2 .
▼

-9.8 m/s 2

Use the equation of motion in the x direction to find where the plate hits the floor.
xf = vxt = (0.74 m/s to the right)(0.46 s) = 0.34 m to the right of the counter

3 EVALUATE THE ANSWER

• Are the units correct? Time is measured in seconds. Position in measured in meters.
• Do the signs make sense? Both are positive. The position sign agrees with the
coordinate choice.
• Are the magnitudes realistic? A fall of about a meter takes about 0.5 s. During this
time, the horizontal displacement of the plate would be about 0.5 s × 0.74 m/s.

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 PRACTICE PROBLEMS Do additional problems. Online Practice
CE PROBLEMS
S
1. You throw a stone horizontally at a speed of 5.0 m/s from the top of a cliff that is
78.4 m high.
a. How long does it take the stone to reach the bottom of the cliff?
b. How far from the base of the cliff does the stone hit the ground?
c. What are the horizontal and vertical components of the stone’s velocity just before
it hits the ground?
2. Lucy and her friend are working at an assembly plant making wooden toy giraffes. At the
end of the line, the giraffes go horizontally off the edge of a conveyor belt and fall into a
PRACTIC

box below. If the box is 0.60 m below the level of the conveyor belt and 0.40 m away from
it, what must be the horizontal velocity of giraffes as they leave the conveyor belt?
3. CHALLENGE You are visiting a friend from elementary school who now lives in a small
town. One local amusement is the ice-cream parlor, where Stan, the short-order
cook, slides his completed ice-cream sundaes down the counter at a constant speed
of 2.0 m/s to the servers. (The counter is kept very well polished for this purpose.) If
the servers catch the sundaes 7.0 cm from the edge of the counter, how far do they
fall from the edge of the counter to the point at which the servers catch them?

Figure 4 When a projectile is launched at an upward angle, its para-

Angled Launches
bolic path is upward and then downward. The up-and-down motion is When a projectile is launched at an angle, the initial
clearly represented in the vertical component of the vector diagram. velocity has a vertical component as well as a horizontal
component. If the object is launched upward, like a ball
n Vertical and Horizontal Components
tossed straight up in the air, it rises with slowing speed,
reaches the top of its path where its speed is momentarily
vx
ax = 0
zero, and descends with increasing speed.
Separate motion diagrams The upper diagram
ay of Figure 4 shows the separate vertical- and horizontal-
vy motion diagrams for the trajectory. In the coordinate
+y system, the x-axis is horizontal and the y-axis is
vertical. Note the symmetry. At each point in the
+x
vertical direction, the velocity of the object as it is
moving upward has the same magnitude as when it
is moving downward. The only difference is that the
directions of the two velocities are opposite. When
solving problems, it is sometimes useful to consider
symmetry to determine unknown quantities.
n Parabolic Trajectory
Parabolic path The lower diagram of Figure 4
defines two quantities associated with the trajectory.
One is the maximum height, which is the height of
ay the projectile when the vertical velocity is zero and
the projectile has only its horizontal-velocity compo-
Maximum
nent. The other quantity depicted is the range (R),
height which is the horizontal distance the projectile travels
when the initial and final heights are the same. Not
θ° shown is the flight time, which is how much time the
Begin projectile is in the air. For football punts, flight time
often is called hang time.
Range READING CHECK At what point of a projectile’s trajectory
is its vertical velocity zero?

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 EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2 Get help with the flight of a ball. Personal Tutor

EXAMPLE PR
THE FLIGHT OF A BALL A ball is launched at 4.5 m/s at 66° above the horizontal. It starts
and lands at the same distance from the ground. What are the maximum height above its
launch level and the flight time of the ball? +y
1 ANALYZE AND SKETCH THE PROBLEM
• Establish a coordinate system with the initial position of the ball at the origin. y max
• Show the positions of the ball at the beginning, at the maximum
height, and at the end of the flight. Show the direction of Fnet. vi

ROBLEM
• Draw a motion diagram showing v and a.
+x
KNOWN UNKNOWN Begin R
yi = 0.0 m θ i = 66° vy, max = 0.0 m ymax = ?
vi = 4.5 m/s ay = -9.8 m/s2 t=? v
v yi vi a
2 SOLVE FOR THE UNKNOWN
Find the y-component of vi. g = net
v xi
vyi = vi(sin θ i)
Substitute v i = 4.5 m/s, θ i = 66°.
▼

= (4.5 m/s)(sin 66°) = 4.1 m/s

Use symmetry to find the y-component of vf.
vyf = -vyi = -4.1 m/s
Solve for the maximum height.
vy, max2 = vyi2 + 2ay(ymax - yi)
(0.0 m/s)2 = vyi2 + 2ay(ymax - 0.0 m)
vyi2
ymax = - _
2ay
2
= -__
(4.1 m/s) Substitute vyi = 4.1 m/s; ay = -9.8 m/s2 .
▼

2
= 0.86 m
2(-9.8 m/s )
Solve for the time to return to the launching height.
vyf = vyi + ayt
vyf - vyi
t= _ a y

= __
-4.1 m/s - 4.1 m/s
Substitute vyf = -4.1 m/s; vyi = 4.1 m/s; ay = -9.8 m/s2 .
▼

2
= 0.84 s
-9.8 m/s

3 EVALUATE THE ANSWER

Are the magnitudes realistic? For an object that rises less than 1 m, a time of less than
1 s is reasonable.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS Do additional problems. Online Practice

4. A player kicks a football from ground level with

an initial velocity of 27.0 m/s, 30.0° above the
Trajectory
horizontal, as shown in Figure 5. Find each of 60.0°
the following. Assume that forces from the air
y

on the ball are negligible.

a. the ball’s hang time 30.0°
b. the ball’s maximum height x
c. the horizontal distance the ball travels before
hitting the ground
Figure 5

5. The player in the previous problem then kicks the 6. CHALLENGE A rock is thrown from a 50.0-m-high
ball with the same speed but at 60.0° from the cliff with an initial velocity of 7.0 m/s at an angle
horizontal. What is the ball’s hang time, horizon- of 53.0° above the horizontal. Find its velocity
tal distance traveled, and maximum height? when it hits the ground below.

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 Figure 6 Forces from air can increase or decrease the velocity
of a moving object.
Forces from Air
The effect of forces due to air has been ignored so
No Effect from Air far in this chapter, but think about why a kite stays in
the air or why a parachute helps a skydiver fall safely
to the ground. Forces from the air can significantly
change the motion of an object.
What happens if there is wind? Moving air can
change the motion of a projectile. Consider the three
cases shown in Figure 6. In the top photo, water is
flowing from the hose pipe with almost no effect
from air. In the middle photo, wind is blowing in the
same direction as the water’s initial movement. The
path of the water changes because the air exerts a
Force of Air that Increases Velocity force on the water in the same direction as its motion.
The horizontal distance the water travels increases
because the force increases the water’s horizontal
speed. The direction of the wind changes in the
bottom photo. The horizontal distance the water
travels decreases because the air exerts a force in the
direction opposite the water’s motion.
What if the direction of wind is at an angle relative
to a moving object? The horizontal component of the
wind affects only the horizontal motion of an object.
The vertical component of the wind affects only the
vertical motion of the object. In the case of the water,
Force of Air that Decreases Velocity for example, a strong updraft could decrease the
downward speed of the water.
The effects shown in Figure 6 occur because the air
is moving enough to significantly change the motion
of the water. Even air that is not moving, however, can
have a significant effect on some moving objects. A
piece of paper held horizontally and dropped, for
example, falls slowly because of air resistance. The air
resistance increases as the surface area of the object
that faces the moving air increases.

