WUCT121

Discrete Mathematics

Logic

1. Logic

2. Predicate Logic

3. Proofs

4. Set Theory

5. Relations and Functions

WUCT121 Logic 1
Section 1. Logic

1.1. Introduction.

In developing a mathematical theory, assertions or

statements are made. These statements are made in the
form of sentences using words and mathematical symbols.
When proving a theory, a mathematician uses a system of
logic. This is also the case when developing an algorithm
for a program or system of programs in computer science.
The system of logic is applied to decide if a statement
follows from, or is a logical consequence of, one or more
other statements.

You are familiar with using numbers in arithmetic and

symbols in algebra. You are also familiar with the ‘rules’ of
arithmetic and algebra.

Examples:

(3 + 4) + 6 = 3 + (4 + 6) Associativity
• = 3 + 10
= 13

3 x − 5 x = (3 − 5)x Distributivity
•
= −2 x

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In a similar way, Logic deals with statements or sentences
by defining symbols and establishing ‘rules’.

Roughly speaking, in arithmetic an operation is a rule for

producing new numbers from a pair of given numbers, like
addition (+) or multiplication (× ).

In logic, we form new statements by combining short

statements using connectives, like the words and, or.

Examples:

• This room is hot and I am tired.

• x < 1 or x > 7 .

1.2. Statements

1.2.1. Definition

Definition: Statement. A statement or proposition is an

assertion or declarative sentence which is true or false, but
not both.

The truth value of a mathematical statement can be

determined by application of known rules, axioms and laws
of mathematics.

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A statement which is true requires a proof.

Examples:

• Is the following statement True or False?

For a real number x, if x 2 = 1, then x = 1 or x = −1.

The statement is TRUE. Therefore, we must prove it.

Consider x 2 = 1.

Adding − 1 to both sides gives x 2 − 1 = 0 .

Factorising this equation, we have ( x − 1)( x + 1) = 0 .

Therefore, x − 1 = 0 or x + 1 = 0 .

Case 1: x −1 = 0.

Add 1 to both sides and we have x = 1.

Case 2: x +1 = 0.

Add − 1 to both sides and we have x = −1.

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A statement which is false requires a demonstration.

Example:

• Is the following statement True or False?

5 − (3 − 2) = (5 − 3) − 2

The statement is FALSE. Therefore, we must demonstrate

it.

5 − (3 − 2) = 5 − 1
=4
(5 − 3) − 2 = 2 − 2
=0
∴ 5 − (3 − 2) ≠ (5 − 3) − 2

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 Exercise:

Determine which of the following sentences are statements.

For those which are statements, determine their truth value.

(i) 2 + 3 = 5 Statement True

(ii) It is hot and sunny Statement

outside.

(iii) 2 + 3 = 6 Statement False

(iv) Is it raining? Not a statement

(v) Go away! Not a statement

(vi) There exists an Statement True

even prime
number.

(vii) There are six Statement

people in this room.

(viii) For some real Statement True

number , x, x < 2

(ix) x < 2 See comment in notes

(x) x + y = y + x See comment in notes

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Strictly speaking, as we don’t know what x or y are, in parts
(ix) and (x), these should not be statements. In
Mathematics, x and y usually represent real numbers and
we will assume this is the case here.

Therefore, (ix) is either true or false (even if we don’t know

which) and (x) is always true, so we will allow both.

1.2.2. Simple Statements

Definition: Simple Statement. A simple or primitive

statement is a statement which cannot be broken down into
anything simpler.

A simple statement is denoted by use of letters p, q, r...

Examples:

• p: There are seven days in a week

p is a simple statement

• p:2+3= 6
p is a simple statement

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1.2.3. Compound Statements

Definition: Compound Statement. A compound or

composite statement is a statement which is comprised of
simple statements and logical operations.

A compound statement is denoted by use of letters P, Q,

R...

Examples:

• P: There are seven days in a week and twelve months

in a year.
Is a compound statement.
p: There are seven days in a week
q: There twelve months in a year
Operation: and

• P: 2 + 3 = 6 or 5 − (3 − 2) = (5 − 3) − 2 .
Is a compound statement.
p: 2 + 3 = 6
q: 5 − (3 − 2) = (5 − 3) − 2
Operation: or

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• P: If it is not raining then I will go outside and eat my
lunch.
Is a compound statement
p: It is raining
q: I will go outside
r: I will eat my lunch
Negation of p
Operations: If … then, and

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Exercises:

Determine which of the following are simple statements,

and which are not. For those which are not, identify the
simple statement(s) used.

Simple Statement Operation

(i) 2 + 3 = 5 is a simple Statement

(ii) It is hot and p: It is hot and

sunny outside. q: It is sunny outside

(iii) 2 + 3 ≠ 6 p: 2 + 3 = 6 negation

(iv) x ≤ 2 p: x < 2 or
q: x = 2

(v) − 5 < x < 2 p: − 5 < x and

q: x < 2

(vi) If I study hard p: I study hard If..then

then I will pass q: I will pass my exam
my exam

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1.3. Truth Tables

A statement P can hold one of two truth values, true or

false. These are denoted “T” and “F” respectively.

Note: Some books may use “1” for true and “0” for false.

When determining the truth value of a compound statement

all possible combinations of the truth values of the
statements comprising it must be considered.

This is done systematically by the use of truth tables. Each

connective is defined by its own unique truth table.

There are five fundamental truth tables which will be

covered in the following sections.

1.3.1. Truth Table Construction

To construct a truth table assign each statement a column.

The number of rows in the table is determined by the

number of statements. For n statements, 2 n rows will be
required.

Systematically assign truth vales to each of the statements,

beginning in the first column.

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Once all possible truth values for the simple statements are
inserted, determine the truth vales of the compound
statements following the rules for the operations.

Example:

• Given three statements P, Q, R. The table setup is:

P Q R Compound Statement

T T T

T T F

T F T

T F F

F T T

F T F

F F T

F F F

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1.4. Logical Operations

There are five main operations which when applied to a

statement will return a statement.

If P and Q are statements, the five primary operations used

are:
not P, the negation of P.
P or Q, the disjunction of P and Q.
P and Q, the conjunction of P and Q.
P implies Q, the conditional of P and Q.
P if and only if Q, the biconditional of P and Q.

1.4.1. Negation, “not”

Definition: Statement Negation.

If P is a statement, the negation of P is “not P” or “it is not

the case that P” and is denoted ~P.

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Examples:

• There are not seven days in a week

p: There are seven days in a week

• P: It is raining outside.
~P: ~(It is raining outside.)
It is not raining outside.

• Q: x > 2 or x < 2
~Q: ~( x > 2 or x < 2 )
Simplified: x = 2 .

Exercises:

For each statement P, write down ~P.

• P: Discrete Maths is interesting.

~P: ~( Discrete Maths is interesting)
Discrete Maths is not interesting.

• P x2 −1 = 0

~ P: (
~ x 2 −1 = 0 )
x2 −1 ≠ 0

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1.4.1.1 Truth Table for Negation

The negation of P has the opposite truth value from P,

~P is false when P is true; ~P is true when P is false.

P ~P

All possible T F All possible

truth values truth values for
for P F T ~P depending
on the value of
P.
Example:

Write down the truth value of the following statements.

P ~P

• 2+5= 7 2+5≠ 7

T F

• This room is This room is not

empty empty

F T

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Exercise:

Write down the truth value of the following statements.

P ~P
• 1∈  1∉ 
T F
• Division is a closed Division is not a closed
operation on  operation on 
F T
Note:
• The truth table for negation tells us that for any
statement P, exactly one of P or ~P is true. So, to prove P
is true, we have two methods:

∗ Direct: Start with some facts and end up

proving P in a direct step-by-step manner.

∗ Indirect: Don’t prove P is true directly, but

prove that ~P is false.

• Generally, brackets are left out around ‘ ~ P ’.

Thus, ~ P ∨ Q means (~ P) ∨ Q , and not ~ ( P ∨ Q) .
This is similar to arithmetic where − x + y means (− x ) + y
and not − ( x + y ).

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1.4.2. Disjunction, “or”

Definition: Disjunction.

If P and Q are statements the disjunction of P and Q is “P

or Q”, denoted P ∨ Q .

Examples:

• Given P : 2 + 3 = 5 , Q : 2 + 3 = 6 , write down P ∨ Q .

P ∨ Q : 2 + 3 = 5 or 2 + 3 = 6
alternatively : ( 2 + 3 = 5 ) ∨ ( 2 + 3 = 6)
simplified : 2 + 3 = 5 or 6

• Write P : x ≤ 5 using “ ∨ ”.
( x < 5) ∨ ( x = 5)

Exercises:

• Write the following statements using “ ∨ ”

∗ I am catching the bus or train home.

(I am catching the bus home) ∨ (I am catching the train
home)

∗ A month has 30 or 31 days.

(A month has 30 days) ∨ (A month has 31 days)

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• For the statements P and Q, write down P ∨ Q .

∗ P: x >0 Q: x =0
P ∨ Q : ( x > 0) ∨ ( x = 0)
simplified : x≥0

∗ P: x is the square of an integer, Q: x is prime

P ∨ Q : ( x is the square of an integer ) ∨ ( x is prime)

1.4.2.1 Truth Table for Disjunction

The disjunction of P and Q is true when either P is true, or

Q is true, or both P and Q are true; it is false only when
both P and Q are false.

P Q P∨Q

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

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Example:

Write down the truth value of the following statements.

P Q P∨Q

• 2+3=5 2+3=6

T F T

• 1∉  0∈

F F F

Exercise:

Write down the truth value of the following statements.

P Q P∨Q

• 2 >1 ( x + 1) 2 = x 2 + 2 x + 1

T T T

• 2 is odd 5 is odd

F T T

• 2 <1 This room is empty

F F F

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1.4.3. Conjunction, “and”

Definition: Conjunction.

If P and Q are statements the conjunction of P and Q is “P

and Q”, denoted P ∧ Q .

Examples:

• Given P: It is hot, Q: It is sunny, write down P ∧ Q .

P ∧ Q : (It is hot) ∧ (It is sunny)
Simplified: It is hot and sunny

• Write P : 0 < x < 5 using “ ∧ ”.

(0 < x ) ∧ ( x < 5)

Exercises:

• Write the following statements using “ ∧ ”

∗ Snow is cold and wet.

(Snow is cold) ∧ (Snow is wet)

∗ Natural numbers are positive and whole

numbers.
(Natural numbers are positive numbers) ∧ (Natural
numbers are whole numbers)

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• For the statements P and Q, write down P ∧ Q .

∗ P: x >0 Q : x <1
P ∧ Q : ( x > 0 ) ∧ ( x < 1)
simplified : 0 < x <1

∗ P: x is even, Q: x is a natural number

P ∧ Q : ( x is even ) ∧ ( x is a natural number )

1.4.3.1 Truth Table for Conjunction

The conjunction of P and Q is true when, and only when,

both P and Q are true.
If either P or Q are false, of if both are false, P ∧ Q is false.

P Q P∧Q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

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Example:

Write down the truth value of the following statements.

P Q P∧Q

• 2+3=5 2+3=6

T F F

• 1∉  0∈

F F F

Exercise:

Write down the truth value of the following statements.

P Q P∧Q

• 2 >1 6 >π

T T T

• 2 is odd 5 is odd

F T F

• 2 <1 4 = 23

F F F

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1.4.4. Conditional, “If … then”, “implies”

Definition: Conditional.

If P and Q are statements the conditional of P by Q is “If P

then Q” or “P implies Q”, and is denoted P ⇒ Q .

Examples:

• Given P: It is raining, Q: I will go home, write down

P ⇒ Q.
P ⇒ Q : (It is raining) ⇒ (I will go home)
Simplified: If it raining then I will go home

• Write “If x is even then x 2 is even” using “ ⇒ ”.

x is even ⇒ x 2 is even

Exercises:

• Write the following statements using “ ⇒ ”

∗ If the snow is good then I will go skiing.

(The snow is good) ⇒ (I will go skiing)

∗ If x is a natural number then x is an integer.

(x is a natural number) ⇒ (x is an integer)

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• For the statements P and Q, write down P ⇒ Q .

∗ P : x > −1 Q: x >0
P ⇒ Q : ( x > −1) ⇒ ( x > 0 )

∗ P: x is even, Q: x is a natural number

P ⇒ Q : ( x is even ) ⇒ ( x is a natural number )
If x is even then x is a natural number

1.4.4.1 Truth Table for Conditional

The conditional of P by Q is false when P is true and Q

false, otherwise it is true.

We call P the hypothesis (or antecedent) of the conditional

and Q the conclusion (or consequent).

In determining the truth values for conditional, consider the

following example.

Suppose your lecturer say to you:

“If you arrive for the lecture on time, then I will mark you
present.

Under what circumstances are you justified in saying the

lecturer lied? In other words under what circumstances is
the above statement false?

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It is false when you show up on time and are not marked
present.

The lecturers promise only says you will be marked present

if a certain condition (arriving on time) is met; it says
nothing about what will happen if the condition is not met.
So if the condition (arriving on time) is not met, you cannot
in fairness say the promise is false regardless of whether or
not you are marked present.

This example demonstrates that the only combination of

circumstances in which you have a conditional statement
false is when the hypothesis is true and the conclusion is
false.

Thus the truth table for conditional is:

P Q P⇒Q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

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Example:

Write down the truth value of the following statements.

P Q P⇒Q

• 2+3=5 2+3=6

T F F

• 1∉  0∈

F F T

Exercise:

Write down the truth value of the following statements.

P Q P⇒Q

• 2 >1 2 >1

T T T

• 2 is even 5 is even

T F F

• 2 <1 4 <1

F F T

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Alternative wording for P ⇒ Q can be:

• If P then Q.

• P implies Q.

• Q if P.

• Q provided P.

• Q whenever P.

• P is a sufficient condition for Q.

• Q is a necessary condition for P.

• P only if Q.

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1.4.5. Biconditional, “If and only if”

Definition: Biconditional.

If P and Q are statements the biconditional of P and Q is

“P if, and only if Q” and is denoted P ⇔ Q .

Examples:

• Given P: Mark can study algebra, Q: Mark passes

pre-algebra, write down P ⇔ Q .
P ⇔ Q : (Mark can study algebra) ⇔ (Mark passes
pre-algebra)
Simplified: Mark can study algebra if, and only if, he
passes pre-algebra

• Write “Water boils if, and only if, it’s temperature is

over 100 oC ” using “ ⇔ ”.

