Chapter 8

The Cardiovascular System

Learning Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

8.1 Define and spell the word parts used to 8.3 Build medical terms from the word parts
create terms for the cardiovascular system. associated with the cardiovascular system.

8.2 Break down and define common medical 8.4 Pronounce and spell common medical
terms used for symptoms, diseases, terms associated with the cardiovascular
disorders, procedures, treatments, and system.
devices associated with the cardiovascular
system.

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 The Cardiovascular System 193

Anatomy and Physiology Terms

The following table provides the combining forms that commonly apply to the anatomy and physiology of the
cardiovascular system. Note that the combining forms are colored red to help you identify them when you see
them again later in the chapter.

Combining Form Definition Combining Form Definition

angi/o blood vessel pect/o, pector/o chest
aort/o aorta valvul/o little valve
arter/o, arteri/o artery vas/o vessel
atri/o atrium vascul/o little vessel
cardi/o heart ven/o vein
coron/o crown or circle, heart ventricul/o little belly, ventricle
my/o, myos/o muscle

8.1 Every one of the 50 trillion or so cells in your body requires a

continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients and an unending removal
of waste materials. To meet these demands, the blood carries
these materials by way of the body’s circulation within a series of
closed tubes, called blood vessels, pushed along mainly by the
movements of the heart. Blood vessels include arteries that carry
blood away from the heart, veins that carry blood toward the heart,
and microscopic capillaries that bridge arteries and veins, whose
thin walls permit the exchange of materials between blood and
interstitial fluid. The movement and transport of blood is thereby
cardiovascular achieved by the ____________________ system, which consists of
kar dee oh VAS kyoo lar the heart and blood vessels, as the word parts that form the term
cardiovascular suggest. The constructed form is cardi/o/vascul/ar,
in which cardi/o is a combining form that means “heart,” and vascul
is a word root that means “little vessel.” The continuous flow of
blood ____________________ to all tissues is vital to maintain normal body
functions. If the supply of oxygen or nutrients or the removal of
carbon dioxide is reduced or cut off, even for a few minutes, the
affected cells will die. Thus, a disease of the cardiovascular system
can pose life-threatening risks to health and survival.

8.2 The functions of the cardiovascular system may be summarized

as:
heart ■■ Propulsion of blood by the ____________________
■■ Transport of blood to all body tissues by the
blood vessels ____________________ ____________________
■■ Exchange of materials between the blood and body tissues

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 194 Chapter 8

8.3 Review the anatomy of the cardiovascular system by studying

■ Figure 8.1 and ■ Figure 8.2.

AIR (OXYGEN)

Trachea
Right Left
lung lung
Right pulmonary artery Left pulmonary artery

Lung
Lung capillaries
capillaries

Left
pulmonary
veins
Right
pulmonary
veins

Heart
(blood)

Vein Artery

Arterioles
Venules

BODY CAPILLARIES

= Blood low in oxygen and high in carbon

dioxide (deoxygenated)

= Blood high in oxygen and low in carbon

dioxide (oxygenated)

■ Figure 8.1
The cardiovascular system. A schematic view of the closed circulation of blood.
The heart is sectioned, and the capillaries are enlarged to enable you to see them.
The black arrows indicate the direction of blood flow.

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 The Cardiovascular System 195

Superior vena cava

Aorta

Pulmonary trunk
Left atrium
Aortic valve
Right atrium
Mitral (bicuspid) valve
Pulmonary valve
Left ventricle
Tricuspid valve

Right ventricle Endocardium

Myocardium

Epicardium
Inferior vena cava

■ Figure 8.2
Internal anatomy of the heart. The heart is sectioned to reveal its internal features.

Medical Terms of the Cardiovascular System

8.4 Many diseases of the cardiovascular system have a profound
effect on the body’s overall health. The result of cardiovascular
disease is often the reduction or stoppage of blood flow to one
or more parts of the body, which results in the death of cells. If
blood ____________________ flow reduction affects a large area or a critical
organ like the brain, kidneys, or heart itself, the resulting cell death
can produce a condition that quickly becomes life-threatening.

8.5 The division of medicine known as cardiology (kar dee AHL oh

jee) provides clinical treatment for heart disease. Cardiology is a
cardi/o/logy constructed term, _____/_____/_____, where the combining form
cardi/o means “heart” and the suffix -logy means “study or science
of.” A physician specializing in this field is called a cardiologist.
cardiologist Generally, a ____________________ also treats conditions associated
kar dee AHL oh jist with blood vessels because of the close functional relationship
between blood vessels and the heart.

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 196 Chapter 8

8.6 In the following sections, we review the prefixes, combining

forms, and suffixes that combine to build the medical terms of the
cardiovascular ____________________ system.

Signs and Symptoms of the Cardiovascular System

Here are the word parts that commonly apply to the signs and symptoms of the cardiovascular system that
are covered in the following section. Note that the word parts are color-coded to help you identify them: pre-
fixes are yellow, combining forms are red, and suffixes are blue.

Prefix Definition Combining Form Definition Suffix Definition

a- without, angi/o blood vessel -a singular
absence of cardi/o heart -algia condition of pain
brady- slow cyan/o blue -dynia condition of pain
dys- bad, abnormal, pect/o, pector/o chest -genic pertaining to producing,
painful, difficult rhythm/o, rrhythm/o rhythm forming
tachy- rapid, fast sten/o narrow -ia condition of
-osis condition of
-plegia paralysis
-sis state of
-spasm sudden involuntary muscle
contraction

KEY TERMS A–Z 8.7 The primary symptom of an insufficient supply of oxygen
angina pectoris to the heart is chest pain called ____________________
an JYE nah * PEK tor iss ____________________. This Latin term literally means “chest choke.”
The level of chest pain varies with the patient, varying from a very
slight pressure to an overbearing pain that radiates to the shoulders,
upper left arm, and back.

8.8 The common combining form of “blood vessel” is angi/o.

Blood vessel disorders include abnormal muscular contractions,
or spasms, of the smooth muscles in the vessel walls. This sign is
angiospasm called ____________________. The constructed form of this term is
AN jee oh spazm angi/o/spasm.

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 The Cardiovascular System 197

8.9 Narrowing of a blood vessel is a sign of cardiovascular disease,

causing a reduction of blood flow to the part of the body at the
receiving end of the narrowed vessel. This sign is called angiostenosis.
The constructed form of this term is angi/o/sten/osis and includes
one combining form: angi/o, which means “blood vessel,” and the
word root sten, which means “narrow.” Thus, the literal meaning of
angiostenosis ____________________ is “condition of a narrow blood vessel.”
AN jee oh sten OH siss

8.10 The prefix a- means “without, absence of,” and the prefix dys-
means “bad, abnormal, painful, difficult.” In some cases, they may
be used interchangeably. For example, a loss of the normal rhythm
arrhythmia of the heart is called ____________________, which means “condition
ah RITH mee ah of without rhythm” and is written a/rrhythm/ia. An alternate term for
an abnormal heart rhythm is dysrhythmia. The constructed form of
this term is written dys/rhythm/ia.

Arrhythmia and Dysrhythmia

These two medical terms relating to the abnormal rhythm of the heart are very similar in their mean-
WORDS TO ings, but they have important differences. As you have learned, the prefix a- means “without,
Watch Out For absence of,” and the prefix dys- means “bad, abnormal, painful, difficult.” Now look closer at the
word roots. They are not identical. The term arrhythmia (“condition of without rhythm”) has an extra
r. To remember which term is spelled with two rs, it might help to think of the expression “without
rhyme or reason.” A condition of arrhythmia is a heartbeat “without rhyme or reason,” whereas a
condition of dysrhythmia is a heartbeat with an abnormal rhythm. Arrhythmia is used much more fre-
quently than dysrhythmia.

8.11 The common word root for heart is cardi. You will find it
used in many terms in this chapter. In the term bradycardia, the
prefix that means “slow” is used to form the meaning “slow heart.”
bradycardia ____________________ is an abnormally slow heart rate, usually
brad ee KAR dee ah under 60 beats per minute at rest. The normal resting heart rate
ranges from 60 to 90 beats per minute.

