Fire Technology and Arson-Investigation

CDI 6 – FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION
Carlito C. Pijano
CHAPTER 1
THE ELEMENTS OF FIRE
FIRE
- a rapid, self-sustaining oxidation process accompanied by the evolution of heat
and light of varying intensity
- an active chemical reaction that takes place between fuel, heat and oxygen in the
form of light and noticeable heat
- a chemical reaction; the rapid oxidation of a fuel producing heat and light
- an oxidation taking place with a rate rapid enough to produce heat and light
TECHNOLOGY
- the branch of knowledge that deals with industrial arts and sciences
- the application of such knowledge that is used to produce the material necessity
of society
ELEMENTS OF FIRE OR TRIANGLE OF FIRE
FUEL
- anything that will burn when heated with sufficient oxygen
OXYGEN
- aids in combustion; comes from the atmosphere we breath; the atmosphere
contains: 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 1% impurities
HEAT
- source of ignition
TRIANGLE OF FIRE
For many years, the fire triangle (oxygen, fuel and heat) was taught as the
components of fire. While this simple example is useful, it is NOT technically correct.
TETRAHEDRON OF FIRE
- a geometric representation of what is required for fire to exist, namely, fuel, an
oxidizing agent, heat, and an uninhibited chemical reaction
FIRE TETRAHEDRON
- Oxygen (oxidizing agent)

- Fuel
- Heat
- Self-sustained chemical reaction
Each component of the tetrahedron must be in place for combustion to

occur. Remove one of the four components and combustion will not occur. If
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ignition has already occurred, the fire is extinguished when one of the
components is removed from the reaction.
OXYGEN (Oxidizing Agent)

- a colorless, odorless gas and one of the compositions of air which is
approximately 21% percent by volume
Oxygen sources: Oxygen requirements:
1. 21% of normal oxygen 1. 12% no fire
2. 78% nitrogen 2. 14% flash point
3. 1% other gases 3. 21% fire point
FUEL
- the material or substance being oxidized or burned in the combustion process.
Fuel sources
1. Solid
- molecules are closely packed together
2. Liquid
- molecules are loosely packed
3. Gas
- molecules are free to move
HEAT
- the energy component of the fire tetrahedron
- when heat comes into contact with a fuel, the energy supports the combustion
reaction
- heat energy is measured in units of Joules (J), however it can also be measured
in Calories (1 Calorie = 4.184 J) and BTU's (1 BTU = 1055 J)
TEMPERATURE
- a measure of the degree of molecular activity of a material compared to a
reference point
- a measure of the degree of molecular activity of a material compared to a
reference point
- measured in degrees Farenheit or degrees Celsius

ºC ºF Response
37 98.6 Normal human oral/body temperature
44 111 Human skin begins to feel pain
48 118 Human skin receives a first degree burn injury
55 131 Human skin receives a second degree burn injury
62 140 A phase where burned human tissue becomes numb
72 162 Human skin is instantly destroyed
100 212 Water boils and produces steam
140 284 Glass transition temperature of polycarbonate
230 446 Melting temperature of polycarbonate
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250 482 Charring of natural cotton begins

300 572 Charring of modern protective clothing fabrics begins
600 1112 Temperatures inside a post-flashover room fire

Types of Energy (common sources of heat)
1. Chemical Energy
2. Electrical Energy
3. Nuclear Energy
4. Mechanical Energy
1. CHEMICAL ENERGY
- the most common source of heat in combustion reactions
When any combustible is in contact with oxygen, oxidation occurs. The

reaction of this process results in the production of heat.
ex. Heat generated from burning match, self-heating (spontaneous heating)
2. ELECTRICAL ENERGY
- can generate temperature high enough to ignite any combustible material near
the heated area
Examples:
1. over current or overload
2. arcing
3. sparking
4. static
5. lightning
3. NUCLEAR ENERGY
- generated when atoms either split apart (fission) or combine (fusion)
Ex.
1. fission heats water to drive steam turbines and produce electricity
2. solar energy is a product of a fusion reaction
4. MECHANICAL ENERGY
- an energy created by friction and compression
1) Heat of friction - the movement of two surfaces against each other, thus
producing sparks
2) Heat of compression - heat is generated when a gas is compressed in a
container or cylinder
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SELF-SUSTAINED CHEMICAL REACTION
Combustion is a complex reaction that requires a fuel (in the gaseous or vapor
state), an oxidizer, and heat energy to come together in a very specific way. Once
flaming combustion or fire occurs, it can only continue when enough heat energy is
produced to cause the continued development of fuel vapors or gases. Scientists call
this type of reaction a “chain reaction”.
A chain reaction is a series of reactions that occur in sequence with the result of
each individual reaction being added to the rest.
FIRE DEVELOPMENT
When the four components of the fire tetrahedron come together, ignition occurs.
For a fire to grow beyond the first material ignited, heat must be transmitted beyond the
first material to additional fuel packages.
STAGES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF FIRE

1. Ignition
2. Growth
3. Flashover
4. Fully-developed
5. Decay
1. IGNITION
Describes the period when the four elements of the fire tetrahedron come together and
combustion begins
2. GROWTH
Shortly after ignition, a fire plume begins to form above the burning fuel. As the plume
develops, it begins to draw or entrain air from the surrounding space into the column.
3. FLASHOVER
The transition between the growth and the fully developed fire stages and is not a
specific event such as ignition. During flashover, conditions in the compartment change
very rapidly as the fire changes from one that is dominated by the burning of the
materials first ignited to one that involves all of the exposed combustible surfaces within
the compartment.
4. FULLY-DEVELOPED
Occurs when all combustible materials in the compartment are involved in the fire
5.DECAY
As the fire consumes the available fuel in the compartment, the rate of heat released
begins to decline.
THREE (3) STAGES OF FIRE

1. Incipient phase
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2. Free burning phase

3. Smoldering
1. INCIPIENT STAGE
- initial stage of fire
Characteristics
- normal room temperature
- oxygen plentiful
- thermal updraft rise accumulates at higher point
- temperature at 1000 F
- Producing C02, CO, SO2, water and other gases
2. FREE BURNING PHASE

- a phase of burning in which materials or structures are burning in the
presence of adequate oxygen
Characteristics
- fire has involved more fuel
- oxygen supply has depleted
- heat accumulates at upper area
- temperature exceeds 1,330 F
- area is fully involved
3. SMOLDERING PHASE
- final phase of burning wherein flame ceases but dense smoke and heat
completely fill the confined room
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CHAPTER 2
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat is by-product of combustion that is of significant importance to the

firefighter. It is heat that causes fire to sustain its combustion and, more important, to
extend. When heat given off as a product of combustion is exposed to an unheated
substance, certain changes occur that can make the new substance a contributing
factor in extending a fire.
1. CONDUCTION
- heat transfer within solids or between contacting solids
When a hot object transfers its heat, conduction has taken place. The transfer
could be to another object or to another portion of the same object. As we have
discovered and will be constantly reinforced about, combustion occurs on the molecular
level. When an object heats up, the atoms become agitated and begin to collide with
one another. A chain reaction of molecules and atoms, like wave energy, occurs and
causes the agitated molecules to pass the heat energy to areas of non-heat.
2. CONVECTION
- heat transfer by the movement of liquids or gasses
Air that is hotter than its surroundings rises. Air that is cooler than its
surroundings sinks. Air is made up of many molecules floating about freely. Even so, it
still has weight. Some molecules are made up of the same element. For example,
oxygen in its natural state will combine with another oxygen atom to form a stable
oxygen molecule. In a given volume, air at a given temperature will have the same
density. When heated, as in conduction theory, the molecules become agitated and
begin to collide with one another. In the process, the molecules are demanding more
space to accommodate the vibrations and they push into one another as they seek that
space. When that happens, the density of a given volume is reduced and it weighs less.
Because it weighs less, it rises until it reaches equilibrium-the level at which the weight
is the same as the surrounding atmosphere.
3. RADIATION
- heat transfer by electromagnetic waves
The last form of heat transfer occurs by radiation. As we have already seen, heat
energy can be transmitted directly when molecules collide with one another and cause
the waves of heat energy to travel.
4. FLAME CONTACT
-heat may be conducted from one body to another by direct flame contact
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PROPERTIES OF FIRE
1. Physical properties
2. Chemical Properties
1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
a. Specific gravity
- the ratio of the weight of a solid or substance to the weight of an equal
volume of water
b. Vapor density
- the weight of volume of pure gas compared to weight of a volume of dry
air at the same temperature and pressure
c. Vapor pressure
- the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of the liquid at the
equilibrium
d. Temperature
- the measure of the thermal degree of the agitation of molecules of a given
substance; the measure of the molecular activity within the substance
e. Boiling Point
- the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal
to the atmospheric pressure
f. Ignition temperature
- the minimum temperature to which the substance in the air must be
heated in order to initiate or cause self-contained combustion without
addition of heat from outside sources
g. Fire point
- the temperature at which the material will give off ample vapors to keep
burning
h. Flash point
- the temperature at which the material is not hot enough to keep burning,
but still gives off enough vapors to cause a flame across the surface
2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
a. Endothermic reaction
- are changes whereby energy is absorbed or is added before the reaction
takes place
b. Exothermic reaction
- reactions or changes that releases or give off energy
c. Oxidation
- a chemical change in which combustible material and an oxidizing
material react
d. Combustion or flame
- the manifestation of fire is in its gas-phased combustion; matter that is
produced by fire.
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Material Ignition Temperature

