IME 2102 - Engineering Metrology

1. Introduction:
Dimensional measurements designate processes for determining the linear and angular magnitudes
of technical parts or of their specific features expressed in terms of a unit. Furthermore, dimensional
measurements asses geometric characteristics and deviations from the ideal form such that the
reliability and integrity of the part is maintained.
The basic purpose of dimensional measurements in production is to assure and verify the agreement
of the product with the specifications of the design such that the proper function and service of the
manufactured product is respected.
The high degree of professional knowledge that dimensional measurements for production purposes
often require in industrial production is reflected by the term metrology.
Metrology is a branch of technology concerned with the measurement of geometrically defined
dimensions of technical parts. This concept, is known by the distinctive designation of dimensional
metrology or engineering metrology.
The importance of metrology in the industrial processes is widespread and is a major component from
early conceptual design, towards the detailed designed and lastly within production itself. Ultimately
this ensures that the final part is manufactured under control and hence is fit for use.

Dimensional Measurement Concepts:

Two major factors should be considered when evaluating the correctness of dimensional
measurements on manufactured parts:
1. Gauging Accuracy:
Accuracy designates the degree of agreement of the measured size with its true magnitude as
expressed in standard units of measurement.
Precision expresses the degree of repeatability of the measuring process, that is how closely
identical values are obtained when repeating the same measurement at various intervals, or
duplicating them by means of different instruments.
The capability of a measuring instrument to detect and to faithfully indicate even small variations of
the measured dimension from a reference value, often called the nominal size.
The tolerance is the permissible limit of variation in terms of the physical dimensions and properties
with respect to the nominal size. The cost of a part increases exponentially with tighter tolerances
despite the savings in reduced scrap material.
Uncertainty is the expression of the statistical dispersion of the values attributed to a measured
quantity.
The least size variation that is indicated or displayed by an indicating type instrument is referred to
as sensitivity. For instruments using extended scales observed against index marks and for those with
incremental display, the terms resolution or discriminating capacity are more current. The
resolution divided by two gives the uncertainty.
There are three kinds of fits that parts can have i.e., a clearance fit, transition fit or an interference
fit. In light of this issue, a shaft and hole can have varying tolerances such that any of these three fits
can occur even when unintended. As such, the nominal condition considers the case whereby a
transition fit forms, the maximum clearance and maximum interferences, the other extremes.

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The time span between the sensing of the size variations, and the distinct indication of its value can is
often designated as its response speed.
The term stability, is often expressed as the maximum drift over a specific time, that is the
designation of the instrument’s capability for consistent indications. A proper maintenance of stability
requires routine calibration of the measuring instrument.
Calibration is the verification of a measuring instrument’s indicating accuracy, both in its original
state and during usage at appropriate intervals.
The term repeat accuracy is used, by expressing the numerical equivalent of that condition as the
maximum deviation of repeat.
A measuring instrument can be calibrated against a known input source, secondary standard (i.e. a
similar instrument with a higher accuracy), primary standard (i.e. the definition of the unit of
measure that can therefore not vary).
The MKS system is understood to encapsulate the metre, kilogramme and second.
2. Location of Dimension:
To reduce the extent of disagreement between the designer’s specifications on a drawing and the
actually measured dimension, the engineering drawing must either define or indicate by distinctly
understood inferences the datum elements that are positionally related to the specified dimensions
and are physically present on the part.
Based on such specifications, the staging of the part for measurements can be devised in a manner to
assure a good agreement of the dimension being measured with that spelled out on the engineering
drawing. The importance of proper staging is a means of accomplishing the correct location and
orientation of the dimensional measurements. Staging may also provide the referencing of the
measurement, by assuring the coincidence of one boundary point of the dimension on the part, with
that point, line or plane within the instrument in relation to which the distance is measured, or the size
variations are indicated.

Industry’s Need for Higher Accuracy in Dimensional Measurements:

1. Dimensioning of components closer to the theoretical size limits of the required strength, with
manufacturing tolerances at a minimum, in order to achieve material and weight savings for
operational and economic reasons. Greater operational precision and reliability of components
also rely on tight tolerances and surface texture specification.
2. Reduced envelope dimensions for elements and for complete products, represented by trends
known as compacting and miniaturization, particularly in applications such as computers and
other complex electronic devices.
3. Stress and strain compensating design for heavily loaded elements whose precisely calculated
and built-in form deviations will assure optimum performance under elastic deformations
caused by operational loads.
4. Automatic high-speed assembly, may require components whose level of accuracy is even
higher than that needed for operational purposes.
5. General interchangeability for the prompt replacement of component parts or modules, in
order to improve the maintainability of assemblies and entire pieces of equipment on a
national or even worldwide scope.
6. Accurate reporting of dimensional information is being demanded of most industrial suppliers
for use in the statistical analysis of their various processing capabilities by original
equipment manufacturers (OEMs). Quality assurance systems developed by the
International Organization for Standardization, are being continually refined and used on

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 a worldwide basis to guarantee that manufactured goods meet certain design, performance
and quality specifications.
7. The umbrella term of Lean Manufacturing is used to describe a series of techniques that are
used to shorten the time between the ordering, building and shipping of a product through the
elimination waste or muda. Conceptually, lean manufacturing is the pursuit of perfection (i.e.
no waste) that begins with the customer defining value, works toward a single piece flow and
makes product only on demand through a technique called pull production. As such, when
low production volumes are made on demand and without waste, they must be made
dimensionally correct from the outset.
8. Molecular manufacturing within the context of nanotechnology speaks to a belief that we
make virtually any structure that can be detailed at the molecular level. Nanometre-scale
metrology and atomic-scale measuring are natural and necessary outgrowths of recent
technological advancements.

Outline of Measuring Instrument Technologies:

1. Electronic Gauges were a major breakthrough that was developed in parallel with the advent
of electronics. This led to more accessible microunit measurements to be made.
2. Pneumatic Gauges represent the backbone of in-process gauging, where non-contact
sensing, small probe dimensions, high amplifications and easily implemented multiple
circuitries prove particularly advantageous.
3. Optical measuring instruments offering means for magnified observation in microscopes
and optical projectors, or operating by the amplifying effect of “optical levers,” such as in
aligning, collimating and angle measuring devices, possess unique measuring potentials that
are now being used frequently.
4. Fringe producing devices operate by means of the interference effects of light beams, for
dimensional measurements either by visual fringe count or by means of electronic fringe
counting and phase-shift analysing instruments. Such instruments are used for extreme
precision and stability, opened new vistas for measurements in very fine increments, even
over substantial distances, with great speed, and often complemented with digital readouts
capable of displaying up to a million, or more, discrete units.
5. Signal processing, reporting and utilizing devices operate in conjunction with various types
of dimensional measuring instruments. These devices are operated either directly by the
variations of current or voltage provided by electrical or electronic instruments, or indirectly,
by converting other energies into electrical variables with the aid of pressure or
phototransducers, such as in pneumatic or optical gauges.

Measurement Systems:
1. Detector-Transducer Stage: Detects the physical variable and translates the signal to a more
meaningful form for processing.
2. Intermediate Signal Processing Stage: Amplification and/or filtering of the signal.
3. Final and Termination Stage: Provides a readable indication that is recorded and is used for
controller feedback.

Conditions and Practices Related to Dimensional Measurements:

The term material condition is used in engineering design for relating the specified dimension to the
“envelope size” of the part or feature. That imaginary envelope is considered to represent the
geometrically perfect form of the examined feature.

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Maximum material condition is a designation applied to a given or part, to indicate that its
dimension or dimensions are such as to result in the maximum amount of material possible within the
allowed dimensional limits, assuming a perfect form.
Maximum material limit is the maximum limit of size of an external dimension or the minimum
limit of size of an internal dimension.
The nominal condition refers to the theoretically ideal geometry that has no deviations from the
intended product specification.
The reliability of dimensional measurements may be regarded as a function of the occurring errors
and their assessments. It is the probability that a system will perform nominally for at least a period of
time when used under stated conditions.
Errors are a consequence of poor accuracy; that is the difference between the reading and the true
value. Errors are classified under two categories:

1. Random Errors: Random Errors are primarily, yet not exclusively, associated with the
human element resulting from inaccurate scale reading, improper specimen staging, mistakes
in recording and so forth. These kinds of errors are neither predictable nor absolutely
eliminable. Their probable magnitude and relative frequency are evaluated statistically for
establishing the probable precision of the measuring process.