SECTION 1 REVIEW Section Self-Check Check your understanding.

7. MAI
MAINN IDEA Two baseballs are pitched horizontally from 10. Projectile Motion A softball
the same height but at different speeds. The faster ball player tosses a ball into the 50º
crosses home plate within the strike zone, but the air with an initial velocity of
slower ball is below the batter’s knees. Why do the 11.0 m/s, as shown in
balls pass the batter at different heights? Figure 7. What will be the
ball’s maximum height?
8. Free-Body Diagram An ice cube slides without friction
Richard Hutchings/Digital Light Source

across a table at a constant velocity. It slides off the

11. Critical Thinking Suppose
table and lands on the floor. Draw free-body and
an object is thrown with the
motion diagrams of the ice cube at two points on the Figure 7
same initial velocity and
table and at two points in the air.
direction on Earth and on
9. Projectile Motion A tennis ball is thrown out a window the Moon, where the acceleration
28 m above the ground at an initial velocity of 15.0 m/s due to gravity is one-sixth its value on Earth. How
and 20.0° below the horizontal. How far does the ball will vertical velocity, time of flight, maximum height,
move horizontally before it hits the ground? and horizontal distance change?

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 SECTION 2 Circular Motion
PHYSICS Many amusement park and carnival rides spin. When the
ride is spinning, forces from the walls or sides of the ride

4 YOU keep the riders moving in a circular path.

Describing Circular Motion

Consider an object moving in a circle at a constant speed, such as a
stone being whirled on the end of a string or a fixed horse on a carousel.
Are these objects accelerating? At first, you might think they are not
because their speeds do not change. But remember that acceleration is
related to the change in velocity, not just the change in speed. Because
their directions are changing, the objects must be accelerating.
MAIN IDEA
Uniform circular motion is the movement of an object at a con-
An object in circular motion has an
acceleration toward the circle's center stant speed around a circle with a fixed radius. The position of an object
due to an unbalanced force toward the in uniform circular motion, relative to the center of the circle, is given by
circle's center. the position vector r. Remember that a position vector is a displacement
vector with its tail at the origin. Two position vectors, r1 and r2, at the
Essential Questions beginning and end of a time interval are shown on the left in Figure 8. As
the object moves around the circle, the length of the position vector does
• Why is an object moving in a circle at a
constant speed accelerating? not change, but its direction does. The diagram also shows two instanta-
neous velocity vectors. Notice that each velocity vector is tangent to the
• How does centripetal acceleration
circular path, at a right angle to the corresponding position vector.
depend upon the object’s speed and
the radius of the circle? To determine the object’s velocity, you first need to find its displace-
ment vector over a time interval. You know that a moving object’s
average velocity is defined as _
• What causes centripetal acceleration? Δx
, so for an object in circular motion,
Δt
−v = _Δr
Review Vocabulary Δt
. The right side of Figure 8 shows Δr drawn as the displacement
average velocity the change in position from r1 to r2 during a time interval. The velocity for this time interval
divided by the time during which the has the same direction as the displacement, but its length would be
change occurred; the slope of an different because it is divided by Δt.
object's position-time graph

New Vocabulary Position and Velocity Vectors Displacement Vector

uniform circular motion v1
centripetal acceleration
centripetal force r1
Δr
v2 r1
r2

r2
Andrew Holt/Photographer's Choice/Getty Images

Figure 8 For an object in uniform circular motion, the velocity is tangent to the circle. It is
in the same direction as the displacement.
Analyze How can you tell from the diagram that the motion is uniform?

View an animation of circular motion and centripetal acceleration.

Concepts In Motion

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 Velocity Vectors
Centripetal Acceleration
You have read that a velocity vector of an object in uniform circular
v1
motion is tangent to the circle. What is the direction of the acceleration?
v2 Figure 9 shows the velocity vectors v1 and v2 at the beginning and end of
a time interval. The difference in the two vectors (Δv) is found by sub-
r1 r2
tracting the vectors, as shown at the bottom of the figure. The average
acceleration −a=_( Δv
)
for this time interval is in the same direction as
a Δt
Δv. For a very small time interval, Δv is so small that a points toward the
center of the circle.
a Repeat this process for several other time intervals when the object is
in different locations on the circle. As the object moves around the
a
circle, the direction of the acceleration vector changes, but it always
points toward the center of the circle. For this reason, the acceleration
of an object in uniform circular motion is called center-seeking or
centripetal acceleration.
v1
Magnitude of acceleration What is the magnitude of an object’s
Δv centripetal acceleration? Look at the starting points of the velocity
v2
vectors in the top of Figure 9. Notice the triangle the position vectors at
those points make with the center of the circle. An identical triangle is
Figure 9 The acceleration of an object in formed by the velocity vectors in the bottom of Figure 9. The angle
uniform circular motion is the change in between r1 and r2 is the same as that between v1 and v2. Therefore,
velocity divided by the time interval. The
similar triangles are formed by subtracting the two sets of vectors, and
direction of centripetal acceleration is always
toward the center of the circle. the ratios of the lengths of two corresponding sides are equal. Thus,
_
Δr _
Δv
r = v . The equation is not changed if both sides are divided by Δt.
_
Δr
=_
Δv
rΔt vΔt
But, v = _
Δr
and a = _
Δv
.
Δt Δt
(_1r )(_
Δt ) ( v )( Δt )
Δr
= _1 _ Δv

Substituting v = _
Δr
in the left-hand side and a = _
Δv
in the right-hand
Δt Δt
side gives the following equation:
_v = _a .
r v
Solve for acceleration, and use the symbol ac for centripetal acceleration.

CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION
Centripetal acceleration always points to the center of the circle. Its magnitude is
equal to the square of the speed divided by the radius of motion.
v2
ac = _
r
Period of revolution One way to describe the speed of an object
moving in a circle is to measure its period (T), the time needed for the
object to make one complete revolution. During this time, the object
travels a distance equal to the circumference of the circle (2πr). The
speed, then, is represented by v = _2πr
. If you substitute for v in the
T
equation for centripetal acceleration, you obtain the following equation:
(2πr/T) 2 _
_ 2
ac = = 4π r .
r T2

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 Figure 10 As the hammer thrower swings
the ball around, tension in the chain is the
force that causes the ball to have an inward
acceleration.
Predict Neglecting air resistance, how
would the horizontal acceleration and veloc-
ity of the hammer change if the thrower
released the chain?