F C
Gasoline 536 280
Kerosene 410 210
Turpentine 488 253
Paper 842 450
Wood 489 254
Coal 750 400
CLASSIFICATIONS OF FIRE
I. BASED ON CAUSE
a. Natural fire/ providential
b. Accidental fire
c. Intentional Fire/Incendiary
d. Undetermined
A. NATURAL FIRE
- involves fires without direct human intervention
Examples:
- Earthquake
- Typhoon
- Lightning
- Spontaneous combustion arising from the storage of combustible
materials in poorly ventilated places
- Explosion from petroleum products, alcohol and other substances
- Sun rays focused on glasses which may serve as a convex lens
B. ACCIDENTAL FIRE
- Carelessly discarded cigarettes
- Careless disposition of readily combustible materials
- Poorly managed or defective heating facilities
- Overheating, spark and electrical defects
- Overload electric circuits/ Octopus connections
- Children playing matches
- Use of candles
C. INCENDIARY FIRE
- is one deliberately set under circumstances in which the person knows
that the fire should not be set
D. UNDETERMINED FIRE CAUSE
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- whenever the cause cannot be proven, the proper classification is

undetermined
II. BASED ON BURNING FUEL
CLASS A
1. ordinary solid materials such as wood, paper, fabrics, etc.
2. this will be indicated by deep cited fire, leaves ashes and embers (glowing coals)
after burning
CLASS B
1. flammable liquids such as gasoline, lube oil, kerosene, paint thinner, etc.
CLASS C
1. electrical appliances; causes electric shock
CLASS D
1. metal fire such as magnesium (white element burning with dazzling light), sodium
(a silver white metallic element), etc.; creates violent reaction
CLASS E
1. flammable gases such as LPG, LNG, etc.; also creates violent reaction
Fire Classes in the United Kingdom and Europe

A – ordinary combustibles
B – flammable or flammable liquids
C – flammable gasses
D – combustible metals
E – (this class is no longer existing in Europe)
F – cooking oils and fats
Fire Classes in Australia and Asia

A – every combustibles
B – combustible or combustible liquids
C – combustible gasses
E – electrical equipment
F – cooking fats and oils
Fire Classes in the U.S.A. (NFPA)

A – regular combustibles
B – flammable liquids and gasses
C – electrical appliances
K – cooking oils and fats
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FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT
EXTINGUISHING AGENT
1. Class A – water (all agents)
2. Class B – foam/carbon dioxide (all agents)
3. Class C – carbon dioxide/powder (never use water, soda acid and foam)
4. Class D – special powder
5. Class E – all agents
METHODS OF EXTINGUISHMENT
1. COOLING – heat absorption.
2. SEPARATION – the removal of the fuel.
3. SMOTHERING – by expelling oxygen
4. Inhibition or the interruption of chemical chain reaction
Strategies Used in Firefighting:

1. Locate the fire
2. Confine the fire
3. Extinguish the fire
4. Exposures
Factors to Consider in Extinguishment:

1. Time
2. Weather (temperature, humidity, wind)
3. Fire ( ex. Extent, location, construction, contents involved)
4. Occupancy
5. Ventilation (used for clearing the building of smoke and gases)
Types of Ventilation:
a. Vertical ventilation - must be worked from the top to bottom
b. Cross or horizontal ventilation - used if gases have not reached the higher level
through the opening of windows
c. Mechanical force ventilation - a method whereby a device such as smoke ejector
is utilized to remove faster excessive heat and dense smoke
Factors to determine the location for the opening:

1. Location of intensity of fire
2. Highest point on the roof
3. Direction of wind
4. Existing exposure
5. Extent of fire
6. Obstruction
ADDITIONAL BASIC TACTICS USED IN EXTINGUISHING FIRE
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1. RESCUE - any action taken by the firefighters to remove occupants/ persons

from building/ hazards to a safety place
2. OVERHAUL - a complete and detailed checked of the structures and materials
involved in the fire to make sure that every spark and ember has been
extinguished and to have assurance against re-ignition
3. SALVAGE - an action taken by the firefighters in preventing excessive damage
by fire, water with the use of salvage cover or by removing materials out from the
burning building
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CHAPTER 3
TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHER
"Extinguisher" redirects here. Extinguisher may also refer to a candle snuffer.
A fire extinguisher is an active fire protection device used to extinguish or control

small fires, often in emergency situations. It is not intended for use on an out-of-control
fire, such as one which has reached the ceiling, endangers the user (i.e., no escape
route, smoke, explosion hazard, etc.), or otherwise requires the expertise of a fire
brigade. Typically, a fire extinguisher consists of a hand-held cylindrical pressure vessel
containing an agent that can be discharged to extinguish a fire. Fire extinguishers
manufactured with non-cylindrical pressure vessels also exist but are less common.
There are two main types of fire extinguishers: stored-pressure and cartridge-
operated. In stored pressure units, the expellant is stored in the same chamber as the
firefighting agent itself. Depending on the agent used, different propellants are used.
With dry chemical extinguishers, nitrogen is typically used; water and foam
extinguishers typically use air. Stored pressure fire extinguishers are the most common
type. Cartridge-operated extinguishers contain the expellant gas in a separate cartridge
that is punctured prior to discharge, exposing the propellant to the extinguishing agent.
This type is not as common, used primarily in areas such as industrial facilities, where
they receive higher-than-average use. They have the advantage of simple and prompt
recharge, allowing an operator to discharge the extinguisher, recharge it, and return to
the fire in a reasonable amount of time. Unlike stored pressure types, these
extinguishers use compressed carbon dioxide instead of nitrogen, although nitrogen
cartridges are used on low temperature (-60 rated) models. Cartridge operated
extinguishers are available in dry chemical and dry powder types in the U.S. and in
water, wetting agent, foam, dry chemical (classes ABC and B.C.), and dry powder
(class D) types in the rest of the world.
Wheeled fire extinguisher and a sign inside a parking lot. Fire extinguishers are
further divided into handheld and cart-mounted (also called wheeled extinguishers).
Handheld extinguishers weigh from 0.5 to 14 kilograms (1.1 to 30.9 lb), and are hence,
easily portable by hand. Cart-mounted units typically weigh more than 23 kilograms (51
lb). These wheeled models are most commonly found at construction sites, airport
runways, heliports, as well as docks and marinas.
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To deal with the multitude of different fire classes, a range of fire extinguishers
have been developed. Please click on the type of extinguisher, this will display more
information about that extinguisher type.
a) Water
b) Water Spray
c) Water Mist (Dry Water Mist)
d) Dry Powder (Multi-Purpose)
e) Dry Powder (Special Powders)
f) Foam (AFFF)
g) Carbon Dioxide
h) Wet Chemical
i) Fire Blanket
j) Hose Reel
k) Fire Bucket
l) Water Extinguisher
m) Signal Red
Best For
Fires involving organic solid materials such as wood, cloth, paper, plastics, coal etc.
Danger
Do not use on burning fat or oil or on electrical appliances.
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How to Use
Point the jet at the base of the flames and keep it moving across the area of the fire.
Ensure that all areas of the fire are out.
How it Works
Water has a great cooling effect on the fuel’s surface and thereby reduces the pyrolysis
rate of the fuel.
Water Spray Extinguisher (Water with additive)

Water Extinguisher Signal Red
Best For
Fires involving organic solid materials such as wood, cloth, paper, plastics, coal etc.
These offer significantly improved firefighting capability compared to traditional jet type
water fire extinguishers. Available in 3 and 6 liters.
Danger
Do not use on burning fat or oil or on electrical appliances.
How to Use
Ensure that all areas of the fire are out.
How it Works
Water has a great cooling effect on the fuel’s surface and thereby reduces the
pyrolysis rate of the fuel. Instead of a jet nozzle, a spray nozzle is used, with a higher
pressure, which creates a fine spray. This allows for a given quantity of water to have a
considerable increase in the surface area presented to the fire. This makes
extinguishing more efficient by more rapid extraction of heat, the formation of steam etc.
They can also contain surfactants which help the water penetrate deep into the burning
material which increases the effectiveness of the extinguisher.
Water Mist Extinguisher (‘Dry’ Water Mist)