8.12 The most common term for chest pain is, simply, chest
pain, abbreviated CP. An alternate term may also be used for
this symptom. This term, cardiodynia, uses the suffix -dynia,
which means “condition of pain.” The constructed form of
cardiodynia ____________________ is cardi/o/dynia.
kar dee oh DIN ee ah

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8.13 The suffix -genic means “pertaining to producing,

forming.” When combined with the word part for heart, the term
cardiogenic ____________________ is formed. The constructed form of the term
kar dee oh JENN ik is written cardi/o/genic. It refers to a symptom or sign that originates
from a condition of the heart. For example, the pain sensation of
angina pectoris (Frame 8.7) is a cardiogenic symptom because it is
caused by insufficient blood flow to the heart.

8.14 A symptom in which a blue tinge is seen in the skin

and mucous membranes is called cyanosis, which literally
means “condition of blue.” The constructed form is cyan/osis.
cyanosis ____________________ is caused by oxygen deficiency in tissues
sigh ah NOH siss and is a common sign of respiratory failure often caused by
cardiovascular disease.

8.15 A symptom of pounding, racing, or skipping of the heartbeat

palpitation is called ____________________. The term is derived from the Latin
pal pih TAY shun word palpitatus, which means “a throbbing.”

8.16 The opposite of the prefix brady- is the prefix tachy-,

which means “rapid, fast.” A rapid heart rate is called
tachycardia ____________________. It may be a symptom of heart disease if the
tack ee KAR dee ah heart exceeds 100 beats per minute at rest.

8.17 A temporary loss of consciousness and posture is known as

syncope. Commonly known as “fainting,” it is often the result of a
temporary reduction of blood flow to the brain. Frequent episodes
may be symptoms of a cardiovascular disease. For example,
heart disease may cause fainting spells, referred to as cardiogenic
syncope _______________. The term syncope is derived from the Greek word
SIN koh pee synkope, which means “to cut short.”

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 The Cardiovascular System 199

PRACTICE: Signs and Symptoms of the Cardiovascular System

Break the Chain
Analyze these medical terms:
a) Separate each term into its word parts; each word part is labeled for you. (p = prefix, r = root,
cf = combining form, and s = suffix).
b) For the Bonus Question, write the requested definition in the blank that follows.
The first set has been completed for you as an example.

1. a) angiostenosis angi/o/sten/osis
cf r s
b)
Bonus Question: What is the definition of the suffix? condition of 

2. a) bradycardia ________/________/________
p r s
b)
Bonus Question: What is the definition of the word root? 

3. a) cardiodynia ________/___/________
cf s
b)
Bonus Question: What is the definition of the suffix? 

4. a) cardiogenic ________/___/________
cf s
b)
Bonus Question: What is the definition of the suffix? 

5. a) cyanosis ________/________
r s
b)
Bonus Question: What is the definition of the word root? 
6. a) angiospasm ________/___/________
cf s
b)
Bonus Question: What is the definition of the suffix? 

The Right Match

Match the term on the left with the correct definition on the right.
______ 1. cyanosis a. sign or symptom that originates from a condition of the heart
______ 2. angina pectoris b. pounding, racing, or skipping of the heartbeat
______ 3. syncope c. opposite of bradycardia; fast heartbeat
______ 4. cardiogenic d. pain associated with the heart
______ 5. cardiodynia e. chest pain or pressure
______ 6. arrhythmia f. blue tinge in the skin and mucous membranes
______ 7. tachycardia g. fainting
______ 8. palpitation h. term that literally means “condition of without rhythm”

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 200 Chapter 8

Diseases and Disorders of the Cardiovascular System

Here are the word parts that commonly apply to the diseases and disorders of the cardiovascular system that
are covered in the following section. Note that the word parts are color-coded to help you identify them: pre-
fixes are yellow, combining forms are red, and suffixes are blue.

Prefix Definition Combining Form Definition Suffix Definition

endo- within angi/o blood vessel -ac pertaining to
epi- upon, over, above, aort/o aorta -ade process
on top arter/o, arteri/o artery -al pertaining to
hyper- excessive, abnormally ather/o fatty plaque -ar pertaining to
high, above cardi/o heart -emia condition of blood
hypo- deficient, abnormally coron/o crown or circle, heart -ic pertaining to
low, below
hem/o blood -ion process
peri- around
isch/o hold back -itis inflammation
poly- excessive, over, many
my/o muscle -megaly abnormally large
phleb/o vein -oma tumor
scler/o hard -osis condition of
sept/o putrefying; wall, partition -pathy disease
sten/o narrow
tampon/o plug
tens/o pressure
thromb/o clot
valvul/o little valve
varic/o dilated vein

KEY TERMS A–Z 8.18 An abnormal bulging of an arterial wall is called an

aneurysm and is shown in ■ Figure 8.3. The term is derived
from the Greek word aneurysma, which means “a widening.” An
aneurysm ____________________ is usually caused by a congenital defect or
AN yoo rism an acquired weakness of the arterial wall, which worsens in time
as blood is pushed against it. The bursting of a large aneurysm is
usually life-threatening, resulting in massive hemorrhage.

■ Figure 8.3
Aneurysm
Aneurysm. Photograph of the
aorta, the large blood vessel
arising from the heart, with a Aorta
large bulge, or aneurysm, in
its wall (just to the left of the
tubing). An aneurysm is caused
by a weakened blood vessel
wall that is in danger of bursting,
which often results in a life-
threatening hemorrhage.
Source: Kalewa/Shutterstock.

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 The Cardiovascular System 201

8.19 Inflammation of the heart and blood vessels is a disease

called angiocarditis. It is usually caused by a widespread bacterial
infection of the blood, or septicemia (Frame 8.55). The four word
angiocarditis parts of ____________________ are shown when it is written angi/o/
AN jee oh kar DYE tiss card/itis.

8.20 A term describing a tumor arising from a blood vessel

combines the word root for blood vessel, angi, with the suffix for
angioma tumor, -oma, to form ____________________. This constructed term
an jee OH mah is written angi/oma. Also known as hemangioma (heh MAN jee OH
mah), it is a benign clump of endothelium forming a mass. In some
cases the mass can obstruct the flow of blood through the vessel.
The term hemangioma carries a second meaning of a red or purple
birthmark on the skin that does not obstruct blood flow.

8.21 The aortic valve is the semilunar valve located at the base of
the aorta, which normally prevents blood from returning to the left
ventricle. If it fails to close completely during ventricular diastole,
blood may return to the left ventricle, causing the left ventricle to
work harder. This condition is called aortic insufficiency. The
aortic insufficiency long-term result of ____________________ ____________________,
ay OR tik * in suf FISH un see abbreviated AI, is a chronic condition of the heart known as
congestive heart failure, which is described in Frame 8.36. An
alternate term for AI is aortic regurgitation.

8.22 The word root sten means “narrow.” An aortic stenosis is a

narrowing of the aortic valve, located between the left ventricle and
aortic stenosis aorta. An ____________________ ____________________ causes the
ay OR tik * sten OH siss left ventricle to work harder than normal. It is usually a more serious
condition than aortic insufficiency, although the long-term effect
is similar, leading to congestive heart failure (Frame 8.36). It is a
constructed term, written aort/ic sten/osis.

aortitis 8.23 Inflammation of the aorta is called ____________________. The

ay or TYE tiss constructed form of this term is aort/itis. Often caused by a bacterial
infection, it can lead to acute aortic insufficiency (Frame 8.21).

8.24 A general term for a disease of an artery is

arteriopathy ____________________. This constructed term uses the suffix -pathy
ahr tee ree AH path ee (meaning “disease”) and is written arteri/o/pathy.

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8.25 One common form of arteriopathy occurs when an artery wall

becomes thickened and loses its elasticity, resulting in a reduced
flow of blood to the tissues. The risk of developing this disease,
known as arteriosclerosis, increases with advanced age. The
arteriosclerosis constructed form of ____________________ is arteri/o/scler/osis,
ahr TEE ree oh skleh ROH siss which literally means “condition of hard artery.” If coronary arteries
supplying the heart are damaged by this disease, the condition is
called arteriosclerotic heart disease (ASHD).

8.26 A term describing a specific form of arteriosclerosis (Frame 8.25),

in which one or more fatty plaques form along the inner walls of arteries,
uses the combining form that means “fatty plaque,” ather/o, to form
atherosclerosis the term ____________________. The plaques thicken with time, which
ATH er oh skleh ROH siss reduces the flow of blood through the affected vessel (■ Figure 8.4). The
constructed form of this term is ather/o/scler/osis, which literally means
“condition of hard fatty plaque.” A major cause of coronary artery
disease (Frame 8.38), atherosclerosis poses an immediate threat to
life if a plaque disrupts blood flow and releases blood clots, which may
trigger an acute myocardial infarction (Frame 8.49).