Centripetal force Because the acceleration of an object moving in a

circle is always in the direction of the net force acting on it, there must
be a net force toward the center of the circle. This force can be provided
by any number of agents. For Earth circling the Sun, the force is the Sun’s
gravitational force on Earth. When a hammer thrower swings the ham-
mer, as in Figure 10, the force is the tension in the chain attached to the
PhysicsLAB
massive ball. When an object moves in a circle, the net force toward the CENTRIPETAL FORCE
center of the circle is called the centripetal force. To accurately analyze What keeps an object moving when
you swing it in a circle?
centripetal acceleration situations, you must identify the agent of the
force that causes the acceleration. Then you can apply Newton’s second iLab Station
law for the component in the direction of the acceleration in the
following way.

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW FOR CIRCULAR MOTION

The net centripetal force on an object moving in a circle is equal to the object’s
mass times the centripetal acceleration.

Fnet = mac
Direction of acceleration When solving problems, you have found
it useful to choose a coordinate system with one axis in the direction of
the acceleration. For circular motion, the direction of the acceleration is
always toward the center of the circle. Rather than labeling this axis x or
y, call it c, for centripetal acceleration. The other axis is in the direction
of the velocity, tangent to the circle. It is labeled tang for tangential. You
will apply Newton’s second law in these directions, just as you did in the
two-dimensional problems you have solved before. Remember that
centripetal force is just another name for the net force in the centripetal
direction. It is the sum of all the real forces, those for which you can
identify agents that act along the centripetal axis.
PETER PARKS/AFP/Getty Images

In the case of the hammer thrower in Figure 10, in what direction does
the hammer fly when the chain is released? Once the contact force of the
chain is gone, there is no force accelerating the hammer toward the
center of the circle, so the hammer flies off in the direction of its veloc-
ity, which is tangent to the circle. Remember, if you cannot identify the
agent of a force, then it does not exist.

Section 2 • Circular Motion 161

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 EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3 Find help with significant figures. Math Handbook
EXAMPLLE PROBLEM
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION A 13-g rubber stopper is attached to a 0.93-m
string. The stopper is swung in a horizontal circle, making one revolution in 1.18 s.
Find the magnitude of the tension force exerted by the string on the stopper.

1 ANALYZE AND SKETCH THE PROBLEM

• Draw a free-body diagram for the swinging stopper.
• Include the radius and the direction of motion.
r
• Establish a coordinate system labeled tang and c. The directions m
of ac and FT are parallel to c.

KNOWN UNKNOWN
m = 13 g FT = ?
r = 0.93 m
T = 1.18 s FT
V2 + tang
2 SOLVE FOR THE UNKNOWN a
V1 +C
Find the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration.
4π2r
ac = _ 2
T
4π2(0.93 m)
=_
▼

Substitute r = 0.93 m, T = 1.18 s.

(1.18 s)2

= 26 m/s2

Use Newton’s second law to find the magnitude of the tension in the string.
FT = mac
Substitute m = 0.013 kg, ac = 26 m/s2 .
▼

= (0.013 kg)(26 m/s2)

= 0.34 N

3 EVALUATE THE ANSWER

• Are the units correct? Dimensional analysis verifies that ac is in meters per second
squared and FT is in newtons.
• Do the signs make sense? The signs should all be positive.
• Are the magnitudes realistic? The force is almost three times the weight of the stopper,
and the acceleration is almost three times that of gravity, which is reasonable for
such a light object.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS Do additional problems. Online Practice

PRACTICEE PROBLEMS
S

12. A runner moving at a speed of 8.8 m/s rounds a bend

with a radius of 25 m. What is the centripetal accel-
Vworker Worker
eration of the runner, and what agent exerts the
centripetal force on the runner?
Ff
13. An airplane traveling at 201 m/s makes a turn. What is
the smallest radius of the circular path (in kilometers)
the pilot can make and keep the centripetal accelera-
tion under 5.0 m/s2?
14. A 45-kg merry-go-round worker stands on the ride’s Figure 11
platform 6.3 m from the center, as shown in Figure 11.
If her speed (vworker) as she goes around the circle is
16. CHALLENGE A car racing on a flat track travels at
4.1 m/s, what is the force of friction (Ff ) necessary to
22 m/s around a curve with a 56-m radius. Find the
keep her from falling off the platform?
car’s centripetal acceleration. What minimum coef-
15. A 16-g ball at the end of a 1.4-m string is swung in a ficient of static friction between the tires and the road
horizontal circle. It revolves once every 1.09 s. What is is necessary for the car to round the curve without
the magnitude of the string's tension? slipping?

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 Centrifugal “Force”
If a car makes a sharp left turn, a passenger on the
right side might be thrown against the right door. Is Path of
Path of car passenger
there an outward force on the passenger? Consider a without
similar situation. If a car in which you are riding stops car
suddenly, you will be thrown forward into your safety
belt. Is there a forward force on you? No, because
according to Newton’s first law, you will continue
moving with the same velocity unless there is a net
force acting on you. The safety belt applies the force
that accelerates you to a stop.
Figure 12 shows a car turning left as viewed from
above. A passenger in the car would continue to move
straight ahead if it were not for the force of the door
acting in the direction of the acceleration. As the car
goes around the curve, the car and the passenger are
in circular motion, and the passenger experiences
centripetal acceleration. Recall that centripetal accel-
eration is always directed toward the center of the
circle. There is no outward force on the passenger. Figure 12 When a car moves around a curve, a passenger feels
a fictitious centrifugal force directed outward. In fact, the force on
If, however, you think about similar situations that the passenger is the centripetal force, which is directed toward
you have experienced, you know that it feels as if a the center of the circle and is exerted by the seat on which the
force is pushing you outward. The so-called centrifu- person is sitting.
gal, or outward, force is a fictitious, nonexistent force.
You feel as if you are being pushed only because you
are accelerating relative to your surroundings. There is
no real force because there is no agent exerting a force.

SECTION 2 REVIEW Section Self-Check Check your understanding.

17. MAI
MAINN IDEA If you attach a ball to a rope and swing it at 22. Centripetal Force The 40.0-g stone in Figure 13 is
a constant speed in a circle above your head, the ball whirled horizontally at a speed of 2.2 m/s. What is
is in uniform circular motion. In which direction does it the tension in the string?
accelerate? What force causes the acceleration? 0.60 m
18. Uniform Circular Motion What is the direction of the force
that acts on the clothes in the spin cycle of a top-load
washing machine? What exerts the force?
19. Centripetal Acceleration A newspaper article states that Figure 13
when turning a corner, a driver must be careful to
balance the centripetal and centrifugal forces to keep 23. Amusement-Park Ride A ride at an amusement
from skidding. Write a letter to the editor that describes park has people stand around a 4.0-m radius circle
physics errors in this article. with their backs to a wall. The ride then spins them
with a 1.7-s period of revolution. What are the centrip-
20. Free-Body Diagram You are sitting in the back seat of a etal acceleration and velocity of the riders?
car going around a curve to the right. Sketch motion
and free-body diagrams to answer these questions: 24. Centripetal Force A bowling ball has a mass of 7.3 kg.
What force must you exert to move it at a speed of
a. What is the direction of your acceleration?
2.5 m/s around a circle with a radius of 0.75 m?
b. What is the direction of the net force on you?
25. Critical Thinking Because of Earth’s daily rotation,
c. What exerts this force?
you always move with uniform circular motion. What
21. Centripetal Acceleration An object swings in a horizontal is the agent that supplies the force that causes your
circle, supported by a 1.8-m string. It completes a centripetal acceleration? If you are standing on a
revolution in 2.2 s. What is the object's centripetal scale, how does the circular motion affect the scale’s
acceleration? measure of your weight?

