Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Journal of Discrete Mathematics

Volume 2014, Article ID 358792, 12 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/358792

Review Article
Distance Degree Regular Graphs and Distance Degree Injective
Graphs: An Overview

Medha Itagi Huilgol

Department of Mathematics, Bangalore University, Central College Campus, Bangalore 560001, India

Correspondence should be addressed to Medha Itagi Huilgol; [email protected]

Received 29 June 2014; Revised 25 October 2014; Accepted 28 October 2014; Published 8 December 2014

Academic Editor: Luisa Gargano

Copyright © 2014 Medha Itagi Huilgol. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The distance 𝑑(V, 𝑢) from a vertex V of 𝐺 to a vertex 𝑢 is the length of shortest V to 𝑢 path. The eccentricity 𝑒(V) of V is the distance to a
farthest vertex from V. If 𝑑(V, 𝑢) = 𝑒(V), (𝑢 ≠ V), we say that 𝑢 is an eccentric vertex of V. The radius rad(𝐺) is the minimum eccentricity
of the vertices, whereas the diameter diam(𝐺) is the maximum eccentricity. A vertex V is a central vertex if 𝑒(V) = rad(𝐺), and a vertex
is a peripheral vertex if 𝑒(V) = diam(𝐺). A graph is self-centered if every vertex has the same eccentricity; that is, rad(𝐺) = diam(𝐺).
The distance degree sequence (dds) of a vertex V in a graph 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) is a list of the number of vertices at distance 1, 2, ...., 𝑒(V) in
that order, where 𝑒(V) denotes the eccentricity of V in 𝐺. Thus, the sequence (𝑑𝑖0 , 𝑑𝑖1 , 𝑑𝑖2 , . . . , 𝑑𝑖𝑗 , . . .) is the distance degree sequence
of the vertex V𝑖 in 𝐺 where 𝑑𝑖𝑗 denotes the number of vertices at distance 𝑗 from V𝑖 . The concept of distance degree regular (DDR)
graphs was introduced by Bloom et al., as the graphs for which all vertices have the same distance degree sequence. By definition,
a DDR graph must be a regular graph, but a regular graph may not be DDR. A graph is distance degree injective (DDI) graph if
no two vertices have the same distance degree sequence. DDI graphs are highly irregular, in comparison with the DDR graphs. In
this paper we present an exhaustive review of the two concepts of DDR and DDI graphs. The paper starts with an insight into all
distance related sequences and their applications. All the related open problems are listed.

1. Introduction of distance related sequences to be studied for undirected

graphs. Some fundamental results in this direction are due
The study of sequences in Graph Theory is not new. A to Lesniak-Foster [4], Ostrand [5], Behzad, and Simpson
sequence for a graph acts as an invariant that contains a [6], which primarily deal with the conditions for graphical
list of numbers rather than a single number. A sequence eccentric sequences. The minimal eccentric sequences were
can be handled and studied as easily as a single numerical mainly studied by Nandakumar [7]. But, for digraphs, the
invariant, but a sequence carries more information about the eccentric sequences were studied quite late. We can find some
graph it represents. There are many sequences representing a papers in 2008 due to Gimbert and Lopez [8].
graph in literature, namely, the degree sequence, the eccentric Next distance based sequences were the path degree
sequence, the distance degree sequence, the status sequence, sequences and distance degree sequences. These were studied
the path degree sequence, and so forth. A sequence S is said by Randic [9] for the purpose of distinguishing chemical
to be graphical if there is a graph which realizes S. Degree isomers by their graph structure. Path degree sequence of a
sequences of graphs were the first ones to be studied, as the graph has its application in describing atomic environments
question of realizability of any sequence for a graph was a fun- and in various classification schemes for molecules.
damental one. An existential characterization was given by We will now define all the terms that give graph theoretic
Erdos and Gallai [1]. Then the constructive characterization expressions for the above discussed cases.
was found independently by Havel [2] and later by Hakimi For all undefined terms we refer to [10].
[3] that is now referred to as the Havel and Hakimi algorithm. Let 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) denote a graph with the set of vertices
The eccentric sequences were the next and the first in the class 𝑉, whose cardinality is the order 𝑝 and two element subsets
2 Journal of Discrete Mathematics

of 𝑉, known as edges forming 𝐸, whose cardinality is size 𝑞.