Water boils ⇔ Water temperature is over 100o C

Exercises:

• Write the following statements using “ ⇔ ”

∗ I will go swimming if, and only if, the water is

warm.
(I will go swimming) ⇔ (The water is warm)

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∗ x is a natural number if, and only if, x is an
integer.
(x is a natural number) ⇔ (x is an integer)

• For the statements P and Q, write down P ⇔ Q .

∗ P : x ∈ Q: x >0
P ⇔ Q : ( x ∈ ) ⇔ ( x > 0 )

∗ P: x is positive, Q: x is a natural number

P ⇔ Q : ( x is positive) ⇔ ( x is a natural number )

1.4.5.1 Truth Table for Biconditional

The biconditional of P and Q is true if both P and Q have

the same truth value, and is false if P and Q have opposite
truth values.

P Q P⇔Q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T

WUCT121 Logic 29
Example:

Write down the truth value of the following statements.

P Q P⇔Q

• 2+3=5 2+3=6

T F F

• 1∉  0∈

F F T

Exercise:

Write down the truth value of the following statements.

P Q P⇔Q

• 2 >1 2 >1

T T T

• 2 is odd 5 is odd

F T F

• 2 <1 4 <1

F F T

WUCT121 Logic 30
Alternative wording for P ⇔ Q can be:

• P if, and only if Q.

• P iff Q.

• P implies and is implied by Q.

• P is equivalent to Q.

• P is a necessary and sufficient condition for Q.

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1.4.6. Order of Operation for Logical Operators.

The order of operation for logical operators is as follows:

1. Evaluate negations first

2. Evaluate ∨ and ∧ second. When both are present,

parenthesis may be needed, otherwise work left to right.

3. Evaluate ⇒ and ⇔ third. When both are present,

parenthesis may be needed, otherwise work left to right.

Note: Use of parenthesis will determine order of operations

which over ride the above order.
Examples:
Indicate the order of operations in the following:

• { p∧
~ {q • { p∧
~ {( q∨
{r)
1 2 1 3 2

• • { p⇒
{q∧
~
{ ( p∧
{q) ~ {r
2 1 1 3 2
Exercises:
Indicate the order of operations in the following:

• { p⇒
(~ { q )∧
{r • { p⇒
~ { q∨
{r
1 2 3 1 3 2

• ~
{ ( p∨
{q) • { p⇔
~ { q∧
{r
2 1 1 3 2

WUCT121 Logic 32
1.4.7. Main Connective

Definition: Main Connective.

The main connective is the operation which “binds” the

statement together.

It is the final operation performed and is denoted with “*”.

Examples:

Indicate the main connective in the following:

• { p∧
~ {q • { p∧
~ { ( q∨
{r)
1 2* 1 3* 2

• ~
{ ( p∧
{q) • { p⇒
~ {q∧
{r
2* 1 1 3* 2

Exercises:

Indicate the main connective in the following:

• { p⇒
(~ {q)∧
{r • { p⇒
~ { q∨
{r
1 2 3* 1 3* 2

• ~
{ ( p∨
{q) • { p⇔
~ { q∧
{r
2* 1 1 3* 2

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Example:

Construct a truth table for ~ ( p∧ ~ q ) , indicating order of

operations and the main connective

p q ~ (p ∧ ~ q)
T T T F F
T F F T T
F T T F F
F F T F T
Step: 3* 2 1

Exercises:

• Construct a truth table for ~ p ⇒~ q ∧ p , indicating

order of operations and the main connective

p q ~ p ⇒ ~ q ∧ p
T T F T F F
T F F T T T
F T T F F F
F F T F T F
Step: 1 3* 1 2

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• Construct a truth table for ( p ∨ q ) ∧ (r ∨ q ), indicating
order of operations and the main connective

p q r (p ∨ q) ∧ (r ∨ q)
T T T T T T
T T F T T T
T F T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T T T T
F T F T T T
F F T F F T
F F F F F F
Step: 1 2* 1

• Construct a truth table for (~ q ∧ r ) ∨ ~ ( p ∧ r ) ,

indicating order of operations and the main connective

p q r (~ q ∧ r) ∨ ~ (p ∧ r)
T T T F F F F T
T T F F F T T F
T F T T T T F T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F F T T F
F T F F F T T F
F F T T T T T F
F F F T F T T F
Step: 1 2 3* 2 1

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1.5. Tautologies and Contradictions

1.5.1. Tautology

Definition: Tautology.

Any statement that is true regardless of the truth values of

the constituent parts is called a tautology or tautological
statement.

Examples:

Complete the truth table for the statement P ⇒ (Q ⇒ P )

P Q P ⇒ (Q ⇒ P)
T T T T
T F T T
F T T F
F F T T
Step: 2* 1

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Exercises:

• Complete the truth table for the statement

(( P ⇒ Q ) ∧ P ) ⇒ Q to show it is a tautology.

P Q ((P ⇒ Q) ∧ P) ⇒ Q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
Step: 1 2 3*

• Complete the truth table for the statement

(( P ⇒ Q ) ∧ ~ Q ) ⇒ ~ P to show it is a tautology.

P Q ((P ⇒ Q) ∧ ~Q) ⇒ ~ P
T T T F F T F
T F F F T T F
F T T F F T T
F F T T T T T
Step: 2 3 1 4* 1

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1.5.1.1 Quick Method for Showing a
Tautology

In constructing a truth table for a compound statement

comprised of n statements, there will be 2n combinations of

truth values. This method can be long for large numbers of
statements.

We will consider a quicker method for determining if a

compound statement is a tautology. However, truth tables
are reliable (“safe”) and are highly recommended if the
“quick” method is confusing or leading nowhere!

The quick method relies on the fact that if a truth value of

“F” can occur under the main connective (for some
combination of truth values for the components), then the
statement is not a tautology. If this truth value is not
possible, then we have a tautology.

Therefore, to determine whether a statement is a tautology,

we place an “F” under the main connective and work
backwards.

WUCT121 Logic 38
Examples:

• Determine if P ⇒ (Q ⇒ P ) is a tautology, using the

quick method

P ⇒ (Q ⇒ P)
Step 2* 1

1.Place “F” under main F

connective

2. For “F” to occur under the T F

main connective, P must be
“T” and ⇒ must be “F”

3. For “F” to occur under ⇒ , T F

Q must be “T” and P must be
“F”

P cannot be both “T” and “F”, thus P ⇒ (Q ⇒ P ) can only

ever be true and is a tautology.

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 • Determine if ( P ∧ Q) ⇒ (R ∧ S ) is a tautology, using
the quick method

(P ∧ Q) ⇒ (R ∧ S)
Step 1 3* 2

1.Place “F” under main F

connective

2. For “F” to occur under the T F

main connective, ( P ∧ Q ) must
be “T” and ( R ∧ S ) must be
“F”

3. For “T” to occur under T T

( P ∧ Q ) , P must be “T” and Q
must be “T”

3. For “F” to occur under T F

(R ∧ S ), R can be “T” and S
can be “F”

As there is a valid combination of truth values which gives

“F” under the main connective, ( P ∧ Q ) ⇒ (R ∧ S ) is not a
tautology.

WUCT121 Logic 40
 Exercises:

• Use the “quick” method for the statement

(( P ⇒ Q ) ∧ P ) ⇒ Q to determine if it is a tautology.

((P ⇒ Q) ∧ P) ⇒ Q
Step 1 2 3*

1. Place “F” under main F

connective.

2. For “F” to occur under the T F

main connective, ∧ must be
“T” and Q must be “F”

3. For “T” to occur under ∧ , P T T

must be “T” and P ⇒ Q must
be “T”

4. For “T” to occur under T T

P ⇒ Q ,when P is “T” Q must
be “T”

Q cannot be both “T” and “F”, thus (( P ⇒ Q ) ∧ P ) ⇒ Q can only

ever be true and is a tautology.

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• Determine if the statement (( P ⇒ Q ) ∧ ~ Q ) ⇒ ~ P is
a tautology, using the “quick” method.

((P ⇒ Q) ∧ ~Q) ⇒ ~P
Step: 2 3 1 4* 1
1.Place “F” under main F
connective

2. For “F” to occur under T F

the main connective, ∧
must be “T” and ~P must
be “F”

3. For “T” to occur under T T

∧ , ~Q must be “T” and
P ⇒ Q must be “T”

4. For “T” to occur under T T

P ⇒ Q ,when P is “T”, Q
must be “T”

At step 2, ~P is “F”, thus P is “T”. Step 3 shows ~Q is “T”

thus Q is “F”and step 4 gives Q is “T”. Q cannot be both “T”
and “F”, thus (( P ⇒ Q ) ∧ ~ Q ) ⇒ ~ P can only ever be true
and is a tautology.

WUCT121 Logic 42
1.5.2. Contradiction

Definition: Contradiction.

Any statement that is false regardless of the truth values of

the constituent parts is called a contradiction or
contradictory statement.

Examples:

Complete the truth table for the statement

~ ( P ∧ Q ) ⇔ (Q ∧ P )

P Q ~ (P ∧ Q) ⇔ (Q ∧ P)
T T F T F T
T F T F F F
F T T F F F
F F T F F F
Step: 2 1 4* 3

WUCT121 Logic 43
Exercises:

• Complete the truth table for the statement

~ ( P ∨ Q ) ∧ P to show it is a contradiction.

P Q ~(P ∨ Q) ∧ P
T T F T F
T F F T F
F T F T F
F F T F F
Step: 2 1 3*

• Complete the truth table for the statement

( P ∧ Q ) ∧ ~ Q to show it is a contradiction.

P Q (P ∧ Q) ∧ ~Q)
T T T F F
T F F F T
F T F F F
F F F T T
Step: 2 3* 1

WUCT121 Logic 44
1.5.2.1 Quick Method for Showing a
Contradiction

The quick method for determining if a compound statement

is a tautology can be used similarly for showing a
contradiction.

The quick method relies on the fact that if a truth value of

“T” can occur under the main connective (for some
combination of truth values for the components), then the
statement is not a contradiction. If this truth value is not
possible, then we have a contradiction.

Therefore, to determine whether a statement is a

contradiction, we place a “T” under the main connective
and work backwards.

WUCT121 Logic 45
Example:

• Use the “quick” method for the statement

~ ( P ∨ Q ) ∧ P to determine if it is a contradiction.

~ (P ∨ Q) ∧ P
Step: 2 1 3*
1.Place “T” under main T
connective

2. For “T” to occur T T

under the main
connective, ~ must be
“T” and P must be “T”

3. For “T” to occur F

under ~, P ∨ Q must be
“F”.

4. For “F” to occur F F

under P ∨ Q , P must be
“F” and Q must be “F”

P cannot be both “T” and “F”, thus ~ ( P ∨ Q ) ∧ P can only

ever be false and is a contradiction.

WUCT121 Logic 46
Exercise:

• Use the “quick” method for the statement

( P ∧ Q ) ∧ ~ Q to determine if it is a contradiction.

(P ∧ Q) ∧ ~Q
Step: 2 3* 1
1.Place “T” under main T
connective.

2. For “T” to occur under T T

the main connective,
( P ∧ Q ) must be “T” and
~Q must be “T”

3. For “T” to occur under T T

( P ∧ Q ) , P must be “T”
and Q must be “T”.

At Step 2, ~Q is “T”, thus Q is “F”. Step 3 shows Q is

“T”. Q cannot be both “T” and “F”, thus ( P ∧ Q ) ∧ ~ Q
can only ever be false and is a contradiction.

WUCT121 Logic 47
1.5.3. Contingent

Definition: Contingent.

Any statement that is neither a tautology nor a

contradiction is called a contingent or intermediate
statement.

Examples:

Complete the truth table for the statement Q ∨ (Q ⇒ P )

P Q Q ∨ (Q ⇒ P)
T T T T
T F T T
F T F F
F F T T
Step: 2* 1

WUCT121 Logic 48
Exercises:

• Complete the truth table for the statement

( p ∨ r ) ⇒ ( p ∧ q ) to show it is contingent.
p q r (p ∨ r) ⇒ (p ∧ q)
T T T T T T
T T F T T T
T F T T F F
T F F T F F
F T T T F F
F T F F T F
F F T T F F
F F F F T F
Step: 1 3* 2

• Complete the truth table for the statement

~ (( p ∧ ~ q ) ∨ r ) ⇔ (r ⇒ q ) to show it is contingent.

p q r ~( (p ∧ ~ q) ∨ r) ⇔ (r ⇒ q)
T T T F F F T F T
T T F T F F F T T
T F T F T T T T F
T F F F T T T F T
F T T F F F T F T
F T F T F F F T T
F F T F F T T T F
F F F T F T F T T
Step: 4 2 1 3 6* 5

WUCT121 Logic 49
1.6. Logical Equivalence

Definition: Logical Equivalence.

Two statements are logically equivalent if, and only if, they
have identical truth values for each possible substitution of
statements for their statements variables.

The logical equivalence of two statements P and Q is

denoted P ≡ Q .

If two statements P and Q are logically equivalent then

P ⇔ Q is a tautology

1.6.1. Determining Logical Equivalence.

To determine if two statements P and Q are logically

equivalent, construct a full truth table for each statement. If
their truth values at the main connective are identical, the
statements are equivalent.

Alternatively show P ⇔ Q is a tautology and hence

conclude P ≡ Q .

WUCT121 Logic 50
Examples:

• Determine if the following statements are logically

equivalent. P : p ⇒ q, Q :~ p ∨ q

p q p ⇒ q ~p ∨ q
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
Step: 1* 1 2*
Since the main connectives * are identical, the statements P
and Q are equivalent. Thus P ≡ Q i.e. p ⇒ q ≡ ~ p ∨ q

• Determine if the following statements are logically

equivalent. P :~ ( p ∧ q ), Q :~ p ∧ ~ q

p q ~( p ∧ q) ~p ∧ ~q
T T F T F F F
T F T F F F T
F T T F T F F
F F T F T T T
Step: 2* 1 1 2* 1
Since the main connectives * are not identical, the
statements P and Q are not equivalent.