Signal Red on a White Background
Best For
The first broad-spectrum extinguisher to tackle A, B, C rated risks as well as fats

and deep fat fryers (Class F). Models with a dielectric test to 35k Volts can be safely
used on electrical fires (up to 1000 Volt) if a safety distance of 1m is adhered to, as their
mist (de-ionized water) does not conduct electricity and the extinguisher does not
normally form puddles, which could conduct electricity. The Ultra Fire water mist
extinguishers also contain only de-ionized water which cannot carry an electric current.
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Danger
Water mist extinguishers are safe for discharge on all fire classifications bar Class D
blazes.
How to Use
Ensure that all areas of the fire are out. The fire draws the microscopic water particles
into the fire.
How it Works
Water is turned into microscopic particles in the supersonic nozzle. The water mist is
drawn to the fire where it cools and suffocates the fire. The mist also forms a safety
barrier between user and fire, which keeps some of the heat back.
Powder Extinguisher (Multi-Purpose)

Dry Powder Extinguisher Blue
Best For
Can be used on fires involving organic solids, liquids such as grease, fats, oil, paint,
petrol, etc , but not on-chip or fat pan fires. Can also be used on gas fires.
Danger
Safe on live electrical equipment, although does not penetrate the spaces in
equipment easily and the fire may re-ignite. This type of extinguisher does not cool the
fire very well and care should be taken that the fire does not flare up again.
The smoldering material in deep-seated fires such as upholstery or bedding can

cause the fire to start up again. Do not use on a domestic chip or fat pan fires. There is
a danger of inhalation if powder extinguishers are used within buildings. Due to this, and
the potential for the powder to impair vision, powder extinguishers are no longer
recommended for use within enclosed spaces.
How to Use
Point the jet or discharge horn at the base of the flames and, with a rapid
sweeping motion, drive the fire towards the far edge until all the flames are out. If the
extinguisher has a hand control, wait until the air clears and if you can still see the
flames, attack the fire again.
How it Works
Similarly, to almost all extinguishing agents the powder acts as a thermal ballast
making the flames too cool for the chemical reactions to continue. Some powders also
provide a minor chemical inhibition, although this effect is relatively weak. These
powders thus provide rapid knockdown of flame fronts, but may not keep the fire
suppressed.
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Dry Powder Extinguisher (Special Powders)

Extinguishers Blue
Best For
These specialist powder extinguishers are designed to tackle fires involving
combustible metals such as lithium, magnesium, sodium or aluminum when in the form
of swarf or powder.
There are three special powders based on graphite, copper and sodium chloride.
Danger
Do not allow water to come in contact with the burning metal and the powder
must be gently applied. Sodium Chloride is not recommended for Lithium.
How to Use
The lance enables the user to tackle fires at a safe distance. The low-velocity
applicator reduces the energy of the jet allowing the powder to gently smother the
surface of the burning material thus avoiding scattering the high-temperature particles
and stimulating the formation of a crust. The method of application is completely
different from a standard extinguisher and user training is required. They are not
suitable for use on live electrical fires.
How it Works
This extinguisher works by forming a crust which insulates the metal to prevent
access to other combustible material nearby and smothering the fire to prevent oxygen
from the atmosphere reacting with the metal
Foam Extinguisher (AFFF)

Fire Extinguishers Cream
Best For
Fires involving solids and burning liquids, such as paint and petrol but not suitable for
chip or fat pan fires. Safe on fires caused by electricity if tested to 35kV (dielectric test)
and a 1m safety distance is adhered to.
Danger
Do not use on-chip or fat pan fires.
How to Use
For fires involving solids, point the jet at the base of the flames and keep it moving
across the area of the fire. Ensure that all areas of the fire are out. For fires involving
liquids, do not aim the jet straight into the liquid. Where the liquid on fire is in a
container, point the jet at the inside edge of the container or on a nearby surface above
the burning liquid. Allow the foam to build up and flow across the liquid.
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How it Works
They are mainly water based, with a foaming agent so that the foam can float on
top of the burning liquid and break the interaction between the flames and the fuel
surface.
Carbon Dioxide Extinguisher

CO2 Fire Extinguishers Black
Best For
Live electrical equipment, although it allows re-ignition of hot plastics. Now
mainly used on large computer servers, although care has to be taken not to asphyxiate
people when using the extinguisher in small server rooms.
Danger
Do not use on-chip or fat pan fires, as it can carry burning fat out of the container.
This type of extinguisher does not cool the fire very well and you need to ensure that the
fire does not start up again. Fumes from CO2 extinguishers can asphyxiate if used in
confined spaces: ventilate the area as soon as the fire has been controlled. Only use
CO2 extinguishers with frost-free horns, as the hand holding the horn can otherwise be
frozen to the horn, as the gas gets very cold during the discharge.
How to Use
The discharge horn should be directed at the base of the flames and the jet kept
moving across the area of the fire.
How it Works
Carbon dioxide extinguishers work by suffocating the fire. Carbon dioxide
displaces oxygen in the air. However, once discharged, the CO2 will dissipate quickly
and allow access for oxygen again, which can re-ignite the fire.
Wet Chemical Extinguisher

Canary Yellow
Best For
Wet chemical fire extinguishers are ideal for Class F fires, involving cooking oils
and fats, such as lard, olive oil, sunflower oil, maize oil, and butter.
Danger
Check manufacturer’s instructions for suitability of use. These extinguishers are
usually not recommended for class B fires such as petrol, although Gloria has produced
a 3 ltr wet chemical extinguisher with B rating.
How to Use
Apply the wet chemical using the extended applicator in slow circular
movements, which gives a gentle, yet highly effective application. Apply the fine spray
onto the burning fat until the surface of the burning cooking oil changes into a soapy-like
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substance which prevents re-ignition. The gentle application helps to prevent burning oil
splashing out of the container. Make sure that you empty the entire content of the wet
chemical extinguisher onto the oil/fat, as the fire can re-ignite otherwise.
How it Works
Most class F extinguishers contain a solution of potassium acetate, sometimes with
some potassium citrate or potassium bicarbonate. The extinguishers spray the agent
out as a fine mist. The mist acts to cool the flame front, while the potassium salts
saponify the surface of the burning cooking oil, producing a layer of foam over the
surface. This solution thus provides a similar blanketing effect to a foam extinguisher,
but with a greater cooling effect. The saponification only works on animal fats and
vegetable oils so most class F extinguishers cannot be used for class B fires. The
misting also helps to prevent splashing the blazing oil.
Tests have established that a 6-liter wet chemical fire extinguisher with a 75F
rating can deal with a fat fire of maximum 0.11 m2 surface area.
Fire Blanket
Fire Blankets Fire blankets are made of fire-resistant materials. They are useful
for smothering small pan fires or for wrapping around a person whose clothing is on fire.
Fire blankets conforming to British Standard BS EN 1869: 1997 are suitable for use in
the home. BS 7944: 1999 is the specification for specialist heavy duty industrial use.
Fire blankets should generally be disposed of after use.
Best For
Small pan fires where oil or fat has caught fire and clothing fires.
Danger
If the blanket does not completely cover the fire, it will not be able to extinguish
the fire.
While kite marked fire blankets have been successfully tested on deep fat fryers,
modern frying fats are difficult to extinguish with a fire blanket. We, therefore,
recommend wet chemicals for deep fat fryers.
How to Use
Place carefully over the fire. Keep your hands shielded from the fire. Do not waft
the fire towards you.
How it Works
Smothers the fire and prevents oxygen getting to the fire.
Hose Reel
Best for
Fires involving organic solid materials such as wood, cloth, paper, plastics, coal
etc.
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Danger
Do not use on burning fat or oil or on electrical appliances before the electric
supply has been isolated.
How to Use
Point the jet at the base of the flames and keep it moving across the area of the
fire. Ensure that all areas of the fire are out.
How it Works
Water has a great effect on cooling the fuel surfaces and thereby reducing the
pyrolysis rate of the fuel.
Fire Buckets
Fire Buckets A simple bucket of water can be used on Class A type of fires either
to supplement a water extinguisher or as a first attack if an extinguisher is not
immediately available.
It also can be filled with dry sand and used as an absorbing agent or to dam a
flow of flammable liquid. They do have serious disadvantages as they are often
misused, left empty or allowed to be used as a refuse container.
Best For
Wood, Cloth, Paper, Plastics, Coal (if filled with water). Spilled flammable liquids
(if filled with sand)
Danger
Do not use on burning fat or oil or on electrical appliances before the electric
supply has been isolated.
How to Use
Throw at the base of the flames. Ensure that all areas of the fire are out.
How it Works
Water has a great effect on cooling the fuel surfaces and thereby reducing the
pyrolysis rate of the fuel.
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CHAPTER 4
FIREMAN LADDER
Fire Ladder and Fire Escape devices designed to bring firemen and their
equipment to the upper stories of buildings to fight fires and rescue people. The ladders
may be portable or mounted on motor vehicles; fire escapes are permanently mounted.
Portable ladders include folding types (pole ladders), extension types (three-
section ladders), and aerial types (hook ladders). A folding ladder opens to a height of
about 3 m. An extension three-section ladder is 4 to 5 m long when contracted and
extends to a length of about 10 m. An aerial ladder is some 4 m long and has a steel
hook used to suspend the ladder from the windowsill of the next higher story. Among
the fire ladders mounted on motor vehicles are automotive ladders, which can extend to
16, 30, and 45 m, and elbow-type automatically raised ladders, which can extend to 18
and 30 m. A turntable monitor is set on the upper parts of ladders to supply a jet of
water.
Fire escapes are permanently secured to the exteriors of buildings and are
spaced no more than 200 m apart on very long buildings. When intended for evacuating
people, they are of suitable width and steepness, with intermediate landings provided.
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Types of ladder
1. Ground ladders (10 to 55 ft. long)
2. Aerial ladders
Purposes of ladders
a. for rescue
b. to stretch line into a fire building
c. to provide ventilation by giving access to places that are hard to reach
Forms of ground ladders