Coronary artery

Adventitia
Plaque Media
Interna

(a)

Endothelium
Collagen
Plaque Smooth muscle cell
Cholesterol crystal
Lipid
Internal elastic
lamina (damaged)
Fibrosis
(b)
■ Figure 8.4
Atherosclerosis. (a) A sectioned
coronary artery that exhibits an
accumulation of fatty plaque,
which reduces the internal
diameter of the vessel. (b) In this
close-up, you can see that the
plaque consists of cholesterol,
triglycerides, phospholipids,
collagen, and smooth muscle
cells. (c) Two types and degrees
of atherosclerotic narrowing, or Moderate atherosclerotic Almost complete atherosclerotic
stenosis. (c) narrowing of the lumen occlusion of the lumen

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 The Cardiovascular System 203

8.27 A general condition present at birth that centers on a mal-

function of the heart is called a congenital heart disease. One
form of this disease occurs when an infant’s heart allows blood
to move between the two atria because of a small opening in the
wall separating them. Known as an atrial septal defect, it results
atrial septal defect in a reduction of blood flow to the lungs. As a result, the tissues
AY tree al * SEP tal * DEE fekt of an infant with ____________________ ____________________
____________________ become starved of oxygen. Atrial and sep-
tal are constructed terms, as you can see when they are written as
atri/al and sept/al.

8.28 The suffix -megaly means “abnormally large.” In the condi-

tion ­atriomegaly, the atria have become abnormally enlarged or
dilated, reducing their ability to push blood into the ventricles.
atriomegaly The constructed form of ____________________ reveals three
AY tree oh MEG ah lee word parts: _____/_____/_____. It is a form of cardiomegaly
atri/o/megaly (Frame 8.32).

8.29 An injury to the atrioventricular node (AV node), which normally

receives impulses from the sinoatrial node (SA node) and transmits
them to the ventricles to stimulate ventricular contraction, is called
atrioventricular block an ____________________ ____________________, or AV block. The
AY tree oh ven TRIK yoo lar injury is usually caused by a myocardial infarction (Frame 8.49),
­during which the cells of the AV node die due to a loss of blood flow.
The term atrioventricular is a constructed term: atri/o/ventricul/ar.

cardiac arrest 8.30 The cessation of heart activity is called ____________________

KAR dee ak * ah REST ____________________. As you should know, cardiac is a
­constructed term written cardi/ac. Arrest means “stop.” In ­sudden
cardiac arrest, abbreviated SCA, the patient may have little or
no warning signs; often the arrest causes death. According to the
American Heart Association, more than 320,000 people die from
an SCA each year in the United States. Most deaths occur within
­minutes, primarily due to a sudden loss of blood flow to the brain.
The most common cause of SCA is an electrical disturbance to
the heart that causes arrhythmia (Frame 8.10), although it may also
­follow a myocardial infarction, or heart attack (Frame 8.49).

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8.31 Acute compression of the heart due to the accumulation of

fluid within the pericardial cavity is known as cardiac tamponade.
The term is constructed from word parts and is shown as cardi/ac
cardiac tamponade tampon/ade. It literally means “pertaining to heart plug process.”
KAR dee ak * tamp oh NAHD ____________________ ____________________ is a complication of
an inflammatory disease of the pericardium known as pericarditis
(Frame 8.52).

8.32 Recall that the suffix -megaly means “abnormally large.” The
cardiomegaly abnormal enlargement of the heart is called ____________________,
KAR dee oh MEG ah lee which occurs when the heart must work harder than normal to meet
the oxygen demands of body cells. The constructed form of this
term is cardi/o/megaly.

8.33 A general term for a disease of the myocardium of the heart is

cardiomyopathy ­cardiomyopathy. The constructed form of ____________________
KAR dee oh my OPP ah thee reveals five word parts: cardi/o/my/o/pathy. The most common
causes of cardiomyopathy include coronary artery disease (Frame
8.38), viral or bacterial infection, and stress during pregnancy.

8.34 An inflammation of the valves of the heart is called

­cardiovalvulitis (■ Figure 8.5). The constructed form of this term
is cardi/o/valvul/itis. As you know, cardi/o means “heart,” and the
suffix -itis means “inflammation.” The word root valvul means “little
valve.” The most common causes of this disease are bacterial infec-
tion, which leads to the deposition of calcium deposits on heart
cardiovalvulitis valves (known as vegetations), and congenital defects, which result
KAR dee oh val vyoo LYE tiss in abnormally shaped valves. ____________________ is usually diag-
nosed from the presence of a heart murmur (Frame 8.44), which is a
gurgling sound detected during auscultation (Frame 8.68).

■ Figure 8.5
Cardiovalvulitis. The human
heart has been sectioned to
reveal the left ventricle and Aortic valve vegetations
origin of the aorta, with the
aortic valve between them.
The yellow growths, called
vegetations, on the aortic
valve have been caused by
a Streptococcus infection,
rendering the valve disfigured
and thereby unable to direct the
flow of blood properly.
Source: Courtesy of the Public
Health Image Library, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention.

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 The Cardiovascular System 205

8.35 A congenital (present at birth) heart disease affecting the

infant’s aorta is coarctation of the aorta. The term coarctation
is derived from the Latin word coarcto, which means “to press
coarctation together.” ____________________ of the aorta causes reduced sys-
koh ark TAY shun temic circulation of blood and accumulation of fluid in the lungs and
requires surgical repair.

8.36 A chronic form of heart disease characterized by the ­failure

of the left ventricle to pump enough blood to supply systemic
­tissues is called congestive heart failure (CHF). Also known as
left-­ventricular failure, the reduced function of the left ventricle
congestive heart failure characteristic of ____________________ ____________________
____________________ makes the heart work harder, resulting in
­cardiomegaly (Frame 8.32), pulmonary congestion (fluid in the lungs),
and reduced left-ventricle function that eventually leads to cardiac
arrest (Frame 8.30). The primary symptoms of CHF include short-
ness of breath and fatigue.

8.37 If a disease of one or both lungs affects blood flow within

the lungs, blood may back up in the right ventricle of the heart (the
right ventricle normally pumps blood to the lungs). As a result, the
right ventricle will be forced to work harder but with less efficiency,
which enlarges the heart on the right side. A chronic enlargement
and reduced efficiency of the right ventricle resulting from backup
of the pulmonary circulation is called cor pulmonale. A French
cor pulmonale word that literally means “heart lung,” ____________________
kor * pull moh NAY lee ____________________ is also known as right-­ventricular failure.

8.38 A general term for a disease that afflicts the coronary arteries
coronary artery disease supplying the heart is ____________________ ____________________
____________________ (CAD). The most common form of CAD is
­atherosclerosis (Frame 8.26). Because the coronary arteries supply
the heart with blood, an alternate term to coronary artery disease is
coronary heart disease (CHD).

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8.39 Occlusion is a general term that means “blockage.” A coro-

nary occlusion is a blockage within a coronary artery, resulting in a
reduced blood flow to an area of the heart muscle. The most com-
coronary occlusion mon single cause of a ____________________ ____________________
is atherosclerosis (Frame 8.26). Atherosclerosis or other diseases
may also lead to emboli (drifting blood clots), and a congenital ste-
nosis may also contribute to coronary occlusion.

8.40 A blockage or occlusion that forms when a blood clot or

other foreign particle (including air or fat) moves through the cir-
culation is called an embolism. The term is derived from the
embolism Greek word embolisma, which means “piece or patch.” An
EM boh lizm ____________________ can produce a severe circulatory restriction
when the blood clot or particle, called an embolus (plural form is
emboli), lodges in an artery.

8.41 Inflammation of the endocardium, the thin membrane lining the

inside walls of the heart chambers, is an acute disease called
endocarditis ____________________. The constructed form of this term is endo/
EHN doh kar DYE tiss card/itis. Because the endocardium also covers the heart valves,
endocarditis often results in cardiovalvulitis (Frame 8.34). It is usually
caused by a bacterial infection.