Unless mentioned otherwise, in this article, by a graph we
mean an undirected, finite graph without multiple edges and
self-loops.
The distance 𝑑(V, 𝑢) from a vertex V of 𝐺 to a vertex 𝑢 is
the length of shortest V to 𝑢 path. The degree of a vertex V is
the number of vertices at distance one. Figure 1
The sequence of numbers of vertices having degree 0, 1,
2, 3, . . . is called the degree sequence, which is the list of the
degrees of vertices of 𝐺 in nondecreasing order.
The eccentricity 𝑒(V) of V is the distance to a farthest vertex DDS(𝐺) = ((1, 1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 2), (1, 3, 1), (1, 2, 1, 1)2 ) and
from V. PDS(𝐺) = ((1, 1, 1, 2, 2), (1, 2, 2, 2), (1, 2, 3, 2, 1)2 , (1, 3, 3)).
The minimum of the eccentricities is the radius rad(𝐺) If we consider the 3-dimensional cube 𝑄3 as an example,
and the maximum diameter of 𝐺, diam(𝐺). we will get DDS(𝑄3 ) = ((1, 3, 3, 1)8 ) and PDS(𝑄3 ) = ((1, 3, 6,
A graph 𝐺 is said to be self-centered if all vertices have the 12, 12, 12)6 ).
same eccentricity. In [12], Kennedy and Quintas have examined how the
If 𝑑(V, 𝑢) = 𝑒(V), (𝑢 ≠ V), we say that 𝑢 is an eccentric distance degree sequences relate to embedding trees in
vertex of V. lattice-graphs and other spaces as well as the consequential
The eccentric sequence of a connected graph 𝐺 is a list of relations to physical theories. Chemists have also proposed
the eccentricities of its vertices in nondecreasing order. and discussed other sequences for this purpose. Their objec-
The distance and path degree sequences of a vertex tive and hope are to develop a “chemical indicator” which
are generalizations of the degree of a vertex. The distance would be useful both for the graph isomorphism problem
degree sequence (dds) of a vertex V in a graph 𝐺 is a list and to predict various properties of the molecule at hand. In
of the number of vertices at distance 1, 2, . . . , 𝑒(V) in that this connection, Randic [9] proposed the structural similarity
order, where 𝑒(V) denotes the eccentricity of V in 𝐺. Thus, depending on the graph property as follows.
the sequence (𝑑𝑖0 , 𝑑𝑖1 , 𝑑𝑖2 , . . . , 𝑑𝑖𝑗 , . . .) is the distance degree
Conjecture 1 (see [9]). Between pairs of atoms in acyclic
sequence of the vertex V𝑖 in 𝐺 where 𝑑𝑖𝑗 denotes the number structures there is a unique path so that the number of paths
of vertices at distance 𝑗 from V𝑖 . The 𝑝-tuple of distance of a given length corresponds to the number of neighbors at a
degree sequences of the vertices of 𝐺 with entries arranged given distance.
in lexicographic order is the distance degree sequence (DDS)
of 𝐺. Similarly, we define the path degree sequence (pds) of This can be rephrased in graph theoretic terms as follows.
V𝑖 as the sequence (𝑝𝑖0 , 𝑝𝑖1 , 𝑝𝑖2 , . . . , 𝑝𝑖𝑗 , . . .) where 𝑝𝑖𝑗 denotes
the number of paths in 𝐺 of length 𝑗 having V𝑖 as the initial Conjecture 2 (see [9]). For a connected graph 𝐺, 𝐷𝐷𝑆(𝐺) =
vertex. The ordered set of all such sequences arranged in 𝑃𝐷𝑆(𝐺) if and only if 𝐺 is a tree.
lexicographic order is called the path degree sequence (PDS)
of 𝐺. Clearly, for any graph 𝑑𝑖𝑗 ≤ 𝑝𝑖𝑗 . A nonassertive proof was given by Quintas and Slater [13].
Hence, this kind of study leads to the problem of finding
The distance distribution of 𝐺 is the sequence (𝑑1 , 𝑑2 , . . ., the smallest order for which there exists a pair of noniso-
𝑑𝑗 , . . .), where 𝑑𝑗 is the number of pairs of vertices in 𝐺 that morphic graphs which are equivalent relative to some set of
are at distance 𝑗 apart. graphical invariants. So the following conjecture was made in
The status 𝑠(V) of a vertex V in 𝐺 is the sum of the distances line with the above conjecture by Randic [9] that sought for
from V to all other vertices in 𝐺. This concept was introduced graph isomorphism by comparing their sequences.
by Harary [11]. Thus, using the distance degree sequence of V𝑖 ,
we have 𝑠(V𝑖 ) = ∑diam(𝐺) 𝑗𝑑𝑖𝑗 . Conjecture 3 (see [9]). Two graphs 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 are isomorphic
𝑗=1
if and only if 𝑃𝐷𝑆(𝐺1 ) = 𝑃𝐷𝑆(𝐺2 ).
The median 𝑀(𝐺) of 𝐺 is the set of vertices with minimum
status. A graph is called a self-median graph if all of its vertices This conjuncture was also shown to be invalid, by citing
have the same status. infinite class of pairs of nonisomorphic trees having the prop-
The status of a vertex is also called the distance at that erty that the two members of each pair have the same path
vertex. The mean distance at the vertex V𝑖 , denoted by MD(V𝑖 ), degree sequence by Quintas and Slater [13]. To extend this
is defined as MD(V𝑖 ) = 𝑠(V𝑖 )/(𝑝 − 1). notion to nontree graphs, the same examples were considered
The mean distance for the graph, denoted by MD(𝐺), is to construct pairs of nonisomorphic graphs having a variety
defined as the mean of the distances between all pairs of of properties and invalidate the conjecture.
vertices of 𝐺; that is, MD(𝐺) = ∑{𝑢,V} 𝑑(𝑢, V)/ ( 𝑝2 ), where 𝑢 As noted above, a tree is not, in general, characterized
and V are vertices of 𝐺. In terms of status, we get MD(𝐺) = by its path (or distance) degree sequence. The least order for
𝑝
∑𝑖=1 (MD(V𝑖 )/𝑝). which there exists a pair of nonisomorphic trees with the
As an illustration consider the graph 𝐺 as shown in same path degree sequence has been shown to be more than
Figure 1. 14 for acyclic alkanes, that is, trees with no vertex of degree
Journal of Discrete Mathematics 3

And this is the only such pair as noted by Quintas and

Slater in [13]. This class of graphs was generalized by Gargano
and Quintas [15] for 𝛽 ≥ 2 as follows.

Theorem 4 (see [15]). If 𝛽 ≥ 2, then there exists a pair

of nonisomorphic connected graphs having the same distance
degree sequence and 𝛽 independent cycles. The smallest order
𝑝 for such a pair is given by 𝑝 = ⌈(3 + √33 + 8𝛽)/2⌉, where ⌈𝑠⌉
denotes the least integer greater than or equal to 𝑠.

Two problems were asked in the same paper.

Problem 5 (see [15]). What is the smallest order 𝑝 for which

there exists a pair of nonisomorphic connected graphs having
the same distance degree sequence and 𝛽 = 0, 1 independent
cycles?
Figure 2: A pair of nonisomorphic trees with the same path degree
sequence. Problem 6 (see [15]). What is the smallest order 𝑝 for which
there exists a pair of nonisomorphic connected graphs having
the same distance degree sequence and 𝛽 ≥ 0 (𝛽 ≠ 2, 3, 4, 5
and 7) independent cycles and such that the graphs have no
vertex with degree greater than four?

With reference to Problem 6, consider the following.

If 𝛽 = 0, then 𝑝 is at least 15 (see Slater [14]; p.17).

If 𝛽 = 1, Gargano and Quintas [15] conjectured 𝑝 =
14.
If 𝛽 = 2, the solution is 𝑝 = 5 (see Figure 3).

For several values of 𝛽 ≥ 3, the solution is the same as

that for Problem 5. Specifically for 𝛽 = 3, 4, 5 and 7 each of
the graphs constructed in the proof of the theorem in [15] has
no vertex of degree greater than four. Thus the open cases are
𝛽 = 0, 1, 6 and 𝛽 ≥ 8.
Figure 3: Smallest order graphs with the same distance degree If one asks for the smallest order for which the dis-
sequence. tance degree sequence fails to distinguish between 𝑘-regular
graphs, there exists the following result due to Quintas and
Slater [13].