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 SECTION
SECTIO
S C ON 3 Relative Velocity
PHYSICS Have you ever noticed that people riding along with you on
an escalator don't seem to be moving, while people going in

4 YOU the opposite direction seem to be moving very fast? These

people may in fact have the same speed relative to the
ground, but their velocities relative to you are very different.

Relative Motion in One Dimension

Suppose you are in a school bus that is traveling at a velocity of 8 m/s
in a positive direction. You walk with a velocity of 1 m/s toward the front
of the bus. If a friend is standing on the side of the road watching the
bus go by, how fast would your friend say you are moving? If the bus is
traveling at 8 m/s, its speed as measured by your friend in a coordinate
MAIN IDEA system fixed to the road is 8 m/s. When you are standing still on the bus,
An object’s velocity depends on the
your speed relative to the road is also 8 m/s, but your speed relative to
reference frame chosen. the bus is zero. How can your speed be different?
Different reference frames In this example, your motion is
Essential Questions viewed from different coordinate systems. A coordinate system from
• What is relative velocity? which motion is viewed is a reference frame. Walking at 1 m/s toward
the front of the bus means your velocity is measured in the reference
• How do you find the velocities of an
frame of the bus. Your velocity in the road’s reference frame is different.
object in different reference frames?
You can rephrase the problem as follows: given the velocity of the bus
Review Vocabulary relative to the road and your velocity relative to the bus, what is your
velocity relative to the road?
resultant a vector that results from the
sum of two other vectors A vector representation of this problem is shown in Figure 14. If right
is positive, your speed relative to the road is 9 m/s, the sum of 8 m/s and
New Vocabulary 1 m/s. Suppose that you now walk at the same speed toward the rear of
reference frame the bus. What would be your velocity relative to the road? Figure 14 shows
that because the two velocities are in opposite directions, the resultant
speed is 7 m/s, the difference between 8 m/s and 1 m/s. You can see that
when the velocities are along the same line, simple addition or subtrac-
tion can be used to determine the relative velocity.

Same Direction Opposite Direction

vbus relative to street vbus relative to street

vyou relative to bus vyou relative to bus

vyou relative to street vyou relative to street

Brand X Pictures/Punchstock

Figure 14 When an object moves in a moving reference frame, you add the
velocities if they are in the same direction. You subtract one velocity from the
other if they are in opposite directions.
Recall What do the lengths of the velocity vectors indicate?

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 PHYSICS CHALLENGE
TENSION IN A ROPE Phillipe whirls a stone of mass m on a rope in a horizontal
circle above his head such that the stone is at a height h above the ground. The
circle has a radius of r, and the magnitude of the tension in the rope is T. Suddenly
the rope breaks, and the stone falls to the ground. The stone travels a horizontal
distance x from the time the rope breaks until it impacts the ground. Find a math-
ematical expression for x in terms of T, r, m, and h. Does your expression change
if Phillipe is walking 0.50 m/s relative to the ground?

Combining velocity vectors Take a closer look at how the relative

velocities in Figure 14 were obtained. Can you find a mathematical rule
to describe how velocities are combined when the motion is in a moving
PhysicsLAB
MOVING REFERENCE
reference frame? For the situation in which you are walking in a bus, you
can designate the velocity of the bus relative to the road as vb/r. You can FRAME
How can you describe motion in a
designate your velocity relative to the bus as vy/b and the velocity of you
moving reference frame?
relative to the road as vy/r. To find the velocity of you relative to the road
in both cases, you added the velocity vectors of you relative to the bus iLab Station
and the bus relative to the road. Mathematically, this is represented as
vy/b + vb/r = vy/r. The more general form of this equation is as follows.

RELATIVE VELOCITY
The relative velocity of object a to object c is the vector sum of object a’s velocity relative to
object b and object b’s velocity relative to object c.

va/b + v b/c = v a/c

Relative Motion in Two Dimensions Figure 15 Vectors are placed tip-to-tail

to find the relative velocity vector for
Adding relative velocities also applies to motion in two dimensions. two-dimensional motion. The subscript o/g
As with one-dimensional motion, you first draw a vector diagram to refers to an object relative to ground, o/m
describe the motion, and then you solve the problem mathematically. refers to an object relative to a moving
reference frame, and m/g refers to the
Vector diagrams The method of drawing vector diagrams for relative moving frame relative to ground.
motion in two dimensions is shown in Figure 15. The velocity vectors are Analyze How would the resultant vector
drawn tip-to-tail. The reference frame from which you are viewing the change if the ground reference frame were
motion, often called the ground reference frame, is considered to be at considered to be the moving reference
rest. One vector describes the velocity of the second reference frame frame?
relative to ground. The second vector describes the motion in that
moving reference frame. The resultant shows the relative velocity, which Reference frame
is the velocity relative to the ground reference frame. moving relative to ground
y'
READING CHECK Decide Can a moving car be a reference frame?
vo/m
An example is the relative motion of an airplane. Airline pilots
θo/m
cannot expect to reach their destinations by simply aiming their planes x'
along a compass direction. They must take into account the plane’s speed
relative to the air, which is given by their airspeed indicators, and their vm/g vo/g
direction of flight relative to the air. They also must consider the velocity y
of the wind at the altitude they are flying relative to the ground. These
two vectors must be combined to obtain the velocity of the airplane
θm/g
relative to the ground. The resultant vector tells the pilot how fast and in θo/g
what direction the plane must travel relative to the ground to reach its x
destination. A similar situation occurs for boats that are traveling on Ground
water that is flowing. reference frame