a. Wall
b. Extension
c. Hook or straight ladder
d. Attic ladder
LADDER TERMINOLOGY
1. Bed ladder - the lowest section of an extension ladder
2. Fly ladder - the top section of an extension ladder
3. Butt - the bottom end of a ladder
4. Heel - the part of the ladder that touches the ground
5. Halyard - a rope or cable used to raised the fly ladder
6. Pawl or dog - the mechanism located at the end of the fly ladder that locks to the
bed ladder
7. Rung - the cross member of the ladder that is used for climbing
8. Top or tip - it is the top part of the ladder
9. Hooks - part of a ladder that is used to hook over a roof peak, sills, or walls
where the heel does not rest on a foundation. (roof type ladders)
10. Stops - made of metal or wood blocks used to prevent the fly of an extension
ladder from extending out further from the ladder
11. Guides - light metal strips of an extension ladder that guides the fly ladder while it
is being raised or lowered
Rope Rescue Techniques: Ladder Hinge
In the last few weeks there has been a particular video circulating through
various online firefighter and rescue groups Rope Rescue Technique-Ladder Hinge that
caught my attention. In the video firefighters are using a ladder, backboard, and rope to
move a patient from a roof or second floor to the ground. Depending where you were
watching this video there were some great comments about thinking outside the box
and using alternative methods to raise and lower patients. There were a large number
of comments that were a little deceiving; comments attributed this rescue technique -- a
ladder hinge -- to the fire department in the video. It's great to see this technique being
used, but by today's standards it may be considered an old school technique. The
ladder hinge gets overlooked or forgotten about when so many people are arguing over
which friction device is the best. Depending on your location in the country or the world
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this technique is still taught, relied upon, and used regularly. For another take on a
ladder hinge rescue see video link below.
It is not my intention to thoroughly train you to use this rope rescue technique;
only to provide a few things to consider in order to operate safely.
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CHAPTER 5
ARSON INVESTIGATIVE GUIDE AND PROCEDURES
ARSON
- the willful and malicious burning of all kinds of buildings and structures including
personal properties
INVESTIGATION
- an art that deals with the identity and location of the offender and provides
evidence of his guilt in criminal proceedings
ELEMENTS OF ARSON
1. Actual burning took place
2. Actual burning is done with malicious intent
3. The actual burning is done by person(s) legally and criminally liable
LAW AND JURISPRUDENCE

The law on arson in the Philippines is covered by Articles 320 to 326 of the
Revised Penal Code, as amended by PD No. 1613, PD No. 1744, and Sec. 50 Rule VIII
IRR of RA 6975 which provides that the Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP) shall have the
power to investigate all causes of fires and, if necessary, file the proper complaint with
the City/Provincial prosecutor who has jurisdiction over arson cases.
LAWS ON ARSON
1. Article 320 – 326 of the Revised Penal Code
- defines arson, its forms and penalties
2. PD 1613 – the law amending the law on arson
- defining the prima facie evidence of arson
3. RA 7659
- An Act to Impose Death Penalty on Certain Heinous Crimes, amending for
that purpose the Revised Penal Code as amended, other special laws, and for
other purposes
4. RA 6975 Sec. 54
- provides that the Fire Bureau shall have the power to investigate all
causes of fires and if necessary file the proper complaint with the City/Provincial
Prosecutor who has jurisdiction over the case
What Constitutes Arson?

1. Burning
2. Willfulness – means intentional and implies that the act was done purposely and
intentionally
3. Malice – denotes hatred or ill will or a desire for revenge; deliberate intention of
doing unjustified harm for the satisfaction of doing it
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4. Motive – the moving because which induces the commission of a crime;

something that leads or influences a person to do something
5. Intent – the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will; an
essential element of crime, motive is not
Why is arson very hard to investigate?
Arson is one of the most difficult offenses to investigate because the arsonist can
be able to set a fire and escape undetected. The fire can consume the scene and
destroy much physical evidence of the offense. Harder forms of evidence are often
buried in debris and grossly altered in appearance.
What Constitutes Burning?

 The mere fact that a building is scorched or discolored by heat is not sufficient
nor will bare intention or even an attempt to burn a house amount to arson, if no
part of it is burned.
 Yet, if there is actual ignition of any part of the building, arson is committed,
although there be no flame or the fire immediately goes out of itself.
 To burn means to consume by fire and in the case of arson, if the wood is
blackened but no fibers are wasted, there is no burning, yet the wood need not
be in flame or blaze, and the burning of any part, however, small is sufficient to
constitute arson, and if the house is charred in a single place so as to destroy the
fibers of the wood, it is sufficient to constitute arson.
What is Attempted Arson?

 In attempted arson, it is not necessary that there be a fire before the crime is
committed. No hard and fast rule is laid down by the law as to the requirements
for attempted arson. The peculiar facts and circumstances of a particular case
should carry more weight in the decision of the case. Thus, a person intending to
burn a wooden structure, collects some rags, soaks them in gasoline and places
them beside the wooden wall of the building. When he is about to light a match to
set fire to the rags, he is discovered by another who chases him away.
 The crime committed is attempted arson, because the offender begins the
commission of the crime directly by overacts (placing the rags soaked in gasoline
beside the wooden wall of the building and lighting a match) but he does not
perform all the acts of execution (the setting of the fire to the rags) due to the
timely intervention of another who chases away) the offender.
What is Frustrated Arson?

 In frustrated arson, the fact of having set fire to some rags and jute sacks soaked
in kerosene oil and placed near the partition of the entire soil of an inhabited
house, should not be qualified as a consummated arson, in as much as no part
of the house had begun to burn, although fire would have started in the said
partition had it not been extinguished on time. The crime committed was
frustrated arson.
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What is Consummated Arson?

 The offender did in fact set fire to the roof of the house and said house was
partially burned. The crime was consummated arson, notwithstanding the fact
that the fire afterwards extinguished for once it has been started, the
consummation of the crime of arson does not depend upon the extent of the
damage caused.
 Setting fire to the contents of a building constitutes the consummated crime of
setting fire to a building even if no part of the building was burned.
Basis of Liability in Arson:

1. Kind and character of the building, whether of public or private ownership.
2. Its location, whether in an uninhabited place or in a populated place.
3. Extent of damage caused; and
4. The fact of its being inhabited or not.
Some of the Arson Evidence that the Investigator should seek at the Fire scene
are the following:
1. Unusually rapid spread of the fire.
2. Where it originated?
3. Separate fires – when two or more separate fires break-out within a building, the
fire is certainly suspicious.
4. Unusual odors – the odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other inflammable
liquids are indicated by their characteristics and oftentimes, arsonists are trapped
because of this tell-tale signs.
5. Objects that appear to be foreign to the scene such as cans, candles, matches,
explosives, electrical appliances such as irons, heating elements, clocks, radios,
flammables, trailers, etc.
6. Charring pattern may indicate fire characteristics. The fact that the fire feeds on
combustible while propagating itself, indicates that the char will generally be
deepest from where the fire originates. When a fire is extinguished quickly, the
charring is only slightly below the surface. Fire burning for a longer period of time
will indicate a char that is deep and pronounced. These facts are most apparent
in the charring of wood as a fire burns. The charring from fire on woods looks like
the hide of a black alligator. Fire extinguished quickly on wood will show a large
alligatoring pattern that has not penetrated the wood to any extent. Fire burning
for a long period of time on wood will show small alligatoring pattern but the char
will go deep into the wood. The direction of fire can also be taken into
consideration with charring. The exposed side of combustible will have a deeper
char than the unexposed side.
7. Evidence of forcible entry or lack of same may be important depending on the
circumstances at the time of the fire. If the investigator determines there was no
forcible entry and finds that the building was secured prior to discovery of the fire,
he can reasonably suspect there is possibility that the person who sets the fire
entered the building with a key. Doors and windows showing signs of forced
entry may point to arson preceded by burglary or arson by someone without a
key to the premises.
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Motives of Arson
Motive
 Motive is the moving because which induces a person to commit a crime.
Is Motive Necessary to be Proven in Criminal Proceedings?

