SYSTEMS ANALYSIS Lesson 5: Analysis Process

AND DESIGN
 TOPICS:

1. Data Flow Diagram 5. Decision Tables

2. Types of Data Flow Diagram 6. Decision Trees
3. Data Dictionary 7. Entity Relationship Diagram
4. Structured English 8. Determine Hardware and
Software Needs
 DATA FLOW DIAGRAM

✓ Invented by Larry Constantine, the original developer of

structured design, based on Martin and Estrin’s data flow
graph model of computation.

✓ Introduced and popularized for structured analysis and

design in the late 1970s (Gane and Sarson 1979).
 DATA FLOW DIAGRAM
✓ Enables analyst to model all of the main requirements for an
information system in one diagram: Inputs and outputs, processes
and data storage.
✓ Shows the processes that change or transform data.
✓ Data Flow Diagram (DFD) provides a visual representation of the flow
of information (i.e. data) within a system. By creating a Data Flow
Diagram, you can tell the information provided by and delivered to
someone who takes part in system processes, the information
needed in order to complete the processes and the information
needed to be stored and accessed.
DFD
CONVENTIONS
 DFD COMPONENTS

1. External Entity
✓ Also known as actors, sources or sinks, and terminators, external
entities produce and consume data that flows between the entity
and the system being diagrammed.
✓ These data flows are the inputs and outputs of the DFD. Since
they are external to the system being analyzed, these entities are
typically placed at the boundaries of the diagram.
✓ They can represent another system or indicate a subsystem.
 DFD COMPONENTS
2. Processes
✓ An activity that changes or transforms data flows. Since they
transform incoming data to outgoing data, all processes must
have inputs and outputs on a DFD.
✓ This symbol is given a simple name based on its function. A
rectangular box is used and may be labeled with a reference
number, location of where in the system the process occurs and a
short title that describes its function.
 DFD COMPONENTS
3. Data Flows
✓ Movement of data between external entities, processes and data
stores is represented with an arrow symbol, which indicates the
direction of flow.
✓ This data could be electronic, written or verbal. Input and output
data flows are labeled based on the type of data or its associated
process or data store, and this name is written alongside the
arrow.
 DFD COMPONENTS
4. Data Stores
✓ A data store does not generate any operations but simply holds
data for later access.
✓ Data stores could consist of files held long term or a batch of
documents stored briefly while they wait to be processed. Input
flows to a data store include information or operations that
change the stored data.
✓ Output flows would be data retrieved from the store.
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING DFD
1. Make a list of business activities and use it to determine various data
flows, processes, data stores and sources/sinks.
2. Create a context diagram that shows sources/sinks and data flows to
and from the system.
3. Draw Diagram 0, the next level. Show processes, but keep them
general.
4. Create a child diagram for each of the processes in Diagram 0.
5. Check for errors and make sure the labels you assign to each
process and data flow are meaningful.
 STEPS IN DEVELOPING DFD
6. Develop a physical data flow diagram from the logical data flow
diagram.
7. Partition the physical data flow diagram by separating or grouping
parts of the diagram in order to facilitate programming and
implementation.
 CONTEXT DIAGRAM
✓ A context diagram is an overview of an organizational system that
shows the system boundaries, external entities that interact with the
system and the major information flows between entities and the
system.
✓ It contains only one process, representing the entire system. The
process is given the number zero,
✓ Level 0 diagram is an explosion of the context diagram. This is used
primarily as a presentation tool because it summarized an entire
system or subsystem in greater detail than does a context diagram.
CONTEXT
DIAGRAM
DIAGRAM 0
CHILD
DIAGRAM
 WATCH THIS!