8.42 A condition of uncoordinated, rapid contractions of the muscle

fibrillation forming the ventricles or atria is called ____________________.
fih bril AY shun It is a severe form of arrhythmia (Frame 8.10). Atrial fibrillation
(A-fib) leads to a reduction of blood expelled from the atria and is
usually not fatal, although it poses an increased risk of stroke due
to blood clots forming in the left atrium that may lodge in the brain.
However, ventricular fibrillation results in circulatory collapse due
to the failure of the ventricles to expel blood. It is often fatal within
5 minutes if medical intervention through CPR (Frame 8.71) or
defibrillation (Frame 8.74) is not immediately available.

8.43 A block or delay of the normal electrical conduction of the heart

heart block is called ____________________ ____________________. It is often the
result of a myocardial infarction (Frame 8.49) that damages the SA
node or AV node, which normally manage the rhythmic contractions
of the heart.

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 The Cardiovascular System 207

8.44 An abnormal sound heard during auscultation (Frame 8.68) of

the heart is a heart murmur. An “innocent” ____________________
heart murmur ____________________ is not associated with a heart condition and
is very common, while murmurs that are not innocent suggest heart
disease such as cardiovalvulitis (Frame 8.34). A common source
of heart murmur is a leaky mitral valve (the atrioventricular valve on
the left side), and is known as mitral valve prolapse (MVP). Most
people with MVP have an innocent heart murmur, but in some, the
prolapse causes regurgitation of blood through the damaged mitral
valve into the left atrium and thereby requires medical intervention.

8.45 The presence of dilated, or varicose, veins in the anal region

hemorrhoids is called ____________________. The condition produces symptoms
HEM oh roydz of local pain and itching. It usually results from too much pressure
on the veins in the anal wall, producing swollen veins within the anal
columns (internal hemorrhoids) or near the anal opening (external
hemorrhoids).

8.46 Persistently high blood pressure while at rest is an abnormal

hypertension condition called ____________________. This constructed term
HIGH per TEN shun is written hyper/tens/ion and means “process of abnormally
high pressure.” It includes essential hypertension, in which
the condition is not traceable to a single cause, and secondary
hypertension, in which the high blood pressure is caused by the
effects of another disease, such as atherosclerosis or diabetes.
Although hypertension usually produces no symptoms, it is one of
the most common causes of stroke and kidney failure.

8.47 A condition of abnormally low blood pressure is called

hypotension ____________________, which includes the prefix hypo- that means
HIGH poh TEN shun “deficient, abnormally low, below.” It is usually an acute reaction to
hemorrhage, hypothermia (abnormally low body temperature), or
septicemia (Frame 8.55).

8.48 An abnormally low flow of blood to the tissues is the

condition known as ischemia. The term is a constructed term,
isch/emia, which literally means “condition of holding back blood.”
ischemia Coronary ____________________ is caused by an occlusion, such
iss KEE mee ah as atherosclerotic plaque (Frame 8.26), emboli (Frame 8.40), or
thrombosis (Frame 8.57), and, because it damages the heart, can
lead to a life-threatening myocardial infarction (Frame 8.49).

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 208 Chapter 8

8.49 Death of a portion of the myocardium is called myocardial

infarction, abbreviated MI. The term infarction is derived from the
Latin word infarctus, which means “stuff into.” In medicine, the term
is used to describe a death of cells resulting from a sudden loss of
blood flow (■ Figure 8.6). The term myocardial is constructed from
word parts, as shown when it is written as my/o/cardi/al, which
myocardial infarction means “pertaining to heart muscle.” If the ____________________
my oh KAR dee al * in FARK ____________________ affects a large or functionally critical part of
shun the heart, arrhythmia (Frame 8.10), cardiac arrest (Frame 8.30), or
both may follow. The common name for an MI is a heart attack.
According to the American Heart Association, approximately
790,000 individuals experience heart attacks in the United States
each year, roughly 25% of which are fatal.

Area of infarct

(a) (b)

■ Figure 8.6
Myocardial infarction. (a) A heart with a myocardial infarction of the ventricle wall, in which cardiac
cells have died and surrounding tissues have become damaged. The right image is a section through
the heart. (b) Photograph of a human heart (postmortem) to reveal the the dead cardiac tissue
(necrosis), which perished due to a sudden loss of blood flow.
Photo Source: Mediscan/Alamy Stock Photo.

8.50 Inflammation of the myocardium of the heart is an acute

myocarditis condition called ____________________. The constructed form of
my oh kar DYE tiss this term is my/o/card/itis. Often caused by bacterial infection, it is a
form of cardiomyopathy (Frame 8.33).

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 The Cardiovascular System 209

8.51 A congenital condition characterized by an opening between

the pulmonary artery and the aorta at birth due to a failure of the
fetal vessel, called the ductus arteriosus, to close is called patent
ductus arteriosus. The term patent means “open.” The condition
patent ductus arteriosus ____________________ ____________________ ____________________
PAY tent * DUCK tuss * ahr permits the flow of blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta,
tee ree OH siss which bypasses the pulmonary circulation.

8.52 Inflammation of the membrane surrounding the heart, the

pericarditis pericardium, is called ____________________. The constructed form
pair ih kar DYE tiss of the term is written peri/card/itis. It is usually caused by bacterial
infection and affects both layers of the pericardium (the outer
pericardial sac and the inner epicardium).

8.53 A word root for vein is phleb, and it is used in the construction
of the term that means “inflammation of a vein.” The term is
phlebitis ____________________, and its constructed form is phleb/itis. In
fleh BYE tiss the related condition thrombophlebitis (THROM boh fleh BYE tiss), the
inflammation of the vein includes an obstruction by a blood clot.

8.54 Simultaneous inflammation of many arteries is a condition

polyarteritis known as ____________________. The constructed form of this term
PALL ee ahr ter EYE tiss reveals three word parts and is poly/arter/itis.

8.55 A bacterial infection of the bloodstream is called septicemia.

Because the bacteria are carried throughout the body by way of the
infected blood, it becomes widespread and life-threatening quickly.
septicemia The constructed form of ____________________ is sept/ic/emia,
SEP tih SEE mee ah which literally means “condition of putrefying blood.” Recall that
sepsis is a Greek word that means “putrefying.”

8.56 A severe congenital disease in which four defects associated

with the heart are present at birth is called tetralogy of Fallot. The
four defects are pulmonary stenosis (narrowing of the pulmonary
valve), ventricular septal defect (Frame 8.59), incorrect position
of the aorta, and right-ventricular hypertrophy. As a result of
tetralogy of Fallot ____________________ ____________________ ____________________,
teh TRALL oh jee * of * fah the pulmonary circulation is partially bypassed.
LOH

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 210 Chapter 8

8.57 The presence of stationary blood clots within one or more

blood vessels is called thrombosis. The term is the Greek word
thrombosis for clotting, thrombosis. A coronary ____________________ is often
throm BOH siss caused by atherosclerosis (Frame 8.26), and its rupture can result
in sudden cardiac arrest (Frame 8.30) due to an acute myocardial
infarction (Frame 8.49).

varicosis 8.58 An abnormally dilated vein is called ____________________,

vair ih KOH siss or varicose vein. Varicosis is a constructed term, written varic/osis,
which literally means “condition of dilated vein.” It results when
valves within a superficial vein of the leg or elsewhere fail, allowing
blood to pool in response to gravitational forces (■ Figure 8.7).

Open

Closed

Varicose
vein

Normal vein – competent Dilated vein – incompetent

valves valves
(a)

■ Figure 8.7
Varicosis. (a) Varicose veins
develop due to the failure of
valves in the superficial veins
of the leg, which leads to blood
accumulation in response
to gravity and vein dilation.
(b) Photograph of spider veins
(small varicose veins) of the leg.
Photo Source: Schankz/
Shutterstock. (b)

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 The Cardiovascular System 211

8.59 A congenital disease in which an opening in the septum

(sept/o in this case means “wall, partition”) separating the right and
ventricular septal defect left ventricles is present at birth is called ____________________
vehn TRIK yoo lar * SEPP tal * ____________________ ____________________, abbreviated VSD. The
DEE fekt opening allows some blood to flow from the left ventricle to the right
ventricle, reducing blood flow to body organs while dangerously
increasing blood flow to the lungs.

PRACTICE: Diseases and Disorders of the Cardiovascular System

Linkup
Link the word parts in the list to create the terms that match the definitions. You may use word parts more
than once. Remember to add in combining vowels when needed—and that some terms do not use any com-
bining vowel. The first one is completed as an example.