Proposition 7 (see [13]). Let 𝑅(𝑘) denote the smallest order

more than 4 and less than or equal to 18 for trees without for which there exist at least two nonisomorphic connected 𝑘-
vertex degree restrictions. regular graphs on 𝑅(𝑘) vertices such that each has the same
On similar lines one can search for pairs of noniso- distance degree sequence. Then 𝑅(𝑘) = 𝑘 + 3, if 𝑘 = 3, 4, 5, . . .
morphic graphs having the same distance degree sequence. and 𝑅(𝑘) does not exist if 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2.
Slater [14] constructed a pair of nonisomorphic 18 vertex
trees having the same distance degree sequence as shown As noted above, there does not exist a pair of nonisomor-
in Figure 2. He had subsequently conjectured that no such phic graphs with the same path degree sequence on less than
smaller order pair exists. Later, Gargano and Quintas [15] 12 vertices. It also follows from the above result that the least
considered the problem with respect to the number of order for which such a 𝑘-regular pair of graphs can exist is at
independent cycles in a graph having the same distance least 𝑘 + 3 for 𝑘 ≥ 3 and that none exist if 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2. Thus the
degree sequence. We can recall that 𝛽 = 𝑞 − 𝑝 + 𝑘, where investigation to produce at least one pair of nonisomorphic
𝛽 is the number of independent cycles, 𝑘 is the number of 𝑘-regular graphs having the same path degree sequence has
components in the graph, and 𝑝, 𝑞 are the order and size, resulted in an open problem.
respectively. For 𝛽 = 0, Slater’s constructions hold good.
For 𝛽 = 1, Gargano and Quintas [15] constructed two pairs Problem 8 (see [13]). For 𝑘 ≥ 3, does there exist a pair of
of graphs on 14 vertices. For 𝛽 = 2, the smallest order nonisomorphic connected 𝑘-regular graphs having the same
pair of nonisomorphic graphs with the same distance degree path degree sequence? If the answer is yes, what is the smallest
sequence is given as in Figure 3. order 𝑅(𝑘) realizable by such a pair?
4 Journal of Discrete Mathematics

In fact, a paper by Slater [14] discusses the counterexam- For example, the three-dimensional cube 𝑄3 = 𝐾2 × 𝐾2 ×
ples to Randic’s conjectures on distance degree sequences on 𝐾2 is a DDR graph having (1, 3, 3, 1) as the distance degree
trees. sequence of each of its vertex. Likewise, cycles, complete
In [16] Bussemaker et al. have investigated all connected graphs are all DDR graphs. Lattice-graphs and infinite order
cubic graphs on 𝑝 ≤ 14 vertices and for each such graph the regular trees are examples of infinite order DDR graphs.
following properties were determined and tabulated: However, in this paper, we consider finite order graphs only.
DDR graphs have peculiar relations to many parameters of
(i) its description by means of its edges and for 𝑝 ≤ 12,
graphs. On one extreme complete graphs are DDR and at the
by a drawing;
other end, there are DDR graphs having identity automor-
(ii) the coefficients of its characteristic polynomial; phism group. If a graph has a vertex-transitive automorphism
(iii) the eigenvalues of its (0, 1)-adjacency matrix; group, then the graph is DDR, but not conversely. And
the properties of DDR graphs being self-centered and self-
(iv) the number of its cycles of length 3, 4, . . . , 𝑝;
median find applications even in operations research. Thus
(v) its diameter, connectivity, and planarity; the study of DDR graphs is interesting.
(vi) the order of its automorphism group. In [19], Bloom et al. have discussed many properties of
DDR graphs. It is clear that the set of DDR graphs of degree
From their table the girth, the circumference, and the ≤2 consists of the following types: (i) a collection of 𝑘 isolated
chromatic number are easily determined. The graphs were vertices, (ii) a collection of 𝑘 disjoint edges; and (iii) 𝑘 copies
classified according to their order and within each such of 𝑛-cycles. Hence, the next result is a fundamental one.
class the graphs were ordered lexicographically according
to their eigenvalues, which for each graph were listed in Proposition 9 (see [19]). Each regular graph of diameter ≤2
nonincreasing order. In addition, a number of observations is DDR and the complement of each regular graph of diameter
concerning the spectral properties of these graphs were made. ≥3 is DDR.
The study was motivated by the importance of cubic graphs
This result ensures that “every regular graph with diame-
and by the search for cospectral cubic graphs. The cubic graph
ter at most two is DDR.” We know that every DDR graph is
generation is looked into by Brinkmann [17]. In [18] Halber-
regular, but the distribution of DDR graphs in regular graphs
stam and Quintas have extended the results of Bussemaker
is not clear. So, the following question is relevant.
et al. [16] mainly considering the sequences associated with
the graphs. In this report they have determined the following Problem 10 (see [19]). What proportion of 𝑘-regular graphs
information for each cubic graph on less than or equal to 14 are DDR?
vertices:
Following constructions help in getting DDR graphs of
(i) its distance degree sequence; arbitrarily chosen diameter and degree. For these methods we
(ii) its distance distribution; require the following terms.
(iii) the mean distance at each vertex;
Definition 11 (see [19]). Let 𝐺 denote a vertex-labeled graph
(iv) the mean distance for the graph; with vertex set 𝑉 = {1, 2, . . . , 𝑝}. For any permutation
(v) its path degree sequence; 𝛼 of 𝑉 the 𝑘-cycle-𝛼-permutation graph of 𝐺, denoted by
𝑘𝐶𝑃𝛼 (𝐺), consists 𝑘 copies of 𝐺 joined by the additional edges
(vi) the number of paths of specified length;
{(𝑖, 𝑗), (𝛼(𝑖), 𝑗+1)}, where (𝑖, 𝑗) is the 𝑖th vertex of the 𝑗th copy
(vii) the total number of paths for the graph. of 𝐺 and 𝑗 + 1 = 1 when 𝑗 = 𝑘.
For each graph a number of other parameters can be
Note that the special case 2𝐶𝑃𝛼 (𝐺) is the 𝛼-permutation
determined from these tables. The radius, the diameter, and
graph of 𝐺, 𝑃𝛼 (𝐺), introduced by Chartrand and Harary [20],
the eccentricity of every vertex can be read directly by noting
if and only if 𝛼 is a permutation of order less than or equal
the length of the appropriate distance degree sequence. By
to 2. Furthermore, 𝑘𝐶𝑃𝑖𝑑 (𝐺) is the cartesian product 𝐶𝑘 × 𝐺
inspection one can determine the order of the center and
of the 𝑘-cycle 𝐶𝑘 and the graph 𝐺. Thus, if 𝐺 is a 𝑛-cycle, it
of the median of the graph. In addition, the computation of
follows that 𝑘𝐶𝑃𝑖𝑑 (𝐶𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝐶𝑃𝑖𝑑 (𝐶𝑘 ).
other parameters is facilitated by making use of the given
So the next result gives a family of DDR graphs.
data.
Proposition 12 (see [19]). If 𝐺 is any DDR graph of diameter
2. Distance Degree Regular (DDR) Graphs 𝑚 and degree 𝐷1 , then (i) 𝑃𝑖𝑑 (𝐺) is a DDR graph of diameter
𝑚 + 1 and degree 𝐷1 + 1 and (ii), for 𝑘 ≥ 3, 𝑘𝐶𝑃𝑖𝑑 (𝐺) = 𝐶𝑘 × 𝐺
Now we have the stage set for the discussion on the highly reg- is a DDR graph of diameter 𝑚 + ⌊𝑘/2⌋ and degree 𝐷1 + 2.
ular class of graphs involving the distance degree sequences,
namely, the distance degree regular graphs. The concept of dis- This result can be extended to 𝑁 iterated cartesian
tance degree regular (DDR) graphs was introduced by Bloom products as shown by the following corollary.
et al. [19], as the graphs for which all vertices have the same
distance degree sequence; that is, for all vertices V of a graph 𝐺, Corollary 13 (see [19]). 𝑃𝑖𝑑𝑁(𝐺) = 𝐾2𝑁 × 𝐺 has diameter 𝑚 + 𝑁
the distance degree sequence is (𝑑𝑖0 , 𝑑𝑖1 , 𝑑𝑖2 , . . . , 𝑑𝑖𝑗 , . . .). and degree 𝐷1 + 𝑁 and 𝐶𝑘𝑁 × 𝐺 ≡ 𝐶𝑘𝑁−1 × 𝐺 has diameter
Journal of Discrete Mathematics 5