 No. motive is not necessary to be proven in criminal proceedings but once motive
is shown, then intent can easily establish.
 In the crime of arson, the distinction between motive and intent is clearly defined.
INTENT is a material element of arson while motive is not. INTENT is the
purpose of design with which the act is done and involves the will while MOTIVE
is what induces the criminal.
Motive Can Be Established By:

I. Economic Gain
A. Insurance fraud with the assured directly benefiting:
1. Desire to move
– the premises may no longer be desirable because of the condition of the
building, the fact that the quarters are outgrown or because of the locality.
2. Disposing of Merchandise
– the stocks on hand may have lost value by reason of the seasonal nature
of the business, obsolesce, scarcity of materials necessary to complete
the contracts, overstock in the absence of expected order or a changing
market.
3. Property Transaction
– the business itself may no longer be desirable because of impending
liquidation, settlement of an estate of which it is a part, the need for cash,
prospective failure, the comparatively greater value of the land, or the
comparatively greater value of the insurance benefits.
B. Profit by the Perpetrator other than the assured:
1. Insurance agents wishing business
2. Insurance adjusters desiring to adjust a loss by securing a contract
3. Business competitors
4. Persons seeking jobs as protection personnel
5. Salvagers
6. Contractors wishing to rebuild or wreck
Concealment of Crime:
 the arsonists may set fire to a building in order to conceal a projected or
past crime. He may wish to divert attention in order to loot the burning
premises or steal in other places. The burning may be for the purpose of
destroying evidences.
Punitive Measure:
- An arsonist may use fire as a means of punishing another person for reason of
jealousy, hatred or revenge.
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Intimidation or Economic Disabling:

- The fire may be used as a weapon of the saboteurs, the strikers or the
racketeers to intimidate or to disable economically as a step toward forcing
submission to certain demands.
Pyromania
– is the uncontrollable impulse of a person to burn anything without motivation.
Pyromaniacs usually do not run away from the scene of the crime, usually alone
and feel satisfied watching the flame
Types of Pyromaniacs:
1. Abnormal Youth – Epileptics, imbeciles and morons may set fire without knowing
the seriousness of the act.
2. The Hero Type – a person may set fire on a building, subsequently pretends to
discover it and turn in the alarm so that he will appear a hero to the public. A
person may burn a building and endeavor to achieve spectacular rescue in order
to attract the attention of spectators.
3. Alcoholics and Drug Addicts – persons who subject themselves to intense
artificial stimulants such as narcotics sometimes develop a strong urge toward
incendiaries.
4. Sexual Deviates – some sex perverts derive sexual stimulation from setting a fire
and watching the flame. Frequently, he is chronic masturbator who stimulates
and enhances his sexual gratification by means of arson.
Public Disturbance
- an offender may resort to arson as a means of a public disturbance because a
fire attracts people and destruction causes confusion that gives rise to attendant
problems that divert police attention.
Vandalism
– is a general term denoting intentional burning to destroy properties?
In determining motive, a fire investigator concentrates on three major factors:

1. Points of origin of the fire
2. Modus operandi of the arsonist
3. Identify of persons who might benefits from the fire.
Incendiary Materials
6. materials used to start a fire; combustible fuels
1. Arson Chemicals (liquids) – are incendiary materials often used by arsonists as
accelerants. Possess excellent properties. Examples: alcohol, benzene,
petroleum ether, gasoline, kerosene, naptha, turpentine.
2. Gases as acetylene, butane, CO, ethylene, hydrogen, natural gas, propane,
these are common gases resulting in fires from explosion. These when mix with
air possess excellent in ignition properties and when present in an enclosed area
can lead to explosion.
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3. Solids as chlorates, perchlorates, chromates, bichromates, nitrates,

permanganates – are typical families of oxidizing agents which give off oxygen
on decomposition thus aiding in combustion.
FIRE CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
Republic Act No. 9514

- Approved on December 19, 2008
- Repealed PD 1185
- known as the "Revised Fire Code of the Philippines of 2008".
Definition of terms
Abatement - Any act that would remove or neutralize a fire hazard.
Administrator - Any person who acts as agent of the owner and manages the use of a
building for him.
Blasting Agent - Any material or mixture consisting of a fuel and oxidizer used to set off
explosives.
Cellulose Nitrate Or Nitro Cellulose - A highly combustible and explosive compound

produced by the reaction of nitric acid with a cellulose material.
Cellulose Nitrate Plastic (Pyroxylin) - Any plastic substance, materials or compound

having cellulose nitrate (nitro cellulose) as base.
Combustible, Flammable or Inflammable - Descriptive of materials that are easily set on

fire.
Combustible Fiber - Any readily ignitable and free burning fiber such as cotton, oakum,
rags, waste cloth, waste paper, kapok, hay, straw, Spanish moss, excelsior and other
similar materials commonly used in commerce.
Combustible Liquid - Any liquid having a flash point at or above 37.8_C (100_F).
Corrosive Liquid - Any liquid which causes fire when in contact with organic matter or
with certain chemicals.
Curtain Board - A vertical panel of non-combustible or fire resistive materials attached to

and extending below the bottom chord of the roof trusses, to divide the underside of the
roof into separate compartments so that heat and smoke will be directed upwards to a
roof vent.
Cryogenic - Descriptive of any material which by its nature or as a result of its reaction
with other elements produces a rapid drop in temperature of the immediate
surroundings.
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Damper - A normally open device installed inside an air duct system which
automatically closes to restrict the passage of smoke or fire.
Distillation - The process of first raising the temperature in separate the more volatile
from the less volatile parts and then cooling and condensing the resulting vapor so as to
produce a nearly purified substance.
Duct System - A continuous passageway for the transmission of air.
Dust - A finely powdered substance which, when mixed with air in the proper proportion
and ignited will cause an explosion.
Electrical Arc - An extremely hot luminous bridge formed by passage of an electric

current across a space between two conductors or terminals due to the incandescence
of the conducting vapor.
Ember - A hot piece or lump that remains after a material has partially burned, and is
still oxidizing without the manifestation of flames.
Finishes - Materials used as final coating of a surface for ornamental or protective

purposes.
Fire - The active principle of burning, characterized by the heat and light of combustion.
Fire Trap - A building unsafe in case of fire because it will burn easily or because it
lacks adequate exits or fire escapes.
Fire Alarm - Any visual or audible signal produced by a device or system to warm the
occupants of the building or fire fighting elements of the presence or danger of fire to
enable them to undertake immediate action to save life and property and to suppress
the fire.
Fire Door - A fire resistive door prescribed for openings in fire separation walls or
partitions.
Fire Hazard - Any condition or act which increases or may cause an increase in the
probability of the occurrence of fire, or which may obstruct, delay, hinder or interfere
with fire fighting operations and the safeguarding of life and property.
Fire Lane - The portion of a roadway or public way that should be kept opened and
unobstructed at all times for the expedient operation of fire fighting units.
Fire Protective And Fire Safety Device - Any device intended for the protection of
buildings or persons to include but not limited to built-in protection system such as
sprinklers and other automatic extinguishing system, detectors for heat, smoke and
combustion products and other warning system components, personal protective
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equipment such as fire blankets, helmets, fire suits, gloves and other garments that may
be put on or worn by persons to protect themselves during fire.
Fire Safety Constructions - Refers to design and installation of walls, barriers, doors,
windows, vents, means of egress, etc. integral to and incorporated into a building or
structure in order to minimize danger to life from fire, smoke, fumes or panic before the
building is evacuated. These features are also designed to achieve, among others, safe
and rapid evacuation of people through means of egress sealed from smoke or fire, the
confinement of fire or smoke in the room or floor of origin and delay their spread to other
parts of the building by means of smoke sealed and fire resistant doors, walls and
floors. It shall also mean to include the treatment of buildings components or contents
with flame retardant chemicals.
Flash Point - The minimum temperature at which any material gives off vapor in
sufficient concentration to form an ignitable mixture with air.
Forcing -A process where a piece of metal is heated prior to changing its shape or
dimensions.
Fulminate - A kind of stable explosive compound which explodes by percussion.
Hazardous Operation/Process - Any act of manufacturing, fabrication, conversion, etc.,