Prefix Combining Form Suffix

hyper- angi/o -ion
peri- ather/o -ism
cardi/o -itis
embol/o -oma
my/o -osis
scler/o -pathy
tens/o
thromb/o
varic/o
Definition Term
1. An occlusion of blood flow embolism____________
2. A general term for a disease of the myocardium of the heart ____________________
3. A specific form of arteriosclerosis in which one or more fatty plaques form along ____________________
the inner walls of arteries
4. A tumor arising from a blood vessel ____________________
5. Inflammation of the membrane surrounding the heart ____________________
6. Inflammation of the heart and blood vessels ____________________
7. An abnormally dilated vein ____________________
8. The presence of a stationary blood clot within a blood vessel ____________________
9. Persistently high blood pressure ____________________

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 212 Chapter 8

The Right Match

Match the term on the left with the correct definition on the right.
______ 1. aneurysm a. a disease of the coronary vessels
______ 2. cardiac tamponade b. a congenital heart defect
______ 3. cor pulmonale c. a block of the heart conduction system
______ 4. heart murmur d. a blockage in a coronary vessel
______ 5. cardiac arrest e. abnormal bulging of an arterial wall
______ 6. coronary artery disease f. an abnormal sound heard through auscultation
______ 7. coronary occlusion g. cessation of heartbeat
______ 8. atrial septal defect h. uncoordinated, rapid heartbeat
______ 9. congestive heart failure i. literally, “heart lung”
______ 10. heart block j. left-ventricular failure
______ 11. fibrillation k. caused by fluid within the pericardial cavity

Treatments, Procedures, and Devices of the Cardiovascular System

Here are the word parts that commonly apply to the treatments, procedures, and devices associated with the
cardiovascular system and are covered in the following section. Note that the word parts are color-coded to
help you identify them: prefixes are yellow, combining forms are red, and suffixes are blue.

Prefix Definition Combining Form Definition Suffix Definition

endo- within angi/o blood vessel -ac pertaining to
ultra- beyond normal aort/o aorta -ary pertaining to
arter/o, arteri/o artery -ectomy surgical excision, removal
cardi/o heart -gram a record or image
coron/o crown or circle, -graphy recording process
heart -ist one who specializes
ech/o sound -lytic pertaining to loosen, dissolve
electr/o electricity -meter measure, measuring instrument
embol/o plug -metry measurement, process of
man/o thin, scanty measuring
phleb/o vein -plasty surgical repair
pulmon/o lung -rrhaphy suturing
son/o sound -scopy process of viewing
sphygm/o pulse -stomy surgical creation of an opening
thromb/o clot -tomy incision, to cut
valvul/o little valve

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 The Cardiovascular System 213

KEY TERMS A–Z 8.60 A diagnostic procedure that includes x-ray photography, MRI,
or CT scan images of a blood vessel after injection of a contrast
medium is called angiography. This constructed term is written
angiography angi/o/graphy. The image resulting from ____________________ is
an jee OG rah fee called an angiogram (AN jee oh gram), which is written angi/o/gram.
When the procedure is focused on the heart, it is called cardiac
angiography or coronary angiography.

8.61 The surgical repair of a blood vessel is generally known as

angioplasty ____________________. The constructed form of this term is angi/
AN jee oh plass tee o/plasty. It includes procedures to reopen blocked vessels, such as
balloon angioplasty, in which a balloon is inserted into a blocked
vessel and inflated (■ Figure 8.8), and laser angioplasty, which uses
a laser beam to open a blocked artery.
■ Figure 8.8
Artery
Angioplasty. One popular form
is called balloon angioplasty,
shown here. A balloon catheter
is threaded into the blocked
artery and positioned into the
Atheromatous
obstructed area (left). The plaque
balloon is then inflated, which
presses the plaque against
the vessel wall (right). After the
balloon catheter is withdrawn,
the plaque remains flattened, Uninflated balloon Balloon
improving the flow of blood on catheter inflated

through the vessel.

Source: Pearson Education Inc.

8.62 The use of a flexible fiber-optic instrument, or endoscope,

to observe a diseased blood vessel and to assess any lesions is a
angioscopy procedure called ____________________. This constructed term is
AN jee OS koh pee written angi/o/scopy. The endoscope is often a modified instrument,
called an angioscope, which includes a camera at one end and a
video monitor at the opposite end.

8.63 The suffix -stomy means “surgical creation of an opening.”

The surgical procedure that involves the creation of an opening
into a blood vessel, usually for the insertion of a catheter, is called
angiostomy ____________________. The constructed form of this term is
an jee OS toh mee angi/o/stomy.

8.64 The surgical incision into a blood vessel is called

angiotomy ___________________, which uses the suffix -tomy that means
an jee OT oh mee “incision, to cut.” The constructed form of this term reveals three
word parts, as shown in angi/o/tomy.

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 214 Chapter 8

8.65 A procedure that obtains an x-ray image, MRI, or CT scan

aortography image of the aorta is called ____________________. The constructed
AY or TOG rah fee form of this term is aort/o/graphy. The image is called an
aortogram.

8.66 A procedure that obtains an image of an artery is known as

arteriography ____________________. The constructed form of this term is arteri/
ahr tee ree OG rah fee o/graphy, which literally means “process of recording an artery.” The
image is called an arteriogram.

arteriotomy 8.67 An incision into an artery is called an ____________________.

ahr tee ree OT oh mee This constructed term is written arteri/o/tomy. It is usually
performed to repair an injured artery during a procedure known as
an arterioplasty. The conclusion of the procedure is achieved by
suturing the opening, called arteriorrhaphy.

8.68 An important part of a physical examination involves listening

to internal sounds using a stethoscope (STETH oh skope) and is called
auscultation ____________________. Certain sounds suggest abnormalities
oss kull TAY shun of heart function, especially arrhythmias and valve disorders
(■ Figure 8.9).

■ Figure 8.9
Auscultation. A pediatrician is
performing auscultation on an
infant to check for possible heart
disorders.
Source: Image Point Fr/
Shutterstock.

AUSCULTATION
Did You Auscultation is derived from the Latin word ausculto, which means “to listen.” During the
ancient times of Aristotle, early physicians practiced this form of evaluation by pressing
KNOW
an ear against the patient’s chest. The stethoscope, which literally means “instrument to
view the chest,” is a device that made this procedure much more efficient by amplifying the
sounds. French physician Rene Laennec was the inventor of the first stethoscope in 1816.
He rolled paper into a tube shape to listen to the chest sounds of a young female patient
to avoid unwanted contact between his ear and her chest. He was excited to learn of the
amplified effect of the tube and developed a wooden tube that became widely used within a
few years. Today, stethoscopes include two rubber earpieces and an amplifying bell or cone.

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 The Cardiovascular System 215

8.69 Insertion of a narrow flexible tube, called a catheter, through a

cardiac catheterization blood vessel leading into the heart is called ____________________
KAR dee ak * kath eh ter ih ____________________ (■ Figure 8.10). The procedure is performed to
ZAY shun withdraw blood samples from heart chambers, measure pressures,
and inject contrast medium for imaging purposes. The term catheter
is derived from the Greek word katheter, which means “to send
down.”

■ Figure 8.10
Cardiac catheterization. Insertion
of a tube, called a catheter,
through a blood vessel. In this
example, the catheter is inserted
into the brachial artery of the
arm and is pushed through
vessels until reaching the interior
of the heart.

8.70 A cardiac pacemaker is a battery-powered device that is

implanted under the skin and wired to the inner wall of the heart
to help control abnormal heart rhythms (■ Figure 8.11). It produces
timed electric pulses that replace the function of the SA node as a
treatment for a heart block and certain other arrhythmias. Recently,
cardiac pacemaker the ____________________ ____________________ has been
KAR dee ak * PAYS may ker improved to adjust to the patient’s physical activity and SA node
function. This is called an on-demand pacemaker.

Pacemaker

■ Figure 8.11
Cardiac pacemaker. The
pacemaker device is implanted
beneath the skin near the heart.

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 216 Chapter 8

8.71 An emergency procedure that is used to maintain some

blood flow to vital organs until the heart can be restarted is
cardiopulmonary commonly abbreviated CPR, which means ____________________
resuscitation ____________________. It consists of rhythmic chest compression. If
KAR dee oh PULL mon air ee the restoration of breathing is also needed, artificial respiration may
* ree SUSS ih TAY shun be included. The constructed form of this term is written cardi/o/
pulmon/ary resuscitation. The term resuscitation is derived from the
Latin word resuscitatio, which means “to revive.”