Video 1

Video 2
 DATA FLOW RULES

1. Process
• No process can have only outputs. It is making data from
nothing. If an object has only outputs, then it must be a
source.
• No Process can have only inputs. If an object has only inputs
then, it must be a sink.
• A process has a verb phrase label.
 DATA FLOW RULES

2. Data Store
• Data cannot move directly from one data store to another
data store, Data must be moved by a process.
• Data cannot move directly from an outside source to a data
store. Data must be moved by a process that receives data
from the source and places the data into the data store.
• Data cannot move directly to an outside sink from a data
store. Data must be moved by a process.
• A data store has a noun phrase label.
 DATA FLOW RULES

3. Source/Sink
• Data cannot move directly from a source to a sink. It must be
moved by a process if the data are of any concern to our
system. Otherwise, the data flow is not shown on the DFD.
• A source/sink has a noun phrase label.
 DATA FLOW RULES

4. Data Flow
• It has only one direction of flow between symbols. It may flow
in both directions between a process and a data store to
show a read before an update. The latter is usually indicated
however, by two separate arrows since these happen at
different times.
• A fork in a data flow means that exactly the same data goes
from a common location to two or more different processes,
data store or sources/sinks.
 DATA FLOW RULES

• A join in a data flow means that exactly the same data come
from any of two or more different processes, data stores, or
sources/sinks to a common location.
• It cannot go directly back to the sample process it leaves.
There must be at least one other process that handles the
data flow, produces some other data flow and returns the
original data flow to the beginning process.
• A data flow to a data store means update (delete or change).
 DATA FLOW RULES

• A data flow from a data store means retrieve or use.

• A data flow has a noun phrase label. More than one data flow
noun phrase can appear on a single arrow as long as all of
the flows on the same arrow move together as one package.
 DFD GUIDELINES

1. Completeness
• This concept refers to whether all of the components
necessary for the system to be modeled are included in
the DFDs.
• If the DFD includes data flows that do not lead anywhere,
or data stores, processes or external entities that are not
connected to anything else, the DFD is incomplete.
 DFD GUIDELINES

2. Consistency
• This concept refers to whether or not the illustration of the
system shown at one level of a nested set of DFD is
compatible with the illustrations of the system s shown at
other levels.
3. Timing
• When drawing DFDs, draw them as if the system has
never started and will never stop.
 DFD GUIDELINES

4. Iterative Development
• Drawing DFD for the first time will rarely capture perfectly
the system to be modeled. This result to drawing the
same diagram over and over again in an iterative manner.
• One rule of thumb is that for each DFD drawn, it should
only take three revisions.
 CLASSIFICATION OF DFD
1. Logical DFD
✓ Focuses on the business and how it operates. It is not
concerned with how the system will be constructed.
✓ It describes the business events that take place and the
data required and produced by each event
2. Physical DFD
✓ Illustrates how the system will be implemented, including
the hardware, software, files and people involved in the
system
 TYPES OF DFD

1. Current Logical DFD

✓ Derived the logical DFD for the current system by
examining the physical DFD and isolating unique business
activities.
2. New Logical DFD
✓ Create the logical DFD for the new system by adding the
input, output and processes required in the new system to
the logical DFD for the current system.
 TYPES OF DFD

3. New Physical DFD

✓ Derived the physical DFD by examining processes on the
new logical diagram. Determine where the user interfaces
should exist, the nature of the process and necessary data
stores.
 BENEFITS OF LOGICAL MODEL

✓ Better communication with users.

✓ More stable systems.
✓ Better understanding of the business by analysts.
✓ Flexibility and maintenance.
✓ Elimination of redundancies and easier creation of the
physical mode.
 BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL MODEL
✓ Clarifying which processes are manual and which are
automated.
✓ Describing processes in more detail than logical DFDs.
✓ Sequencing processes that have to be done in a particular
order.
✓ Identify temporary data stores.
✓ Specifying actual names of files and printouts
✓ Adding controls to ensure the processes are done properly.
 ADVANTAGES OF PHYSICAL
FROM LOGICAL DFD

✓ Manual Process.
✓ Processes for adding, deleting, changing and updating records.
✓ Data entry and verifying processes.
✓ Validation processes for ensuring accurate data input.
✓ Sequencing processes to rearrange the order of records.
✓ Processes to produce every unique system output.
 ADVANTAGES OF PHYSICAL
FROM LOGICAL DFD

✓ Intermediate data stores.

✓ Actual file names used to store data.
✓ Controls to signify completion of tasks or error conditions.
 ADVANTAGES OF PHYSICAL
FROM LOGICAL DFD

✓ Intermediate data stores.