WUCT121 Logic 51
Exercises:

• Determine if the following statements are logically

equivalent. P :~ ( p ∨ q ), Q :~ p ∧ ~ q

p q ~( p ∨ q) ~p ∧ ~q
T T F T F F F
T F F T F F T
F T F T T F F
F F T F T T T
Step: 2* 1 1 2* 1
Since the main connectives are identical, the statements P
and Q are equivalent. Thus P ≡ Q i.e. ~ ( p ∨ q ) ≡~ p ∧ ~ q

• Determine if ~ ( p ∧ q ) ⇔ ~ p ∨ ~ q is a tautology, and

hence if ~ ( p ∧ q ) ≡~ p ∨ ~ q .

p q ~( p ∧ q) ⇔ ~p ∨ ~q
T T F T T F F F
T F T F T F T T
F T T F T T T F
F F T F T T T T
Step: 2* 1 3* 1 2* 1
Since the main connective is all T, the statement
~ ( p ∧ q ) ⇔ ~ p ∨ ~ q is a tautology, and hence
~ ( p ∧ q ) ≡~ p ∨ ~ q .

WUCT121 Logic 52
1.6.2. Substitution

There are two different types of substitution into

statements.

Rule of Substitution: If in a tautology all occurrences of a

variable are replaced by a statement, the result is still a
tautology.

Examples:

• We know P ∨ ~ P is a tautology.
Thus, by the rule of substitution, so too are:

∗ Q ∨ ~ Q , by letting Q = P .

∗ (( p ∧ q ) ⇒ r )∨ ~ (( p ∧ q ) ⇒ r ) , by letting
( p ∧ q) ⇒ r = P .

Note: We have simply replaced every occurrence of P in

the tautology P ∨ ~ P , by some other statement.

WUCT121 Logic 53
Rule of Substitution of Equivalence: If in a tautology we
replace any part of a statement by a statement equivalent to
that part, the result is still a tautology.

Example:

• Determine if P ⇒ (~ Q ∨ P ) is a tautology.

We know: P ⇒ (Q ⇒ P ) is a tautology and

( P ⇒ Q ) ≡~ P ∨ Q
By the rule of substitution (Q ⇒ P ) ≡ ~ Q ∨ P
Thus, by the rule of substitution of equivalence,
P ⇒ (Q ⇒ P ) ≡ P ⇒ (~ Q ∨ P ) , and hence
P ⇒ (~ Q ∨ P ) is also a tautology.

Exercise:

• ~ T ∨ (~ S ∨ T ) a tautology? Yes.
We know ( P ⇒ Q ) ≡~ P ∨ Q . So, ( S ⇒ T ) ≡~ S ∨ T and
T ⇒ (~ S ∨ T ) ≡ ~ T ∨ (~ S ∨ T ) (by RoS).
Hence, ~ T ∨ (~ S ∨ T ) ≡ T ⇒ ( S ⇒ T ) (by SoE).
P ⇒ (Q ⇒ P ) is a known tautology, thus (by (SoE)
T ⇒ ( S ⇒ T ) is a tautology, and since
~ T ∨ (~ S ∨ T ) ≡ T ⇒ ( S ⇒ T ) , ~ T ∨ (~ S ∨ T ) is a
tautology.

WUCT121 Logic 54
1.6.3. Laws

The following logical equivalences hold:

1. Commutative Laws:
• ( P ∨ Q ) ≡ (Q ∨ P )
• ( P ∧ Q ) ≡ (Q ∧ P )
• ( P ⇔ Q ) ≡ (Q ⇔ P )

2. Associative Laws:
• (( P ∨ Q ) ∨ R ) ≡ (P ∨ (Q ∨ R ))
• (( P ∧ Q ) ∧ R ) ≡ (P ∧ (Q ∧ R ))
• (( P ⇔ Q ) ⇔ R ) ≡ (P ⇔ (Q ⇔ R ))

3. Distributive Laws:
• (P ∨ (Q ∧ R) ) ≡ (( P ∨ Q) ∧ ( P ∨ R) )
• (P ∧ (Q ∨ R) ) ≡ (( P ∧ Q) ∨ ( P ∧ R) )

4. Double Negation (Involution) Law:

• ~~ P ≡ P

5. De Morgan’s Laws:
• ~ ( P ∨ Q ) ≡ (~ P ∧ ~ Q )
• ~ ( P ∧ Q ) ≡ (~ P ∨ ~ Q )

WUCT121 Logic 55
6. Implication Laws:
• ( P ⇒ Q ) ≡ (~ P ∨ Q ) ( Implication )
• ( P ⇔ Q ) ≡ (( P ⇒ Q ) ∧ (Q ⇒ P ) ) ( Biconditional)

7. Identity Laws:
• (P ∨ F ) ≡ P
• (P ∧ T ) ≡ P

8. Negation (Complement) Laws:

• ( P∨ ~ P ) ≡ T
• ( P∧ ~ P) ≡ F

9. Dominance Laws:
• (P ∨ T ) ≡ T
• (P ∧ F ) ≡ F

10. Idempotent Laws:

• ( P ∨ P) ≡ P
• ( P ∧ P) ≡ P

11. Absorption Laws:

• P ∧ (P ∨ Q) ≡ P
• P ∨ (P ∧ Q) ≡ P
12. Property of Implication:
• (P ⇒ (Q ∧ R) ) ≡ (( P ⇒ Q) ∧ ( P ⇒ R) )
• (( P ∨ Q) ⇒ R ) ≡ (( P ⇒ R) ∧ (Q ⇒ R) )

WUCT121 Logic 56
Example:

Prove the first of De Morgan’s Laws using truth tables.

P Q ~( P ∨ Q) ~P ∧ ~Q
T T F T F F F
T F F T F F T
F T F T T F F
F F T F T T T
Step: 2* 1 1 2* 1
Since the main connectives are identical, the statements are
equivalent., and first of De Morgan’s Laws is true.

Exercise:

Prove the second of De Morgan’s Laws using truth tables.

P Q ~( P ∧ Q) ~P ∨ ~Q
T T F T F F F
T F T F F T T
F T T F T T F
F F T F T T T
Step: 2* 1 1 2* 1
Since the main connectives are identical, the statements are
equivalent, and second of De Morgan’s Laws is true.

WUCT121 Logic 57
Example:

Using logically equivalent statements, without the direct

use of truth tables, show: ~ (~ p ∧ q ) ∧ ( p ∨ q ) ≡ p

~ (~ p ∧ q ) ∧ ( p ∨ q ) ≡ (~ (~ p ) ∨ ~ q ) ∧ ( p ∨ q ) (De Morgan )
≡ ( p ∨ ~ q ) ∧ ( p ∨ q ) (Double Negation)
≡ p ∨ (~ q ∧ q ) (Distributivity)
≡ p ∨ (q ∧ ~ q ) (Commutativity)
≡ p∨F (Negation)
≡ p (Identity)

Exercises:

Using logically equivalent statements, without the direct

use of truth tables, show:

• ~ ( p ⇔ q ) ≡ ( p ∧ ~ q ) ∨ (q ∧ ~ p )

~ ( p ⇔ q ) ≡ ~ (( p ⇒ q ) ∧ (q ⇒ p )) (Biconditional )
≡ ~ ( p ⇒ q ) ∨ ~ (q ⇒ p ) (De Morgan )
≡ ~ (~ p ∨ q ) ∨ ~ (~ q ∨ p ) (Implication )
≡ (~ ~ p ∧ ~ q ) ∨ (~ ~ q ∧ ~ p ) (De Morgan )
≡ ( p ∧ ~ q ) ∨ (q ∧ ~ p ) (Double Negation)

WUCT121 Logic 58
• ( p ⇒ q ) ≡ (~ q ⇒~ p )
( p ⇒ q ) ≡ (~ p ∨ q ) (Implication )
≡ (q ∨ ~ p ) (Commutativity )
≡ (~ (~ q )∨ ~ p ) (Double Negation)
≡ (~ q ⇒ ~ p ) (Implication )

• p ⇒ (q ∧ r ) ≡ ( p ⇒ q ) ∧ ( p ⇒ r ) , without using the

property of implication

p ⇒ (q ∧ r ) ≡ ~ p ∨ (q ∧ r ) (Implication )
≡ (~ p ∨ q ) ∧ (~ p ∨ r ) (Distributive)
≡ ( p ⇒ q) ∧ ( p ⇒ r ) (Implication )

WUCT121 Logic 59
Section 2. Predicate Logic

Discussion:

In Maths we use variables (usually ranging over numbers)

in various ways.

How does x differ in what it represents in the following

statements? x is real.

• x2 = 0 x represents one value, x = 0

• x>2 x represents some, but not all values
• x+0 = x x represents all values
• x2 +1 = 0 x represents no values

Definition: Predicate

A predicate is a sentence that contains one or more

variables and becomes a statement when specific values are
substituted for the variables.

Definition: Domain

The domain of a predicate variable consists of all values

that may be substituted in place of the variable

WUCT121 Logic 60
Definition: Truth Set

If P(x) is a predicate and x has domain D, the truth set of

P(x) is the set of all elements of D that make P(x) true. The
truth set is denoted { x ∈ D : P( x )} and is read “the set of all
x in D such that P(x).”

Examples:

• Let P(x) be the predicate “ x 2 > x ” with x ∈  i.e.

domain the set of real numbers  .
Write down P( 2), P(1), P( −2) and indicate which are true
and which are false.
Determine the truth set of P(x)

P( 2) : 2 2 > 2 or 4 > 2 True

P(1) : (1)2 > 1 or 1 > 1 False
P( −2) : ( −2)2 > ( −2) or 4 > ( −2) True

{ x ∈  : x 2 > x} = { x ∈  : x < 0 ∨ x > 1}

• Let Q(n) be the predicate “n is factor of 8”.

Determine the truth set of Q(n) if n ∈  +

8 = ±1 × ±8, 8 = ±2 × ±4
∴{n ∈  + :" n is a factor of 8"} = {1, 2, 4, 8}

WUCT121 Logic 61
Exercises:

Let P(x) be the predicate “ x > x ” with x ∈  i.e.

3
•
domain the set of integers,  .
Write down P(2), P(0), P( −2) and indicate which are true
and which are false.
Determine the truth set of P(x)

P( 2) : 23 > 2 or 8 > 2 True

P (0 ) : (0 ) 3 > 0 or 0 > 0 False

P( −2) : ( −2) 2 > ( −2) or ( −8) > ( −2) False

{ x ∈  : x 3 > x} = { x ∈  : x > 1}

• Let Q(n) be the predicate “n is factor of 6”.

Determine the truth set of Q(n) if n ∈ 

6 = ±1 × ±6, 6 = ±2 × ±3
∴ {n ∈  :" n is a factor of 6" } = {±1, ± 2, ± 3, ± 6}

WUCT121 Logic 62
2.1. Quantifiers

A way to obtain statements from predicates is to add

quantifiers. Quantifiers are words that refer to quantities
such as “all”, “every”, or “some” and tell for how many
elements a given predicate is true.

2.1.1. Universal Quantifier

The symbol ∀ denotes “for all” and is called the universal

quantifier.

Definition: Universal Statement

Let P(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x. A universal

statement is a statement of the form “ ∀x ∈ D, P( x ) ”. It is
defined to be true if, and only if, P(x) is true for every x in
D. It is defined to be false if, and only if, P(x) is false for at
least one x in D. A value of x for which P(x) is false is
called a counterexample to the universal statement.

Examples:

• Write the sentence “All human beings are mortal”

using the universal quantifier.
Let H be the set of human beings.
∀h ∈ H ,h is mortal

WUCT121 Logic 63
• Consider A = { x1 , x2 , x3 } . With ∀x ∈ A, P( x ) , the

following must hold: P( x1 ) ∧ P( x2 ) ∧ P( x3 )

Thus there will be 3 predicates which must hold.

Exercises:

Write the following statements using the universal

quantifier. Determine whether each statement is true or
false.

• “All dogs are animals”

Let D be the set of dogs and A the set of animals
∀d ∈ D, d ∈ A . True

• The square of any real number is positive.

∀x ∈ , x 2 > 0 .

False, consider x = 0 ∈ , x 2 = 0 2 u0.

Hence the statement is false by counterexample

• Every integer is a rational number.

∀x ∈ , x ∈  . True

WUCT121 Logic 64
Exercises:

Write the following statements in words. Determine

whether each statement is true or false.

• ∀x ∈ , x ∈
The square root of any natural number is a natural number.
False. Consider x = 2 ∈ , x = 2 ∉  . Hence the
statement is false by counterexample.

• ∀x ∈ , x 2 ≠ −1.
The square of any real number does not equal –1. True.

WUCT121 Logic 65
2.1.2. Existential Quantifier

The symbol ∃ denotes “there exists” and is called the

existential quantifier.

Definition: Existential Statement

Let P(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x.

An existential statement is a statement of the form
“ ∃x ∈ D, P( x ) ”.
It is defined to be true if, and only if, P(x) is true for at least
one x in D.
It is defined to be false if, and only if, P(x) is false for all x
in D.

Examples:

• Write the sentence “Some people are vegetarians”

using the existential quantifier.
Let H be the set of human beings.
∃h ∈ H , h is a vegetarian

• Consider A = { x1 , x2 , x3 }. With ∃x ∈ A, P( x ) , the

following must hold: P( x1 ) ∨ P( x2 ) ∨ P( x3 )

Thus there will be 1 predicate which must hold.

WUCT121 Logic 66
Exercises:

Write the following statements using the existential

quantifier. Determine whether each statement is true or
false.

• “Some cats are black”

Let C be the set of cats.
∃c ∈ C ,c is black . True

• There is a real number whose square is negative.

∃x ∈ , x 2 < 0 .False.

• Some programs are structured.

Let P be the set of programs.
∃p ∈ P, p is structured . True

WUCT121 Logic 67
Exercises:

Write the following statements in words. Determine

whether each statement is true or false.

• ∃m ∈ , m 2 = m
There is an integer whose square is equal to itself.
True. Consider m = 1 ∈ , m 2 = 12 = 1 = m .
Hence the statement is true.

• ∃x ∈ , x 2 = −1.
There is a real number whose square is –1.
False.

1
• ∃ x ∈ , ∉ 
x
The reciprocal of some integer is not rational.
1 1
True. Consider x = 0 ∈ , = ∉  .
x 0
Hence the statement is true.

WUCT121 Logic 68
2.1.3. Negation of Universal Statements

Let P(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x. The

negation of a universal statement of the form:
∀x ∈ D, P( x ) is logically equivalent to ∃x ∈ D , ~ P( x )

Symbolically ~ (∀x ∈ D , P( x )) ≡ ∃x ∈ D , ~ P( x )

Example:

• Write down the negation of the following statement.