8.72 A surgical procedure that involves removing a blood vessel

from another part of the body and inserting it into the coronary
coronary artery bypass circulation is called ____________________ ____________________
graft ____________________ ____________________, or CABG. The grafted
vessel restores blood flow to an oxygen-deprived area of the heart
by carrying blood around an occluded (blocked) coronary artery
(■ Figure 8.12).

Saphenous Aorta
vein grafts

Occlusion
Occlusion

■ Figure 8.12
Coronary artery bypass graft
(CABG). The grafts are often
obtained from the patient’s
saphenous veins in the legs
and are inserted to carry blood
around the blockage (occlusion).

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 The Cardiovascular System 217

8.73 An artificial, metallic scaffold that is used to support an injured

blood vessel, compress an atherosclerotic plaque, or anchor a
surgical implant or graft is called a stent (■ Figure 8.13). In coronary
circulation, a coronary stent may be implanted into a coronary
artery that is occluded to restore blood flow to an oxygen-deprived
coronary stent part of the heart. A ____________________ ____________________
may also be used to prevent closure of a coronary artery after
angioplasty (Frame 8.61).

■ Figure 8.13
Coronary stent. Insertion of
a stent to open a coronary Unexpanded stent on catheter
artery that is blocked by an
atherosclerotic plaque is a
popular surgery that improves
blood flow to the heart. The
top figure shows the stent,
temporarily attached to a
Sheath removed from stent
catheter, in place in the area
of the occluding plaque. The
middle figure shows the process
of expanding the stent, which
pushes the plaque to clear the
occlusion. In the bottom figure,
the catheter has been removed Expanded stent in place
and the stent is fully expanded,
and will remain in place after the
surgery.
Source: Pearson Education, Inc.

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 218 Chapter 8

8.74 In cases in which an arrhythmia progresses to the state of

ventricular fibrillation (Frame 8.42), an electric charge may be
applied to the chest wall to stop the heart conduction system
momentarily, then restart it to establish a more normal heart
defibrillation rhythm. This procedure is called ____________________. In most
dee fib rih LAY shun cases, the electric charge is applied to the skin of the chest with
paddles using an automated external defibrillator. Abbreviated
AED, a portable unit is illustrated in ■ Figure 8.14a. Alternatively,
a smaller device may be surgically implanted under the skin with
electrodes terminating directly on the heart. This device is called an
implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) and is illustrated in
■ Figure 8.14b.

Emergency medical technician

helping with defibrillation

Pads with electrodes stick

to patient’s chest

AED has written ICD

instructions and gives
voice instructions

Automated external defibrillator (AED)

(checks heart rhythm and can send electric
shock to restore normal rhythm)
(a) (b)

■ Figure 8.14
Defibrillator. Defibrillators are devices that supply a voltage charge to the heart in the hope of restarting
the cardiac cycle (heartbeat). (a) A portable automated external defibrillator (AED). The unit includes
two paddles that are pressed against the external chest wall, which deliver a brief voltage charge from
a generator to the patient. AEDs are given credit for saving thousands of lives every year, mainly from
sudden cardiac arrest (SCA). (b) An implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD), which is used during
surgery and may be inserted for postsurgical maintenance.

8.75 An ultrasound procedure that evaluates blood flow through a

blood vessel is called Doppler sonography. It is often performed
on the heart or on the carotid artery of the neck to evaluate
problems in blood flow in a noninvasive manner, and it may also
be used to monitor pulse rate from peripheral arteries. In the term
Doppler sonography ____________________ ____________________, sonography is a
DOP ler * son OG rah fee constructed term, written son/o/graphy, which literally means
“recording process of sound.”

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 The Cardiovascular System 219

8.76 An ultrasound procedure that directs sound waves through

the heart to observe heart structures in an effort to evaluate heart
echocardiography function is called ____________________ (■ Figure 8.15). This is
ek oh kar dee OG rah a constructed term with five word parts that is written ech/o/
fee cardi/o/graphy. The procedure may also be called cardiac
ultrasonography (KAR dee ak * ul trah son OG rah fee). The record or
image of the data is typically called an echocardiogram (ek oh KAR
dee oh gram). If a heart condition is suspected, it is often performed
during or immediately after exercise using a treadmill or stationary
bicycle to reproduce the dysfunction for closer evaluation, in the
procedure known as a stress ECHO.

(a)

■ Figure 8.15
Echocardiography. (a) The procedure
is performed by placing electrodes on
the chest wall, which sends ultrasound
pulses to the heart. A receiver, held
by the physician or technician, picks
up echoes from the pulses and sends
them to a computer for analysis.
(b) A monitor displays the flow of
blood passing through the heart
(red and yellow) and action of the
heart valves, providing a record that
may be digitally saved and printed.
Source: (a) Anamaria Mejia/
Shutterstock (b) cylonphto/123RF.com. (b)

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 220 Chapter 8

8.77 In the procedure known as electrocardiography, electrodes

are pasted to the skin of the chest to detect and record the
electrical events of the heart conduction system (■ Figure 8.16).
electrocardiography The constructed form of ____________________ is written electr/o/
ee LEK troh KAR dee AWG rah cardi/o/graphy. The record or image of the data is called an
fee electrocardiogram and abbreviated ECG or EKG (the K is from the
Greek word for heart, kardia) (see Figure 8.16b). Electrocardiography
is used extensively to evaluate heart function and is the most
common method for diagnosing a heart attack. It is particularly
useful in diagnosing cardiac arrhythmias (Frame 8.10). When
measured during physical activity using a treadmill or stationary
bicycle, it is called a stress ECG.

Sinoatrial node
Atrioventricular node
R

P T

Q
ST segment
PR
interval S

QT interval
Time(s) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
P = Atrial depolarization
(b) QRS = Ventricular depolarization
T = Repolarization
(a)

■ Figure 8.16
An electrocardiogram may be obtained while at rest (shown) or during exercise when it is called a stress ECG.
(a) Electrodes are placed on the patient’s chest to record the electrical events within the heart, and the results are
collected by computer and displayed on a monitor. (b) Each cardiac cycle of a normal electrocardiogram includes three
peaks or waves, called the P wave, QRS wave, and T wave.
Source (a): Lapina/Shutterstock.

Echocardiography and Electrocardiography

Echocardiography and electrocardiography are both methods of measuring heart function. The two
WORDS TO medical terms are similar enough in construction and in meaning to be confusing. Let the word parts
Watch Out For provide the clue. Remember that one hears an echo, and thus, echocardiography is the procedure
that uses ultrasound technology to make measurements of heart function. Also remember a synonym
for ultrasound is sonography, which means “recording process of sound.”

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 The Cardiovascular System 221

8.78 The suffix -ectomy means “surgical excision, removal.” The

surgical removal of a floating blood clot, or embolus (Frame 8.40), is
embolectomy called ____________________. The constructed form of this term is
EM boh LEK toh mee embol/ectomy.

8.79 The removal of the inner lining of an artery to remove a

fatty plaque is a surgical procedure called endarterectomy. The
endarterectomy constructed form of ____________________ is end/arter/ectomy,
END ahr teh REK toh mee which literally means “surgical excision or removal of within artery.”
The most common surgical site for this procedure is the carotid
artery in the neck, which is subject to developing atherosclerotic
plaques (Frame 8.26). Note that the o ending in the prefix endo- is
deleted from this constructed term for ease of pronunciation.

8.80 A portable electrocardiograph may be worn by the patient to

monitor electrical activity of the heart over 24-hour periods. The
Holter monitor device is called a ____________________ ____________________ and
is useful in detecting periodic or transient cardiac abnormalities
(■ Figure 8.17).

■ Figure 8.17
Holter monitor. Photograph of
a portable Holter monitor on a
male patient.
Source: Papa1266/Shutterstock.

8.81 A drug that is commonly used as an emergency vasodilator

to treat severe angina pectoris (Frame 8.7) or myocardial infarction
(Frame 8.49) is the compound nitroglycerin. The vasodilation that
nitroglycerin results from ____________________ temporarily improves blood flow
NIGH troh GLIH ser ihn to the heart and other vital organs.