The standard deviation is a measure of the range of scatter in the measured values from the
mean that is applied for qualifying the precision of the process or of the instrument.

∑ ( x´n −x́ ) 2
σ=
√ n

whereby x́ n (individual readings), x́ (mean of all readings) and n (total number of readings)

2. Systematic Errors: Systematic Errors are associated with the measuring instrument’s
capabilities, environment and other extraneous conditions, which are generally controllable
or, at least, measurable. + Illegitimate Errors [Mistakes with shouldn’t be there.]

Capabilities of Measuring Instruments: The reliability of an instruments is influenced by

the concepts of gauge repeatability and reproducibility (gauge R&R). The size of the
repeatability error of a gauge relates to how close the two separate readings taken with a
single gage on the same part by the same person will be. The term reproducibility is used to
identify the difference in a gauge reading (error) when a single part is checked with the same
gauge by two or more persons.

The indicating accuracy of a measuring instrument expresses the degree of proportionality

with which deviations from an arbitrarily selected reference size are indicated in the scale of
the instrument. The absolute size of the reference dimension to which the instrument was set
must be established by comparing it to a basic reference standard of length, such as a gauge
block.

The Effect of the Environment: As a generally accepted rule measurements are carried out
in areas where the temperature is maintained at a constant level, usually at 20 ℃ which is
internationally agreed reference temperature for length measurements. Furthermore,

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 metrology laboratories are equipped with constantly circulating laminar flow of air which is
filtered and dehumidified. To minimise vibrations the metrology lab built upon a secondary
foundation such that even minute seismic vibrations don’t interfere with instruments.

The Effect of Supports: Depending on the geometry of the part, its flexural strength and the
position of the supports, deflections cause deviations in the measurement. Two positions of
supports that are of particular importance are;

1. No slope at the ends is important for end bars which must be supported such that the
end faces are parallel to each other. These two points are called the Airy points.

2. Minimal deflection is required in the case of straightedges.

Standardization:
Standardization of dimensional measuring processes and equipment can comprise any or several of
the following major aspects:
1. Instrument capacities, envelope and connecting dimensions.
2. Instrument sensitivity, precision, stability and other characteristics related to operation and
dependability.
3. Indicating accuracy and methods of verification, known as calibration procedures.
4. The measuring process, including instrument selection, the applicable techniques,
recommended magnifications for accomplishing the required resolution, evaluation of the
indications and the assessment of the measured conditions.

Contrasts between the Metrologist and the Engineer:

1. The metrologist is concerned with the maximum degree of attainable accuracy while the
engineer is concerned with a qualified optimum that is consistently accurate at a degree
required for a specific case.
2. The metrologist measures a particular, distinctly specified dimension, regardless of other
dimensions of the same body, while the engineer assures the functionality through the
interrelation of several dimensions.
3. The metrologist requires technical parts made expressly with the purpose of embodying a
specific dimension while the engineer handles parts whose workmanship level is dependent
on the functional need and employs a measuring process accommodated to this need.
4. The metrologist requires well-defined dimensions only where no doubt can exist regarding
the location on the part of the dimension to be measured, while in engineering the
dimensions specified are a means to convey the designer’s intent regarding the
functionally meaningful form and size of the part and may need interpretation for assuring
correct measurement.
5. The metrologist requires optimum conditions and the highest level of professional skill
while the engineer is primarily concerned with practicality; that is the engineer must adapt
himself and the methods employed to conditions and personnel.
6. The metrologist utilises consistent clearly spelled-out procedural instructions to guarantee
repeatability to the last significant digit. The engineer utilises flexible methods of
measurement to cope with unusual configurations of the object or locations of the critical
dimensions.

Degradation of Workmanship:
1. The Products are not as accurate as the Machines.

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 2. The Machines are not as accurate as the Gauges.
3. The Gauges are not as accurate as the Standards.
Gauge R&R (Repeatability and Reproducibility):
Gauges and instrument are subject to variation after prolonged use. This variation, known as
repeatability, is obtained when one person measures the same characteristic several times with the
same gauge and hence is inherent to the equipment. Reproducibility is the operator-to-operator
variability.
Once the dimension to be analysed has been identified the following gauge R&R process is carried
out:
Data Collection:
1. Three operators who are going to be taking the measurement are chosen on a day-to-day basis
and a referred to as A, B and C. Ten parts are numbered 1 to 10 in a way that the numbers are not
visible to the operators.
2. The gauge or measurement instrument to be used for the study is calibrated.
3. Operator A measures ten parts in a random order and another observer enters the results in row 1.
Operator B and C measure the same ten parts without seeing each other’s readings, then entering
the results in rows 6 and 11.
4. The cycle is repeated using a different random order of measurement. The data is entered in rows
2,7 and 12, recording the data in the appropriate column.
Data Processing:

1. The Ranges ( Upper Limit−Lower Limit ) are established, followed by the Average Ranges ( Ŕ )
. The average of the average ranges ( Ŕ - Overall Average Range) is lastly determined.
2. The Lower Control Limit (LCL) and Upper Control Limit (UCL) are calculated by
multiplying the overall average range by D 3 and D 4 respectively.
3. The Averages ( X́ ) and the Max Range of Averages
( X́ DIFF =Upper Limit Average−Lower Limit Average ) are calculated.
4. The Range of Averages of Parts ( R p =Upper Limit Average−Lower Limit Average ) is
determined which is not to be confused with the Max Range of Averages.
Analysis of Results:

1. Equipment Variation( EV )= Ŕ × K 1 whereby K 1 differs according to the number of trials.

2. Appraiser Variation ( AV )=
√[ 2
( X́ DIFF × K 2 ) − EV2
( )]
nr
whereby K 2 differs according to the

number of operators, n refers to the number of parts and r to the number of trials.
3. R∧R=√ EV 2+ AV 2
4. Part Variation ( PV )=R p × K 3 whereby K 3 differs according to the number of parts.
5. Total Variation (TV ) =√ R∧R2 + PV 2
EV
6. %Equipment Variation=100
TV [ ]
(Repeatability)

AV
7. %Appraiser Variation=100
TV [ ]
(Reproducibility)

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 R∧R
8. %R∧R=100 [ TV ]
PV
9. %Part Variation=100 [ ]
TV
Guidelines for Measurement:
1. Under 10% Error – Measurement system OK.
2. 10% to 30% Error – Acceptable according to the margins of the application.
3. Over 30% Error – Measurement system needs improvement.

2. Line Graduated Measuring Instruments:

Graduations are usually applied in a manner that makes the measuring instrument best suited for the
kind of service they are intended to provide. For the purpose of referencing length dimensions, the
graduations of Grade I instruments start inside from the end of the rule body. Grade II instruments,
are primarily used for direct measurements, have the zero point of the graduation lines coinciding
with the end of the instruments.

Bars, Rules and Tapes:

Line graduated measuring tools function by virtue of direct comparison of lengths, without the
support of auxiliary equipment or instrument members. As such there is an inherent simplicity to
using such devices with the major drawback being inaccuracies. These include geometric deficiencies
resulting from flatness, parallelism errors, or deflection, inaccuracies of scale graduations with
excessive thickness or poor definition and a sensitivity limited by the least increment of the scale
graduation. Furthermore, observational errors such as alignment deficiencies and parallax errors
are expected.
1. Reference Bars: Reference bars are a length of a specific magnitude although without the
intermediate graduation. There use extends beyond serving as rules for their specific length
and are widely used to calibrate graduated measuring instruments. Reference bars are usually
extruded into an X, U or H cross-section to generally reduce deflections.

2. Inspection Bars: Inspection bars are usually made in square cross-sections, the side length of
the cross-section varying as a function of the total bar length. Graduation lines are scribed so
that they reach the edge of the bar on one of the lengthwise sides. Inspection is carried out by
verifying alignment of the graduation marks on the inspection bar with the ruler being
inspected.

3. Working Rules: These tools serve for references when transferring length dimensions or for
direct measurements with the edge of the rule contacting the object to be measured.

4. Steel Measuring Tapes: The accuracy of steel measuring tapes is sensitive due to expansion
and contraction to the variations of the ambient temperature from the standard level.
Measuring tapes, when not supported along the used length, will naturally sag, with adverse
effect on the correctness of the measured dimension. For precise measurements the tape must
be supported over the entire effective length on a substantially flat surface. Furthermore, a
moderate force should be applied for stretching the tape. A subclass of the steel measuring
tape is the precision diameter tape. The diameter tape allows for the accurate measurement
of diameters by wrapping the tape around the circumference of the object.