∀x ∈ , x 2 + 1 ≥ 2 x
Negation:

~ (∀x ∈ , x 2 + 1 ≥ 2 x )
≡ ∃x ∈ , ~ ( x 2 + 1 ≥ 2 x )
≡ ∃x ∈ , x 2 + 1 < 2 x
False.

WUCT121 Logic 69
Exercises:

• Write down the negation of the following statement.

∀x ∈ , x 2 ≥ 0
Negation:

~ (∀x ∈ , x 2 ≥ 0)
≡ ∃x ∈ , ~ ( x 2 ≥ 0) False.
≡ ∃x ∈ , x 2 < 0

• Write down the negation of the following statement.

⎛ y +1 ⎞
∀y ∈ , ⎜ y ≠ 0 ⇒ < 1⎟
⎝ y ⎠
Negation:
⎛ ⎛ y + 1 ⎞⎞
~ ⎜⎜ ∀y ∈ , ⎜ y ≠ 0 ⇒ < 1⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ y ⎠⎠
⎛ y +1 ⎞
≡ ∃y ∈ , ~ ⎜ y ≠ 0 ⇒ < 1⎟
⎝ y ⎠
⎛ y +1 ⎞
≡ ∃y ∈ , ~ ⎜ ~ ( y ≠ 0) ∨ < 1⎟
⎝ y ⎠
⎛ y +1 ⎞
≡ ∃y ∈ , y ≠ 0∧ ~ ⎜ < 1⎟
⎝ y ⎠
y +1
≡ ∃y ∈ , y ≠ 0 ∧ ≥1
y
True, choose y = 1.

WUCT121 Logic 70
Example:

• Write the following statement using quantifiers. Find

its negation and determine whether the statement or its
negation is true, giving a brief reason..
“Every real number is either positive or negative.”
Statement:
∀x ∈ , x < 0 ∨ x > 0
Negation:
~ (∀x ∈ , x < 0 ∨ x > 0)
≡ ∃x ∈ , ~ ( x < 0 ∨ x > 0)
≡ ∃x ∈ , ~ ( x < 0)∧ ~ ( x > 0)
≡ ∃x ∈ , ( x ≥ 0) ∧ ( x ≤ 0)
≡ ∃x ∈ , x = 0
The true statement is the negation because x = 0 is neither
positive nor negative.

WUCT121 Logic 71
Exercises:

• Write the following statement using quantifiers. Find

the negation.
“The square of any integer is positive.”

Statement: ∀x ∈  , x 2 > 0
Negation:

~ ( ∀x ∈  , x 2 > 0 )
≡ ∃ x ∈ , ~ ( x 2 > 0 )
≡ ∃ x ∈ , x 2 ≤ 0
There is an integer whose square is not positive. The
negation is true, choose x = 0.

• Write the following statement using quantifiers. Find

the negation.
“All computer programs are finite.”
Let C be the set of computer programs
Statement: ∀x ∈ C , x is finite
Negation:
≡ ~ (∀x ∈ C , x is finite)
≡ ∃x ∈ C , x is not finite
Not all computer programs are finite.
Some computer programs are not finite. True?

WUCT121 Logic 72
2.1.4. Negation of Existential Quantifiers

Let P(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x. The

negation of an existential statement of the form:
∃x ∈ D, P( x ) is logically equivalent to ∀x ∈ D , ~ P( x )

Symbolically ~ (∃x ∈ D, P( x )) ≡ ∀x ∈ D , ~ P( x )

Example:

• Write down the negation of the following statement.

∃x ∈ , x 2 = 2
Negation:

~ (∃x ∈ , x 2 = 2)
≡ ∀x ∈ , ~ ( x 2 = 2)
≡ ∀x ∈ , x 2 ≠ 2
The negation is true.

WUCT121 Logic 73
Exercises:

• Write down the negation of the following statement.

∃z ∈ , ( z is odd ) ∨ ( z is even)
Negation:
~ (∃z ∈ , ( z is odd ) ∨ ( z is even))
≡ ∀z ∈ , ~ (( z is odd ) ∨ ( z is even))
≡ ∀z ∈ , ~ ( z is odd ) ∧ ~ ( z is even)
≡ ∀z ∈ , ( z is not odd ) ∧ ( z is not even)
The negation is false

• Write down the negation of the following statement.

∃n ∈ , ( n is even) ∧ ( n is prime)
Negation:
~ (∃n ∈ , ( n is even) ∧ ( n is prime))
≡ ∀n ∈ , ~ (( n is even) ∧ ( n is prime))
≡ ∀n ∈ , ~ ( n is even) ∨ ~ ( n is prime)
≡ ∀n ∈ , ( n is not even) ∨ ( n is not prime)
The negation is false.

WUCT121 Logic 74
Example:

• Write the following statement using quantifiers. Find

its negation
“Some dogs are vegetarians.”
Let D be the set of dogs.
Statement: ∃d ∈ D , d is vegetarian
Negation:
~ (∃d ∈ D, d is vegetarian)
≡ ∀d ∈ D , ~ ( d is vegetarian)
≡ ∀d ∈ D , d is not vegetarian
All dogs are not vegetarian

Exercises:

• Write the following statement using quantifiers. Find

the negation.
“There is a real number that is rational.”
Statement: ∃x ∈ , x ∈ 
Negation:
~ (∃x ∈ , x ∈ )
≡ ∀x ∈ , ~ ( x ∈ )
False
≡ ∀x ∈ , x ∉ 
All real numbers are not rational

WUCT121 Logic 75
• Write the following statement using quantifiers. Find
the negation.
P(p): Some computer hackers are over 40.
Let C be the set of computer hackers.
P( p ) : ∃p ∈ C , p is over 40
~ P( p ) :
~ (∃p ∈ C , p is over 40)
≡ ∀p ∈ C , ~ ( p is over 40)
≡ ∀p ∈ C , p is not over 40
≡ ∀p ∈ C , p is 40 or under
All computer hackers are 40 or under
False

• Write the following statement using quantifiers. Find

the negation.
“Some animals are dogs.”
Let A be the set of animals
Statement: ∃x ∈ A, x is a dog
Negation:
~ (∃x ∈ A, x is a dog )
≡ ∀x ∈ A, x is not a dog
All animals are not dogs. False

WUCT121 Logic 76
2.1.5. Multiple Quantifiers

When a statement contains multiple quantifiers their order

must be applied as written and will produce different
results for the truth set.

Examples:

Write the following statements using quantifiers:

• “Everybody loves somebody.”

Let H be the set of people.
Statement: ∀x ∈ H , ∃y ∈ H , x loves y.

• “Somebody loves everyone.”

Let H be the set of people.
Statement: ∃x ∈ H , ∀y ∈ H , x loves y.

WUCT121 Logic 77
Exercises:

Write the following statements using quantifiers:

• “Everybody loves everybody.”

Let H be the set of people.
Statement: ∀x ∈ H , ∀y ∈ H , x loves y.

• The Commutative Law of Addition for 

Statement: ∀x ∈ ,, ∀y ∈ , x + y = y + x

• “Everyone had a mother.”

Let H be the set of humans.
Statement: ∀x ∈ H, ∃y ∈ H , y was the mother of x
or x was the child of y.

• “There is an oldest person.”

Let H be the set of humans.
Statement: ∃x ∈ H, ∀y ∈ H , x is older thany

WUCT121 Logic 78
Examples:

Write the following statements without using quantifiers:

• ∀x ∈ ,, ∃y ∈ , x + y = 0
Statement: Given any real number, you can find a real
number so that the sum of the two is zero. Alternatively:
Every real number has an additive inverse.

• ∃x ∈ ,, ∀y ∈ , x + y = y
Statement: There is a real number, which added to any
other real number results in the other number.
Alternatively: Every real number has an additive identity.

Exercises:

Write the following statements without using quantifiers:

• ∀c ∈ colours, ∃a ∈ animals, a is coloured c

Statement: For every colour, there is an animal of that
colour.
Alternatively: There are animals of every colour.

• ∃b ∈ books, ∀p ∈ people, p has read b

Statement: There is a book everyone has read.

WUCT121 Logic 79
2.1.6. Interpreting Statements with Multiple
Quantifiers

To establish the truth of a statement with more than one

quantifier, take the action suggested by the quantifiers as
being performed in the order in which the quantifiers occur.

Consider A = { x1 , x 2 , x3 }, B = { y1 , y 2 } and the

predicate P( x, y ) .

There will be 6 possible predicates:

P( x1 , y1 ) , P( x1 , y 2 ),
P( x2 , y1 ), P( x2 , y 2 ),
P( x3 , y1 ) , P( x3 , y 2 ).

• For ∀x ∈ A, ∀y ∈ B, P( x, y ) to be true the following

must hold:
P( x1 , y1 ) ∧ P( x1 , y 2 )
∧ P( x2 , y1 ) ∧ P( x2 , y 2 )
∧ P( x3 , y1 ) ∧ P( x3 , y 2 )

Thus there will be 6 predicates which must all be true. That

is for all pairs (x, y), P(x, y) must be true. It will be false if
there is one pair (x, y), for which P(x, y) is false.

WUCT121 Logic 80
• For ∀x ∈ A, ∃y ∈ B, P( x, y ) to be true, the following
must hold:
P( x1 , y1 ) ∨ P( x1 , y 2 )
∧ P( x 2 , y1 ) ∨ P( x 2 , y 2 )
∧ P( x3 , y1 ) ∨ P( x3 , y 2 )

Thus there will be 3 predicates which must be true. That is

for every x there must be at least one y so that P(x, y) is
true. Given any element x in A you can find an element y in
B, so that P(x, y) is true. It will be false if there is one x in A
for which P(x, y) is false for every y in B.

• For ∃x ∈ A, ∀y ∈ B, P( x, y ) to be true, the following

must hold:
P( x1 , y1 ) ∧ P( x1 , y 2 )
∨ P( x 2 , y1 ) ∧ P( x 2 , y 2 )
∨ P( x3 , y1 ) ∧ P( x3 , y 2 )

Thus there will be 2 predicates which must be true. That is

there is one x that when paired with any y, P(x, y) is true.
You can find one element x in A that with all elements y in
B, P(x, y) is true. It will be false if for every x in A, there is
a y in B for which P(x, y) is false.

WUCT121 Logic 81
• For ∃x ∈ A, ∃y ∈ B, P( x, y ) to be true, the following
must hold:
P( x1 , y1 ) ∨ P( x1 , y 2 )
∨ P( x 2 , y1 ) ∨ P( x 2 , y 2 )
∨ P( x3 , y1 ) ∨ P( x3 , y 2 )

Thus there will be 1 predicate which must be true. That is

there is one x that when paired with one y, P(x, y) is true.
You can find one element x in A and one element y in B,
P(x, y) is true. It will be false if for all pairs (x, y), P(x, y) is
false.

Summary:

Statement When true? When false?

∀x, ∀y , P( x, y ) P(x, y) is true for There is a pair
all pairs (x, y) (x, y) for which P(x,
y) is false
∀x, ∃y , P( x, y ) For every x, there There is an x such
is a y for which that P(x, y) is false
P(x, y) is true for every y
∃x, ∀y , P( x, y ) There is an x such For every x, there is
that P(x, y) is true a y for which P(x, y)
for every y is false
∃x, ∃y , P( x, y ) There is a pair P(x, y) is false for
(x, y) for which all pairs (x, y)
P(x, y) is true

WUCT121 Logic 82
2.1.7. Negation of Statements with Multiple
Quantifiers.

To negate statements with multiple quantifiers, each

quantifier is negated and the predicate must be negated.

• To negate ∀x ∈ A, ∀y ∈ B, P( x, y )
~ (∀x ∈ A, ∀y ∈ B, P( x, y ) ) ≡ ∃x ∈ A, ∃y ∈ B, ~ P( x, y )

• To negate ∀x ∈ A, ∃y ∈ B, P( x, y )
~ (∀x ∈ A, ∃y ∈ B, P( x, y ) ) ≡ ∃x ∈ A, ∀y ∈ B, ~ P( x, y )

• To negate ∃x ∈ A, ∀y ∈ B, P( x, y )
~ (∃x ∈ A, ∀y ∈ B, P( x, y ) ) ≡ ∀x ∈ A, ∃y ∈ B, ~ P( x, y )

• To negate ∃x ∈ A, ∃y ∈ B, P( x, y )
~ (∃x ∈ A, ∃y ∈ B, P( x, y ) ) ≡ ∀x ∈ A, ∀y ∈ B, ~ P( x, y )

Examples:

Write the negation of the following:

• Statement: ∀x ∈ ,, ∃y ∈ , x + y = 0
Negation:
~ (∀x ∈ ,, ∃y ∈ , x + y = 0 )
≡ ∃x ∈ ,, ∀y ∈ , x + y ≠ 0
False: Take y = − x , then x + y = x − x = 0

WUCT121 Logic 83
• Statement: ∃x ∈ ,, ∀y ∈ , xy = 1
Negation:
~ (∃x ∈ ,, ∀y ∈ , xy = 1)
≡ ∀x ∈ ,, ∃y ∈ , xy ≠ 1
True : Take y = − x, then xy = − x 2 ≠ 1

Exercises:

Write the negation of the following:

• Statement: ∀c ∈ colours, ∃a ∈ animals, a is coloured c

Negation:
≡ ~ (∀c ∈ colours, ∃a ∈ animals, a is coloured c )
≡ ∃c ∈ colours, ∀a ∈ animals, a is not coloured c
There is a colour which every animal is not. True, my cat is
not purple.

• Statement: ∃b ∈ books, ∀p ∈ people, p has read b

Negation:
≡ ~ (∃b ∈ books, ∀p ∈ people, p has read b )
≡ ∀b ∈ books, ∃p ∈ people, p has not read b
There is someone who has not read every book. True, me,
I’ve not read every book.

WUCT121 Logic 84
Section 3. Proofs

3.1. Introduction.

A proof is a carefully reasoned argument which establishes

that a given statement is true. Logic is a tool for the
analysis of proofs. Each statement within a proof is an
assumption, an axiom, a previously proven theorem, or
follows from previous statements in the proof by a
mathematical or logical rules and definitions.

3.1.1. Assumptions.

Assumptions are the statements you assume to be true as

you try to prove the result.

Example:

If you want to prove:

“If x ∈  and n ∈  is even, then x n > 0 ”

Your proof should start with the assumptions that x ∈ 

and n ∈  is even. Further, you can use the “definition” of
an even natural number, and write the assumptions as
follows:

Let x ∈  , and n ∈  be even, that is, ∃p ∈ , n = 2 p .