Figure 4

𝑚 + 𝑁⌊𝑘/2⌋ and degree 𝐷1 + 2𝑁, where 𝑃𝑖𝑑𝑁(𝐺) = (iii) 𝑑1 = 𝑝 − 6, if and only if 𝐺 is one of the graphs given in
𝑃𝑖𝑑 (𝑃𝑖𝑑𝑁−1 (𝐺)) = 𝐾2𝑁 × 𝐺, as 𝑃𝑖𝑑 (𝐺) = 𝐾2𝑁 × 𝐺, that is, the Figure 4;
𝑁 iterated cartesian products. (iv) 𝑑1 = 2, if and only if 𝐺 = 𝐶6 or 𝐺 = 𝐶7 .
The existence of a DDR graph having diameter 𝑚 is shown The proof of the above theorem is primarily based on the
as follows. following two results.
Proposition 14 (see [19]). There exist DDR graphs having Proposition 17 (see [3]). Every connected self-centered graph
diameter 𝑚 and degree 𝐷1 for all positive integers 𝑚 and 𝐷1 , of order 𝑝 satisfies the inequality Δ ≤ 𝑝 − 2𝑟 + 2, where
except for 𝑚 > 𝐷1 = 1. Δ = Δ(𝐺) and 𝑟 = rad (𝐺) denote, respectively, the maximum
Observe that the only connected 1-regular graph is 𝐾2 . degree and the radius of the graph 𝐺.
But, characterizing DDR graphs of higher diameter is Proposition 18 (see [10]). In a connected graph 𝐺 of order 𝑝
challenging. In [19] the following problem was cited. and radius 𝑟, for any two arbitrarily chosen vertices 𝑢 and V,
the following inequality holds: deg(𝑢) + deg(V) ≤ 𝑝 − 2𝑟 + 4.
Problem 15 (see [19]). Characterize DDR graphs having diam-
eter ≥3. As the diameter three DDR graphs are considered, which
are self-centered graphs, satisfying the inequality, 2 ≤ Δ(𝐺) ≤
Since then there is no answer to this question. A step 𝑝 − 4. In the above theorem, the DDR graphs of regularity
forward was taken by Huilgol et al. [21], where they have 2 are characterized at one extreme and of regularities 𝑝 − 4,
characterized DDR graphs of diameter three with extremal 𝑝 − 5, and 𝑝 − 6 at the other extreme of the above mentioned
degree regularity. They have shown that there are exactly 7 inequality. Using these results, we can find a bound on the
DDR graphs of diameter three of extreme regularity. The order of the graph as 𝑝 ≤ 2𝑖 − 4, with degree regularity 𝑑1 =
following result gives a clear picture about diameter three 𝑝 − 𝑖. Hence, for the degree regularity 𝑑1 = 𝑝 − 𝑖, 𝑖 ∈ {4, 5, 6},
DDR graphs. of a DDR graph of order 𝑝, we get 𝑝 = 6, 8, 10, respectively.
Theorem 16 (see [21]). Let 𝐺 be a DDR graph of diameter three But, in general, the question of characterizing DDR graphs
of regularity 𝑑1 . Then of diameter greater than two still remains open. At least the
existence is answered by Huilgol et al. in [21], by proving the
(i) 𝑑1 = 𝑝 − 4, if and only if 𝐺 = 𝐶6 ; following result.

(ii) 𝑑1 = 𝑝 − 5, if and only if 𝐺 = 𝐶7 ; or 𝐺 = 𝑄3 = 𝐾2 × Theorem 19 (see [21]). For any integer 𝑘, there exists a DDR
𝐾2 × 𝐾2 ; graph of diameter three and regularity 𝑘.
6 Journal of Discrete Mathematics