Abbe’s Principle of Alignment:

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The line of measurement of the measuring component should coincide with the measuring scale or
axis of the measuring instrument. A graduated rule hence violates Abbe’s Principle. The length
recorded will be more than the true length; termed the cosine error.

ϵ =d ( sin θ )

End standards are measurement instruments whose length is measured as the distance between their
flat parallel end faces. These include callipers, screw gauges and slip gauges (gauge blocks).

Calliper Gauges:
The single major source of potential error lies in the alignment of the distance boundaries with the
corresponding graduations of the rule. This drawback is addressed by means of positive contact
members of the callipers of the gauges. The primary elements of calliper gauges are the beam
(contains the line graduations), the fixed jaw (serves as the datum of the measurement) and the
sliding jaw (contains reference marks used for alignment for determining further accuracy).
1. Vernier Callipers: The form of the jaws may be designed for measuring external surfaces
only or provide the facilities of measuring internal features as well. Measurements on internal
surfaces are made either by inside gauging jaw tips or directly, by knife edge auxiliary jaws
that can pass each other along a common mating plane. Vernier callipers intended for general
use are usually equipped with internal locking springs whereas for precision measurements
the combination type slides are preferred, with a sliding clamp and a fine adjusting screw
acting on the measuring slide.

2. Calliper Height Gauges: Vernier height gages differ from calliper gages in that they have a
single jaw, because the surface plate on which the instrument base rests functions as the
reference plane.

3. Gear Tooth Vernier Callipers: As the name suggests these tools are used to check the pitch
line thickness of gear teeth. The gauge consists of two independently actuated Vernier
callipers, each having its own movable slide, but with common beams and the stationary jaws.
One of the slides has the form of a plate, called the tongue of the instrument, which contacts
the top of the gear tooth.

Micrometre Gauges:
The essential element of measuring instruments operating on the micrometre principle is a screw with
a precisely controlled lead. The screw of the micrometre is integral with the measuring spindle, whose
face establishes the measuring contact with the object. The distance of that contact face from a fixed
datum constitutes the measuring length.
The repetitive precision of measurements with a screw micrometre depends on two sets of factors: the
inherent accuracy of the measuring instrument, and the combined effect of process errors.
The accuracy of the micrometre gauge will be governed primarily by the following two factors:
1. Degree of Calibration: The spindle movement will have it calibration affected, by the lead
errors of the screw. The effect is a usually cumulative, and increases with the length of the
spindle travel.

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 2. Linearity: The linearity of the spindle movement, requires that any fractional rotation of the
screw should result in a proportional advance of the measuring spindle. However, as a result
of a deformed thread, or stick-and-slip condition of the screw in the nut, there will be an
adverse effect on the validity of the measurement.
The calibration process consists of the sequential measurement of gauge blocks of known size with
the micrometre gauge. The blocks to be measured are selected to represent distances over which the
spindle travels for a full or a half turn of the screw. In each step the dimension indicated by the
micrometre is recorded on a calibration chart. The zero line of the chart indicates the nominal size
for each reading, and digressions of the actual indications are plotted in this sense and by the scale of
the chart ordinate.
The errors recorded on the calibration chart usually are the effect of flatness and parallelism of the
measuring surface and/or the deflection of the frame. Considering a case whereby the nominal length
is L, while not exceeding an error of eμm and a size range of x; the measuring accuracy is given by;

∆=( e + xL ) μm

Further variables which may cause errors can be as minute as heat transfer while handling the
instrument which ultimately causes thermal expansion. These types of errors are termed as process
errors. Alignment and holding stability are usually remedied by securing the micrometre gauge
leaving a hand free to align the object while taking the measurement.
The size of a micrometre refers to the limits of its measuring range. The grade or quality level of a
micrometre gauge is an indication of the least increment of the indicated dimension.
Inside measurements, particularly of bore diameters, are affected by more variables than the
measurement of length between outside surfaces. The inside micrometre consists of a head part
comprising the micrometre screw, and of independent measuring rods. Three-point internal
micrometers may also be used for a high-accuracy and non-time consuming measurement.
Diameters of bores may be measured by transfer through a small hole gauge, telescoping gauge or a
three-point contact internal micrometre gauge.

Micrometre Vernier Callipers

More Accurate (0.001 mm) Less Accurate (0.02-0.05 mm)
More Expensive Less Expensive
Less Range Greater Range
Torque Limiter Greater Flexibility

Slip Gauges:
Precision gauge blocks are secondary standards vital to dimensional quality control in the
manufacture of parts, used for a variety of applications from direct measurement to calibration
purposes.
When two or more-gauge blocks or ‘wrung’, it is understood that they adhere to each other by virtue
of their clean and very flat surfaces. This is done such that the combination of the gauge blocks
provides the exact desired dimension.

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 1. Ideally, a minimal division of gauge blocks is used, which should ideally be as thick as
possible starting from the least significant digit to more significant digits.
2. The gauge blocks are to be cleaned by an appropriate agent and checked for burrs by using
optical flats.
3. A small amount of oil is applied to the flats and spread evenly across the face. The faces are
gently overlaid to be wrung together to form the block. The stack is thermally stabilized on a
surface plate before use.

Measurement of Bore Diameters:

The most common method of measuring an internal diameter is by using bars with spherical ends i.e.
pin gauges. The length of the bar would only fit in the bore if its length is smaller than its diameter.
As such the length is made just smaller than the diameter and the bar acts as a chord the bore. To
obtain any meaningful dimension, one end is fixed to the wall of the bore and the other is displaced
against the two resultant fixed points. By trigonometric relations, the diameter can then be derived.

LChord 2
Diameter= 2 2
√L Chord −w

For smaller bores, the use of precision spheres is more widespread. This is performed by placing
three equally-sized spheres within the bore, such that they can move freely. A larger sphere is
supported by the three spheres such that all clearances form the bore wall is eliminated.

Diameter=2 y +d

3. Fixed Gauges:
Fixed gauges embody the direct or reverse physical replica of the object dimension to be measured.
The gauge may represent the part dimension either in its nominal condition by means of master
gauges or in one of its limit conditions resulting from the specified tolerances of the dimension
through limit gauges.
The limit gages are made to contain the reverse replica of the dimension to be checked, and are
intended for the purpose of inspection gauges. Gauging accomplished by means of rigid gauge

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elements, although gauges with adjustable members are also used as fixed gauges, particularly in limit
gauge applications.
These comparator instruments have two advantages, that is a sensitivity greater and more dependable
than the judgment of the user and the capability of indicating in positive values the amount of
deviation from a nominal dimension.

Taylor’s Principle:
The GO gauge will check all the dimensions of the work piece in its minimum material condition of a hole. The
NO GO gauge will check specific dimensions at a time for the maximum material condition of a hole.

8. Engineering Microscopes:
Engineering microscopes are optically assisted instruments for measuring the geometric dimensions
and forms of small- and medium-size technical parts. These instruments are intended to provide:
1. Magnification, for presenting the enlarged view of the observed object area, either in its
contours or as a surface image.

2. Referencing, by providing index lines on a transparent graticule inside the microscope tube,
observed concurrently with the magnified image.

3. Staging, which involves holding the object and displacing it along controlled tracks
translationally or rotationally over measured distances.
The microscope part of the instrument permits the inspector to observe, at an appropriate
magnification, the selected elements or features on the part’s surface in a fixed position. For
establishing that position of coincidence, the part must be displaced by moving the stage on which it
is supported. The direction of that displacement is precisely controlled and its distance is measured,
thus supplying data for determining the separation between specific points on the part’s surface that
were brought sequentially into coincidence with the axis of the observation system.
Illumination of the workpiece is one of the fundamental roles of a good microscope. It is important
that a good contrast is achieved on the part being measured, such that an accurate reading is taken.
Substage lighting allows for readings to be taken using transmitted light. Surface lighting allows for
readings to be taken using reflected light.
Microscope Applications (Transmitted Light):

1. Complete Dimensional Inspection of Machine Shafts

2. Linear Dimensions of Flanged Rings
3. Total and Effective Length and Diameter of Cylinders
4. Coordinate Dimensions of Corner Radii and Chamfers on Bearing Rings
5. Coordinate Dimensions of Shaft Fillets
6. Outside and Inside Diameters of a Stamped Cup
7. Pocket Dimensions in a Punched Sheet Metal Part

Projectors use lighting such that the image is projected on to a screen. Sublighting creates a
silhouutte of the part while surface lighting projects light directly on the part, essentially
illuminating. Alignment is carried out onto the projection screen itself. Visual Measuring Systems
(VMS) automate this process by establishing the pixels as points of dimension alignment.