WUCT121 Logic 85
Assumptions are often thought to be the “given
information” or information we “know” that can be used in
our proof. As in the example above, when you are proving
statements of the form P ⇒ Q , then the assumption is the
statement P.

Exercise:

Write the statement to be proven in the previous example

using logical notation:

[( x ∈ ) ∧ ( n ∈  : ∃p ∈ , n = 2 p )] ⇒ x n > 0

3.1.2. Axioms.

Axioms are laws in Mathematics that hold true and require

no proof.

Examples:

• x=x

• x+0 = x

• ∀x, y , z ∈ , [ ( x = y ) ∧ ( y = z )] ⇒ ( x = z )

WUCT121 Logic 86
3.1.3. Mathematical Rules.

Mathematical Rules are known rules that are often used.

Example:

∀x, y , z ∈ , ( x = y ) ⇒ ( x + z = y + z )

3.1.4. Logical Rules.

Logical Rules are rules of logic such as Substitution and

Substitution of Equivalence using the laws introduced
earlier

3.2. The Law of Syllogism

If P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ R are both tautologies, then so is

P ⇒ R.

Exercise:

• Write the Law of Syllogism using logical notation:

(( P ⇒ Q ) ∧ (Q ⇒ R )) ⇒ ( P ⇒ R )

WUCT121 Logic 87
 • Show, using the quick method that the Law of
Syllogism is a tautology.

((P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q ⇒ R)) ⇒ (P ⇒ R)
Step: 1 3 2 5* 4
1. F
2. T F
3. T F
4. T T
5. T T F F

1. Place “F” under main connective

2. For “F” to occur under the main connective, ∧ must be

“T” and ⇒ must be “F”

3. For “F” to occur under ⇒ , P must be “T” and R must

be “F”.

4. For “T” under ∧ , both ⇒ must be “T”

5. For the first ⇒ to be true, given P is “T”, Q must be

“T”. For the second ⇒ to be true, given R is “F”, Q must
be “F”.

Q cannot be both “T” and “F”, thus

(( P ⇒ Q ) ∧ (Q ⇒ R )) ⇒ ( P ⇒ R ) can only ever be true
and is a tautology.

WUCT121 Logic 88
Examples:

• s is a square ⇒ s is a rectangle
s is a rectangle ⇒ s is a parallelogram
s is a parallelogram ⇒ s is a quadrilateral
∴ s is a square ⇒ s is a quadrilateral.

x 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ ( x − 3) 2 ≥ 0
( x − 3) 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ ( x 2 − 6 x + 9) ≥ 0
( x 2 − 6 x + 9) ≥ 0 ⇒ x 2 − 6 x ≥ −9
∴ x 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ x 2 − 6 x ≥ −9

Exercise:

Complete the following using the Law of Syllogism:

• t is studying WUCT121 ⇒ t is enrolled in a diploma

t is enrolled in a diploma ⇒ t is student at WCA.
∴ t is studying WUCT121 ⇒ t is student at WCA.

•
x ∈ ⇒ x ∈
x ∈ ⇒ x ∈
x ∈ ⇒ x ∈
∴ x ∈ ⇒ x ∈

WUCT121 Logic 89
Most results in Mathematics that require proofs are of the
form P ⇒ Q . The Law of Syllogism provides the most
common method of performing proofs of such statements.
The Law of Syllogism is a kind of transitivity that can
apply to ⇒ .

To use the Law of Syllogism, we set up a sequence of

statements, P ⇒ P1 , P1 ⇒ P2 , P2 ⇒ P3 ,K , Pn ⇒ Q .
Then, by successive applications of the law, we have
P ⇒ Q.

Example.

We wish to prove that for n ∈  , if n is even, then n 2 is

even.
In logic notation, we wish to prove:

n is even (P) ⇒ n 2 is even (Q).

This has the form P ⇒ Q and we note that our assumption

includes n ∈  and P: n is even.

WUCT121 Logic 90
Proof:

n is even ⇒ ∃p ∈ , n = 2 p K( P ⇒ P1 )
∃p ∈ , n = 2 p ⇒ n 2 = 4 p 2 K( P1 ⇒ P2 )
n 2 = 4 p 2 ⇒ n 2 = 2( 2 p 2 ) K( P2 ⇒ P3 )
n 2 = 2( 2 p 2 ) ⇒ n 2 is even K( P3 ⇒ Q )

Completing the proof is simply a matter of applying the

Law of Syllogism three times to get n is even ⇒ n 2 is

even.

The previous proof can be simplified to:

n is even ⇒ ∃p ∈ , n = 2 p
⇒ n2 = 4 p 2
⇒ n 2 = 2( 2 p 2 ), 2 p 2 ∈ 
⇒ n 2 is even

The use of Law of Syllogism is a matter of common sense.

We shall use the Law of Syllogism without direct
reference.
Note. The use of the connective ⇒ in the previous proof
seems a little repetitive, albeit valid. For variety, the
connective can be replaced by words such as therefore,
thus, so we have, and hence.

WUCT121 Logic 91
3.3. Modus Ponens

3.3.1. Rule of Modus Ponens:

If P and P ⇒ Q are both tautologies, then so is Q.

In other words, Modus Ponens simply says that if we know

P to be true, and we know that P implies Q, then Q must
also be true.

Exercise:

• Write the rule of Modus Ponens using logical notation:

( P ∧ ( P ⇒ Q )) ⇒ Q

WUCT121 Logic 92
 • Show, using the quick method that the rule of Modus
Ponens is a tautology.

(P ∧ (P ⇒ Q)) ⇒ Q
Step 2 1 3*

1. Place “F” under main F

connective.

2. For “F” to occur under the T F

main connective, ∧ must be
“T” and Q must be “F”

3. For “T” to occur under ∧ , P T T

must be “T” and P ⇒ Q must
be “T”

4. For “T” to occur under F F

P ⇒ Q ,when P is “F” P must
be “F”

P cannot be both “T” and “F”, thus (( P ⇒ Q ) ∧ P ) ⇒ Q can only

ever be true and is a tautology.

WUCT121 Logic 93
Examples:

• If Zak is a cheater, then Zak sits in the back row

Zak is a cheater
Therefore Zak sits in the back row.

• If 2 = 3 then I will eat my hat

2=3
Therefore I will eat my hat

Exercise:

Complete the following using Modus Ponens

• If Zeus is a God, then Zeus is immortal

Zeus is a God
Therefore Zeus is immortal.

• If it is sunny then I will go to the beach

It is sunny
Therefore I will go to the beach

• If I study hard then I will pass

I study hard
Therefore I will pass

WUCT121 Logic 94
3.3.2. Universal Rule of Modus Ponens:

If P(x) and Q(x) are predicates, the universal rule of Modus

Ponens is (( P( x ) ⇒ Q ( x )) ∧ P( a )) ⇒ Q ( a ) .

This means Modus Ponens can be applied to predicates

using specific values for the variables in the domain.

Examples:

• If x is even [P(x)], then x 2 is even [Q(x)]

x = 98374 [P(a)]

Therefore 98374 2 is even. [Q(a)]

• The Principle of Mathematical Induction says that

when you have a statement, Claim(n), that concerns n ∈  ,
⎧Claim(1)
If P : ⎨ then Claim(n) is
⎩Claim( k ) ⇒ Claim( k + 1), ∀k ∈ 
true for all n ∈  (Q)
Thus we have P ⇒ Q .

WUCT121 Logic 95
Exercise:

According to Modus Ponens, what must we establish so we

can apply this principle to the following statement and be
able to say “Claim(n) is true for all n ∈  ”?

• Claim(n): 4 n − 1 is a multiple of 3.
We must show that Claim(n) satisfies P.
So we need to establish two things:

1. Claim(1), i.e. 41 − 1 is a multiple of 3; AND

2. Claim( k ) ⇒ Claim( k + 1), ∀k ∈  , i.e. If 4 k − 1 is a

multiple of 3 for all k ∈  , then 4 (k +1) − 1 is a multiple

of 3.

WUCT121 Logic 96
3.4. Modus Tollens

3.4.1. Rule of Modus Tollens:

If ~Q and P ⇒ Q are both tautologies, then so is ~P.

In other words, Modus Ponens simply says that if we know
~Q to be true, and we know that P implies Q, then ~P must
also be true. Similarly if we know Q to be false, and we
know that P implies Q, then P must also be false

Exercise:

• Write the rule of Modus Ponens using logical notation:

(( P ⇒ Q )∧ ~ Q ) ⇒ ~ P

WUCT121 Logic 97
• Show, using the quick method that the rule of Modus
Tollens is a tautology.

((P ⇒ Q) ∧ ~Q ⇒ ~P
Step: 2 3 1 4* 5
1.Place “F” under main F
connective

2. For “F” to occur under T F

the main connective, ∧
must be “T” and ~P must
be “F”

3. For “T” to occur under T T

∧ , ~Q must be “T” and
P ⇒ Q must be “T”

4. For “T” to occur under T T

P ⇒ Q ,when P is “T”, Q
must be “T”

At step 2, ~P is “F”, thus P is “T”. Step 3 shows ~Q is “T”

thus Q is “F” and step 4 gives Q is “T”. Q cannot be both “T”
and “F”, thus (( P ⇒ Q ) ∧ ~ Q ) ⇒ ~ P can only ever be true
and is a tautology.

WUCT121 Logic 98
Examples:

• If Zak is a cheater, then Zak sits in the back row

Zak sits in the front row
Therefore Zak is not a cheater.

• If 2 > 3 then Earth is flat

The Earth is not flat
Therefore 2 u 3

Exercise:

Complete the following using Modus Tollens

• If Zeus is a God, then Zeus is immortal

Zeus is not immortal
Therefore Zeus is not a God.

• If I go to the beach then it is sunny

It is not sunny
Therefore I don’t go to the beach

• If I arrive on time then I will be marked present

I was marked absent
Therefore I did not arrive on time.

WUCT121 Logic 99
3.4.2. Universal Rule of Modus Tollens:

If P(x) and Q(x) are predicates, the universal rule of Modus

Tollens is: (( P( x ) ⇒ Q ( x ))∧ ~ Q ( a )) ⇒ ~ P( a ) .

This means Modus Tollens can be applied to predicates

using specific values for the variables in the domain.

Example:

a
• If x ∈  , then ∃a , b ∈ , b ≠ 0, x =
b
x= 2
Therefore 2 ∉ .

Exercise:

Complete the following using the universal rule of Modus

Tollens

• If x ∈  , then x ≥ 1
x = −1
Therefore − 1 ∉  .

WUCT121 Logic 100

3.5. Proving Quantified Statements

3.5.1. Proving Existential Statements

A statement of the form ∃x ∈ D , P ( x ) is true if and only if

P ( x ) is true for at least one x ∈ D .
To prove this kind of statement, we need to find one x ∈ D
that makes P ( x ) true.

Examples:

• Prove that there exists an even integer that can be

written two ways as the sum of two primes.

The statement is of the form ∃x ∈ D , P ( x ) , where D is the

set of even integers and P(x) is the statement “x can be
written as the sum of two primes”
Thus we need find only one even integer which satisfies
P(x).
Essentially, to find the appropriate number, we have to
“guess”.
Consider 14 = 7 + 7 (7 is prime); and 14 = 3 + 11 (3 and 11
are prime).
Therefore, there exists an even integer that can be written
two ways as the sum of two primes.

WUCT121 Logic 101

• Let r , s ∈  . Prove ∃k ∈ , 22r + 18s = 2k

The statement is of the form ∃k ∈ D, P (k ), where D is the

set of integers and P(k) is the statement: “ 22r + 18s = 2k ”.
Thus we need find only one integer which satisfies P(k)
22r + 18s = 2(11r + 9 s )
= 2k where k = 11r + 9 s ∈ 

Exercises:

• Prove ∃x ∈ , x + 5 = 0 .
Let x = −5 ∈  , then x + 5 = −5 + 5 = 0 .

• Prove that if a , b ∈  ,then 10a + 8b is divisible by 2

(i.e., is even).
10a + 8b = 2(5a + 4b ) and 5a + 4b ∈  .
Thus, 2 (10a + 8b ).

WUCT121 Logic 102

3.5.2. Proving Universal Statements

A statement of the form ∀x ∈ D , P ( x ) is true if and only if

P ( x ) is true for at every x ∈ D .
To prove this kind of statement, we need prove that for
every x ∈ D , P ( x ) is true.

In order to prove this kind of statement, there are two

methods:

Method 1: Method of Exhaustion.

The method of exhaustion is used when the domain is
finite.
Exhaustion cannot be used when the domain is infinite.

To perform the method of exhaustion, every member of the

domain is tested to determine if it satisfies the predicate.

WUCT121 Logic 103

Example:

• Prove the following statement:

Every even number between 2 and 16 can be written as a
sum of two prime numbers.
The statement is of the form ∀x ∈ D, P ( x ), where
D = {4, 6, 8,10,12,14},and P(x) is the statement “x can be
written as the sum of two prime numbers”.
The domain D is finite so the method of exhaustion can be
used.
Thus we must test every number in D to show they can be
written as the sum of two primes.
4 = 2+2 6 = 3+3 8 = 3+5
10 = 5 + 5 12 = 5 + 7 14 = 7 + 7
Thus by the method of exhaustion every even number
between 2 and 16 can be written as a sum of two prime
numbers.

WUCT121 Logic 104

Exercise:

• Prove for each integer n with 1 ≤ n ≤ 10 , n 2 − n + 11 is

prime.

The statement is of the form ∀n ∈ D, P (n ) , where

D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10},and P(n) is the statement

“ n 2 − n + 11 is prime”. Thus we must show all numbers in

D satisfy P(n).

P(1) = 12 − 1 + 11 P( 2) = 2 2 − 2 + 11
= 11 is prime = 13 is prime
P(3) = 32 − 3 + 11 P( 4) = 4 2 − 4 + 11
= 17 is prime = 23 is prime
P(5) = 5 2 − 5 + 11 P(6) = 6 2 − 6 + 11
= 31 is prime = 41 is prime
P(7) = 7 2 − 7 + 11 P(8) = 8 2 − 8 + 11
= 53 is prime = 67 is prime
P(9) = 9 2 − 9 + 11 P(10) = 10 2 − 10 + 11
= 89 is prime = 101 is prime
Thus by the method of exhaustion for each integer n with

1 ≤ n ≤ 10 , n 2 − n + 11 is prime.