✓ Actual file names used to store data.
✓ Controls to signify completion of tasks or error conditions.
DATA DICTIONARY
 DATA DICTIONARY

✓ Repository for definitions of data processes, data flows, data

stores and data elements.
✓ Compiled by systems analysts to guide them through analysis
and design.
✓ Collects and coordinates specific data terms, and it confirms
what each term means to different people in the organization.
 USE OF DATA DICTIONARY

✓ Validate the data flow diagram for completeness and accuracy.

✓ Provide a starting point for developing screens and reports.
✓ Determine the contents of data stored in files.
✓ Develop the logic for data flow diagram processes.
 DATA DICTIONARY NOTATION

✓ Data Dictionary Notation

= Is composed of
+ And
() Optional (may be present or absent)
{} Iteration
[] Select one of several alternative choices
** Comment
@ Identifier (key field) for a store.
DATA DICTIONARY EXAMPLE
STRUCTURED ENGLISH
 STRUCTURED ENGLISH

✓ Modified form of English that is used to specify the contents of

process boxes in a DFD.
✓ Uses action verbs and noun phrases.
✓ Its main purpose is to represent processes in a shorthand
manner that is rather easy for users and programmers to read
and understand.
✓ Does not involve declaration, initialization or linking.
 STRUCTURED ENGLISH

✓ It uses some of the logical constructs of structured

programming to overcome the lack of structure and precision in
the English language.
✓ Its general structure is built using the fundamental constructs,
such as sequential, decision and iteration.
 CONVENTIONS OF USING
STRUCTURED ENGLISH
1. Express all logic in terms of sequential structures, decision
structures or iterations.
2. Use and capitalize accepted keywords such as IF, THEN,
ELSE, DO, DO WHILE, DO UNTIL and PERFORM.
3. Indent blocks of statements to show their hierarchy (nesting)
clearly.
 CONVENTIONS OF USING
STRUCTURED ENGLISH
4. When words or phrases have been defined on the Data
Dictionary, underline those words or phrases to indicate that
these have a specialized, reserved meaning.
5. Be careful when using “and” and “or” as well as “greater than”
and “greater than or equal” and other logical comparisons. “A
and B” means bot A and B; “A or B” means either A or B, but not
both.
STRUCTURED ENGLISH
EXAMPLES
 ADVANTAGES OF STRUCTURED
ENGLISH

✓ Clarify the logic and relationships found in human languages.

✓ It is a communication tool.

A Structured English is used when:

➢ There are many repetitious actions. or
➢ Communication to end user is important.
DECISION TABLE
 DECISION TABLE

✓ Clarify the logic and relationships found in human languages.

✓ It is a communication tool.

A Structured English is used when:

➢ There are many repetitious actions. or
➢ Communication to end user is important.
 DECISION TABLE

✓ Matrix representation of processing logic which specifies the

possible conditions for the decision and the resulting actions.
✓ Useful when complex combinations of conditions, actions and
rules are found or it requires a method that effectively avoid
impossible situations, redundancies and contradictions.
 3 COMPONENTS OF A SIMPLE
DECISION TABLE

1. Conditions – describe the factors that will affect the decision or

policy.
2. Actions –Describe the possible policy actions or decisions.
3. Rules – describe which actions are to be taken under a specific
combination of conditions.
 CONSIDERATIONS OF AN
ANALYST WHEN CREATING
DECISION TABLE

✓ Determine the maximum size of the table.

✓ Eliminate any impossible situations, inconsistencies or
redundancies.
✓ Simplify the tables as much as possible.
 STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING
DECISION TABLE

1. Determine the number of conditions that may affect the

decision.
2. Determine the number of possible actions that can be taken.
3. Determine the number of condition alternatives for each
condition.
4. Multiply the number of alternatives for each condition.
5. Fill in the condition alternatives.
 STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING
DECISION TABLE

6. Complete the table by inserting an X where rules suggest

certain actions.
7. Combine rules where it is apparent that an alternative does not
make a difference in the outcome.
8. Check the table for any impossible situations, contradictions
and redundancies.
9. Rearrange the conditions and actions (or even rules) if it makes
the decision table more understandable.
DECISION TABLE EXAMPLE
 WHEN TO USE DECISION TABLE

Use the decision table when:

✓ Complex combinations of conditions, actions and rules are

found.
✓ A method is required that effectively avoids impossible
situations, redundancies and contradictions.
DECISION TREES
 DECISION TREES

✓ A graphical representation of a decision or choice situation

as a connected series of nodes and branches.
✓ Useful when the sequence of conditions and actions is
critical or not every condition is relevant to every actions.
✓ Designed to make it easier for analysts to communicate with
users.
✓ Two main components are Decision points (represented by
nodes) and Actions (represented by ovals).
 MAJOR STEPS IN DRAWING A
DECISION TREE

1. Identify the conditions

2. Identify the outcomes (condition alternatives) for each
decision.
3. Identify the actions.
4. Identify the rules.
 WHEN TO USE A DECISION TREE

Use the decision tree when:

✓ The sequence of conditions and actions is critical.

✓ Not every condition is relevant to every action (the
branches are different).
DECISION TREE EXAMPLE
 ADVANTAGES OF A DECISION
TREE
✓ It takes advantage of the sequential structure of decision tree
branches so that the order of checking conditions and
executing actions is immediately noticeable.
✓ Conditions and actions of decision trees are found on some
branches but not on others, which contrasts with decision
tables, wherein they are all part of the same table. Those
conditions and actions that are critical are connected directly
to other conditions and actions whereas those conditions that
do not matter are not present.
 ADVANTAGES OF A DECISION
TREE
✓ Compared with decision tables, decision trees are more
readily understood by others in the organization.
ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP
DIAGRAM
 ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM

✓ Is a detailed, logical representation of the data for an

organization or for a business area.
✓ It is expressed in terms of entities in the business
environment, relationships or associations among those
entities and attributes or properties of both the entities and
their relationship.
✓ It is the most commonly used format for data modelling.
 NOTATIONS USED IN E-R
DIAGRAM
1. Entities – can be person, place, object, event or concept in
the user environment about which the organization wants to
maintain data.
Example: employee, warehouse, machine,
sale and account
2. Attributes – are properties or characteristics of an entity that
are of interest to the organization.
Example: STUDENT entity attributes such as
Student_ID, Student_Name, Address & Major
 NOTATIONS USED IN E-R
DIAGRAM
3. Candidate Keys are Attributes – (or combination of attributes)
that uniquely identifies each instance of an entity type.
Example: Student_ID
4. Identifiers – are candidate keys that have been selected to
be used as the unique characteristics for entity types.
5. Relationship – are association between the instances of one
or more entity types that is of interest to the organization.
These are labeled with verb phrases.
E-R DIAGRAM EXAMPLES
DETERMINING HARDWARE AND
SOFTWARE NEEDS
✓ An inventory on all current computer
hardware is conducted first to find out
what is on hand and what is usable.
✓ The current and future system
workloads are estimated.
✓ An evaluation of available hardware
and software is undertaken.
✓ An analyst must work with users to
determine what hardware will be
needed.
HARDWARE INVENTORY
 DETERMINING COMPUTER
EQUIPMENT
There are three main options for determining computer equipment
and these are:
1. Buying – implies that the business will own the equipment. One of
the thing to consider whether to buy is the projected life of the
system. If the system will be used for longer than 4 to 5 years,
then the decision is usually made to buy.
2. Leasing – is practical if the projected life of the system is less than
4 years. It allows business to put its money where it can be
working for the company instead of being tied up in capital
equipment.
 DETERMINING COMPUTER
EQUIPMENT
3. Renting – makes it easier to change system hardware. Usually,
there are maintenance and insurance included in rental
agreements. Rentals should be considered as short-term move in
handling nonrecurring or limited computer needs or technologically
volatile times.

Two of the important factors to consider in deciding which option is

best for the business:
1. Can afford to tie up capital in computer equipment.
2. Desires full control of and responsibility for the computer
equipment.
EVALUATE SOFTWARE
EVALUATE SOFTWARE
EVALUATE SOFTWARE
 REFERENCES:
➢ https://www.lucidchart.com/pages/data-flow-
diagram/data-flow-diagram-symbols
Video:
➢ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6VGTvgaJllM
➢ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ik85hZkyYPA
➢ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oV6gPbS67vc