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 222 Chapter 8

8.82 Phlebectomy is constructed from the word root meaning

“vein” (phleb) and the suffix meaning “surgical excision,
removal” (-ectomy). From its word parts, we know that a
phlebectomy ____________________ is a procedure involving the surgical removal
fleh BEK toh mee of a vein. The constructed form of this term is phleb/ectomy.

8.83 A puncture into a vein to remove blood for sampling or

donation is called phlebotomy (■ Figure 8.18). This constructed
term combines the word root for vein, the combining vowel o,
and the suffix meaning “incision or to cut” to create the term
phlebotomy ____________________, which is written phleb/o/tomy. Although the
fleh BOT oh mee word part for incision is included, a small puncture is made rather
than an incision when withdrawing blood (called a venipuncture).
A healthcare professional who performs this procedure is called a
phlebotomist (fleh BOT oh mist).

■ Figure 8.18
Phlebotomy. In this common
procedure, a syringe needle
punctures a vein, usually in the
arm, and withdraws blood for
sampling or donation.
Source: Courtesy of the Public
Health Image Library, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention.

8.84 A noninvasive procedure that provides blood flow images

using positron emission tomography (PET) techniques combined
with radioactive isotope labeling may be used to produce images
of the heart to reveal functional defects. The procedure is called
positron emission ____________________ ____________________ ____________________
tomography scan ____________________, or PET scan.
PAHZ ih tron * ee MISH uhn *
toh MOG rah fee

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 The Cardiovascular System 223

8.85 A common procedure that measures arterial blood

sphygmomanometry pressure is called ____________________. This constructed term
SFIG moh mah NOM eh tree is written sphygm/o/man/o/metry, which literally means “the
process of measuring scanty gas.” It utilizes a device called a
sphygmomanometer (sfig moh mah NOM eh ter), which consists
of an arm cuff and air pressure pump with a pressure gauge
(■ Figure 8.19). In recent years, the mercury pressure gauge has
been replaced by aneroid dials and digital technology.

■ Figure 8.19
Sphygmomanometry.
Photograph of a physician taking
blood pressure readings with the
use of a sphygmomanometer,
which includes an arm cuff and
pressure gauge.
Source: Keith Brofsky/­
Photodisc/Getty Images.

8.86 Treatments to dissolve unwanted blood clots are often

necessary after surgery to prevent the development of emboli (Frame
8.40). It is also performed soon after a myocardial infarction (Frame
8.49) to minimize damage to the heart and is credited with saving
thrombolytic therapy many lives. Known as ____________________ ____________________,
throm boh LITT ik * THAIR ah it includes the use of drugs such as streptokinase and tissue
pee plasminogen activator (TPA). The constructed term thrombolytic is
made up of the combining form that means “clot” (thromb/o) and the
suffix that means “pertaining to loosen or dissolve” (-lytic).

8.87 If a heart condition is suspected, a cardiologist will often

require the patient to undergo exercise during echocardiography
or electrocardiography (or both) in an effort to examine
heart function under stress. The most common term for this
treadmill stress test procedure is ____________________ ____________________
____________________.

8.88 The surgical repair of a heart valve is called

valvuloplasty ____________________. The constructed form of this term is written
VAL vyoo loh plass tee valvul/o/plasty. If repair is not possible due to the extent of the
damage or defect, valve replacement may be required using an
artificial valve or a porcine (pig) valve.

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 224 Chapter 8

PRACTICE: Treatments, Procedures, and Devices of the

Cardiovascular System
The Right Match
Match the term on the left with the correct definition on the right.
______ 1. cardiac pacemaker a. an artificial metallic scaffold that is implanted to open a blocked
______ 2. defibrillation coronary artery

______ 3. phlebotomy b. a drug that is commonly used as an emergency vasodilator

______ 4. Holter monitor c. a patient undergoes exercise before or during echocardiography to

examine heart function under stress
______ 5. coronary stent
d. a battery-powered device that is implanted under the skin and wired
______ 6. PET scan
to the wall of the heart
______ 7. stress ECHO e. puncture into a vein, usually to remove blood for sampling or
______ 8. nitroglycerin donation
______ 9. auscultation f. a portable electrocardiograph worn by the patient
______ 10. Doppler sonography g. an electric charge applied to the chest wall to stop the heart con-
duction system momentarily, then restart it with a more normal
heart rhythm
h. a noninvasive procedure that provides blood flow images using
positron emission tomography techniques combined with radioac-
tive isotope labeling
i. an ultrasound procedure that evaluates blood flow
j. a physical examination that involves listening to internal sounds

Break the Chain

Analyze these medical terms:
a) Separate each term into its word parts; each word part is labeled for you (p = prefix, r = root,
cf = combining form, and s = suffix).
b) For the Bonus Question, write the requested definition in the blank that follows.

1. a) arteriogram ________/___/________
cf s
b)
Bonus Question: What is the definition of the suffix? 

2. a) echocardiography ________/___/________/___/________
cf cf s
b)
Bonus Question: What is the definition of the first combining form? 

3. a) embolectomy ________/________
r s
b)
Bonus Question: What is the definition of the word root? 

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 The Cardiovascular System 225

4. a) sphygmomanometry ________/___/________/___/________
cf cf s
b)
Bonus Question: What is the definition of the suffix? 

5. a) phlebotomist ________/___/________/________
cf r s
b)
Bonus Question: What is the definition of the combining form? 

6. a) electrocardiography ________/___/________/___/________
cf cf s
b)
Bonus Question: What is the definition of the suffix? 

7. a) cardiopulmonary ________/___/________/________
cf r s
b)
Bonus Question: What is the definition of the word root in the first word? 

8. a) endarterectomy ________/________/________
p r s
b)
Bonus Question: What is the definition of the prefix? 

9. a) valvuloplasty ________/___/________
cf s
b)
Bonus Question: What is the definition of the suffix? 

Abbreviations of the Cardiovascular System

The abbreviations that are associated with the cardiovascular system are summarized here. Study these
abbreviations and review them in the exercise that follows.

Abbreviation Definition Abbreviation Definition

AED automated external defibrillator CPR cardiopulmonary resuscitation
A-fib atrial fibrillation ECG, EKG electrocardiogram
AI aortic insufficiency ICD implantable cardioverter defibrillator
AS aortic stenosis LA left atrium
ASD atrial septal defect LV left ventricle
ASHD arteriosclerotic heart disease MI myocardial infarction
AV atrioventricular MVP mitral valve prolapse
CABG coronary artery bypass graft PET positron emission tomography
CAD coronary artery disease RA right atrium
CHD coronary heart disease RV right ventricle
CHF congestive heart failure SCA sudden cardiac arrest
CP chest pain VSD ventricular septal defect

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 226 Chapter 8

PRACTICE: Abbreviations
Fill in the blanks with the abbreviation or the complete medical term.

Abbreviation Medical Term

 1.  ____________________ congestive heart failure
 2.  ASD 
 3.  ____________________ coronary artery bypass graft
 4.  MI 
 5.  ____________________ positron emission tomography
 6.  CPR 
 7.  ____________________ arteriosclerotic heart disease
 8.  AV 
 9.  ____________________ electrocardiogram
10.  CAD 
11.  ____________________ automated external defibrillator
12.  RV 
13.  ____________________ ventricular septal defect
14.  MVP 

CHAPTER REVIEW
Word Building
Construct medical terms from the following meanings. (Some are built from word parts, some are not.) The
first question has been completed as an example.
 1. generalized disease of the heart muscle cardiomyopathy
 2. inflammation of the heart and blood vessels angio____________________
 3. narrowing of a blood vessel angio____________________
 4. tumor arising from a blood vessel angi____________________
 5. hardening of the arteries ____________________sclerosis
 6. abnormally slow heart rate ____________________cardia
 7. a sensation of pain in the heart cardio____________________
 8. incision into an artery to remove plaque end____________________ectomy
 9. abnormal hypertrophy of the heart cardio____________________
10. inflammation of the inner heart membrane endo____________________
11. an abnormal heart rhythm a____________________
12. high blood pressure that is persistent ____________________tension
13. death of a portion of the myocardium _______cardial in_______________
14. inflammation of the myocardium myo____________________
15. a process of recording heart electrical activity ____________________cardiography

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 The Cardiovascular System 227

Define the Combining Form

In the space provided, write the definition of the combining form, followed by one example of the combining
form used to build a medical term in Chapter 8.