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 Combining velocities You can use the equations
Vector Resolution
Vector Resolution in Figure 16 to solve problems for relative motion in
vm/g sin θm/g
two dimensions. The velocity of a reference frame
Moving moving relative to the ground is labeled vm/g. The
Object reference velocity of an object in the moving frame is labeled
frame
vo/m sinθo/m vm/g
vo/m. The relative velocity equation gives the object’s
vo/m velocity relative to the ground: vm/g = vo/m + vm/g.
To determine the magnitude of the object’s veloc-
θo/m
θm/g
ity relative to the ground (vm/g), first resolve the
vo/m cos θo/m velocity vectors of the object and the moving reference
vm/g cosθm/g
frame into x- and y-components. Then apply the
Pythagorean theorem. The general equation is shown
Equation in Figure 16, but for many problems the equation is
Equations vo/g
simpler because the vectors are along an axis. As
vy shown in the example problem below, you can find
vo/g2 = vx2 + vy2 the angle of the object’s velocity relative to the ground
vx by observing the vector diagram and applying a
where vx = vo/m cos θo/m + vm/g cos θm/g trigonometric relationship.
vy = vo/m sin θo/m + vm/g sin θm/g READING CHECK Explain How are vectors used to
describe relative motion in two dimensions?
Figure 16 To find the velocity of an object in a moving reference
frame, resolve the vectors into x-and y-components.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 4 Find help with inverse tangent. Math Handbook

RELATIVE VELOCITY OF A MARBLE Ana and Sandra are riding on a ferry boat traveling
EXAMPLLE PROBLEM

east at 4.0 m/s. Sandra rolls a marble with a velocity of 0.75 m/s north, straight across
the deck of the boat to Ana. What is the velocity of the marble relative to the water?
V b/w
1 ANALYZE AND SKETCH THE PROBLEM
Establish a coordinate system. Draw vectors for the velocities.

KNOWN UNKNOWN
vb/w = 4.0 m/s vm/b = 0.75 m/s vm/w = ? V m/b

2 SOLVE FOR THE UNKNOWN

The velocities are perpendicular, so we can use the
Pythagorean theorem. V m/w +y
vm/w2 = vb/w2 + vm/b2 V m/b
vm/w = √
vb/w2 + vm/b2 V b/w
√
(4.0 m/s)2 + (0.75 m/s)2 = 4.1 m/s
▼

= Substitute v b/w = 4.0 m/s, vm/b = 0.75 m/s.

Find the angle of the marble’s velocity.
θ = tan-1 _
v ( )
vm/b
b/w

= tan-1
4.0 m/s )
(_
0.75 m/s = 11° north of east

The marble travels 4.1 m/s at 11° north of east.

3 EVALUATE THE ANSWER

• Are the units correct? Dimensional analysis verifies units of meters per second
for velocity.
• Do the signs make sense? The signs should all be positive.
• Are the magnitudes realistic? The resulting velocity is of the same order of magnitude
as the velocities given in the problem and slightly larger than the larger of the two.

166 Chapter 6 • Motion in Two Dimensions

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 PRACTICE PROBLEMS Do additional problems. Online Practice

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
26. You are riding in a bus moving slowly through heavy traffic at 2.0 m/s. You
hurry to the front of the bus at 4.0 m/s relative to the bus. What is your
speed relative to the street?
27. Rafi is pulling a toy wagon through a neighborhood at a speed of 0.75 m/s.
A caterpillar in the wagon is crawling toward the rear of the wagon at a rate
of 2.0 cm/s. What is the caterpillar’s velocity relative to the ground?
28. A boat is rowed directly upriver at a speed of 2.5 m/s relative to the water.
Viewers on the shore see that the boat is moving at only 0.5 m/s relative
to the shore. What is the speed of the river? Is it moving with or against
the boat? Tailwind

29. A boat is traveling east at a speed of 3.8 m/s. A person walks across the
boat with a velocity of 1.3 m/s south.
a. What is the person’s speed relative to the water?

S
b. In what direction, relative to the ground, does the person walk?
30. An airplane flies due north at 150 km/h relative to the air. There is a wind
blowing at 75 km/h to the east relative to the ground. What is the plane’s
speed relative to the ground?
Headwind
31. CHALLENGE The airplane in Figure 17 flies at 200.0 km/h relative to the air.
What is the velocity of the plane relative to the ground if it flies during the
following wind conditions?
a. a 50.0-km/h tailwind
b. a 50.0-km/h headwind Figure 17

SECTION 3 REVIEW Section Self-Check Check your understanding.

32. MAI
MAINN IDEA A plane has a speed of 285 km/h west 37. Relative Velocity An airplane flies due south at
relative to the air. A wind blows 25 km/h east relative to 175 km/h relative to the air. There is a wind blowing
the ground. What are the plane’s speed and direction at 85 km/h to the east relative to the ground. What
relative to the ground? are the plane’s speed and direction relative to the
ground?
33. Relative Velocity A fishing boat with a maximum speed
of 3 m/s relative to the water is in a river that is flowing 38. A Plane’s Relative Velocity An airplane flies due north at
at 2 m/s. What is the maximum speed the boat can 235 km/h relative to the air. There is a wind blowing at
obtain relative to the shore? The minimum speed? Give 65 km/h to the northeast relative to the ground. What
the direction of the boat, relative to the river’s current, are the plane’s speed and direction relative to the
for the maximum speed and the minimum speed ground?
relative to the shore. 39. Critical Thinking You are piloting the boat in Figure 18
34. Relative Velocity of a Boat A motorboat heads due west across a fast-moving river. You want to reach a pier
at 13 m/s relative to a river that flows due north at directly opposite your starting point. Describe how
5.0 m/s. What is the velocity (both magnitude and you would navigate the boat in terms of the compo-
direction) of the motorboat relative to the shore? nents of your velocity relative to the water.
35. Boating You are boating on a river that flows toward the
east. Because of your knowledge of physics, you head North
your boat 53° west of north and have a velocity of
6.0 m/s due north relative to the shore.
East
a. What is the velocity of the current?
b. What is the speed of your boat relative to the water?
36. Boating Martin is riding on a ferry boat that is traveling
east at 3.8 m/s. He walks north across the deck of
the boat at 0.62 m/s. What is Martin's velocity relative
to the water? Figure 18

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 Race-Car Driver

Need for
The job of a race-car driver is more
than just pushing down the gas pedal
and following the curve of the track.

SPEED
Managing the extreme forces at work
while driving a car at speeds of nearly
320 kilometers per hour takes
endurance, strength, and fast
reflexes—especially during the turns.

1 Heat A race-car driver wears a helmet to

protect the head from impact, a full-body suit
that protects against fire, and gloves to improve
steering-wheel grip. As if all this gear isn’t hot
enough, the cockpit of a race car can become as
hot as the Sahara.

2 Force It can take more than

40,000 N of force to turn a race car
moving 290 km/h on a banked—or
angled—race track.

5 Turns When the

wheels change
orientation, the road
exerts a force on the
3 Drag Race cars achieve their greatest tires that turns the car.
speeds along the straight parts of the Friction between the tires and
race track. The force from the road the track allows the car to grip
on the tires pushes the car the road and turn. The
forward, while the drag force greater the friction,
from air resistance pushes the faster the driver
the car backward. can take the turn.

4 Grip The gravitational force pulls the car downward,

producing friction between the track and the small
area of the tire that touches it, called the contact
Research Compare at least two different kinds of auto patch. Air flowing around the car body also produces
racing events, such as drag racing and stock car, in a downward force on the car, which results in an
terms of the different forces at work due to the different increased normal force and increased friction at the
car styles, track structures, and racing rules. contact patch.