that uses or produces materials which are likely to cause fires or explosions.
Horizontal Exit - Passageway from one building to another or through or around a wall
in approximately the same floor level.
Hose Box - A box or cabinet where fire hoses, valves and other equipment are stored
and arranged for fire fighting.
Hose Reel - A cylindrical device turning on an axis around which a fire hose is wound
and connected.
Hypergolic Fuel - A rocket or liquid propellant which consists of combinations of fuels

and oxidizers which ignite spontaneously on contact with each other.
Industrial Baking And Drying - The industrial process of subjecting materials to heat for
the purpose of removing solvents or moisture from the same, and/or to fuse certain
chemical salts to form a uniform glazing the surface of materials being treated.
Jumper - A piece of metal or an electrical conductor used to bypass a safety device in

an electrical system.
Occupancy - The purpose for which a building or portion thereof is used or intended to
be used.
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Occupant - Any person actually occupying and using a building or portions thereof by
virtue of a lease contract with the owner or administrator or by permission or sufferance
of the latter.
Organic Peroxide - A strong oxidizing organic compound which releases oxygen readily.
It causes fire when in contact with combustible materials especially under conditions of
high temperature.
Overloading - The use of one or more electrical appliances or devices which draw or
consume electrical current beyond the designed capacity of the existing electrical
system.
Owner - The person who holds the legal right of possession or title to a building or real
property.
Oxidizing Material - A material that readily yields oxygen in quantities sufficient to

stimulate or support combustion.
Pressurized Or Forced Draft Burning Equipment - Type or burner where the fuel is
subjected to pressure prior to discharge into the combustion chamber and/or which
includes fans or other provisions for the introduction of air at above normal atmosphere
pressure into the same combustion chamber.
Public Assembly Building - Any building or structure where fifty (50) or more people
congregate, gather, or assemble for any purpose.
Public Way - Any street, alley or other strip of land unobstructed from the ground to the
sky, deeded, dedicated or otherwise permanently appropriated for public use.
Pyrophoric - Descriptive of any substance that ignites spontaneously when exposed to
air.
Refining - A process where impurities and/or deleterious materials are removed from a
mixture in order to produce a pure element of compound. It shall also refer to partial
distillation and electrolysis.
Self-Closing Doors - Automatic closing doors that are designed to confine smoke and
heat and delay the spread of fire.
Smelting - Melting or fusing of metallic ores or compounds so as to separate impurities

from pure metals.
Sprinkler System - An integrated network of hydraulically designed piping installed in a

building, structure or area with outlets arranged in a systematic pattern which
automatically discharges water when activated by heat or combustion products from a
fire.
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Standpipe System - A system of vertical pipes in a building to which fire hoses can be
attached on each floor, including a system by which water is made available to the
outlets as needed.
Vestibule - A passage hall or antechamber between the outer doors and the interior
parts of a house or building.
Vertical Shaft - An enclosed vertical space of passage that extends from floor to floor,
as well as from the base to the top of the building.
INTRODUCTION
Perhaps one of the oldest crimes known is the act of arson. It creates a severe
threat to human life and costs society billions of pesos per year. Although arson can be
defined as the malicious or fraudulent burning of property, it can also be considered a
crime against both persons and property. Furthermore, it receives little media attention
and is difficult to investigate because evidence is difficult to locate, and criminal intent is
difficult to prove. Unlike, other “sensational” media events as murder cases and drug
raids, arson is generally considered a low-priority crime even by law enforcement
agencies. Several explanations can be cited for this.
Arson is a time-consuming and difficult crime to investigate. There is much

misunderstanding about the motives behind the crime of arson. Few arson cases lead
to arrests and conviction.
Although many of these are committed as pranks by teenagers, many are the
work of professional arsonists or torches. Arson considered as the most expensive
crime committed. The high cost and widespread misunderstanding associated with the
crime of arson can be attributed to several factors, which include:
• A lack of public education concerning the problem of arson

• A reluctance on the part of prosecutors to file arson cases that rely on
circumstantial evidence
• Quick payments on fire losses by insurance companies
• A lack of adequate training for investigators
Many arson crime scenes are not recognized or created as such, and much evidence is
destroyed. Despite the fact that many of the preceding considerations are no longer
considered as great of a problem as they used to be, arson still accounts for substantial
losses to victims. The valuable evidence is sometimes destroyed during the blaze; it is
often difficult to determine that an arson fire was committed. Other complicating factors
include the fact that there are few, if any, witnesses to the crime, physical evidence is
difficult to locate, and if the crime is executed properly, it is difficult to determine the
fire’s point of origin. Finally, often it is the victim of the fire who ends up being the
perpetrator of the crime. For these reasons arson investigation is one of the more
difficult crimes to solve.
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ELEMENTS OF THE CRIME
As with all crimes, the elements must be established before a criminal charge
can be levied against the suspect. As with most other crimes, the elements of arson
differ from one state to the next, but some commonalities do exist.
ELEMENTS OF ARSON
1. A person knowingly damages a building or property of another, by

2. Starting a fire or explosion or
3. Procuring or causing such property to be burned
LEGAL CATEGORIES
Arson is also legally characterized by two distinct categories: aggravated arson

and simple arson.
Aggravated arson is the deliberate burning of property while creating an imminent
danger to human life or risking great bodily harm.
Conversely, simple arson, a lesser offense, is the burning of property that does not
result in such a risk to human life. In addition to aggravated and simple arson, most
states have recognized that attempted arson is also punishable under law.
THE POLICE AND FIRE ALLIANCE
Once a fire is determined to have a suspicious origin, investigators from the local
fire and police departments as well as the victim’s insurance company will become
involved with the case. Problems and confusion will sometimes unfold if investigators
from these agencies fail to understand differences in their roles. The traditional role of
the fire department is to investigate every fire for cause and origin.
When suspicious fires are discovered, however, it is generally while it is being

extinguished. So what, then, is the role of the firefighter? As a rule, it is threefold:
1. To extinguish the fire

2. To investigate the origin of the fire, and
3. To detect the possibility of arson but not to investigate arson.
Few fire departments in the country have legal authority to investigate arson fires,
although their assistance in such an investigation is not disputed.
When the fire investigation becomes a question of who committed the crime, the
matter then becomes a law enforcement concern. This is critical because once it is
determined that law enforcement should take over the investigation, fire investigators
should yield the crime scene to the arson investigators and respond to them in an
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adjunct role. Immediate abeyance of this principle will minimize confusion and
duplication of efforts at the crime scene.
The police investigator has a statutory role in investigating the arson, as it is a

violation of state or federal law. The principal goal of the police investigation in an arson
case it to identify the perpetrator(s) of the crime and to identify and secure sufficient
evidence to prosecute and convict.
Finally, the role of the insurance investigator is to make a determination as to