So, the construction of new families of DDR graphs is very The next result characterizes the normal product of two
interesting. In [22] Huilgol et al. have constructed some more DDR graphs.
DDR graphs of higher diameter and considered the behavior
of DDR graphs under other graph binary operations. In Theorem 26 (see [23]). Normal product 𝐺1 ⊕ 𝐺2 of two graphs
this paper, the authors have given several DDR graphs of 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 is DDR if and only if both 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 are DDR graphs.
arbitrary diameter. Few of them depend on the generalized
lexicographic product of graphs. 3. Relationship with Other Properties
The lexicographic product is defined as follows.
Given graphs 𝐺 and 𝐻, the lexicographic product 𝐺[𝐻] As mentioned earlier, the relation of DDR graphs with other
has the vertex set {(𝑔, ℎ) : 𝑔 ∈ 𝑉(𝐺), ℎ ∈ 𝑉(𝐻)} and two graph properties is relatively an unexplored area. In this section
vertices (𝑔, ℎ), (𝑔󸀠 , ℎ󸀠 ) are adjacent if and only if either 𝑔𝑔󸀠 is we try to relate DDR graphs with some symmetry properties.
an edge of 𝐺 or 𝑔 = 𝑔󸀠 and ℎℎ󸀠 is an edge of 𝐻. Let 𝐺 denote a connected graph with automorphism
group Aut(𝐺). Then, 𝐺 is distance-transitive, if for each
Proposition 20 (see [22]). Let 𝐺 be a DDR graph and let 𝐺𝑖 , quartet of vertices 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑢 and V in 𝐺 such that 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) =
1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑝, be undirected graphs such that |𝑉(𝐺𝑖 )| = 𝑝, for all 𝑑(𝑢, V), there is some 𝛾 in Aut(𝐺) satisfying 𝛾(𝑥) = 𝑢 and
𝑖, 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑝, and then 𝐺[𝐺1 , 𝐺2 , 𝐺3 , . . . , 𝐺𝑝 ], the generalized 𝛾(𝑦) = V.
lexicographic product, is a DDR graph if and only if all 𝐺𝑖 , 1 ≤ 𝐺 is symmetric (1-transitive), if for each quartet of vertices
𝑖 ≤ 𝑝, are regular graphs with the same regularity. 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑢, and V in 𝐺 such that 𝑥 is adjacent to 𝑦 and 𝑢 is adjacent
to V, there is some 𝛾 in Aut(𝐺) satisfying 𝛾(𝑥) = 𝑢 and 𝛾(𝑦) =
This characterizes the generalized lexicographic prod-
V.
ucts. Next result uses the generalized lexicographic product
𝐺 is vertex-transitive, if, for each pair of vertices 𝑥 and 𝑦
to show the existence of a DDR graph of arbitrary diameter.
in 𝐺, there is some 𝛾 in Aut(𝐺) satisfying 𝛾(𝑥) = 𝑢.
Proposition 21 (see [23]). There exists a DDR graph of diam- 𝐺 is edge-transitive, if for each pair of edges {𝑥, 𝑦} and
eter 𝑑 ≥ 3 of order 𝑝 = (2𝑑 + 1)𝑛 and 𝑝 = 2𝑑𝑛, where 𝑛 = 1, {𝑢, V} in 𝐺, there is some 𝛾 in Aut(𝐺) satisfying 𝛾{𝑥, 𝑦} ≡
2, 3, . . .. {𝛾(𝑥), 𝛾(𝑦)} = {𝑢, V}.
𝐺 is distance-regular with diameter 𝑚, if it is a k-regular
Proposition 22 (see [22]). There exists a DDR graph 𝐺 of connected graph with the following property.
diameter 𝑑 such that 𝐺2 is also DDR with diameter 𝑑/2, if 𝑑 There are natural numbers 𝑏0 = 𝑘, 𝑏1 , . . . , 𝑏𝑚−1 , 𝑐1 =
is even and (𝑑 + 1)/2, if 𝑑 is odd. 1, 𝑐2 , . . . , 𝑐𝑚 such that for each pair of vertices 𝑥 and 𝑦 in 𝐺
satisfying 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑗, it follows that
Proposition 23 (see [22]). If 𝐺 is a DDR graph with diameter (i) the number of vertices at distance 𝑗 − 1 from 𝑦 and
𝑑 and regularity 𝑑1 , then the prism of 𝐺 is also a DDR graph adjacent to 𝑥 is 𝑐𝑗 (1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑚);
on 2𝑝 number of vertices with diameter 𝑑 + 1 and regularity
𝑑1 + 1. (ii) the number of vertices at distance 𝑗 + 1 from 𝑦 and
adjacent to 𝑥 is 𝑏𝑗 (0 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑚 − 1).
In [23], Huilgol et al. have constructed higher order DDR In [24] Biggs has listed the results to show that a sym-
graphs by considering the simplest of the products, namely, metric graph is both vertex-transitive and edge-transitive and
the cartesian and normal product. The cartesian product of that a distance-transitive graph is edge-transitive, symmetric,
two graphs 𝐺 and 𝐻, denoted by 𝐺◻𝐻, is a graph with vertex and distance regular. Based on these two results, Bloom et al.
set 𝑉(𝐺◻𝐻) = 𝑉(𝐺) × 𝑉(𝐻); that is, the set {(𝑔, ℎ)/𝑔 ∈ [19] proved the following.
𝑉(𝐺), ℎ ∈ 𝑉(𝐻)}. The edge set of 𝐺◻𝐻 consists of all pairs
[(𝑔1 , ℎ1 ), (𝑔2 , ℎ2 )] of vertices with [𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ] ∈ 𝐸(𝐺) and ℎ1 = ℎ2 Proposition 27 (see [19]). A graph that is vertex-transitive or
or 𝑔1 = 𝑔2 and [ℎ1 , ℎ2 ] ∈ 𝐸(𝐻). distance-regular must be DDR.
And the normal product of two graphs 𝐺 and 𝐻, denoted
by 𝐺 ⊕ 𝐻, is a graph with vertex set 𝑉(𝐺 ⊕ 𝐻) = 𝑉(𝐺) × In the next result Bloom et al. [19] have shown that
𝑉(𝐻); that is, the set {(𝑔, ℎ)/𝑔 ∈ 𝑉(𝐺), ℎ ∈ 𝑉(𝐻)}, and an distance degree regularity is weaker than other symmetry
edge [(𝑔1 , ℎ1 ), (𝑔2 , ℎ2 )] exists whenever any of the following conditions and it is also indicated that other well-studied
conditions hold good: (i) [𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ] ∈ 𝐸(𝐺) and ℎ1 = ℎ2 , (ii) symmetry conditions do not imply DDR.
𝑔1 = 𝑔2 and [ℎ1 , ℎ2 ] ∈ 𝐸(𝐻), and (iii) [𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ] ∈ 𝐸(𝐺) and
[ℎ1 , ℎ2 ] ∈ 𝐸(𝐻). Proposition 28 (see [19]). Distance degree regularity does
not imply edge-transitivity, vertex-transitivity, nor distance-
Theorem 24 (see [23]). Cartesian product of two graphs 𝐺1 regularity. Also, an edge-transitive graph is not necessarily DDR
and 𝐺2 is a DDR graph if and only if both 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 are DDR (and hence neither vertex-transitive, symmetric, nor distance
graphs. transitive).
Lemma 25 (see [23]). Let 𝑆 = {𝐺𝑖 /𝑖 ≥ 2}. If there exists 𝑘 Vertex-transitivity does not imply edge-transitivity, sym-
such that 𝐺𝑘 is self-centered and diam(𝐺𝑘 ) ≥ diam(𝐺𝑖 ) for all metry, nor distance-regularity. Using the following Bloom et
𝑖 ≥ 2 then normal product of all the graphs in 𝑆 is a self-centered al. [19] have shown that a DDR graph is vertex-transitive, but
graph with diameter equal to diam(𝐺𝑘 ). not distance-regular.
Journal of Discrete Mathematics 7