168 Chapter 6 • Motion in Two Dimensions

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 CHAPTER 6 STUDY GUIDE You can use vectors and Newton’s laws to describe projectile
motion and circular motion.

VOCABULARY SECTION 1 Projectile Motion

• projectile (p. 152)
• trajectory (p. 152) MAIN IDEA A projectile’s horizontal motion is independent of its vertical motion.
• The vertical and horizontal motions of a projectile are independent. When there is no air
resistance, the horizontal motion component does not experience an acceleration and has
constant velocity; the vertical motion component of a projectile experiences a constant
acceleration under these same conditions.
• The curved flight path a projectile follows is called a trajectory and is a parabola. The height,
time of flight, initial velocity, and horizontal distance of this path are related by the equations
of motion. The horizontal distance a projectile travels before returning to its initial height
depends on the acceleration due to gravity and on both components of the initial velocity.

VOCABULARY SECTION 2 Circular Motion

• uniform circular motion (p. 159)
MAIN IDEA An object in circular motion has an acceleration toward the circle's
• centripetal acceleration (p. 160) center due to an unbalanced force toward the circle's center.
• centripetal force (p. 161)
• An object moving in a circle at a constant speed has an acceleration toward the center of the
circle because the direction of its velocity is constantly changing.
• Acceleration toward the center of the circle is called centripetal acceleration. It depends
directly on the square of the object’s speed and inversely on the radius of the circle.
2
ac = _
v
r
• A net force must be exerted by external agents toward the circle’s center to cause centripetal
acceleration.
Fnet = mac

VOCABULARY SECTION 3 Relative Velocity

• reference frame (p. 164) MAIN IDEA An object’s velocity depends on the reference frame chosen.
• A coordinate system from which you view motion is called a reference frame. Relative velocity
is the velocity of an object observed in a different, moving reference frame.
• You can use vector addition to solve motion problems of an object in a moving
reference frame.

Games and Multilingual eGlossary

Vocabulary Practice

Chapter 6 • Study Guide 169

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 CHAPTER 6 ASSESSMENT Chapter Self-Check

SECTION 1 Projectile Motion 47. The toy car in Figure 20 runs off the edge of a table
that is 1.225 m high. The car lands 0.400 m from
Mastering Concepts the base of the table.
40. Some students believe the force that starts the a. How long did it take the car to fall?
motion of a projectile, such as the kick given a b. How fast was the car going on the table?
soccer ball, remains with the ball. Is this a correct
viewpoint? Present arguments for or against.
v
41. Consider the trajectory of the cannonball shown in
Figure 19.
a. Where is the magnitude of the vertical-velocity
component largest?
b. Where is the magnitude of the horizontal-velocity
component largest?
1.225 m
c. Where is the vertical velocity smallest?
d. Where is the magnitude of the acceleration
smallest?

B C 0.400 m
A
D Figure 20

E 48. Swimming You took a running leap off a high-diving

platform. You were running at 2.8 m/s and hit the
water 2.6 s later. How high was the platform, and
Figure 19
how far from the edge of the platform did you hit the
water? Assume your initial velocity is horizontal.
42. Trajectory Describe how forces cause the trajectory Ignore air resistance.
of an object launched horizontally to be different
from the trajectory of an object launched upward at 49. Archery An arrow is shot at 30.0° above the hori-
an angle. zontal. Its velocity is 49 m/s, and it hits the target.
a. What is the maximum height the arrow
43. Reverse Problem Write a physics problem with real- will attain?
life objects for which the following equations would
b. The target is at the height from which the arrow
be part of the solution. Hint: The two equations
was shot. How far away is it?
describe the same object.
50. BIGIDEA
BI A pitched ball is hit by a batter at a 45°
x = (1.5 m/s)t 8.0 m = _
1 (9.8 m/s2)t2
angle and just clears the outfield fence, 98 m away.
2
44. An airplane pilot flying at constant velocity and If the top of the fence is at the same height as the
altitude drops a heavy crate. Ignoring air resistance, pitch, find the velocity of the ball when it left the
where will the plane be relative to the crate when bat. Ignore air resistance.
the crate hits the ground? Draw the path of the crate 51. At-Sea Rescue An airplane traveling 1001 m above
as seen by an observer on the ground. the ocean at 125 km/h is going to drop a box of sup-
plies to shipwrecked victims below.
Mastering Problems a. How many seconds before the plane is directly
45. You accidentally throw your car keys horizontally overhead should the box be dropped?
at 8.0 m/s from a cliff 64 m high. How far from the b. What is the horizontal distance between the
base of the cliff should you look for the keys? plane and the victims when the box is dropped?
46. A dart player throws a dart horizontally at 12.4 m/s. 52. Diving Divers in Acapulco dive from a cliff that is
The dart hits the board 0.32 m below the height 61 m high. What is the minimum horizontal veloc-
from which it was thrown. How far away is the ity a diver must have to enter the water at least 23 m
player from the board? from the cliff?

170 Chapter 6 • Assessment

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 Chapter Self-Check

53. Jump Shot A basketball player is trying to make a 59. Ranking Task Rank the following objects according
half-court jump shot and releases the ball at the to their centripetal accelerations, from least to great-
height of the basket. Assume that the ball is est. Specifically indicate any ties.
launched at an angle of 51.0° above the horizontal A: a 0.50-kg stone moving in a circle of radius 0.6 m
and a horizontal distance of 14.0 m from the basket. at a speed of 2.0 m/s
What speed must the player give the ball in order to
B: a 0.50-kg stone moving in a circle of radius 1.2 m
make the shot? at a speed of 3.0 m/s
54. The two baseballs in Figure 21 were hit with the same C: a 0.60-kg stone moving in a circle of radius 0.8 m
speed, 25 m/s. Draw separate graphs of y versus t at a speed of 2.4 m/s
and x versus t for each ball. D: a 0.75-kg stone moving in a circle of radius 1.2 m
at a speed of 3.0 m/s
A E: a 0.75-kg stone moving in a circle of radius 0.6 m
at a speed of 2.4 m/s
60. Hammer Throw An athlete whirls a 7.00-kg hammer
B yA 1.8 m from the axis of rotation in a horizontal cir-
60°
cle, as shown in Figure 22. If the hammer makes one
yB revolution in 1.0 s, what is the centripetal accelera-
30°
xA = xB
tion of the hammer? What is the tension in the
chain?