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4. Angle Measurements:
The sexagesimal system divides the right angle into 90 units, known as degrees. Each degree is
further divided into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds. The centesimal system, which is
rarely used, divides the right angle into 100 units, called grades, each grade containing 100 minutes,
and each minute 60 seconds. The radian is a ratio of the length subtended by the angle of against the
radius of the circle. Therefore, 2 π radians are equal to 360 °. The millieme is yet another angular
system based on the radian, which is specifically used in military applications.
The size of the central angle that two intersecting lines intercept will be the measure of the angular
separation that defines the relative position of said lines or planes. Angular spacing is frequently
applied in engineering to specify conditions that result from the division of a circle. The
measurement of digressions from a straight line, plane or nominal interrelation, indicates the mutual
parallelism or perpendicularity of straight lines or planes.
The right angle is the intersection between two perpendicular straight lines. The point of intersection
is then considered to coincide with the centre of the imaginary circle being subdivided.

Angle Gauge Blocks:

A physical body that constitutes a reference angle of specific angular dimension can be utilised
individually but is more commonly used in conjunction with other blocks so their combination yields
a measurement of the angle. When several angle gauge blocks are combined, small errors can occur
in the resulting angle due to compounding, provided the blocks are not properly aligned. In case of
perfect alignment, the theoretically extended operating surfaces will intersect in a single line, which
may be considered a virtual vertex line common to all elements in the stack.

Adjustable Angular Reference Bodies:

The most important members of adjustable angular reference elements are sine bars and sine blocks.
The operation of the sine bar, is based on known trigonometric relationships between the sides and the
angles of a right-angled triangle, where dimensions of two sides determine the size of the third side
and of the two acute angles.
The instrument consists of a horizontal and precisely flat plate on which gauge blocks are stacked in a
direction normal to the plane of the plate, thus establishing a right angle. The assembly sit on two rolls
which are referred to as buttons.

Suppose the sine bar is used in conjunction with a beam of fixed length a ' while varying the height of
the gauge block stack b according to the size of the desired angle B. Then through a simple
trigonometric relationship;

b
sin B=
a'

Errors in the use of sine bars may persist as the result of errors in the centre-to-centre distance,
discrepancies in the cylinder diameters as well as surface imperfections. It is difficult to produce
angles larger than 60 ° , as the corresponding value of b barely changes beyond approximately this
value.
Whilst normal squares are used as a comparative means of measurement the precision dial square
allows for quantification of the squareness of the part. The dial indicator with the use of an adjustment

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screw allows for direct squareness measurement. This particular instrument also allows for
interchangeable blades. Squareness testing can also be carried out by translating a comparator along a
plane.

The Universal Bevel Calculator:

The universal bevel calculator consists of two moving parts which revolve against a Vernier
protractor scale. Vernier protractors have a resolution of 5 ’. One end is made the datum with a fixed
plane while the other is revolved such that the acute angle is quantified.
If the protractor is improperly placed with the part feature, the integrity of the datum is lost, and
especially over several measurements these errors will persist. By repetition however, these errors are
nullified.

Precision Levels:
For inspecting the horizontal position of surfaces and evaluating the direction and magnitude of minor
deviations from that nominal condition, precision levels are the most commonly used instruments.
The precision level consists of a closed glass tube of accurate form termed the vial, which is produced
by bending or, for the more accurate instruments, by grinding and polishing. Controlled curvatures for
precision vials are also produced by grinding the bore of a glass tube to the shape of a barrel with a
calculated radius. The tube is filled almost entirely with a liquid, leaving only a small space for the
formation of an air or gas bubble. Low viscosity fluids, such as ether, alcohol or benzol, are preferred
for accurate instruments.

For calculating the radius ( R ) to which the curvature of the vial must be ground in order to comply
with the assigned graduation value, each graduation distance ( I ) is considered to be an arc subtending
an angle of tilt ( ϕ ).

I =Rϕ

In general, the following guidelines are adhered to, when utilising levels.
1. Readings are taken from both ends of the vial.
2. The level is reversed.
3. The reading is repeated from both ends.
4. A mean of at least of four readings is taken.
5. Steps are repeated for critical cases.

Circular Divisions:
Dividing heads (horizontal rotational axis) and rotary tables (vertical rotational axis) are designed for
essentially the same function, that of imparting controlled rotational displacements such that an angle
can be determined.
Circular divisions are used to inspect the angular separation of features whose location is directly
associated with radii of a common reference circle as well as the included angles between mutually
inclined boundary planes, such as the sides of a polygon.

13
The inspection of angular spacing of features is measured in conjunction with an indicator which is
positioned tangential at the point of contact to the circular path of inspection, in order to obtain linear
indications that can be converted readily into angular values. For other applications the indicator is
positioned in line with the radius to measure radial variations as a function of angular position.
Another method of inspection, characterized by a very high degree of sensitivity and accuracy, is the
observation of angular coincidence with the aid of an autocollimator. This process is applicable
primarily to angles whose boundary planes are reflecting flat surfaces and are accessible to direct
optical observation.
The following is an outline of various circular divisions;
1. Indexing Tables with Meshing Radial Serrations: Two mating rings with an equal number
of precisely machined radial serrations on their opposing faces provide a positive locking
engagement which are mounted to two central members. The serrations become disengaged
as soon as the top member is raised and rotated by any circular distance whose angular value
represents an integral number of serrations spacings. After lowering the top member, the
serrations again become engaged and establish a locking position.

2. Rotary Tables with Continuous Rotational Positioning by Precision Worm: The worm
drive of the common dividing heads serves as a reduction mechanism to step down by a fixed
ratio, the movement introduced by the rotation of the indexing arm. This mechanism permits
the separation of the index plate holes by central angles that are many times larger than the
effective angular displacement they establish.

3. Optical Dividing Heads and Rotary Tables: Graduated master disks, commonly of glass,
are concentrically mounted and rigidly attached to the rotating spindle of the circular dividing
instrument. The specific graduations of the master scale, which indicate the actual circular
position of the rotatable member, can be observed through an integrated microscope. The
adjustment of the graticule is used to establish coincidence between the reference mark and
the observable scale graduation. The amount of graticule adjustment is displayed on an
auxiliary scale, which indicates the fractional value to be added to the observed main scale
graduation. The process can also be reversed by first setting the Vernier scale to the required
fractional value and then rotating the dividing device until the desired graduation mark is
brought into coincidence with the adjusted reference mark.
For assuring the reliability of measurements, it is necessary to determine the operating accuracy of
circular dividing instruments despite the typical low magnitude of deviations. Calibration usually
involves the use of polygons and autocollimators. The polygon is mounted centrally on the face of the
rotary table, and the autocollimator is set up to face one of the polygon sides in a precisely
perpendicular direction. By noting the rotary table’s graduation value at the starting position, the table
is rotated by the amount of the nominal polygon side spacing, and the reflection of the next polygon
side is observed by the autocollimator. Noncoincidence, if present, is measured in angular values. The
process is then repeated for the subsequent sides of the polygon.
A more versatile calibration method is the use of a face-geared indexing table which can offer up to
1440 indexing positions as opposed to a maxim of 72 for polygons.

Taper Measurements:
Generally, standard dimensions are applied to a taper. However, there are several systems of standards
that are accepted in practice. The utility of a taper not only serves as a machined feature, but is widely
used in the production of taper roll bearings, Luer taper and tool shanks.

14
 1. Taper Angle: The term taper angle ( γ ) refers to the angle intercepted by the cone’s two side
elements which are contained in a common axial plane.