whether or not the insurance company owes payment for the fire loss. The insurance
investigator is not a law enforcement officer. In kind, most insurance companies state
that coverage is void if the company’s investigation proves arson or fraud.
ARSON INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES
The act of arson has been described as a stealthy, cowardly crime that, by its
very nature, leaves very little direct evidence as to the identity of the arsonist. Many
arsonists fail to cover their tracks adequately and may therefore leave some type of
evidence behind. For example, in much commercial arson, the suspect leaves the paper
trail that investigator can follow. This includes financial records, inflated insurance
coverage, little or no inventory, and excessive debts. In an ideal situation, the arsonist
will either be convicted, through the use of well-documented motives and opportunity, or
might be willing to cooperate with authorities in identifying accomplices, motives, and
prior victims.
THE PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION
The preliminary investigation of arson begins basically like many other crimes,
with a thorough examination of the crime scene. Arson does not have been immediate
corpus delecti. It is, therefore, the responsibility of the investigator to prove that a
specific fire did occur and that it was ignited deliberately. To accomplish this, both direct
and circumstantial evidence can be used to show that the fire was ignited. Such
evidence, however, may not reveal the opportunity or motive of the fire setter. As with
most crimes, motive is important, but the key responsibility of the arson investigator it to
connect the suspect with the crime scene regardless of motive.
Note: the first step in the arson investigation is to determine the origin of the fire.
IDENTIFY THE POINT OF ORIGIN
The first step in the investigation is to determine the fire’s point of origin. This
may be the most critical phase of the investigation, which includes the ruling out of
natural or accidental causes. The materials used in the setting of the fire along with the
type of material being burned, may show a distinct burn pattern. Hence it is important to
identify the point at which the fire originated, for it is here that most of the physical
evidence can be located indicating a fire of incendiary nature. The fire’s point of origin
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may be determined in several ways. The questioning of witnesses could reveal the
necessary information. In addition, an inspection of the ruins at the fire scene might
reveal valuable evidence.
SEARCH FOR FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS
A search for liquid accelerants should be conducted at all arson crime scenes.
The identification of liquid accelerants can generally be used to trace the fire’s point of
origin successfully. Detecting the odor of such accelerants may be the investigator’s first
clue. It is important, therefore, for investigators to be timely in their arrival at the crime
scene because such odors dissipate quickly. One technique to detect the presence of
flammable liquids is to place suspected residue in water and look for a thin film to float
in the surface of the water. The formation of this film is reasonable grounds for
suspecting that flammable liquids are present.
OBSERVE THE SPAN OF THE FIRE
Determining the time span of the fire is also the paramount importance. Although
the majority of evidence collection is conducted at the crime scene, much can be
learned simply by observing the fire. Specifically, physical characteristics of the fire such
as smoke, direction, flames, and distance of travel are important. Immediately after the
fire is extinguished, samples of debris should be collected that might have been the
material used for starting the fire. When the rubble is being cleaned up, investigators
should be present to observe any additional evidence that might be uncovered.
PHOTOGRAPH THE SCENE
Complete photographs of the structure should be taken to help preserve the

crime scene for the courtroom. This makes a record of the condition of the scene at the
time the fire was extinguished. When taking photos, the investigators should focus on
the location of rags, large amounts of paper, cans, or empty receptacles that might have
been used in setting the fire.
IDENTIFY THE SCENE
Finally, identifying the areas of plants (preparations used to set the fire) and
trailers (materials used to spread the fire) can reveal important clues to the investigator.
Plants: These include newspapers, rags, and other flammable waste material.
Trailers: Materials used in spreading the fire. These include gunpowder, rags soaked in
flammable liquid, and flammable liquids such as gasoline, kerosene, and alcohol.
QUESTION WITNESSES
Witnesses also play an important role in determining causes of the fire and
possible suspects. Questions to be asked of the witnesses include:
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Carlito C. Pijano
• Who are you, and why were you present at the fire?
• What attracted your attention at the fire?
The witnesses’ observations of the intensity, color, and direction of the fire may also
prove to be of great value. Certainly, the observations of witnesses should only be
viewed as information to give the investigator a lead as to where to begin looking for
evidence. The actual point of origin, of course, must be determined by a thorough
examination of the premises.
OBSERVE ALLIGATORING
The term alligatoring refers to the pattern of crevices formed by the burning of a
wooden structure. Resembling the skin of an alligator, this pattern reveals minimum
amount of charring, with alligatoring is large segments, when a fire is extinguished
rapidly. As the fire continues to burn, the alligatoring will become smaller with charring
becoming deeper.
TYPES OF EVIDENCE IN ARSON CASES
1. Evidence of incendiary origin. The basic type of evidence in this category is

physical evidence (e.g., laboratory analysis of fire debris), expert observation of burn
patterns and fire characteristics, and negative corpus evidence (e.g., elimination of
accidental causes).
2. Evidence of motive. In fraud cases, this can involve complex analysis of financial
and property records. Here a distinction can be made between evidence of a general
hostility (e.g., a previous augment) be important in cases involving a pyromaniac and
vandalism, which are frequently irrational acts.
3. Evidence linking a suspect to the commission of arson. Direct linkage, such as
eyewitness testimony or a confession, is clearly preferable to circumstantial linkages,
which simply reflects opportunity.
In a fire crime scene, liquids tend to flow downward and pool around fixed objects such
as furniture. Their trails, however, are relatively easy to trace and provide the
investigator with good evidence. An accelerant such as gasoline, kerosene, or alcohol
can be traced from the point it was spilled to the lowest point of flow. At times, unburned
amounts of these liquids may be found at low points, where the heat was not intense
enough for ignition.
OTHER CLUES IN ARSON
Many things can indicate that a fire of suspicious origin was arson. In one
example, many fires were set at the scene, but evidence showed that each was set
independently, with no proof of spontaneous combustion. Other clues include the door
of flames and smoke, the size of the fire, or the odors emitted from it.
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Carlito C. Pijano
FLAMES
The color of the flame is noteworthy in the early phases of a fire. For instance, a
blue-orange flame represents burning alcohol. Certainly, if this material is not normally
stored on the premises, one could assume that it was used as the accelerant in the fire.
Information as to the description of the fire can be gained from witnesses who arrived
on the scene before investigators.
SMOKE
As indicated earlier, smoke can also be of value in determining what substance

was used to start a fire. If smoke can be observed at the beginning of a fire, before
spreading to other parts of a structure, its color should be noted. For example, black
smoke indicates that the material is made with a petroleum base. White smoke,
conversely, indicates that vegetable matter is burning, such as straw or hay. In the
event that the structure is completely engulfed in flames, it will be difficult to make
determination as to what materials are being burned.
THE FIRE’S SIZE
Depending on certain factors, such as the time element of the fire, the size of the
fire might give investigators information to determine an act of arson. For example,
structures that are engulfed in flames in s short period might indicate arson. Fire
investigators recognize that fires of natural origin burn in a definable pattern. Therefore,
fires burning quickly or in a direction that is not logical will indicate that an accelerant
has been used. Factors to aid the investigator in determining the normal course or
pattern for a fire should consider such variables as ventilation and contents of the
structures.
OLFACTORY EVIDENCE
Distinguishable odors can be emitted from certain types of fires that might
indicate a specific starter, such as kerosene, gasoline, and alcohol. These materials
ensure that a fire will erupt, and arsonists expect any evidence of these accelerants to
be destroyed in the fire. Investigators should, therefore, try to detect any odors by using
their own olfactory senses.
MOTIVATIONS OF THE ARSONIST
As a defense attorney once said, “it is not a crime to have a motive”. Indeed,
when an investigator is successful in the collection of evidence to show the insured’s
participation in the crime, along with evidence of a motive showing arson as a
reasonable alternative for the arsonist, a prosecutable case may have been developed.
Once it has been determined that the fire was of incendiary origin, possible motives
must be examined to help the suspect. Motives for arson include:
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Carlito C. Pijano
• Profit
• Revenge
• Vandalism
• Crime concealment
• Pyromania
ARSON FOR PROFIT
The typical arson-for-profit criminal is the businessperson who set’s fire to his or
her business or hires a professional arsonist to do the task. Traditionally, this category
of arson has posed relatively low risk and high profit for the criminal and has virtually
become a business in and of itself.
Economic gain from this type of arson may be either direct or indirect. For
example, a home or business owner will see a direct financial gain when the insurance
company pays the claim. In comparison, an employee in a warehouse who starts a fire
and readily extinguishes it might benefit from a raise or promotion for his her quick and
responsible response and effort in saving the business. As indicated earlier, insurance
fraud is a common motive for arson, perhaps one of the most frequent. A common
method of insurance-related fraud is the purchasing of old run-down building in inner-
city areas. Over a period of several months, shrewd businesspersons then sell and
resell the property.
Each of these transactions raises the value of the property, at least on paper.
The properties are then insured for the highest possible amount. Sometimes the target
of the arsonist is not the building itself but what it contains. A computer dealer, for
example, might remove any computers and software from his or her business and leave
behind computers and software that are outdated or in which they have invested too
much money. Once the fire destroyed the building, the arsonist simply claims the
insurance coverage that covered the burned stock and realizes a market return on the
stock.
Not all arson-for-profit crimes focus on businesses or are perpetuated by people

in big business. Indeed, high car payments or excessive mechanical difficulties with an
automobile may compel the ordinary citizen to automobile arson to collect on the
insurance.
EVIDENCE OF PLANNING OR PREKNOWLEDGE
• Removing items of value from the crime scene before a fire

• Making off-the-cuff remarks or jokes about burning the structure before the fire
• Increasing insurance coverage or obtaining coverage for the first time before the
fire
• Making unusual changes in business practices just before the fire (e.g., closing
earlier or later, having different people lock up)
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Carlito C. Pijano
• Taking obvious actions designed to avoid suspicion such as book-filing for a

banquet that the insured has no intention of carrying out, filing for bankruptcy, and so
on.
Arson for profit can take many forms, so in all circumstances the conditions surrounding
suspicious fires must be investigated thoroughly for possible motives. These motives
should include the possibility that arson was used to cover up another crime, such as
homicide or burglary.
ARSON FOR REVENGE
A high percentage of arsons are attributed to revenge, and spite. People

committing such acts are usually adults who target both individuals and property.
Offenders include jilted lovers in personal relationships, disgruntled employees, feuding
neighbors, persons who were cheated in business and personal transactions, and
persons motivated by racial prejudice. From an investigative standpoint, once revenge
has been identified as a possible motive in the fire, the list of suspects can be narrowed
greatly. From here, care should be exercised in interview and interrogation techniques
to extract sufficient and pertinent information.
ARSON FOR VANDALISM
Not much planning or preparation is required for a fire designated as vandalism.