Figure 21 vtang

SECTION 2 Circular Motion

Mastering Concepts
55. Can you go around a curve with the following accel-
erations? Explain.
a. zero acceleration vector
b. constant acceleration vector
56. To obtain uniform circular motion, how must the
net force that acts on a moving object depend on the
speed of the object? Figure 22
57. Suppose you whirl a yo-yo about your head in a
horizontal circle. 61. A rotating rod that is 15.3 cm long is spun with its
axis through one end of the rod. The other end of
a. In what direction must a force act on the yo-yo?
the rod has a constant speed of 2010 m/s
b. What exerts the force? (4500 mph).
c. If you let go of the string on the yo-yo, in which a. What is the centripetal acceleration of the end of
direction would the toy travel? Use Newton’s laws the rod?
in your answer.
b. If you were to attach a 1.0-g object to the end of
the rod, what force would be needed to hold it on
Mastering Problems the rod?
58. Car Racing A 615-kg racing car completes one lap
62. A carnival clown rides a motorcycle down a ramp
in a time of 14.3 s around a circular track that has
and then up and around a large, vertical loop. If the
a radius of 50.0 m. Assume the race car moves at a
loop has a radius of 18 m, what is the slowest speed
constant speed.
the rider can have at the top of the loop so that the
a. What is the acceleration of the car? motorcycle stays in contact with the track and
b. What force must the track exert on the tires to avoids falling? Hint: At this slowest speed, the track
produce this acceleration? exerts no force on the motorcycle at the top of the loop.

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 ASSESSMENT
Chapter Self-Check

63. A 75-kg pilot flies a plane in a loop as shown in 67. Air Travel You are piloting a small plane, and you
Figure 23. At the top of the loop, when the plane is want to reach an airport 450 km due south in 3.0 h.
completely upside-down for an instant, the pilot A wind is blowing from the west at 50.0 km/h. What
hangs freely in the seat and does not push against heading and airspeed should you choose to reach
the seat belt. The airspeed indicator reads 120 m/s. your destination in time?
What is the radius of the plane’s loop?
68. Problem Posing Complete this problem so that it
can be solved using the concept of relative velocity:
vtang = 120 m/s
“Hannah is on the west bank of a 55-m-wide river
with a current of 0.7 m/s ….”

Applying Concepts
69. Projectile Motion Explain how horizontal motion
can be uniform while vertical motion is accelerated.
Figure 23 How will projectile motion be affected when drag
due to air resistance is taken into consideration?

SSECTION
C O 3 Relative
e at e Velocity
e oc ty 70. Baseball A batter hits a pop-up straight up over
home plate at an initial speed of 20 m/s. The ball is
Mastering Concepts caught by the catcher at the same height at which it
64. Why is it that a car traveling in the opposite direction was hit. At what velocity does the ball land in the
as the car in which you are riding on the freeway often catcher’s mitt? Neglect air resistance.
looks like it is moving faster than the speed limit?
71. Fastball In baseball, a fastball takes about _ 1 s to
2
reach the plate. Assuming that such a pitch is thrown
Mastering Problems horizontally, compare the distance the ball falls in the
65. Odina and LaToya are sitting by a river and decide first _
1 s with the distance it falls in the second _1 s.
to have a race. Odina will run down the shore to a 4 4
72. You throw a rock horizontally. In a second horizon-
dock, 1.5 km away, then turn around and run back.
tal throw, you throw the rock harder and give it even
LaToya will also race to the dock and back, but she
more speed.
will row a boat in the river, which has a current of
2.0 m/s. If Odina’s running speed is equal to a. How will the time it takes the rock to hit the
LaToya’s rowing speed in still water, which is ground be affected? Ignore air resistance.
4.0 m/s, what will be the outcome of the race? b. How will the increased speed affect the distance
Assume they both turn instantaneously. from where the rock left your hand to where the
rock hits the ground?
66. Crossing a River You row a boat, such as the one in
Figure 24, perpendicular to the shore of a river that 73. Field Biology A zoologist standing on a cliff aims a
flows at 3.0 m/s. The velocity of your boat is 4.0 m/s tranquilizer gun at a monkey hanging from a tree
relative to the water. branch that is in the gun's range. The barrel of the
gun is horizontal. Just as the zoologist pulls the trig-
a. What is the velocity of your boat relative to the shore?
ger, the monkey lets go and begins to fall. Will the
b. What is the component of your velocity parallel dart hit the monkey? Ignore air resistance.
to the shore? Perpendicular to it?
74. Football A quarterback throws a football at 24 m/s
at a 45° angle. If it takes the ball 3.0 s to reach the
top of its path and the ball is caught at the same
height at which it is thrown, how long is it in the
air? Ignore air resistance.
vb

vw 75. Track and Field You are working on improving your

performance in the long jump and believe that the
information in this chapter can help. Does the
height that you reach make any difference to your
Figure 24 jump? What influences the length of your jump?

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 Chapter Self-Check

76. Driving on a Freeway Explain why it is that when 84. Two dogs, initially separated by 500.0 m, are running
you pass a car going in the same direction as you on toward each other, each moving with a constant speed
the freeway, it takes a longer time than when you of 2.5 m/s. A dragonfly, moving with a constant speed
pass a car going in the opposite direction. of 3.0 m/s, flies from the nose of one dog to the other,
then turns around instantaneously and flies back to
77. Imagine you are sitting in a car tossing a ball the other dog. It continues to fly back and forth until
straight up into the air. the dogs run into each other. What distance does the
a. If the car is moving at a constant velocity, will the dragonfly fly during this time?
ball land in front of, behind, or in your hand?
85. Banked Roads Curves on roads often are banked to
b. If the car rounds a curve at a constant speed,
help prevent cars from slipping off the road. If the
where will the ball land?
speed limit for a particular curve of radius 36.0 m is
78. You swing one yo-yo around your head in a hori- 15.7 m/s (35 mph), at what angle should the road be
zontal circle. Then you swing another yo-yo with banked so that cars will stay on a circular path even
twice the mass of the first one, but you don’t change if there were no friction between the road and the
the length of the string or the period. How do the tires? If the speed limit was increased to 20.1 m/s
tensions in the strings differ? (45 mph), at what angle should the road be banked?
79. Car Racing The curves on a race track are banked to 86. The 1.45-kg ball in Figure 25 is suspended from a
make it easier for cars to go around the curves at 0.80-m string and swung in a horizontal circle at a
high speeds. Draw a free-body diagram of a car on constant speed.
a banked curve. From the motion diagram, find the a. What is the tension in the string?
direction of the acceleration.
b. What is the speed of the ball?
a. What exerts the force in the direction of the
acceleration?
b. Can you have such a force without friction?