2. Slope Angle: The slope angle ( γ2 ) is intercepted by a side element and the axis of a cone.
When applied to a non-symmetrical angular figure or body, it expresses the angle of
separation between the side element and the base line.
3. Taper: The taper designates the relationship of the diameter ( D ) to the axial length ( l ) of a
cone. → D:l
The taper is usually expressed by reducing ( D ) to 1. → 1: x
4. Slope: The slope of a cone expresses the relationship between half of its diameter and its
axial length. The term is also applied to a non-symmetrical angular figure or body,
D
designating the rate of separation of the side element from the base line. → :l
2

The measurement of a taper can be carried through constructing a virtual body of the taper. By
means of defined points, a virtual representation of the taper can be generated. The points are
recorded through standard elements such as gauge pins, gauge blocks and precision spheres. As a
result, virtual bodies offer flexibility, in that they provide access to otherwise non-gaugeable
dimensions.
A dovetail can be measured by applying similar concepts, through the use of gauge pins and to gauge
blocks. The resulting dimensions are related with the slope angle by trigonometric relations.
Tap plug and taper rings are used to inspects tapers against a high precision and high accuracy
geometry.
Virtual Body Construction Examples:

15
 γ D 1−D 2
tan =
2 2 ( H 1−H 2)

γ D 1−D 2
tan =
2 2H

L1−L2
tan γ =
H 1−H 2

γ r 1−r 2
sin =
2 ( H 1−H 2) −( r 1−r 2 )

16
5. The Measurement of Straightness, Flatness and Perpendicularity:
The scope of measurements related to directional or positional digressions is extremely wide and
varied. For the convenience of discussion, the methods and instruments of measurement to be
discussed in this chapter will be associated with; straightness, flatness and perpendicularity. These
are basic conditions of many geometric concepts.

Measurement of Straightness:
1. Straight Edges:
A method for establishing or checking the straightness of a surface element is by means of direct
contact comparison with a tool of known and adequate straightness. The sensitivity of such direct
comparison is limited. The straight edge represents the most commonly used tool for limited
sensitivity straightness measurement.
Feeler gauges quantify the straightness by measuring the distance between the gauge and the
body being measured.
The use of a straight edge differs according to two methods. Two-gauge blocks of slightly
different heights (ex. 5 & 5.2) are placed at the airy points. In the middle one would expect a
height of 5.1 (by inspection) if an only if the edge is perfectly straight.
Alternatively, the use of a knife edge rule brought to bear against the surface element to be
inspected will indicate by the presence and width of light gaps the lack of contact caused by
deficient straightness.
2. Alignment Telescopes:
The alignment telescope is used to establish a straight line of sight (LOS) in a particular location
to serve as a basic reference line or datum for dimensional measurements. Contained in the optical
system is a lens that can be focused from nearly zero to infinity and a crosshair graticule, which
serves as the reference element in aiming at the target.
3. Jig Transits and Optical Levels:
The jig transit is an optical instrument for establishing a vertical sighting plane. Its main
application is to determine the location of specific surface elements of a large object in relation to
an optically scanned vertical reference plane. The jig transit consists of a telescope solidly
mounted on an axle that is supported in a rigid frame in such a manner as to permit the free
rotation of the axle. Optical levels or sighting levels serve a similar purpose to a jig transit,
however, with the essential difference that this instrument establishes the optical reference plane
in the horizontal.
4. Collimators:
Collimators are used for alignment testing over long distances, particularly inside bores. With the
telescope they permit the precise measurement of both types of alignment errors, lateral and
angular, as long as the extent of these errors does not exceed the observation range of the
alignment telescope for which the collimator serves as target.

Measurement of Flatness:

17
The importance of flatness is fundamental as the basis onto which a part is to be machined or
measured. Put simply, a flat surface, serves as a straightforward datum onto which several operations
can be conducted. A smooth surface is not necessarily flat. Smoothness or better roughness is
concerned with microscopic defects and elements. Flatness is concerned with defects and elements on
a macroscopic scale.

1. Toolmaker Flats:
Toolmaker flats are steel disks, hardened, ground and lapped on both faces to a high degree of
flatness. Toolmaker flats serve as a mounting surface for gauge block assemblies and similar high
precision elements of dimensional measurements. The flatness and the finish of an inspection
quality toolmaker flat should permit the direct wringing of gauge blocks to either surface, thereby
obviating the need for mechanical clamping.

2. Optical Flats:
Optical flats are usually made of clear fused quartz or borosilicate glass. The measurement of
flatness is carried out by laying the transparent flat on the surface to be inspected in such a
manner as to create interference bands observable under monochromatic light. The resulting band
pattern permits the object’s flatness conditions to be evaluated by means of the angle the optical
flat is placed at. The reference edge can be identified by pressing on the flat. If the fringe pattern
does not change, then that edge is considered the reference edge which sits close to the article.
The parts need to be small and reflective.

3. Surface Plates:
Surface plates represent the most generally applied means for establishing a solid datum plane
for the purpose of a very wide range of dimensional measurements. Indicator type surface plate
testers inspect surface plates by selecting a portion of the plate surface as the reference plane and
the support one member of the instrument. Another member of the same instrument either carries
or serves as the anvil of a sensitive mechanical indicator. The probe of that indicator is brought
into contact, either directly or through an intermediate element, with the surface portion adjoining
the one selected for a reference plane. Deviations between that latter and the scanned area will
cause indications by the instrument that may be used as a quick check of the uniform flatness of
the plate surface.
Inspection of surface plates for flatness can be carried out by autocollimation. In this method the
angular deflections of adjoining sections are measured along specific tracks on the plate surface,
and the results are evaluated in relation to a selected reference plane.

Measurement of Perpendicularity:
1. Steel Squares:
Steel squares check for perpendicularity through direct comparison. Steel squares are made either of
one piece, or with a thin blade solidly mounted into a wider beam. The accuracy is measured by the
amount of maximum deviation of the blade edge from the perpendicular to the plane of the supporting
beam, and it is expressed as a linear dimension in the function of the blade length.
Precision squares are used for simultaneous straightness and perpendicularity measurement.

2. Cylindrical Squares:
Cylindrical squares are used to determine whether two selected points on the vertical surface of apart
are contained in a common plane at right angles to the plate surface. The two points on the part are

18
contacted simultaneously while comparing with the reference plane of the common positions of the
contacted points on the part surface. It is primarily used as a calibration tool for squares.

The Systems and Application of Autocollimators:

An autocollimator checks the variation between and incident and a reflected light beam. If there is a
variation on say a supposed straight edge, then there is variation in the part’s straightness.
The basic operating elements of the autocollimator are:
1. A point source of light in the focus of a lens illuminating a target cross hair.
2. A collimating objective lens having the target wires in its focus and emitting, by parallel
beams, the image of the illuminated target onto an extraneous reflector place on the object’s
surface.
3. A reference line graticule, in the focal plane of the objective, on which the reflected image of
the target cross hair appears in a location governed by the angular position of the reflector
with respect to the direction of the collimated light beams.
4. A micrometre microscope eyepiece for the magnified observation of the graticule and for
measuring the distance of the image shift caused by the tilt of the reflector from the reference
position.

The angular deflections of the reflecting plane can occur around a horizontal or vertical pivot axis or
a combination of both - compound angular deflection. Any of these deflections will cause a shift of
the target image on the graticule, and these displacements are usually expressed with respect to
graticule axes, namely, tilt to the vertical and rotation to the horizontal axis.

6. Surface-Texture Measurements:
The extent of permissible variations from the ideal is commonly specified on the product drawings as
tolerances of size, of form and of surface texture. The term surface texture designates the entirety of
departures from the ideally smooth surface, inclusive of occasional flaws or other types of locally
limited irregularities.
Waviness is the characteristic form of topographical variations that are measurable as the profile of
the part in an actual or imaginary cross-section. The term waviness implies a repetitive and essentially
regular occurrence of topographical features, an assumption that is based on the typical surface
topography of machined surfaces. Waviness width expresses the distance between adjacent crests of
the essentially wavy profile. Waviness height is the distance, in a direction normal to the general
surface, between the crests and the valleys of the waves.

19
Roughness expresses the closely spaced digressions of the actual surface from its ideal form. These
digressions are usually less regular in profile form and spacing than that termed waviness.
The essentially parallel ridges and valleys having a common direction that is termed the lay of the
texture.
The most common surface roughness parameter is Ra, the arithmetic mean deviation of the surface.
The majority of the methods for linking surface fatigue or failure to surface roughness use Ra or the
similar measure, Rq or Rms, the root mean square of the surface roughness. Rmax is the
maximum peak to valley roughness registered. Rz defines the ten-point height i.e., the average
height between the five deepest valleys and 5 highest peaks.