In addition, readily available materials are commonly used by the arsonist. As we
discuss later, about 95% of the arsons for vandalism are caused by juveniles, owing in a
large part to peer pressure. Statistics show that most violators in this category are
lower-class youths who choose to commit the crime in the morning or early afternoon.
Motives in this category differ from case to case but include vandalism and
revenge. Typically, however, the motive is profit. Indeed, people who have been unable
to contract a professional arsonist have been known to hire juveniles to commit such
acts. Certainly, the juvenile fire starter will work for much less than the professional
torch.
Children of many ages have experimented with fire out of curiosity. Some,
according to theorists, are abused children and set fires as a call for help. Juvenile fire-
setter programs have sprung up around the country to identify these problem children
and to deal with their underlying problems.
ARSON FOR CRIME CONCEALMENT
It is common for some criminals to try to cover up their crimes through the use of
a fire. Murders, burglaries, and other crimes have been concealed through the
employment of this method. Fire investigators must consider this as an alternative
motive for all fires.
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Carlito C. Pijano
PYROMANIA
A pyromaniac is a person who is a compulsive fire-starter. This person is

motivated by several aspects of the fire-setting experience. For example, some experts
claim that the pyromaniac gains sexual stimulation by starting and viewing a fire. In
addition, excitation is achieved by the crowds that gather and the emergency vehicles
that converge on the scene. Pyromaniacs are impulsive fire-setters; their acts are
seldom planned. Investigators can only examine the routes or paths that the fires seem
to establish. Investigators have revealed that the pyromaniac may have a sordid past,
which includes being abused as a child, bedwetting, and cruelty to animals.
PROBLEMS IN ARSON INVESTIGATION
• Locating witnesses
• Locating and preserving physical evidence
• Determining whether the victim is also the suspect
• Coordinating the investigation among police, fire, and insurance agents
• Determining if the fire was arson or had some other cause
SERIAL FIRESETTERS
Serial criminals of any type pose great concerns for communities and law enforcement
officials alike. The serial arsonist can be defined as one who sets fire repeatedly. This
criminal, however, is at somewhat of an advantage because expertise in fire
investigations is not as common as in other crimes. The compulsive fire setting can be
classified as mass, spree, and serial.
• Mass arsonist sets three or more fires at the same location.

• Spree arsonists set at three or more separate locations, with no cooling-off
period between them.
• The serial arsonist sets three or more separate fires with a definite cooling-off
period between them. This period may last for days, weeks, or months.
According to James (1965) in his article “Psychological motives for arson” neither sex,
age, education, intellectual level, nor economic status in any way limits the possibility of
a person to engage in arson. On the other hand, from a study of large samples it does
appear that statistically, persons of certain ages with a certain characteristic are more
apt to set fires than are others.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIRE-SETTER
• Age: typically, around 17 years of age

• Sex: usually male
• Race: predominantly white
• Intelligence: research indicates that fire-setters are often mentally deficient
• Academic performance: most have a history of poor academic performance
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Carlito C. Pijano
• Rearing environment: most appear to come from unstable home environment

within lower socioeconomic levels
• Social relationship: typically experience difficulties in relationship, especially with
women
• Sexual disturbance: usually associated with sexual perversion
• Fire-setting tends to serve as a sexual substitute
• Motive: most typically, revenge is the underlying motive
Collection of Liquid Samples for Accelerant Testing

Liquid accelerants may be collected with
a. New syringe
b. Siphoning device
c. Evidence container itself
d. Sterilize cotton balls or gauge pads may also be used to absorbed the liquid
Where liquid accelerants are believed to have become trapped in porous materials such
as concrete floor:
a. Lime
b. Diatomaceous earth
c. flour
Collection of liquid evidence absorbed by solid materials including soils and sand:
a. Scooping
b. Sawing
c. Scraping
d. Core drilling
Collecting of Solid samples for accelerant testing
Solid accelerant may be common household materials and compounds or dangerous
chemicals. When collecting solid accelerants:
a. The fire investigator must ensure that the solid accelerant is maintained in
physical state in which is found
b. Some incendiary materials remain Corrosive and Reactive
c. Ensure the corrosive nature of these residue does not attack the packaging
container
Collection of Gaseous samples

Method of Collection:
a. Use of commercially available mechanical sampling device
b. Utilization evacuated air sampling cans. These cans are specifically designed for
taking gaseous samples
c. Use of clean glass bottled filled with distilled water. Distilled water use as it has
had most of the impurities removed from it. This method simply require the
investigator poured the distilled water out of its bottle in the atmosphere to be
sampled. As distilled water leaves the bottle it is replaced by the gaseous sample
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Carlito C. Pijano
Guide on Interpreting the Damage on Electrical Wire
Collection of Electrical Equipment’s and Components

Before wires are cut, a photograph should be taken of the wires, and the both ends of
the wire should be tagged and cut so that they can be identified as one of the following:
a. The device or appliance to which it was attached or from which it was severed
b. The circuit breaker or fuse number or location to which the wire was attached or
from which it was severed
c. The wire’s path or the route it took between the device and the circuit protector,
electrical switches, receptacles, thermostats, relays, junction boxes, electrical
distribution panels, and similar equipment and components are often collected as
physical evidence.
43

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CDI 6 – FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

THE ELEMENTS OF FIRE

ELEMENTS OF FIRE OR TRIANGLE OF FIRE

- Oxygen (oxidizing agent)

Each component of the tetrahedron must be in place for combustion to

OXYGEN (Oxidizing Agent)

250 482 Charring of natural cotton begins

When any combustible is in contact with oxygen, oxidation occurs. The

SELF-SUSTAINED CHEMICAL REACTION

STAGES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF FIRE

THREE (3) STAGES OF FIRE

2. Free burning phase

2. FREE BURNING PHASE

Heat is by-product of combustion that is of significant importance to the

Material Ignition Temperature

D. UNDETERMINED FIRE CAUSE

- whenever the cause cannot be proven, the proper classification is

II. BASED ON BURNING FUEL

Fire Classes in the United Kingdom and Europe

Fire Classes in Australia and Asia

Fire Classes in the U.S.A. (NFPA)

Strategies Used in Firefighting:

Factors to Consider in Extinguishment:

Factors to determine the location for the opening:

ADDITIONAL BASIC TACTICS USED IN EXTINGUISHING FIRE

1. RESCUE - any action taken by the firefighters to remove occupants/ persons

"Extinguisher" redirects here. Extinguisher may also refer to a candle snuffer.

A fire extinguisher is an active fire protection device used to extinguish or control

Water Spray Extinguisher (Water with additive)

Water Mist Extinguisher (‘Dry’ Water Mist)

The first broad-spectrum extinguisher to tackle A, B, C rated risks as well as fats

Powder Extinguisher (Multi-Purpose)

The smoldering material in deep-seated fires such as upholstery or bedding can

Dry Powder Extinguisher (Special Powders)

Foam Extinguisher (AFFF)

Carbon Dioxide Extinguisher

Wet Chemical Extinguisher

Forms of ground ladders

Rope Rescue Techniques: Ladder Hinge

LAW AND JURISPRUDENCE

What Constitutes Arson?

4. Motive – the moving because which induces the commission of a crime;

Why is arson very hard to investigate?

What Constitutes Burning?

What is Attempted Arson?

What is Frustrated Arson?

What is Consummated Arson?

Basis of Liability in Arson:

Is Motive Necessary to be Proven in Criminal Proceedings?

Motive Can Be Established By:

Intimidation or Economic Disabling:

In determining motive, a fire investigator concentrates on three major factors:

3. Solids as chlorates, perchlorates, chromates, bichromates, nitrates,

FIRE CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES

Republic Act No. 9514

Cellulose Nitrate Or Nitro Cellulose - A highly combustible and explosive compound

Cellulose Nitrate Plastic (Pyroxylin) - Any plastic substance, materials or compound

Combustible, Flammable or Inflammable - Descriptive of materials that are easily set on

Curtain Board - A vertical panel of non-combustible or fire resistive materials attached to