5 u 1
2 y

x
21 11
y 2 v 3
6
z 13 12
20
10
1 4 19
7 14
u
15 9
4 17
3 5 18
9 8
16
8
x
10 6 7

Figure 5 Figure 6

The graph shown in Figure 5 is 𝐶5 × 𝐶3 , which is a DDR is DDR graphs having identity automorphism group. If 𝑘 <
graph. This graph is not distance-regular, as there are two 3, the only 𝑘-regular graph having identity automorphism
vertices adjacent to both 𝑥 and 𝑦, whereas only one vertex group is the singleton graph 𝐾1 , which is trivially DDR.
is adjacent to both 𝑥 and V, given that 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑(𝑥, V) = 2. For 𝑘 ≥ 3, there exist 𝑘-regular graphs having identity
Also, since the edge {𝑢, V} lies on a triangle and {𝑢, 𝑧} does automorphism group. For these the least order realizable has
not, and these two edges are not equivalent, it shows that the been determined by [27–30]. Bloom et al. [19] got the least
graph is not edge-transitive. Hence, it is not symmetric. ordered DDR graphs of identity graphs as the complements
Distance-regularity does not imply vertex-transitivity. of the graphs given in [30]. Hence, they proved the following
This is shown by an example, noted by Biggs, in [24, p. 139] result.
and attributed to Adel’son-Velskii [25], of a distance-regular
graph, hence DDR, with 26 vertices which is not vertex- Proposition 30 (see [19]). If 𝑉(𝑘) is the least order realizable
transitive and, therefore, is neither symmetric nor distance- by a 𝑘-regular DDR graph having identity automorphism
transitive. group, then 𝑉(5) = 10, 𝑉(6) = 11, and for 𝑘 ≥ 7, 𝑉(𝑘) = 𝑘 + 4,
Symmetry implies neither distance-transitivity nor distance- if k is even and 𝑉(𝑘) = 𝑘 + 5, if 𝑘 is odd.
regularity. The former observation is demonstrated by a DDR
example due to Frucht et al. [26]. They showed the impli- For graphs with regularities 3 and 4 the situation is not
cation did not hold for the permutation graph 𝑃𝛼 (8-𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒), clear. Although a least-order 3-regular identity graph has 12
where 𝛼 is the permutation (2, 4)(3, 7)(6, 8). This is the sym- vertices, none of the five graphs (see [30]) satisfying this
metric generalized Petersen graph 𝑃(8, 3). Bloom et al. [19] condition is DDR. Thus, 𝑉(3) ≥ 14. It has also been shown by
demonstrated the second implication by the DDR example Haigh (in a private communication to Bloom et al. [19]) that
𝑃𝑖𝑑2 (6-𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒) = 𝐾22 × 𝐶6 = 𝐶4 × 𝐶6 as shown in Figure 6. This there are no DDR graphs among the 103 cubic identity graphs
graph can be shown to be symmetric by viewing it on a torus. on 14 vertices which are contained in the complete tabulation
But we can show that it is not a distance-regular graph on of cubic graphs on graphs up to 14 vertices given in [16]. Thus,
similar lines as done for the graph of Figure 5, by considering 𝑉(3) ≥ 16. But the existence of a order 10 DDR identity graph
the vertex 𝑥 with the vertices 𝑦 and 𝑢. is shown by Bloom et al. [19]. Also, they posed the following
Bloom et al. [19] have shown that most of the well-studied problem.
symmetry conditions imply the DDR property. For example,
among the four permutation graphs of the 5-cycle, only the Problem 31 (see [19]). If 𝑘 = 3 or 4, do there exist any 𝑘-
most symmetric pair, that is, the 𝑃𝑖𝑑 (5-𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒) and the Petersen regular DDR graphs having identity automorphism group? If
graph, are DDR. So, they posed the following question, to the answer is yes, what is the least order realizable by such
check the effect of symmetry on permutation graphs. graphs?

Problem 29 (see [19]). Which 𝑘-cycle-𝛼-permutation graphs Next we will consider the relation of DDR graphs with a
of a given graph are DDR? binary relation defined on the graph, namely, the eccentric
digraph. The eccentric digraph of a graph or digraph is a
It is interesting to know that although most symmetry distance based mapping, defined on a relation induced by
conditions suffice to make a graph DDR, there are DDR distances in a graph or digraph, that is also represented
examples among the least symmetric graphs. One such class by a graph. Many distance based relations can be found in
8 Journal of Discrete Mathematics