Methods for Surface Texture Measurement:

1. Surface Texture Inspection by Area Sampling: The area sampling method considers the
surface in relation to a two-dimensional reference element, commonly a plane, which is
coincident with the ideal form of the inspected area.

2. Surface Texture Inspection by Sensory Assessment: Visual sensing by eye and tactual
sensing with fingernail are direct methods of perception. Surface-roughness specimens are
used for visual and tactile comparison with surfaces under inspection. On the specimens,
various degrees of roughness are shown, originating from different machining processes, each
producing a distinctive pattern. This can be carried out accurately with a surface profile
tracing instrument.

3. Surface Texture Inspection by Light Interference: In practical applications a single source of

light is used, whose directed and collimated rays are split and made to follow two different
paths before striking the object surface. By varying the length of one of the optical paths, the
phase shift needed to produce distinctly separated interference bands, often termed fringes,
can be adjusted. This method of assessment is of particular use in length measurement, form
trueness of measurement and surface-texture measurements.

7. The Systems and Applications of Measuring Machines:

The development of displacement measuring devices that provide digital readout for the distance
travelled by a movable machine member brought into being Coordinate Measuring Machines
(CMM). In these instruments, the traveling member, or gauge head with the mounted sensing probe,
is guided along two straight line paths that are contained in a common plane and are mutually
perpendicular, representing the X and Y-axes of a rectangular system of coordinates with an optional
Z-axis.
For the function of referencing, that is, locating on the part the boundary points of the distances being
measured, contact probes of a tapered plug form are the most commonly used elements.
CMMs may be used for laying out the location of holes to be drilled or bored in positions specified by
means of a system of rectangular coordinates. For this application, scribes or automatic punches can
be substituted for the contact probes.
The ability to quickly and accurately capture and evaluate dimensional data distinguishes the CMM
from other types of measurement processes. Sophisticated contact and non-contact sensors, combined
with vast computer processing capabilities, make the CMM a practical, cost-effective solution to
inspection. It should be emphasised that CMMs are a costly investment. However, as a result of their
flexibility, they can save significant time in measuring complex geometries.

20
CMM Types:
1. Cantilever Type: A stage moving in the x -direction a cantilever in the y -direction and a
probe in the z -direction. Errors may result from defection of the cantilever.

2. Moving Bridge Type: The z -probe, sits on a bridge structure which offers better rigidity and
eliminates the aforementioned source of error.

3. Column Type: The stage moves in both the x -direction and the y -direction and the probe
moves in the z -direction. Since the column is fixed, errors as a result of deflection are
eliminated.

4. Horizontal Arm Type: Used for dimensioning larger parts.

5. Gantry Type: Similar construction to the moving-bridge type, suited for large parts.
Probe Types:
1. Contact probes are the most commonly used on CMMs. Contact probes can include touch
trigger probes, and analogue scanning probes which maintain contact with the part as they
can along the surface of the part as they measure.
2. Non-contact probes include laser and video probes which are ideal for deformable or
inaccessible features.
Modes of Operation:
1. Manual: A manual mode CMM has a free-floating probe that the operator moves along the
machine’s three axes to establish contact with the part feature you are assessing. The
differences between the contact positions are the measurements.
2. Manual Computer Assisted: In the manual computer-assisted mode electronic digital
displays for these machines, making zero setting; changing the sign; converting inch and SI;
and printing out data easy and practical. Even without further sophistication, these features
save time, minimize calculations, and reduce errors.
3. Motorized Computer Assisted: A motorized CMM uses a joystick to drive the machine
axes. The operator manipulates the joystick to bring the probe sensor into contact with the
workpiece.
4. Direct Computer Control (DCC): Can be moved manually, but conventionally the CMM is
programmed and the measurement is automated.

8. Radius and Roundness Measurement:

The terms radius and roundness, while related, differ in meaning. The radius defines the length from
a point towards the locus of all equidistant points (that is the circle). The roundness on the other
hand, has more practical applications, in that quantifies the degree by which a circle approaches the
defined locus.

Methods of Radius Measurement:

1. The radius of a part can be quantified by means of a surface plate and two pin gauges. The
radius can be derived through trigonometric means. If the pin gauges have a diameter ( d ) and
a separation of ( l ).

21
 ( l−d )2
r=
8d

2. Alternatively, a fixed roller instrument is utilised which consists of two fixed rollers onto
which a micrometre is supported. If the rollers with diameter ( d ) have a separation distance of
c and the micrometre reads h , the radius (r ) is given by;

c2 d−h
r= −
8h 2 ( )
3. A vee-block i.e., an extruded X-shaped length of material, can be also be used to determine
the radius (r ) of a part. The distance ( h ) is the displacement from the circumference to the
vertex of the vee-block and ( θ ) represents the angle of the said vertex.

h
r=
θ
csc −1
2

4. The coordinate-method takes different coordinates from the circumference of the part and
derives the radius through the general equation of a circle.

x 2+ y 2+2 fx+2 gy =0
r 2=f 2 + g2

Methods of Roundness Measurement:

1. Diametrical Measurements of Roundness: The measurements are carried out with standard
measuring tools, including those designed for measuring linear distances, such as the
diameters for round parts. In doing so, the effective I.D and O.D size are recorded.
2. Roundness Inspection by Referencing from Vee-Block: A method of form inspection in
which a basically round part is supported in a Vee-formed trough and an indicator instrument
record variation in roundness.
3. Bench Centre Radial Measurements: This measuring process quantifies the variations of
the radius length around the entire perimeter of the object. The dimensions measured in the
process are supposed to be based on a common datum, the axis of the part, which is
theoretically correct and complies with the general interpretation of the concept termed
roundness.
4. Circular Tracing Process: The essential member in the operation of either of these
instruments is a precision spindle of very high rotational accuracy. The spindle serves either
to carry the pickup attached to a cross beam or to support a rotary staging table. From the

22
 randomly chosen reference position along the surface element to be inspected, the rotary
displacement movement of the instrument is started, and the stylus remains in contact with the
part surface. An uninterrupted succession of an infinite number of contact points is thus
created, describing a complete circle around the surface of the part.
Assessment of Roundness Tracing:
Least Square Circle Method (LSC)
Minimum Zone Circle Method (MZC)
Minimum Circumscribed Circle Method (MCC)
Maximum Inscribed Circle Method (MIC)
9. Screw Thread Gauging and Measurement:
The basic overall form of a screw thread is the helical groove adjoining and mutually bounding the
helical ridge on the surface of a generally cylindrical shaft or of a hole of corresponding shape. The
profile of the screw thread, when viewed in the axial cross-section of the threaded part, is most
commonly a symmetrical Vee-shape, although screw threads with other cross-sectional shapes, and
also some with non-symmetrical profiles, are used for particular purposes.

Dimensions of Screw Threads:

1. Pitch ( p ) is the distance, measured parallel to the part axis, between corresponding points of
adjacent thread flanks.

2. Pitch diameter on a straight thread is the diameter of the pitch cylinder, which is an
imaginary body that, in axial cross-section, is bounded by the pitch line.

3. The flank angle expresses the incline of the thread flank with respect to a reference plane
perpendicular to the axis of the thread. The flank angle is half the thread angle.

4. The major diameter of a straight thread is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder that bounds
the crests of an external thread or the roots of an internal thread.

23
 5. The minor diameter of a straight thread is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder that bounds
the roots of an external thread and the crests of an internal thread.
In addition to these five basic dimensions, there are several other parameters that define the
geometrical elements of screw threads.
1. The flank is the side of the thread that, in an axial plane, is theoretically a straight line,
inclined by the flank angle ( α ) with respect to a plane perpendicular to the axis.

2. The crest joins the flanks on opposite sides of a thread ridge and is the surface farthest from
the axis of the thread.

3. The root joins the flanks of adjacent thread ridges and is the surface located closest to the
thread axis.

4. Truncations of crest and root are the radial distances between the actual joining surfaces and
the theoretical intersections of the flanks.

5. The helix is the geometric term for the path of the pitch and lead around the axis of the
thread. It is measured by the helix angle, which is the incline of the thread with respect to the
axis, or by the lead angle, which is the complement of the helix angle.
Metric threads are designated with a capital M plus an indication to their nominal outer diameter
and their pitch:

M Diameter × Pitch × Length

Thread, and the thread can have a perfect lead, of course such a screw thread being a theoretical
concept only; deviations will always occur, although their magnitudes can be held within the
tolerance limits. Deviations of the thread angle from the basic size cause the flank boundary to
depart from its theoretical line and thus increase the material limits over the design value.