WUCT121 Logic 105

Method 2: Generalised Proof.

The generalised proof method is used when the domain is

infinite.

It is called the method of generalizing from the generic

particular.

In order to show that every element of the domain satisfies

the predicate, a particular but arbitrary element of the
domain is chosen and shown to satisfy the predicate.

The method to show the predicate is satisfied will vary

depending on the form of the predicate.

Specific techniques of generalized proof will be outlined

later in this section.

WUCT121 Logic 106

Example:

• Pick any number, add 3, multiply by 4, subtract 6,

divide by two and subtract twice the original. The result is
3.
Proof:
Choose a particular but arbitrary number, say x, and then
determine if it satisfies the statement.

Step Result

Pick a number x

Add 3 x+3

Multiply by 4 ( x + 3) × 4 = 4 x + 12

Subtract 6 4 x + 12 − 6 = 4 x + 6

Divide by 2 ( 4 x + 6) ÷ 2 = 2 x + 3

Subtract twice the original 2x + 3 = 2x = 3

In this example, x is particular in that it represents a single

quantity, but arbitrarily chosen as it can represent any
number.

WUCT121 Logic 107

3.6. Disproving Quantified Statements

3.6.1. Disproving Existential Statements

A statement of the form ∃x ∈ D , P ( x ) is false if and only

if P ( x ) is false for all x ∈ D .
To disprove this kind of statement, we need to show the for
all x ∈ D , P ( x ) is false.
That is we need to prove it’s negation:
~ (∃x ∈ D, P( x )) ≡ ∀x ∈ D , ~ P( x )

This is equivalent to proving a universal statement and so

the method of exhaustion or the generalized proof method
is used.

Example:

• Disprove: There exists a positive number n such that

n 2 + 3n + 2 is prime.
Proving the given statement is false is equivalent to proving
its negation is true. That is proving that for all numbers n ,

n 2 + 3n + 2 is not prime. Since this statement is universal,

its proof requires the generalised proof method.

WUCT121 Logic 108

3.6.2. Disproving Universal Statements

A statement of the form ∀x ∈ D , P ( x ) is false if and only

if P ( x ) is false for at least one x ∈ D .
To disprove this kind of statement, we need to find one
x ∈ D such that P ( x ) is false.
That is we need to prove it’s negation:
~ (∀x ∈ D , P( x )) ≡ ∃x ∈ D , ~ P( x )

This is known as finding a counterexample.

Example:

• Disprove: ∀a , b ∈ , ( a 2 = b 2 ) ⇒ ( a = b ).

Let P( a , b ) : ( a 2 = b 2 ) ⇒ ( a = b ) .
We need to show ∃a , b ∈ , ~ P( a , b )

Counterexample:

Let a = 1, b = −1. Then a 2 = b 2 however a ≠ b .

Now true ⇒ false is false, thus P( a , b ) is false, and
~ P( a , b ) is true
So, we have shown, by counterexample ∃a , b ∈ , ~ P( a , b )

WUCT121 Logic 109

Exercises:

• Disprove: ∀x ∈ , ( x > 0 ∨ x < 0).

Need to prove: ∃x ∈ , ~ ( x > 0 ∨ x < 0).

That is ∃x ∈ , ( x ≤ 0 ∧ x ≥ 0).
Let x = 0 .

z −1
• Disprove ∀z ∈ , ( z is odd ) ⇒ ( is odd ).
2
5 −1 4
Let z = 5 ∈ , ( z is odd ) , ( = = 2 is even).
2 2

• Prove or disprove: ∀x ∈ , ∃y ∈ , ( x + y = 0).

To prove the statement: Find a specific y for each “general”

x.
Consider an x ∈ . Let y = − x ∈ , then
x + y = x + (− x ) = 0 .

WUCT121 Logic 110

3.7. Generalised Proof Methods

Before proving a statement, it is of great use to write the

statement using logic notation, including quantifiers, where
appropriate.
Doing this means you have clearly written the assumptions
you can make AND the conclusion you are aiming to reach.

Example:

• Prove: For all integers n, if n is odd, then n 2 is odd.

Rewritten using logic notation:

∀n ∈ , n is odd ⇒ n 2 is odd

Here the domain is given as , , and the predicate involves

the statements: P(n) is n is odd, Q(n) is n 2 is odd.

The form of the predicate is P( n ) ⇒ Q ( n ) .

Thus the assumption that can be made is P(n) and the

conclusion to be reached is Q(n).

WUCT121 Logic 111

3.7.1. Direct Proof

A direct proof is one in which we begin with the

assumptions and work in a straightforward fashion to the
conclusion.

The steps in the final proof must proceed in the correct

“direction” beginning with the initial assumption and
following known laws, rules, definitions etc. until the final
conclusion is reached. The proof must not start with what
you are trying to prove.

Example:

• Prove that if 3 x − 9 = 15 then x = 8 .

Assuming the domain to be , then the statement is of the

form ∀x ∈ , P( x ) ⇒ Q( x ) .
Thus the assumption is P( x ) : 3 x − 9 = 15 , and the
conclusion Q( x ) : x = 8 .

3 x − 9 = 15 ⇒ 3 x − 9 + 9 = 15 + 9
⇒ 3 x = 24
3 x 24
⇒ =
3 3
⇒ x=8

WUCT121 Logic 112

Exercise:

• Prove: For all integers n, if n is odd, then n 2 is odd.

Rewritten using logic notation:

∀n ∈ , n is odd ⇒ n 2 is odd

Here the domain is given as , , and the predicate involves

the statements: P(n) is n is odd, Q(n) is n 2 is odd.

The form of the predicate is P( n ) ⇒ Q ( n ) .

Thus the assumption that can be made is P(n) and the

conclusion to be reached is Q(n).
Proof:
n is odd ⇒ n = 2 p + 1 p ∈ definition of odd
⇒ n 2 = ( 2 p + 1) 2
⇒ n2 = 4 p2 + 4 p + 1
⇒ n 2 = 2( 2 p 2 + 2 p ) + 1
⇒ n 2 = 2q + 1 q = 2 p2 + 2 p ∈ 
⇒ n 2 is odd definition of odd

WUCT121 Logic 113

When the statement to be proven is of the form:
P( x ) ⇒ Q( x ) , the assumption which begins the proof is
P( x ).

If the form is not P( x ) ⇒ Q( x ) , or P( x ) is not clear, it may

be necessary to examine what you are aiming to prove and
establish an assumption from which to begin.

Example:

• ( )
Prove that for x ∈ , − x 2 + 2 x + 1 ≤ 2 .
(Do not start with this!)

In this case, the form is not P( x ) ⇒ Q( x ) .

By examining what we are aiming to prove, i.e.
(− x 2 + 2 x + 1) ≤ 2 a beginning to the proof can be found.
⎧− x 2 + 2 x + 1 ≤ 2 ⇒ x 2 − 2 x − 1 ≥ −2
⎪⎪
working : ⎨ ⇒ x2 − 2 x + 1 ≥ 0
⎪
⎪⎩ ⇒ ( x − 1)2 ≥ 0 is true.

We can now put the proof together:

We know that ( x − 1)2 ≥ 0 for any x ∈ .

Thus,

WUCT121 Logic 114

( x − 1)2 ≥ 0 what is known
⇒ x2 − 2x + 1 ≥ 0 expanding
⇒ x 2 − 2 x − 1 ≥ −2 subtracting 2 from both sides
⇒ − x2 + 2x + 1 ≥ 2 multiplying by − 1
Note. In the example, we did NOT start with the statement

(− x 2 + 2 x + 1) ≤ 2 , as we technically do not know whether

it is true or not. We started our proof with a statement we
know to be true.

Exercise:

• Prove the following:

If the right angled triangle XYZ with sides of length x and y
z2
and hypotenuse z has an area of , then the triangle is
4
isosceles. X

z
y

Y x Z

WUCT121 Logic 115

The form of statement is P( x ) ⇒ Q( x ) .
What is known. i.e. the assumptions that can be made are:

z2
• Area of the triangle: A = , (1)
4

• Area of any triangle:

= 1 × (base) × (height ) = 1 xy (2)
2 2

• The sides are of length x and y and hypotenuse

z so by Pythagoras: z 2 = x 2 + y 2 . (3)

What is to be proven: That triangle XYZ is isosceles. Thus

we must show two sides have equal length.

Proof:

Substituting (3) into (1) and equating with (2) gives:

x 2 + y 2 xy
=
4 2
x 2 + y 2 xy
= ⇒ x 2 + y 2 = 2 xy (multiplying both sides by 4)
4 2
⇒ x 2 − 2 xy + y 2 = 0
⇒ (x − y ) = 0
2

⇒x= y

So two sides are equal and thus triangle XZY is isosceles.

WUCT121 Logic 116

3.8. Indirect Proofs.

3.8.1. Method of Proof by Contradiction

The method of proof by contradiction can be used when the

statement to be proven is not of the form P( x ) ⇒ Q( x ) .
The method is as follows:

1. Suppose the statement to be proven is false. That is,

suppose that the negation of the statement is true.

2. Show that this supposition leads to a contradiction

3. Conclude that the statement to be proven is true.

Example:

• Prove there is no greatest integer.

Suppose not, that is suppose there is a greatest integer. N.

Then N ≥ n for every integer n. Let M = N + 1 . Now M is
an integer since it is the sum of integers. Also M > N since
M = N +1
Thus M is an integer that is greater than N. So N is the
greatest integer and N is not the greatest integer, which is a
contradiction.
Thus the assumption that there is a greatest integer is false,
hence there is no greatest integer is true.

WUCT121 Logic 117

Exercise:

• Prove there is no integer that is both even and odd.

Suppose not, that is suppose there is a greatest integer an

integer n, that is both even and odd.
By the definition of even n = 2k , k ∈  K (1) , and by the
definition of odd n = 2l + 1, l ∈  K ( 2) .

If n is both even and odd then equation (1) and (2) gives:
2k = 2l + 1
⇒ 2k − 2l = 1
⇒ 2( k − l ) = 1
1
⇒ k −l = ∉
2
Now since k and l are integers, the difference k – l must be
1
an integer. However k − l = ∉  . Thus k – l is an integer
2
and k – l is not an integer, which is a contradiction.
Thus the supposition is false and hence the statement
“There is no integer that is both even and odd” is true.

WUCT121 Logic 118

3.8.2. Proof by Contraposition

Recall the following logical equivalence:

( P ⇒ Q ) ≡ (~ Q ⇒ ~ P ).
(~ Q ⇒ ~ P ) is known as the contrapositive of ( P ⇒ Q ) .
This equivalence indicates that if (~ Q ⇒ ~ P ) is a true
statement, then so too is ( P ⇒ Q ) .
Thus, in order to prove ( P ⇒ Q ) , we prove the
contrapositive, that is (~ Q ⇒ ~ P ) , is true.

The method of proof by contraposition can be used when

the statement to be proven is of the form P( x ) ⇒ Q( x ) .
The method is as follows:

1. Express the statement to be proven in the form:

∀x ∈ D , P( x ) ⇒ Q ( x ).

2. Rewrite the statement in the contrapositive

form: ∀x ∈ D, ~ Q( x ) ⇒ ~ P( x ).

3. Prove the contrapositive by a direct proof.

a. Suppose that x is a particular but arbitrary

element of D, such that Q(x) is false.

b. Show that P(x) is false.

WUCT121 Logic 119

Example:

• Prove that for all integers n if n 2 is even, n is even.

The statement can be expressed in the form:

∀n ∈ , n 2 is even ⇒ n is even.

Thus the contrapositive is

∀n ∈ , n is not even ⇒ n 2 is not even. That is

∀n ∈ , n is odd ⇒ n 2 is odd.
To prove the contrapositive:
Let n be any odd integer.
Then n = 2k + 1, k ∈  K(1)

Show n 2 is odd, i.e. show n 2 = 2l + 1, l ∈ 

n 2 = ( 2k + 1)2 by (1)
= 4k 2 + 4k + 1
= 2( 2k 2 + 2k ) + 1
= 2l + 1 l = 2k 2 + 2k ∈ 
So n 2 is odd, and the contrapositive is true.

Hence the statement “for all integers n if n 2 .is even, n is

even” is also true.

WUCT121 Logic 120

Exercise:

• Prove that for all integers n if 5 /| n 2 .then 5 /| n .

The statement can be expressed in the form:

∀n ∈ , 5 /| n 2 ⇒ 5 /| n.

Thus the contrapositive is ∀n ∈ , 5 | n ⇒ 5 | n 2 .

To prove the contrapositive:
Let n be any odd integer.
Then 5 | n ⇒ n = 5k , k ∈  K (1)

Show 5 | n 2 , i.e. show n 2 = 5l , l ∈ 

n 2 = (5k ) 2 by (1)
= 25k 2
= 5(5k 2 )
= 5l l = 5k 2 ∈ 
So 5 | n 2 , and the contrapositive is true.

Hence the statement “for all integers n if 5 /| n 2 .then 5 /| n ”

is also true.

WUCT121 Logic 121

Exercise:

• Prove if y is irrational, then y + 7 is irrational.

The statement can be expressed in the form:

∀y ∈ , y ∉  ⇒ y + 7 ∉ 

Thus the contrapositive is ∀y ∈ , y + 7 ∈  ⇒ y ∈ 

To prove the contrapositive:
a
Let. y ∈ , y + 7 ∈  , so y + 7 = , a , b ∈ , b ≠ 0 .
b
c
Show y ∈  , that is y = , c , d ∈ , d ≠ 0
d
a a
y +7 = ⇒ y = −7
b b
a − 7b
⇒y=
b
c
⇒ y = c = a − 7b, d = b ∈ , d ≠ 0
d
Therefore y ∈  , and the contrapositive is true.
Hence the statement “if y is irrational, then y + 7 is
irrational” is also true.

WUCT121 Logic 122

3.8.3. Proof by Cases

When the statement to be proven is of the form, or can be

written in the form: ( P ∨ Q ) ⇒ R , the method of proof by
cases can be used.

It relies on the logical equivalence

(( P ⇒ R ) ∧ (Q ⇒ R )) ≡ (( P ∨ Q ) ⇒ R ).

The method is as follows:

1. Prove P ⇒ R

2. Prove Q ⇒ R.

3. Conclude ( P ∨ Q ) ⇒ R.

If the statement is not written in the form ( P ∨ Q ) ⇒ R , it

is necessary to establish the particular cases by exhaustion.