literature in the study of antipodal graphs [31], antipodal

digraphs [31], eccentric graphs [32, 33], and so forth. The
eccentric digraph ED(𝐺) of a graph (or digraph) 𝐺 is the
digraph that has the same vertex as 𝐺 and an arc from 𝑢 to
V exists in ED(𝐺) if and only if V is an eccentric vertex of 𝑢
in 𝐺. Eccentric digraphs were defined by Buckley in [34]. In Figure 7
[22], Huilgol et al. have considered the relations between the
distance degree regular (DDR) graphs and eccentric digraphs.
2
The DDR graphs being self-centered yield symmetric eccen-
tric digraphs. The study of eccentric digraphs involves the
behavior of sequences of iterated eccentric digraphs and they
are studied by Gimbert et al. [35]. Given a positive integer
𝑘 ≥ 2, the 𝑘th iterated eccentric digraph of 𝐺 is written as 1
ED𝑘 (𝐺) = ED(ED𝑘−1 (𝐺)) where ED0 (𝐺) = 𝐺 and ED1 (𝐺) =
ED(𝐺). For every digraph 𝐺 there exist smallest integers 𝑠 > 0
and 𝑡 ≥ 0 such that ED𝑡 (𝐺) = ED𝑠+𝑡 (𝐺). In case of labeled
graphs 𝑠 is called the period of 𝐺 and 𝑡 the tail of 𝐺 whereas
for unlabeled graphs these quantities are referred to as iso-
period, denoted by 𝑠󸀠 (𝐺) and iso-tail, 𝑡󸀠 (𝐺), respectively.
In [22] Huilgol et al. have showed that the unique
eccentric vertex DDR graphs have all their iterated eccentric
digraphs as DDR graphs. In the same paper many results
are proved showing the relation between DDR graphs and
eccentric digraphs.
Proposition 32 (see [22]). There exists a DDR graph 𝐺 such
that ED(𝐺) ≅ 𝐺.
Figure 8
Proposition 33 (see [22]). There exists a DDR graph 𝐺 such
that ED(𝐺) is a disconnected graph each of whose components
is complete bipartite graph. The converse is obvious as there are DDR graphs with
Proposition 34 (see [22]). For a unique eccentric vertex DDR identity automorphism group.
graph, if 𝑝 > 4 then tail = 1, period = 2, and if 𝑝 = 4, tail = 0, As DDR graphs, the characterizations elude DDI graphs.
period = 2. But there are many existential results and examples of DDI
graphs.
Proposition 35 (see [22]). For a given diameter 𝑑(≥ 3), there
exist 2𝑑 − 6 DDR graphs with tail = 1 and period = 1. Theorem 39 (see [36]). A smallest order nontrivial DDI graph
has order 7 and there exist DDI graphs having order 𝑝 for all
Remark 36. The unique eccentric vertex DDR graphs have all 𝑝 ≥ 7.
their iterated eccentric digraphs as DDR graphs.
For nonunique eccentric vertex DDR graphs the problem The smallest order nontrivial identity graph has 6 vertices
remains still open. and there are exactly eight identity graphs on 6 vertices and
these are not DDI. So the least order is 7. Actually, the identity
Problem 37 (see [22]). When do nonunique eccentric vertex tree as shown in Figure 7 is the smallest DDI graph.
DDR graphs have all their iterated digraphs as DDR graphs? The following result shows the existence of a DDI graph
of arbitrary diameter.
4. Distance Degree Injective (DDI) Graphs
Theorem 40 (see [36]). A smallest diameter nontrivial DDI
In contrast to distance degree regular (DDR) graphs the graph has diameter 3 and there exist DDI graphs having
Distance Degree Injective (DDI) graphs are the graphs with diameter 𝑚 for all 𝑚 ≥ 3.
no two vertices of 𝐺 having the same distance degree
sequence (dds). These were also defined by Bloom et al. [36]. The graphs shown in Figure 8 are DDI and have diameter
So these graphs are highly irregular, compared to the DDR 3 and 4, respectively. The graph of Figure 7 is a DDI graph
graphs. But, the other extreme of the DDR graphs as we noted with diameter 5. For DDI graphs of diameter 6, 7, . . . we can
above, to have identity automorphism group, becomes an consider the same graph as shown in Figure 7 and go on
inherent property of DDI graphs, which is evident by the next adding vertices on the left of the path P6 .
result.
Theorem 41 (see [36]). If 𝐺 is a connected DDI graph and
Theorem 38 (see [36]). If 𝐺 is a DDI graph, then 𝐺 has an 𝐺 ≠ 𝐾1 , then the diameter of 𝐺 is bounded by 3 and sharply
identity automorphism group, but not conversely. bounded by |𝐺| − 2.
Journal of Discrete Mathematics 9

a b
1

c d
2

Figure 9

The following theorem is useful in showing that a graph

is not DDI.

Theorem 42 (see [36]). If 𝐺 contains two vertices V1 , V2 with

the same degree and such that no vertex of 𝐺 is further than Figure 10
distance 2 from both V1 and V2 , then 𝐺 is not DDI.
x1 x2 xk−1 xk
a c
Note that the complement of the diameter three graph
shown in Figure 8 is the diameter three identity graph shown
···
in Figure 9. We can see that the above theorem is applicable
for this graph and hence it is not DDI. d
b yk−1
But the picture is not clear when we wish to have a graph y1 y2 yk
and its complement to be DDI.
Figure 11
Problem 43 (see [36]). Does there exist a graph 𝐺 ≠ 𝐾1 such
that 𝐺 and its complement are both DDI?

So the next question was on 𝑘-regular DDI graphs as

posed by Bloom et al. [36].
Figure 12
Problem 44 (see [36]). Does there exist a nontrivial 𝑘-regular
DDI graph?

This problem got resolved by the existence of a cubic DDI Martinez and Quintas [39] found a cubic DDI graph
graph on 24 vertices and having diameter 10 as found in [37]. having diameter 8 and order 22, as in Figure 10. They also
The general existence problem was resolved by Bollobas in showed that if in the graph of Figure 10 the edges ab and cd
[38] where he showed the following. are replaced by the graph shown in Figure 11, one can obtain
a cubic DDI graph with 22 + 2𝑚 vertices and diameter 8 + 𝑚.
Theorem 45 (see [38]). Let 𝑘 ≥ 3 and 𝜖 > 0 be fixed. Set This was further reduced to order 18 and diameter 7 cubic
𝑘 = ⌊(1/2 + 𝜖)(log 𝑝)/ log(𝑘 − 1)⌋. Then, as 𝑝 goes to infinity, graph by Volf [40] by constructing the graph of Figure 12.
the probability tends to one that every vertex V𝑖 in a 𝑘-regular From [18, 36, 37, 39, 40], it follows that
labeled graph of order 𝑝 is uniquely determined by the initial (i) if there is a cubic DDI graph having less than 18
segments 𝑑𝑖0 , 𝑑𝑖1 , 𝑑𝑖2 , . . . , 𝑑𝑖𝑗 of its distance degree sequence. vertices, then its order must be 16;
Since the distance degree sequence of a graph is indepen- (ii) if there is a cubic DDI graph having diameter less than
dent of a labeling, this result shows that almost all 𝑘-regular 7, then its diameter must be 4, 5, or 6.
graphs of order 𝑝 are DDI provided that 𝑝 is large enough. The So all these cases were considered by Huilgol and Rajesh-
problem that remains unresolved is that of finding minimal wari [41] and proved the nonexistence of such a cubic DDI
DDI regular graphs. graph.
In this direction there was one more problem defined by
Halberstam and Quintas [37] as follows. Theorem 47 (see [41]). There does not exist a cubic DDI graph
of order 16 with diameters 4, 5, and 6.
Problem 46 (see [37]). For 𝑘 ≥ 3 what is the smallest
order and/or diameter for which there exists a 𝑘-regular DDI So the graph of order 18 as in [40] shown in Figure 12 is
graph? the smallest order cubic DDI graph.
10 Journal of Discrete Mathematics