δE=1.25 p tan δα

Whereby δE represents the increase of pitch diameter resulting from the deviation of the flank
angle.
The deviations of the lead, by shifting the actual location of the thread flanks in an axial direction
from the plane of the mating thread with basic lead size, also affect the effective size of the pitch
diameter.

δE=1.7321 δp

24
 The majority of screw thread measurements, with regard to the inspection purposes they serve,
may be assigned to one of the following categories:
1. Inspection by attributes serves a functional purpose. The applied method and
instruments are designed to determine whether the inspected thread is within specific size
limits that are defined to assure a particular function, such as assembly with a mating part
also having acceptable thread dimensions. The term virtual thread diameter designates
the pitch diameter of an imaginary thread with perfect geometric dimensions that just
envelopes the actual thread over a specified length of engagement and thus reflects the
maximum material limits of the inspected thread. Therefore, inspection by attributes lead
to a binary answer. In the context of threads, the external thread is assured not to be too
small and the internal thread not too large.

2. Inspection by variables provides more specific information on the actual size of the
measured thread element which is compared against average and range charts. The
acceptability of the thread isn’t clear cut but is dependent on several variables and its
intended purpose.
Screw thread measurement is carried out to:
1. To verify by single-element measurement whether all significant parameters of the screw
thread are within the specified limits.
2. To ascertain by gauging that the functionally significant dimensions are within the required
limit values.
3. To assure that the operating elements are of the proper form and size.
4. To control the production process of threaded components by checking the size conditions of
the variable product dimensions.
5. To measure the accuracy of specific thread dimensions that are critical for particular
applications.
6. To determine the nominal size of a threaded part for use in assembly or for providing the
proper mating part.
Thread Gauging:
Solid Screw Thread Gauges:
Solid screw thread gauges physically incorporate the essential functional dimension of the mating part
to check for a thread’s assemble-ability.
1. Roll Thread Snap Gauges:
Two pairs of gauging elements for inspecting the GO and the NOT GO size of the product thread are
combined in a single gauge, permitting these two operations of the screw thread to be performed in a
single pass.
2. Thread Setting Plug and Ring Gauges:
Used primarily for the setting and checking of adjustable thread ring gages. The taper lock thread
plug gauge style allows for a quick and convenient replacement of the gauge member into an existing
handle. A worn gauge member can be simply removed and a new replacement inserted into the
handle.
Indicating Screw Thread Gauges:
Indicating screw thread gauges show in standard units of measurement the amount by which the
actual size of the gauged object dimension differs from the previously set basic size. The applied

25
method is usually referred to as differential or variable gauging which differs from the binary
answer as the result of solid screw thread gauges.
1. Indicating Thread Snap Gauges:
Indicating thread snap gauges are used for inspecting the actual pitch diameter of any single pitch of
the product thread by using the appropriate cone and Vee contact elements installed in the instrument
spindles. One of the spindles is adjustable over a wide range for accommodating workpieces of
different diameters. The opposite spindle, which is connected with the indicator, has spring actuation
for producing a constant gauging force, and can be raised with a lever for the free positioning of the
workpiece.
Thread Measurement:
1. Centre Gauges:
Centre gauges have several uses, such as the rapid determination of the number of threads per unit
length, serving as a template for the grinding of screw cutting tools and as a guide for setting the
screw thread cutting tool in the lathe.
2. Screw Pitch Gauges:
Screw pitch gauges serve for determining quickly the pitch of component screw thread by comparing
the profile of the thread on the part to a template with identical pitch. The templates are in folding
leaves arranged at both ends of a steel case, the leaves having teeth with forms in agreement with the
flank angles of standard screw thread systems, and number of teeth per inch on each leaf corresponds
to a particular pitch.
3. Screw Thread Micrometres:
Screw thread micrometres are used for measuring the pitch diameter of product external screw
threads. The end of the spindle is pointed to form a 60 ° cone, and the anvil, which is either a fixed or
swivel type, has the form of a Vee. The two opposite gauging elements thus have corresponding
forms and match completely when brought into contact by advancing the micrometre spindle.
4. 3-Wire Method:
In order to determine the pitch diameter of screw threads by measuring the corresponding over-wire
size, the most practical procedure is the use of three wires, actually small hardened steel cylinders,
placed in the thread groove, two on one side and one on the opposite side of the screw.

10. The Measurement of Gears:

Pitch Measurement:
Pitch is the theoretical distance between corresponding points on adjacent teeth. The actual distance
between those points is the tooth-to-tooth spacing, a directly measurable dimension. The theoretical
angular position about the axis of the gear is designated the index.
The pitch can be measured by simple, manually operated pitch-measuring instruments with
indicators. The automatic tooth space comparator, with two probes or fingers, inspects the pitch
accuracy of the entire gear by comparing consecutively the spacings of all the teeth.

Tooth Profile Measurement:

26
The profile of the gear tooth is the shape of its functional surface that during the operation of the gear
is in contact with the corresponding tooth surface of the mating gear. The form of an involute curve
can be visualized as the path of any specific point of a taut string while it is unrolled from a cylinder.

When rolling the cylinder-straight-rail couple, the locus of consecutive P points will be an involute
curve. Positioning the probe of a profile-measuring instrument coincident with that P point in
relation to a properly mounted work gear, the path of that probe will correspond to the theoretical
involute profile of the contacted gear tooth. Consequently, any deviations of the actual tooth profile
from the true involute curve cause proportional deflections of the instrument probe.
In single flank testing, the gears are mounted at fixed centre-to-centre distance. Variations of gear
tooth profile and pitch cause transmission errors. Double flank rolling testsing involves two gears in
tight mesh. Any defects are registered as a variation in the centre-to-centre separation.

Tooth Thickness Measurement:

Tooth thickness is the length of the pitch circle section bounded by the opposite flanks of the gear
tooth. The radial distance of the pitch circle from the periphery of the tooth is the addendum, but for
locating the plane of action with the commonly used types of tooth thickness measuring tools, the
chordal addendum is used. A direct method of tooth thickness measurement is by means of a gear
tooth calliper.
The gear tooth addendum comparator, also utilizes the interrelation between the addendum and the
tooth thickness, but reverses the approach applied with the gear tooth calliper. The instrument is set to
the calculated equivalent of the nominal tooth thickness, using locating elements that correspond to
the pertinent basic rack, and the indicator is set to zero at a level representing the nominal addendum.
A plus reading of the indicator results when the tooth is thinner than the standard size, a condition
permitting the tooth to project farther toward the indicator probe and vice-versa for a minus reading.
The composite method of gear inspection for determining the functional properties of a gear by
rolling it in tight mesh with a mating master gear is another method that signals variations in tooth
thickness.

Gear Lead Measurement:

27
The lead is the axial advance of the helix for one complete turn of the gear. The lead angle is
bounded by an imaginary tangent to the tooth surface, contacting it at the pitch circle, and by the gear
axis.
For inspecting the lead of helical gears, the lead-measuring machine must impart to the sensing
probe of the indicating or recording instrument an axial advance that is coordinated with the rotation
of the work gear in a manner resulting in the theoretical lead of the gear being tested. Another method
of lead checking is by measuring the base helix angle of the gear.
In addition to the specialized gear-measuring methods and machines shown thus far, coordinate
measuring machines (CMMs) can be used for gear inspection.
Analytical Gear Measurements:
Analytical gear measurements are used to check whether a gear’s teeth are compliant with the
pertinent design specifications or deviate. It is used to measure the characteristics and extent of the
error.