WUCT121 Logic 123

Example:

• Prove: If x ≠ 0 or y ≠ 0 , then x 2 + y 2 > 0 .

The statement can be expressed in the form:

( x ≠ 0) ∨ ( y ≠ 0) ⇒ x 2 + y 2 > 0

We assume x, y ∈  , thus x 2 ≥ 0, y 2 ≥ 0.
Proof:

Case 1: Prove x ≠ 0 ⇒ x 2 + y 2 > 0

2
Let x ≠ 0 , then x > 0 and y ≥ 0 .
2

Thus x 2 + y 2 > 0 .

Case 2: Prove y ≠ 0 ⇒ x 2 + y 2 > 0

Let y ≠ 0 , then y 2 > 0 and x 2 ≥ 0 .

Thus x 2 + y 2 > 0 .

Therefore If x ≠ 0 or y ≠ 0 , then x 2 + y 2 > 0 .

WUCT121 Logic 124

Exercise.

• Prove: If x ≤ −2 or x ≥ 2 , then x 2 − 4 ≥ 0 .

The statement can be expressed in the form:

( x ≤ −2) ∨ ( x ≥ 2) ⇒ x 2 − 4 ≥ 0

Proof:

Case 1: Prove x ≤ −2 ⇒ x 2 − 4 ≥ 0
x ≤ −2
⇒ x2 ≥ 4
⇒ x2 − 4 ≥ 0
Therefore x ≤ −2 ⇒ x 2 − 4 ≥ 0

Case 2: Prove ( x ≥ 2 ⇒ x 2 − 4 ≥ 0
x≥2
⇒ x2 ≥ 4
⇒ x2 − 4 ≥ 0
Therefore x ≥ 2 ⇒ x 2 − 4 ≥ 0

Thus if x ≤ −2 or x ≥ 2 , then x 2 − 4 ≥ 0 .

WUCT121 Logic 125

If the statement is not written in the form ( P ∨ Q ) ⇒ R , it
is necessary to establish the particular cases by exhaustion.

Example.

• Prove: ∀m ∈ , m 2 + m + 1 is odd.

The statement is not in the form ( P ∨ Q ) ⇒ R. However by

considering m ∈  ⇒ ( m is even) ∨ ( m is odd ) . Then the
statement can be expressed in the form:

( m is even) ∨ ( m is odd ) ⇒ m2 + m + 1 is odd

Case 1: Prove m is even ⇒ m 2 + m + 1 is odd

m is even ⇒ m = 2 p, p∈ K (1) .

m 2 + m + 1 = (2 p )2 + 2 p + 1 by (1)
= 4 p2 + 2 p +1
(
= 2 2 p2 + p +1)
( )
= 2k + 1, where k = 2 p 2 + p ∈ 

Therefore, m is even ⇒ m 2 + m + 1 is odd .

WUCT121 Logic 126

Case 2: Prove m is odd ⇒ m 2 + m + 1 is odd
m is odd ⇒ m = 2q + 1, q ∈  K(2) .

m 2 + m + 1 = (2q + 1)2 + 2q + 1 + 1 by ( 2)
= 4q 2 + 4q + 1 + 2q + 1 + 1
= 4q 2 + 6q + 2 + 1
( )
= 2 2q 2 + 3q + 1 + 1
( )
= 2l + 1, where l = 2q 2 + 3q + 1 ∈ 

Therefore, m is odd ⇒ m 2 + m + 1 is odd .

Therefore, ( m is even) ∨ ( m is odd ) ⇒ m2 + m + 1 is odd .

Therefore, ∀m ∈ , m 2 + m + 1 is odd.

WUCT121 Logic 127

Exercise.

• Prove: ∀n ∈ , n 2 − n + 3 is odd.

The statement is not in the form ( P ∨ Q ) ⇒ R. However by

considering n ∈  ⇒ ( n is even) ∨ ( n is odd ) . Then the
statement can be expressed in the form:

( n is even) ∨ ( n is odd ) ⇒ n 2 − n + 3 is odd

Case 1: Prove n is even ⇒ n 2 − n + 3 is odd

n is even ⇒ n = 2 p, p ∈  K (1) .

n 2 − n + 3 = (2 p )2 − 2 p + 3 by (1)
= 4 p2 − 2 p + 2 +1
(
= 2 2 p2 − p +1 +1 )
( )
= 2k + 1, where k = 2 p 2 − p + 1 ∈ 

Therefore, n is even ⇒ n 2 − n + 3 is odd .

WUCT121 Logic 128

Case 2: Prove n is odd ⇒ n 2 − n + 3 is odd
n is odd ⇒ n = 2q + 1, q ∈  K(2) .

n 2 − n + 3 = (2q + 1)2 − (2q + 1) + 3 by (2)

= 4q 2 + 4q + 1 − 2q − 1 + 3
= 4q 2 + 2q + 2 + 1
( )
= 2 2q 2 + q + 1 + 1
( )
= 2l + 1, where l = 2q 2 + q + 1 ∈ 

Therefore, n is odd ⇒ n 2 − n + 3 is odd .

Therefore, ( n is even) ∨ ( n is odd ) ⇒ n 2 − n + 3 is odd .

Therefore, ∀n ∈ , n 2 − n + 3 is odd.

WUCT121 Logic 129

Section 4. Set Theory

4.1. Definitions

A set may be viewed as any well defined collection of

objects, called elements or members of the set.

Sets are usually denoted with upper case letters, A, B, X,

Y,… while lower case letters are used to denote elements a,
b, x, y,…of a set.

Membership in a set is denoted as follows:

• a ∈ S denotes that a is a member or element of a

set S. Similarly a , b ∈ S denotes that a and b are both
elements of a set S.

• a ∉ S denotes that a is not an element of a set S.

Similarly a , b ∉ S denotes that neither of a and b are
elements of a set S.

In Set Theory, we work within a Universe, U, and consider

sets containing elements from U.

WUCT121 Logic 130

A set may be specified in essentially two ways:

1. The elements of the set are listed within braces, {

}, and separated by commas.

Technically, the listing of elements can be done only for

finite sets. However, if an infinite set is defined by a
“simple” rule, we sometimes write a few elements and then
use “…” to mean roughly “and so on” or “by the same
rule”.

Examples:

• A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} . The set A is the finite collection of

odd integers, 1 to 9 inclusive

• B = {K, − 4, − 2, 0, 2, 4,K}. The set B is the infinite

collection of even integers.

Exercises:

• List a finite set, C, containing even integers between

10 and 20 inclusive.
C = {10,12,14,16,18, 20}

• List an infinite set, D, containing natural numbers that

are divisible by 3
D = {0, 3, 6, 9,K}

WUCT121 Logic 131

2. A statement defining the properties which
characterise the elements in the set is written within braces

Examples:

• A = {z ∈  :( z is odd ∧ 1 ≤ z ≤ 9)}. The set A is the

finite collection of odd integers, 1 to 9 inclusive

• B = {z ∈  : ∃k ∈ , z = 2k } . The set B is the infinite

collection of even integers.

Exercises:

• Define a finite set, C, containing even integers

between 10 and 20 inclusive

C = {z ∈  : ( z is even ∧ 10 ≤ z ≤ 20)}

• Define an infinite set, D, containing natural numbers

that are divisible by 3

D = {n ∈  : 3 | n}

WUCT121 Logic 132

4.1.2. Axiom of Specification.

Given a Universe U and any statement P( x ) involving

x ∈ U , then there exists a set A such that
∀x ∈ U , ( x ∈ A ⇔ P( x )). Further, we write
A = { x ∈ U : P( x )}.

In other words, the Axiom of Specification says that we can

pick a set and a property and build a new set. This is why
the notation for A is sometimes referred to as set-builder
notation.

Example:

Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and P( x ) be the

statement “x is odd”.
\ by the Axiom of Specification, A = { x ∈U : x is odd}.

Notes:

1. We know an element x belongs to the set

A = { x ∈ U : P( x )} if x satisfies the condition P( x ) .

2. This notation is more simply written

{ x ∈ D : P( x )} .
This is called set builder notation. In using this notation, the
elements of the domain, D, must belong to the Universe, U,

WUCT121 Logic 133

and P ( x ) can be any predicate involving x. D could be all
of U.

Examples:

• The interval [0, 1] can be written in set builder

notation as:
{x : x ∈  ∧ 0 ≤ x ≤ 1} = {x ∈  : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1}

• The set of all rational numbers, – can be written as:

⎧a ⎫
 = ⎨ : a, b ∈  ∧ b ≠ 0⎬
⎩b ⎭
⎧ a ⎫
= ⎨ x : x = : a, b ∈  ∧ b ≠ 0⎬
⎩ b ⎭

• { x ∈  : x 3 = x} = {0, 1, − 1} .

Exercises:

Write down the following sets by listing their elements:

• { x ∈  : x 3 = x} = {1}

• { x ∈  : x 2 = 9} = {−3, 3}

• { x ∈  : x 2 = 7} = { }

WUCT121 Logic 134

4.2. Venn Diagrams

Venn diagrams are a pictorial method of demonstrating the

relationship between set. The universal set, U, is
represented by a rectangle and sets within the universe are
depicted with circles.

While a Venn diagram may be used to demonstrate the

relationship between sets, it does not provide a method of
proving those relationships.

WUCT121 Logic 135

4.3. Special Sets

4.3.1. The Singleton Set

Sets having a single element are frequently called singleton

sets.

Example:

• {1} is read “singleton 1”.

• If a ∈U , then { x ∈U : x = a} = {a}
Note: The singleton set {a} is NOT the same as the element
a.

4.3.2. The Empty Set

The empty set or null set is a set which contains no

elements.
It is denoted by the symbol ∆ or by empty braces { }.

Using set builder notation, one way of defining the empty

set is: ∆ = { x ∈  : x ≠ x}

WUCT121 Logic 136

4.4. Subsets

4.4.1. Definition: Subset.

If A and B are sets, then A is called a subset of B, written

A ⊆ B , if and only if, every element in A is also in B.

Examples:

• {1, 2} ⊆ {1, 2, 3}

• The Venn diagram demonstrating A ⊆ B is:

Exercises:

• Write the definition of subset using logic notation.

A ⊆ B ⇔ (∀x ∈ U , x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B )

• Is {cat, dog} ⊆ {bird, fish, cat, dog}? Yes

WUCT121 Logic 137

4.4.2. Definition: Proper Subset.

If A and B are sets, then A is called a proper subset of B,

written A ⊂ B , if and only if, every element in A is also in
B but there is at least one element of B that is not in A.

A is a proper subset of B if A ⊆ B but A ≠ B .

Examples:

• {1, 2} ⊂ {1, 2, 3}

Exercises:

• Draw a Venn diagram demonstrating A ⊂ B , where

A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

• Is {a , b, c} ⊂ {c, b, a}? No

WUCT121 Logic 138

Notes.

1. If A ⊆ B , then each element of A belongs to B, or

for each x ∈ A , it is true that x ∈ B .

2. If A is a subset of B, then B is sometimes called a

superset of A.

3. If A and B are sets, then to prove A ⊆ B , we need

to prove ∀x, x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B

4. If A is a proper subset of B, there must be at least

one element in B that is not in A.

5. If A and B are sets, to prove A is not a subset of B,

denoted A⊄B , we need to prove ~ ( A ⊆ B ) :
~ (∀x, x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B ) ≡ ∃x, ~ ( x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B )
≡ ∃x , ~ ( x ∉ A ∨ x ∈ B )
≡ ∃x , ( x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B )

6. The following relationships hold in the number

system: ∆ ⊆  ⊆  ⊆  ⊆ 

WUCT121 Logic 139

4.4.3. The null set as a subset.

For any set A in a Universe U, ∆ ⊆ A

Proof:
Suppose ~ ( ∆ ⊆ A) . Then, there exists x ∈ ∆ such that
x ∉ A . This, therefore, means that ∆ is not empty, which is
a contradiction. Therefore, ∆ ⊆ A .

4.4.4. Distinction between elements and subsets

Examples:

• 2 ∈ {1, 2, 3} , 2⊄{1, 2, 3}

• {2} ∉ {1, 2, 3} , {2} ⊆ {1, 2, 3}

• 1 ∈ { x ∈  : x 2 = 1}, {1} ⊆ { x ∈  : x 2 = 1}

Exercises:

Let S be a set in a Universe U. Determine whether the

following are true or false.

• S ∈S • S ⊆ {S }
False False

• S ∈ {S } • ∆ ⊆ {S }
True True

WUCT121 Logic 140

• ∆ ∈ {S } • {∆ } ⊆ {S }
False False

4.5. Set Equality

4.5.1. Definition: Set Equality.

If A and B are sets, then A equals B, written A = B , if and

only if, every element in A is also in B and every element in
B is also in A.
Equivalently, A = B if, and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A .

Note: To prove that two sets are equal two things must be
shown:: A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A .

Examples:

• The Venn diagram demonstrating A = B is:

WUCT121 Logic 141

Exercises:

• Write the definition of set equality using logic

notation.
A = B ⇔ (∀x ∈U , x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B ∧ x ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ A)
⇔ (∀x ∈U , A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ A)

4.5.2. Axiom of Extent.

If A and B are sets then A = B ⇔ (∀x ∈ U , x ∈ A ⇔ x ∈ B ) .

The Axiom of Extent says that a set is completely

determined by its elements, the order in which the elements
are listed is irrelevant, as is the fact that some members
may be listed more than once.

Examples:

• {1, 2} = {1, 2}

• {a , b, c} = {c, b, a}

Exercises:

• Is {a , b, c, d } = {b, d , a , c} Yes

• Is {Ann, Bob, Cal} = {Bob, Cal, Ann, Cal} Yes

WUCT121 Logic 142

4.5.3. Theorem: Equality by Specification

Let U be a universe and let P ( x ) be a statement.

If ∀x ∈U , ( P( x ) ⇔ Q( x )) , that is ∀x ∈U , ( P( x ) ≡ Q ( x ))
then { x ∈ U : P( x )} = { x ∈ U : Q ( x )}

The Theorem states that subsets of the same universe U

which are defined by equivalent statements are equal sets.

This theorem allows the use of tautologies of logic to prove

set theoretic statements, as will be outlined later.

Example:

• We know that x 2 = 1 ⇔ ( x = 1 ∨ x = −1).