On the other extreme, construction of new DDI graphs lattice-graphs or in Euclidean spaces. In chemistry, such
from the smaller order/diameter is also interesting and is constraints appear in the form of postulates concerning the
looked into by Huilgol et al. [23]. In this paper many results minimal energy which can be attained by certain connectivity
are discussed for different products and the behavior of DDI patterns of atoms in space. This approach offers a framework
graphs with respect to these products. ensuring a physical theory to remain self-consistent with
respect to its embedding space requirements. So given the
Theorem 48 (see [23]). If the cartesian product of two graphs distance degree sequence of a graph, it is interesting to see
𝐺1 and 𝐺2 is DDI then both 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 are DDI graphs. whether we can get some information about the embedding
properties of the graph. Hence the next natural question will
But the converse is not true, as the cartesian product of be on embedding a graph in DDR/DDI graph; if not possible,
the DDI graph represented by Figure 7 and diameter 4 DDI then try to find the forbidden class of subgraphs. In this
graph of Figure 8 is not a DDI graph. context two problems were posed by Bloom et al. [36] which
are listed below.
Lemma 49 (see [23]). Let 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 be two DDI graphs. Let
𝐴 = {𝑑𝑑𝑠(𝑢𝑖 )/𝑢𝑖 ∈ 𝑉(𝐺1 )} and 𝐵 = {𝑑𝑑𝑠(V𝑖 )/V𝑖 ∈ 𝑉(𝐺2 )}. If Problem 55 (see [36]). Does there exist a pair of noniso-
|𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| ≥ 2 then 𝐺1 ◻𝐺2 is not DDI. morphic graphs having the same distance degree sequence
and such that one of them is nonplanar with a subgraph
Theorem 50 (see [23]). Let 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 be any two graphs. Let homeomorphic to 𝐾5 and the other graph is planar?
𝑢 be a vertex in 𝐺1 and let 𝑆 be a subset of 𝑉(𝐺2 ) such that no
two vertices of 𝑆 have the same distance degree sequence; then, Problem 56 (see [36]). Does there exist a pair of nonisomor-
no two vertices of {𝑢}×𝑆 have the same distance degree sequence phic graphs having the same path degree sequence and such
in 𝐺1 ◻𝐺2 . that only one of the graphs is planar?

Let 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 be two subsets of 𝑉(𝐺1 ). For each pair (𝑥, 𝑦), At the other extreme Huilgol et al. [42] have considered
with 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆1 and 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆2 we can see that dds(𝑥) ≠ dds(𝑦), the embedding of DDR and DDI graphs. The following result
by applying the Theorem 50. Let 𝑧 ∈ 𝑉(𝐺2 ) be any vertex rules out the forbidden class of subgraphs for DDR graphs by
in 𝐺2 , and then in 𝐺1 ◻𝐺2 , the subsets {(𝑥, 𝑧)/𝑥 ∈ 𝑆1 } and embedding any graph into a DDR graph.
{(𝑦, 𝑧)/𝑦 ∈ 𝑆2 } are such that every pair ((𝑥, 𝑧), (𝑦, 𝑧))/𝑥 ∈
𝑆1 , 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆2 satisfies dds(𝑥, 𝑧) ≠ dds(𝑦, 𝑧). Theorem 57 (see [42]). Any graph can be embedded in a DDR
Similar results are proved for normal product of DDI graph.
graphs.
DDR graphs exhibit high regularity in terms of the
Proposition 51 (see [23]). If the normal product 𝐺1 ⊕ 𝐺2 of vertices and their distance distribution. If we relax one vertex
two graphs is DDI then both 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 are DDI. to have different distance degree sequence, then we call such
a graph an almost distance degree regular graph, or in short,
As in the case of cartesian product, the normal product an ADDR graph. Similarly, we define ADDI graphs.
of two DDI graphs need not be DDI and the same example
serves the purpose. Definition 58 (see [42]). A graph 𝐺 of order 𝑝 is said to
be almost DDR if 𝑝 − 1 vertices have the same distance
Lemma 52 (see [23]). Let 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 be two DDI graphs. Let degree sequence and one vertex with different distance degree
𝐴 = {𝑑𝑑𝑠(𝑢𝑖 )/𝑢𝑖 ∈ 𝑉(𝐺1 )} and 𝐵 = {𝑑𝑑𝑠(V𝑖 )/V𝑖 ∈ 𝑉(𝐺2 )}. If sequence.
|𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| ≥ 2 then 𝐺1 ⊕ 𝐺2 is not DDI.
Definition 59 (see [42]). A graph 𝐺 of order 𝑝 is said to be
Proposition 53 (see [23]). Let 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 be any two graphs. almost DDI if 𝑝 − 2 vertices have different distance degree
Let 𝑢 be a vertex in 𝐺1 and let 𝑆 be a subset of 𝑉(𝐺2 ) such that sequences and two vertices with the same distance degree
no two vertices of 𝑆 have the same distance degree sequence; sequence.
then, no two vertices of {𝑢} × 𝑆 have the same distance degree
sequence in 𝐺1 ⊕ 𝐺2 . Embedding in DDI graphs seems not so easy. But Huilgol
et al. [42] could embed only cycles, paths in DDI graphs as
Remark 54. Let there be two sets 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 , subsets of 𝑉(𝐺1 ) follows.
such that every pair (𝑥, 𝑦), with 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆1 and 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆2 , satisfies
dds(𝑥) ≠ dds(𝑦). Let 𝑧 ∈ 𝑉(𝐺2 ) be any vertex in 𝐺2 , and then Theorem 60 (see [42]). Any path can be embedded in an
in 𝐺1 ⊕ 𝐺2 , the subsets {(𝑥, 𝑧)/𝑥 ∈ 𝑆1 } and {(𝑦, 𝑧)/𝑦 ∈ 𝑆2 } almost DDI graph.
are such that every pair ((𝑥, 𝑧), (𝑦, 𝑧))/𝑥 ∈ 𝑆1 , 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆2 satisfies
Proposition 61 (see [42]). Every cycle can be embedded in a
dds(𝑥, 𝑧) ≠ dds(𝑦, 𝑧).
DDI graph.

5. Embeddings So the following problems were posed in [42].

Kennedy and Quintas [12] considered the extremality of 𝑓- Problem 62 (see [42]). Can any graph be embedded in a DDI
trees when they are constrained by embedding either in graph?
Journal of Discrete Mathematics 11

Problem 63 (see [42]). Does there exist a 𝑘-regular DDI graph [16] F. C. Bussemaker, S. Cobeljic, D. B. Cvetkovic, and J. J. Seidel,
for 𝑘 ≥ 4? “Computer investigation of cube Graphs,” T. H. Report 76-
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One more problem can be posed at this juncture as Netherlands, 1976.
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Department, Pace University, New York, NY, USA, 1982.
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graphs available in literature, the characterizations elude.
International Conference, Western Michigan University, Kalama-
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regarding the publication of this paper.
tions in Discrete Mathematics, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 39–61, 2011.
[22] M. I. Huilgol, M. Rajeshwari, and S. Syed Asif Ulla, “Distance
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