11. Uncertainty:
A quantity determined through measurement is referred to as the measurand. A value is determined
through measurement. Uncertainty (u) arises as a result of errors which is that variation between the
measurement and the actual quantity.
Short term variations in measurement can be determined statistically by means of repeated readings. It
is a check on repeatability and how well the uncertainty remains fixed. Uncertainty is caused using
environmental changes, procedural errors and substandard equipment. The overall uncertainty is given
by the summation of the partial derivative of the independent variables in question all square-root.
Uncertainty Contributing Factors:
Environmental Factors:
1. Vibration and Noise
2. Humidity
3. Temperature
4. Electromagnetic Interference
5. Gravitational Acceleration
Reference Element of Measurement Equipment:
1. Scale Mark Quality
2. Stability
3. Uncertainty of the Calibration
Measurement Equipment:
1. Guide Misalignment
2. Linear Coefficient of Expansion
3. Instrument Resolution/Sensitivity

x Resolution
u Resolution=
2

28
 4. Time Since the Last Calibration
Measurement Set-Up:
1. Interaction Between Workpiece and Setup
2. Datum Establishment
Software and Calculation:
1. Algorithms Used
2. Implementation of the Algorithm
3. Rounding
4. Sampling Method
Metrologist:
1. Experience
2. Training
3. Personal Bias
4. EyeSight Condition

R=R ( x 1 , x 2 , x3 , … , xn )

2 2 2 2 1
∂R ∂R ∂R ∂R
δ R=
[( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ]
∂ x1
δ1 +
∂ x2
δ2 +
∂ x3
δ 3 +…+ δ
∂ xn n
2

When the function has a product form;

R=R ( x1a , x 2a , x 3a , … , x na )
1 2 3 n

1 ∂ R ai
=
R ∂ x i xi

2 1
a1 2 a 2 2 a 3 2 a
δ R =R
x1[( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ]
δ1 +
x2
δ2 +
x3
δ 3 +…+ n δ n
xn
2

When the function has an additive form;

R=a1 x 1 +a 2 x 2+ a3 x 3 +…+ an xn

29
∂R
=a i
∂ xi

Statistical Analysis of Experimental Data:

n
1
x Mean = ∑ x i
n i=1

n 1

[
1
σ = ∑ ( xi −x Mean )
n i=1
2
] 2

n 1

σ ( Small Data Sets ) = [

1
∑
n−1 i=1
( x i−x Mean )
2
] 2

σ
σ ( Mean Standard Deviation )=
√n

Methodologies:
1. Measurement Systems:
Detector-Transducer Stage: Detection of variable and conversion into a signal.
Intermediate Signal Processing Stage: Filtration and process.
Final/Termination Stage: Provides readable indication, data recorded and/or feedback provided to a
controller.
2. Product Development:
Need
Conceptual Design
Embodiment Design
Detailed Design
Production
ThreWringing Thick Gauge Blocks:

30
Gauge blocks crossed at 90 ° in the middle of the measuring faces. A slight force is imparted as the
blocks are rotated. The measuring faces are aligned. The whole set up is allowed to come down to
ambient temperatures.
3. Wringing Thin Guage Blocks:
One side of a thin gauge block is overlapped on one side of a thick gauge block. The thin gauge block
is slid while pressing the entire overlapped area to align the measuring faces with each other. The
whole set up is allowed to come down to ambient temperatures.
4. Gauge Blocks General Handling Principles:
The minimum number of blocks is used whenever possible and thick gauge blocks are prioritized over
smaller ones. The least significant digit is first considered and then more significant figures are added
through further gauge blocks. The gauge blocks should be cleaned with an appropriate cleaning agent
and checked for burrs by using optical flats. A small amount of oil is applied to the flats and spread
evenly across the face. The stack should not be left assembled for longer then is necessary. The gauge
blocks should be cleaned and rustproofing protection applied before storing in their box.
5. Measurement of a Large Bore Diameter (Using Pin Gauges):
The length of the bar will be slightly less than the diameter to be measured. The pin gauge is placed
inside the bore with its ends touching the surface of the bore. The axis of the gauges is hence a chord
of the circle. Keeping one end in place the other end is moved to the other side of the diameter. The
distance between the two points of contact is measured. Substituting the length of the pin gauge ( L )
and half the distance between the two points of contact ( w ) in the following equation, the bore
diameter can be obtained.

L2
D=
√ L2−w 2

6. Measurement of a Small-Bore Diameter (Using Precision Spheres):

Three spheres of the same diameter are placed inside of the bore. A larger sphere is placed on top, to
remove all clearances. The dimension ( x ) is measured with the use of a comparator. This is the
distance from the base of the bottom spheres to the top of the larger sphere. The diameter of the
smaller spheres ( φ Small ) is substituted together with the diameter of the larger spheres ( φ Large ) in the
following equation

2
φ Large+ φSmall 2
φ Bore =2
√ ( φ Large +φ Small )
4 (
+ x−
2 ) + φSmall

7. Measurement of a Diameters (Using an Engineering Microscope):

First, the dimension for the horizontal centre is found. The reticule is set at 45 °  and the lines are
placed tangent to the bore. Similarly, the dimension for the vertical centre is found. The reticule is

31
rotated back to 90 ° . The reticule is set again at 45 °  and the lines are placed tangent to the top part of
the bore. The reticule is then rotated back to 90 ° .
Alternatively:
Using a CMM, three coordinates are recorded along the circumference of the circular feature by
translating the microscope over different regions of the circumference. By substituting these
coordinates, the equation of a circle, the diameter can be determined. This methodology can be
replicated to measure fillet radii.
8. Measurement of a Flatness (Using an Optical Flat):
The optical flat is wrung to the workpiece, similarly like wringing two slip gauges. A force is applied
at one of the edges. If the fringe pattern does not change, that is the end in contact with the part. When
force does widen the fringe bands, you know that you are squeezing the air wedge closed.
9. Measurement of a Flatness (Using an Autocollimator):
An autocollimator is placed consecutively in different positions along a matrix of tracks on the surface
such that misalignments are captured over the grid and the flatness, extrapolated.
10. Measurement of Straightness:
By laying the part on two vee blocks, a comparator is secured onto rigid support and translated along
the part’s length. The part is rotated and the process is repeated over intervals. If need be, third
support can be added to annihilate any deflection.
11. Measurement of Roundness:
A similar procedure can be used to measure roundness. This time the comparator is fixed and the part
is rotated. Measurements are taken along different intervals along the length of the part.
12. Measurement of Perpendicularity:
A height gauge is fixed next to the perpendicular plane and the probe is translated along the edge of
the part such that any variations are registered, such variations being a mix of straightness deviations
and mostly perpendicularity variations. Similar procedure applies for measurement of part squareness.
13. Fillet Measurement (Using Surface Plates and Rollers):
The two rollers are placed on the surface plate such that they are exactly perpendicularity and the fillet
is laid onto the roller such that its midpoint intersects the surface plate perpendicularity.
The radius of the fillet can be found by substituting into the following equation the value of the
diameter of the rollers ( D ) and the distance between the rollers ( L ) (tangent to tangent).

( L−D )2
R=
8D

14. Fillet Measurement (Fixed Roller Instrument):

The micrometre is adjusted such that the spindle and rollers to be in contact with the part surface. The
dimension ( h ) is measured by the micrometre. By substituting this value together with the roller
centre-to-centre distance ( c ), the radius can be determined through the following equation.

32
 c2 d−h
R=
8h
− ( )
2

15. Fillet Measurement (Vee Block):

By substituting the Vee block angle and the distance between the Vee block vertex and the fillet
tangent ( H ) in the following equation, the fillet radius can be found.

H
R=
θ
csc −1
2

16. Thread Inspection (By Variables):

To obtain detailed information on the dimensional conditions of thread gauges and threading tools.
To collect data on the performance accuracy of threading equipment.
To analyze the origins of virtual diameter variations that reflect the compounded effect of deviations
in various interrelated thread dimensions.
To measure individually the actual size of several interrelated and independent dimensions.
17. Thread Inspection (By Attributes):
The dimensional condition generally checked in an inspection by attributes is whether the size of the
examined thread provides the specified minimum material limits, i.e., the external thread is not too
small or the internal thread is not too large.
18. Thread Gauging (Indicating Thread Snap Gauge):
Indicating thread snap gauges are used for inspecting the actual pitch diameter of any single pitch of
the product thread by using the appropriate cone and Vee contact elements installed in the instrument
spindles. One of the spindles is adjustable over a wide range for accommodating workpieces of
different diameters. The opposite spindle, which is connected with the indicator, has spring actuation
for producing a constant gauging force and can be raised with a lever for the free positioning of the
workpiece.
19. Gear Rolling Test Method (Single Flank):
Single flank testing mounts the gears at a fixed centre-to-centre distance on a Parkston Gear Tester.
Variations of gear tooth profile and pitch cause transmission errors which are registered by an optical
electronic rotary resolver and recorded on a strip chart.
20. Gear Rolling Test Method (Double Flank):
Double flank testing ensures the contact gears rolls in tight mesh. Variations of tooth profile and pitch
produce centre distance changes as composite effect.

33
34