Mixed Review
14º
80. Early skeptics of the idea of a rotating Earth said
that the fast spin of Earth would throw people at
the equator into space. The radius of Earth is about
6.38×103 km. Show why this idea is wrong by calcu- Figure 25
lating the following.
a. the speed of a 97-kg person at the equator 87. A baseball is hit directly in line with an outfielder at
an angle of 35.0° above the horizontal with an initial
b. the force needed to accelerate the person in the circle
speed of 22.0 m/s. The outfielder starts running as
c. the weight of the person soon as the ball is hit at a constant speed of 2.5 m/s
d. the normal force of Earth on the person, that is, and barely catches the ball. Assuming that the ball is
the person’s apparent weight caught at the same height at which it was hit, what
81. Firing a Missile An airplane moving at 375 m/s rela- was the initial separation between the hitter and the
tive to the ground fires a missile forward at a speed outfielder? Hint: There are two possible answers.
of 782 m/s relative to the plane. What is the missile’s 88. A Jewel Heist You are a technical consultant for a
speed relative to the ground? locally produced cartoon. In one episode, two crimi-
82. Rocketry A rocket in outer space that is moving at nals, Shifty and Crafty, have stolen some jewels.
a speed of 1.25 km/s relative to an observer fires Crafty has the jewels when the police start to chase
its motor. Hot gases are expelled out the back at him. He runs to the top of a 60.0-m tall building in
2.75 km/s relative to the rocket. What is the speed his attempt to escape. Meanwhile, Shifty runs to the
of the gases relative to the observer? convenient hot-air balloon 20.0 m from the base of
the building and untethers it, so it begins to rise at a
83. A 1.13-kg ball is swung vertically from a 0.50-m constant speed. Crafty tosses the bag of jewels hori-
cord in uniform circular motion at a speed of zontally with a speed of 7.3 m/s just as the balloon
2.4 m/s. What is the tension in the cord at the begins its ascent. What must the velocity of the bal-
bottom of the ball’s motion? loon be for Shifty to easily catch the bag?

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 ASSESSMENT
Chapter Self-Check

Thinking Critically 92. Analyze and Conclude A ball on a light string moves
in a vertical circle. Analyze and describe the motion
89. Apply Concepts Consider a roller-coaster loop like of this system. Be sure to consider the effects of
the one in Figure 26. Are the cars traveling through gravity and tension. Is this system in uniform circu-
the loop in uniform circular motion? Explain. lar motion? Explain your answer.

Writing In Physics
93. Roller Coasters The vertical loops on most roller
coasters are not circular in shape. Research and
explain the physics behind this design choice.
94. Many amusement-park rides utilize centripetal accel-
eration to create thrills for the park’s customers.
Choose two rides other than roller coasters that
involve circular motion, and explain how the physics
of circular motion creates the sensations for the riders.

Figure 26
Cumulative Review
90. Apply Computers and Calculators A baseball player 95. Multiply or divide, as indicated, using significant
hits a belt-high (1.0 m) fastball down the left-field figures correctly.
line. The player hits the ball with an initial velocity
a. (5×108 m)(4.2×107 m)
of 42.0 m/s at an angle 26° above the horizontal.
The left-field wall is 96.0 m from home plate at the b. (1.67×10-2 km)(8.5×10-6 km)
4
2.6×10 kg
foul pole and is 14 m high. Write the equation for c. _ 3 3
the height of the ball (y) as a function of its distance 9.4×10 m
6.3×10-1 m
from home plate (x). Use a computer or graphing d. _
calculator to plot the path of the ball. Trace along 3.8×102 s
the path to find how high above the ground the ball 96. Plot the data in Table 1 on a position-time graph.
is when it is at the wall. Find the average speed in the time interval between
a. Is the hit a home run? 0.0 s and 5.0 s.
b. What is the minimum speed at which the ball
could be hit and clear the wall? Table 1 Position v. Time
c. If the initial velocity of the ball is 42.0 m/s, for Clock Reading t (s) Position x (m)
what range of angles will the ball go over the wall?
0.0 30
91. Analyze Albert Einstein showed that the rule you
learned for the addition of velocities does not work 1.0 30
for objects moving near the speed of light. For 2.0 35
example, if a rocket moving at speed vA releases a
missile that has speed vB relative to the rocket, 3.0 45
then the speed of the missile relative to an observer
vA + vB 4.0 60
that is at rest is given by v = _ vAvB , where c is the
1+_ 5.0 70
c2
speed of light, 3.00×108 m/s. This formula gives the
correct values for objects moving at slow speeds as 97. Carlos and his older brother Ricardo are at the gro-
well. Suppose a rocket moving at 11 km/s shoots a cery store. Carlos, with mass 17.0 kg, likes to hang
Comstock Images/Getty Images

laser beam out in front of it. What speed would an on the front of the cart while Ricardo pushes it, even
unmoving observer find for the laser light? Suppose though both boys know this is not safe. Ricardo
that a rocket moves at a speed _c
, half the speed of pushes the 12.4-kg cart with his brother on it such
2
light, and shoots a missile forward at a speed of _c that they accelerate at a rate of 0.20 m/s2.
2
relative to the rocket. How fast would the missile be a. With what force is Ricardo pushing?
moving relative to a fixed observer? b. What is the force the cart exerts on Carlos?

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 CHAPTER 6 STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE
MULTIPLE CHOICE 7. An orange is dropped at the same time and from the
same height that a bullet is shot from a gun. Which of
1. A 1.60-m-tall girl throws a football at an angle of the following is true?
41.0° from the horizontal and at an initial speed of A. The acceleration due to gravity is greater for the
9.40 m/s. What is the horizontal distance between the orange because the orange is heavier.
girl and the spot when the ball is again at the height
B. Gravity acts less on the bullet than on the orange
above the ground from which the girl threw it?
because the bullet is moving so quickly.
A. 4.55 m C. 8.90 m
C. The velocities will be the same.
B. 5.90 m D. 10.5 m
D. The two objects will hit the ground at the
2. A dragonfly is sitting on a merry-go-round 2.8 m same time.
from the center. If the tangential velocity of the ride is
0.89 m/s, what is the centripetal acceleration of the
dragonfly?
FREE RESPONSE
A. 0.11 m/s2 C. 0.32 m/s2 8. A lead cannonball is shot horizontally at a speed of
B. 0.28 m/s2 D. 2.2 m/s2 25 m/s out of the circus cannon, shown in the figure,
on the high-wire platform on one side of a circus
3. The force exerted by a 2.0-m massless string on a ring. If the platform is 52 m above the 80-m diame-
0.82-kg object being swung in a horizontal circle is ter ring, will the performers need to adjust their can-
4.0 N. What is the tangential velocity of the object? non so that the ball will land inside the ring instead
A. 2.8 m/s C. 4.9 m/s of past it? Explain.
B. 3.1 m/s D. 9.8 m/s v
4. A 1000-kg car enters an 80.0-m-radius curve at
20.0 m/s. What centripetal force must be supplied by
friction so the car does not skid?
52 m
A. 5.0 N C. 5.0×103 N
B. 2.5×102 N D. 1.0×103 N

5. A jogger on a riverside path sees a rowing team com- 80 m

ing toward him. Relative to the ground, the jogger is
running at 10 km/h west and the boat is sailing at
20 km/h east. How quickly does the jogger approach
the boat? 9. A mythical warrior swings a 5.6-kg mace on the end
A. 10 km/h C. 20 km/h of a magically massless 86-cm chain in a horizontal
B. 30 km/h D. 40 km/h circle above his head. The mace makes one full revo-
lution in 1.8 s. Find the tension in the magical chain.
6. What is the maximum height obtained by a 125-g
apple that is slung from a slingshot at an angle of 78°
from the horizontal with an initial velocity of 18 m/s?
A. 0.70 m C. 32 m
B. 16 m D. 33 m

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