Definition Use in a Term

  1.  angi/o _________________________________ _________________________________
  2.  cardi/o _________________________________ _________________________________
  3.  hem/o _________________________________ _________________________________
  4.  phleb/o _________________________________ _________________________________
  5.  sten/o _________________________________ _________________________________
  6.  scler/o _________________________________ _________________________________
  7.  thromb/o _________________________________ _________________________________
  8.  ech/o _________________________________ _________________________________
  9.  arter/o _________________________________ _________________________________
10.  coron/o _________________________________ _________________________________
11.  electr/o _________________________________ _________________________________
12.  valvul/o _________________________________ _________________________________
13.  isch/o _________________________________ _________________________________
14.  sphygm/o _________________________________ _________________________________

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 228 Chapter 8

Complete the Labels

Complete the blank labels in the illustrations by writing the labels in the spaces provided.
1. AIR (OXYGEN)

2. Trachea
Right Left
3. Right pulmonary artery lung lung
Left pulmonary artery

1._____________ 1._________________

2._________________

Right
pulmonary
veins

4._______________

Veins 3. _______________

Arterioles
Venules

BODY CAPILLARIES

= Blood low in oxygen and high in carbon

dioxide (deoxygenated)
■ Figure 8.20
= Blood high in oxygen and low in carbon
The cardiovascular system. dioxide (oxygenated)

4.
5.
6.
Superior vena cava
7.
5. ______________
8.
Pulmonary trunk Left atrium
Aortic valve
Right atrium 7. ______________ valve
Pulmonary valve
8. ______________ ventricle
Tricuspid valve

6. ______________ ventricle Endocardium

Myocardium
■ Figure 8.21 Epicardium
Internal anatomy of the heart. Inferior vena cava
The heart is sectioned to reveal
its internal features.

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 The Cardiovascular System 229

MEDICAL REPORT EXERCISES

Robert Gorman
Read the following medical report, then answer the questions that follow.

PEARSON GENERAL HOSPITAL

5500 University Avenue, Metropolis, New York
Phone: (211) 594-4000 • Fax (211) 594-4001

Medical Consultation: Cardiology Date: 10/22/2016

Patient: Robert Gorman Patient ID: 123456
Dob: 3/14/1954   Age: 62   Sex: Male Allergies: NKDA
Provider: Richard Freemann, MD

Subjective:
“I have been experiencing chest pain for the past couple of weeks, unlike any I’ve felt before. I am also tired
most of the time and have lost my appetite.”
62 y/o male patient has a recent history of mild chest pain, shortness of breath, and malaise. No murmur has
yet been reported. The patient says he underwent tooth extractions a month ago and had been given antibiot-
ics by the dentist, but since he wasn’t feeling ill, he did not take them. Patient reports his father died at 79 y/o
due to CHF.

Objective:
Vital Signs: T: 98.6°F; P: 80; R: 23; BP: 144/102
Ht: 5'8"
Wt: 183 lb
General Appearance: Some pallor and edema present in the face and neck. Mild diaphoresis. No noticeable
discolorations of the skin.
Heart: Rate at 80 bpm, with possible murmur at mitral valve.
Lungs: Clear without signs of disease.
AbD: Bowel sounds normal all four quadrants.
MS: Joints and muscles symmetric. No swelling, masses, or deformity.
CV: ECG normal. Stress ECHO shows minor vegetations of mitral valve.

Assessment:
Endocarditis with cardiovalvulitis on left side

Plan:
Long-term IV drip with nonpenicillin antibiotic. If there is no improvement in 4 weeks, consult for
valvuloplasty.

Photo Source: Aletia2011/Fotolia.

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 230 Chapter 8

Comprehension Questions
1. What complaints support the diagnosis? 




2. Why is the patient history an important part of this diagnosis? 


______________________________________________________________________________________________

3. What is the meaning of the abbreviation CHF? 




Case Study Questions

The following Case Study provides further discussion regarding the patient in the medical report. Fill in the
blanks with the correct terms. Choose your answers from the following list of terms. (Note that some terms
may be used more than once.)

angina pectoris angiostenosis atherosclerosis block

cardiologist cardiology cardiovalvulitis electrocardiography

endocarditis myocardial infarction stress ECHO valvuloplasty

A patient named Robert Gorman complained of pain in the heart area of the chest, or

(a) ____________________, and was subsequently referred to (b) ____________________ for immediate

diagnosis and treatment. The specialist, a (c) ____________________, diagnosed the pain as having a

cause from insufficient blood supply to the heart. The patient was given medication and educated about

heart disease management. Several weeks later, the patient was readmitted due to continued complaints

of chest pain. After evaluating heart electrical events with (d) ____________________, the physician

performed a technique using sound waves to evaluate heart activity during physical exercise, known as a(n)

(e) ____________________ ____________________. The ECG showed a normal conduction system, thereby

ruling out damage to the conduction system, or a heart (f) ____________________. The stress ECHO also

showed mostly normal results, ruling out damage to the heart muscle, or a(n) (g) ____________________

____________________, because the heart muscle was receiving sufficient levels of oxygen. Because blood

flow was normal, the narrowing of a coronary artery, generally called a(n) (h) ____________________, was

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 The Cardiovascular System 231

eliminated as a cause, which also eliminated the common plaque-forming disease that causes a stenosis,

known as (i) ____________________. However, the stress ECHO did reveal abnormal valvular activity during

ventricular contraction, or systole, indicating a valvular disorder called (j) ____________________. A course

of treatment was ordered that included a long-term, nonpenicillin antibiotic therapy with an IV drip. If

the patient did not improve, consideration for a surgical operation to repair a damaged valve, called (k)

____________________, would be made.

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 232 Chapter 8

Danika Price
For a greater challenge, read the following medical report and answer the critical thinking questions that fol-
low from the information in the chapter.

PEARSON GENERAL HOSPITAL

5500 University Avenue, Metropolis, New York
Phone: (211) 594-4000 • Fax (211) 594-4001

Medical Consultation: Cardiology Date: 12/09/2016

Patient: Danika Price Patient ID: 123456
Dob: 04/15/1974   Age: 42   Sex: Female Allergies: NKDA
Provider: Donald H. Surley, MD

Subjective:
“I have been experiencing pain in my upper abdomen that comes and goes. It started about a week ago, and
it interrupts my sleep.”
42 y/o female patient describes the pain as recent, within 1 week, occurring between the median and radiat-
ing to the left upper quadrant. According to her it is a sharp, intermittent pain, which increases in intensity
when she stands from a sitting or lying position.

Objective:
Vital Signs: T: 98.6°F; P: 83; R: 21; BP: 135/90
Ht: 5'7"
Wt: 135 lb
General Appearance: No pallor, edema, or diaphoresis of the skin. No noticeable discolorations of the skin.
No masses.
Heart: Rate at 83 bpm. Heart sounds with auscultation appear normal.
Lungs: Clear without signs of disease.
AbD: Bowel sounds normal all four quadrants. Tenderness of the LUQ with palpation.
MS: Joints and muscles symmetric. No swelling, masses, or deformity.
CV: ECG normal. Aortogram reveals abnormal swelling of the aorta inferior to the celiac trunk.

Assessment:
Aortic aneurysm of upper abdominal aorta inferior to celiac trunk

Plan:
Angioplasty with stent insertion at aortic aneurysm.

Photo Source: Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.

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 The Cardiovascular System 233

Comprehension Questions
1. What is the actual cause of the abdominal pain reported by the patient? ____

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What procedure provided the evidence for the diagnosis? 

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

3. What is an angioplasty and how might it correct an aortic aneurysm? 

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

Case Study Questions

The following case study provides additional discussion of the patient’s condition in the medical report. Fill in
the blanks with the correct terms from your readings in this chapter.

Danika Price, a 42-year-old female patient with a history of persistently high blood pressure, or

(l) __________________, complained of intermittent pain sensations in the upper abdomen. Upon evaluation

during which an x-ray was taken of the aorta, called a(n) (m) ____________________, it became apparent that

the source of the pain was from abdominal spasms of the aorta wall, called (n) ____________________, due to

an abnormal dilation of the vessel wall known as a(n) (o) ____________________. To prevent a possible rupture

of the wall of the aorta, a surgical repair called a(n) (p) ____________________ was scheduled. During the

repair, an incision was made into the wall of the vessel in a procedure called a(n) (q) ____________________

and the vessel wall received a stent to strengthen it. The patient made a complete recovery, and received

education on ways to control her essential hypertension.

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