Therefore

{ x ∈  : x 2 = 1} = {( x = 1 ∨ x = −1)} = {1,−1}

• If a1, a2 , a3 ,K an ∈ U , then we can write

A = {x ∈U : x = a1 ∨ x = a2 ∨ K ∨ x = an }
= {a1 , a2 , a3 ,K an }
In other words, if we know the elements of a set, we know
the set.

• A = {x ∈  : x = 1 ∨ x = 2 ∨ x = 3} = {1, 2, 3}

WUCT121 Logic 143

Exercise:

• Are the following sets equal? Using logic, can you

prove your answer?

{1, 3, 1, 2}, {3, 2, 1}, {1, 2, 3} Yes

{1, 3,1, 2} = { x ∈  : x = 1 ∨ x = 3 ∨ x = 1 ∨ x = 2}
= { x ∈  : x = 1 ∨ x = 1 ∨ x = 3 ∨ x = 2}
= { x ∈  : x = 1 ∨ x = 3 ∨ x = 2}
= { x ∈  : x = 1 ∨ x = 2 ∨ x = 3}
= {1, 2, 3}

• Are the following two sets equal? Give reasons.

E = {n ∈ :: n is even} and T = {n ∈ :: n 2 is even}.

Yes, previously is has been proven that

n is even ⇔ n 2 is even , thus by equivalence of statements,

the two sets are equal.

WUCT121 Logic 144

4.6. Power Sets

4.6.1. Definition: Power Set

If X is any set, then { A : A ⊆ X } is the power set of X.

The power set of X is often written as  ( X ) .

So  ( X ) = { A : A ⊆ X } .

A power set is a set whose elements are sets.

If the elements of X are in a universe U, those of  ( X ) are

in a universe (U ) .

Examples:

• Let X = {1} and let S be the set of all subsets of X.

Write down the set S by listing its elements.
S = { A : A ⊆ X }.
∆ ⊆ {1} and {1} ⊆ {1}.
Thus S = {∆ , {1}}

• Let X = {1, 2} and S = { A : A ⊆ X } . Write down the

set S by listing its elements.
∆ ⊆ {1, 2} , {1} ⊆ {1, 2}, {2} ⊆ {1, 2}, and {1, 2} ⊆ {1, 2}. Thus
S = {∆ , {1}, {2}, {1, 2}}

WUCT121 Logic 145

Exercises:

• Let X = {1, 2, 3} .

o Write down the set  ( X ) by listing its elements.

 ( X ) = {∆ , {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}

o How many elements are there in  ( X ) ? 8

o Is ∆ ∈  ( X ) ? Yes

o Is ∆ ⊆  ( X ) ? Yes

o Is 1 ∈  ( X ) ? No

o Is {1} ∈  ( X ) ? Yes

o Is {2} ⊆  ( X ) ? No

o Is {{1, 2}} ⊆  ( X ) ? Yes

WUCT121 Logic 146

4.7. Hasse Diagrams

The elements of  ( X ) can be represented by diagrams

using the following procedure:

1. An upward directed line between two sets indicates

that the “lower” set is a subset of the “upper” set.

2. ∆ is at the bottom and X is at the top.

3. Each pair of sets is joined by an upward directed

line to the “smallest” set which contains each as a subset.

4. Each pair of sets is joined by a downward directed

line to the “largest” set which is a subset of each.

Example:

Let X = {1, 2} , thus  ( X ) = {∆ , {1}, {2}, {1, 2}} and the

Hasse diagram is given by:
{1, 2}

{1} {2}

ø
WUCT121 Logic 147
4.8. Set Operations

There are five main set theoretic operations, one

corresponding to each of the logical connectives.

Set Operation Name Logical Name

Connective

A Complement ~ P Negation

A∪ B Union P∨Q Disjunction

A∩ B Intersection P∧Q Conjunction

A⊆ B Subset P⇒Q Conditional

A=B Equality P⇔Q Biconditional

P≡Q Equivalence

The set operations can be defined in terms of the

corresponding logical operations. This means that each of
the tautologies proved by truth tables for the logical
connectives will have a corresponding theorem in set
theory.

WUCT121 Logic 148

We have seen how the logical conditional operator, P ⇒ Q
is related to subset, A ⊆ B and how the logical
biconditional operator, P ⇔ Q (or equivalence, P ≡ Q ) is
related to set equality, A = B .

The following sections will cover the three remaining set

operations: complement, union and intersection.

In our discussion of set theory, we will let U be a fixed set

and all other sets, whether denoted A, B, C, etc, will be
subsets of U. In other words, A, B, C ∈  (U ) . Thus, each
result should start with a statement similar to “Let A, B, C
be subsets of a universal set U” or “Let A, B, C ∈  (U ) ”.

4.8.1. Definition: Compliment

Let U be a universal set, and let A ⊆ U . Then the

complement of A, denoted by A , is given by
A = {x ∈ U : ~ ( x ∈ A)} = {x ∈ U : x ∉ A}.

Notes.

1. U \ A , A ′ and Ac are also used for A in some

books.

WUCT121 Logic 149

2. If the set U is fixed in a discussion, then A is
sometimes written as A = {x : x ∉ A}

Example:

• The shaded area in the following Venn diagram

depicts A :

Exercises:

Let U =  . Write down A for the following sets:

• A = {1, 2, 3}

A = {x ∈  : x ≠ 1 ∧ x ≠ 2 ∧ x ≠ 3}

• A = {x ∈  : x is even}

A = {x ∈  : x is odd}

• A = {x ∈  : x > 0 ∨ x < 0}

A = {0}

WUCT121 Logic 150

4.8.2. Definition: Union

Let A and B be subsets of a universe U. Then the union of

A and B, denoted by A ∪ B , is given by
A ∪ B = {x ∈ U : x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B}.

Example:

• The shaded area in the following Venn diagram

depicts A ∪ B :

Exercises:

• Let U =  . Write down A ∪ B for the following sets:

o A = {1} and B = {2}.

A ∪ B = {1, 2}

o A is the set of all even integers, B is the set of all odd

integers.
A ∪ B = .

WUCT121 Logic 151

o A = {x ∈  : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2} and B = {x ∈  : 1 ≤ x ≤ 3}
A ∪ B = { x ∈  : 0 ≤ x ≤ 3} = [0, 3]

• If A ⊆ U and B ⊆ U , is it true that A ∪ B ⊆ U ?

Yes.
x ∈ A∪ B ⇒ x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B
⇒ x ∈U ∨ x ∈U
⇒ x ∈U

4.8.3. Definition: Intersection

Let A and B be subsets of a universe U. Then the

intersection of A and B, denoted by A ∩ B , is given by
A ∩ B = {x ∈U : x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B}.

Example:

• The shaded area in the following Venn diagram

depicts A ∩ B :

WUCT121 Logic 152

Exercises:

• Let U =  . Write down A ∩ B for the following sets:

o A = {1, 2, 3, 5} and B = {1, 4, 5, 6}.

A ∩ B = {1, 5}.

o A is the set of all even integers, B is the set of all odd

integers.
A∩ B = .

o A = {x ∈  : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2} and B = {x ∈  : 1 ≤ x ≤ 3}
A ∩ B = { x ∈  : 1 ≤ x ≤ 2} = [1, 2]

• If A ⊆ U and B ⊆ U , is it true that A ∩ B ⊆ U ?

Yes.
x ∈ A∩ B ⇒ x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B
⇒ x ∈U ∧ x ∈U
⇒ x ∈U

4.8.4. Definition: Difference

Let A and B be subsets of a universe U. Then the

difference of A and B, denoted by A − B , is given by
A − B = {x ∈ U : x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B}.

WUCT121 Logic 153

Example:

• The shaded area in the following Venn diagram

depicts A − B :

Notes.

1. The difference of A − B is sometimes called the

relative complement of B in A.

2. If we let A = U , then we have

U − B = {x ∈ U : x ∈ U ∧ x ∉ B}
= {x ∈ U : x ∈ B}
=B

3. Using Definitions for complement and intersection, we

can simplify the definition of difference as follows:
A − B = {x ∈ U : x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B}
= {x ∈ U : x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B}
= A∩ B

WUCT121 Logic 154

Exercises:

• Let U =  . Write down A − B for the following sets:

o A = {1, 2, 3, 5} and B = {1, 4, 5, 6}.

A − B = {2, 3}.

o A is the set of all even integers, B is the set of all odd

integers.
A− B = A .

o A = {x ∈  : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2} and B = {x ∈  : 1 ≤ x ≤ 3}
A − B = { x ∈  : 0 ≤ x < 1} = [0, 1)

• If A ⊆ U and B ⊆ U , is it true that A − B ⊆ U ?

Yes.
x∈A− B ⇒ x∈A∧ x∉B
⇒ x ∈U ∧ x ∈U
⇒ x ∈U

• Let U =  , A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2}, C = {2, 3, 4} and

D = [0, 1] = {x ∈  : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1}.Write down:

o A − C = {1} o D − A = {x ∈  : 0 ≤ x < 1}

o B−C =
o A − D = {2, 3}
o D−B=D

WUCT121 Logic 155

4.8.5. Definition: Disjoint sets

Let A and B be subsets of a universe U. Then A and B are

said to be disjoint if A ∩ B =  .

Example:

• The following Venn diagram depicts disjoint sets A

and B:

Note. Disjoint sets have no elements in common.

Exercises:

• Let U =  , A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2}, C = {2, 3, 4} and

D = [0, 1] = {x ∈  : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1}. Which pairs of sets from A,
B, C, D are disjoint?
B and D are disjoint, as are C and D.

WUCT121 Logic 156

4.9. Order of Operations for Set Operators.

The order of operation for set operators is as follows:

1. Evaluate complement first

2. Evaluate ∪ and ∩ second. When both are present,

parenthesis may be needed, otherwise work left to right.

3. Evaluate ⊆ and = third. When both are present,

parenthesis may be needed, otherwise work left to right.

Note: Use of parenthesis will determine order of operations

which over ride the above order.
Examples:
Indicate the order of operations in the following:

• A∩ B
{{ • A∩( B ∪
{{ {C )
12 13 2

• • A⊆{ B∩
( A∩
{ B) { {C
12 13 13 2
2

WUCT121 Logic 157

Exercises:
Indicate the order of operations in the following:

• A⊆
({ { B )∩
{C • A⊆
{ { B∪
{C
12 3 13 2

• ( A∪
{ B) • A{
{ = B∩
{C
12 13 1 3 2
2

Notes.

1. ∪ and ∩ are operations on sets, thus ∪ and ∩ can

only be put between two sets.

2. ∨ and ∧ are operations on statements, thus ∨ and ∧

can only be placed between statements.

Example:

• If A, B, and C are sets then ( A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ C ) ⇒ A ⊆ C

is interpreted as (( A ⊆ B ) ∧ ( B ⊆ C )) ⇒ ( A ⊆ C )

• ( A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ C ) ≡/ ( A ⊆ ( B ∧ B ) ⊆ C )

WUCT121 Logic 158

4.10. Set Laws

Let A, B, and C be subsets of a universal set U. That is

A, B, C ∈ (U ) . Then for all sets A, B, and C following set
laws hold:

1. Commutative Laws:
• ( A ∪ B ) = ( B ∪ A)
• ( A ∩ B ) = ( B ∩ A)
• ( A = B ) = ( B = A)

2. Associative Laws:
• (( A ∪ B ) ∪ C ) = ( A ∪ ( B ∪ C ))
• (( A ∩ B ) ∩ C ) = ( A ∩ ( B ∩ C ))
• (( A = B ) = C ) = ( A = ( B = C ))

3. Distributive Laws:
• ( A ∪ ( B ∩ C )) = (( A ∪ B ) ∩ ( A ∪ C ))
• ( A ∩ ( B ∪ C )) = (( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ C ))

4. Double Complement (Involution) Law:

• ( A) = A

5. De Morgan’s Laws:
• ( A ∪ B) = ( A ∩ B)
• ( A ∩ B) = ( A ∪ B)

WUCT121 Logic 159

6. Identity Laws:
• ( A ∪ ) = A
• (A ∩U ) = A

7. Negation (Complement) Laws:

• ( A ∪ A) = U
• ( A ∩ A) = 
• U =
•  =U

8. Dominance Laws:
• (A ∪U ) =U
• ( A ∩ ) = 

9. Idempotent Laws:
• ( A ∪ A) = A
• ( A ∩ A) = A

10. Absorption Laws:

• A ∩ ( A ∪ B) = A
• A ∪ ( A ∩ B) = A

11. Set Difference

• A− B = A∩ B

WUCT121 Logic 160

12. Subset properties of ∪ and ∩
• ( A ⊆ ( B ∩ C )) ⇔ (( A ⊆ B ) ∧ ( A ⊆ C ))
• (( A ∪ B ) ⊆ C ) ⇔ (( A ⊆ C ) ∧ ( B ⊆ C ))

13. Subset property inclusion of intersection

• A∩ B ⊆ A
• A∩ B ⊆ B

14. Subset property inclusion in union

• A⊆ A∪ B
• B⊆ A∪ B

15. Transitive Property.

• (( A ⊆ B ) ∧ ( B ⊆ C )) ⇒ ( A ⊆ C )
• (( A = B ) ∧ ( B = C )) ⇒ ( A = C )

WUCT121 Logic 161

4.11. Proving and Disproving Set Statements.

4.11.1. Proof by Exhaustion

To prove set results for finite sets, the method of

exhaustion is used. That is every element in the set is tested
to ensure it satisfies the condition.

Example:

• Let A = {1, 2} , B = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Prove A ⊆ A ∪ B .

To prove the statement, we must show every element in A

is in A ∪ B .

Now A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4}

1 ∈ A, 1 ∈ A ∪ B
2 ∈ A, 2 ∈ A ∪ B

Thus all elements in A are in A ∪ B , and so by exhaustion

A ⊆ A ∪ B.

WUCT121 Logic 162

Exercise:

• Let A = {1, 2} , B = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Prove A = A ∩ B .

To prove the statement, we must show every element in A

is in A ∩ B and every element in A ∩ B is in A.

Now A ∩ B = {1, 2}

1 ∈ A and 1 ∈ A ∩ B
2 ∈ A and 2 ∈ A ∩ B

Thus all elements in A are in A ∩ B and vice versa, and so

by exhaustion A = A ∩ B .

Exercise:

• Give an example of three sets A, B and C such that

C ⊆ A∩ B.

Let A = {1, 2} , B = {1, 2, 3, 4}, C = {1} .

To prove C ⊆ A ∩ B , we must show every element in C is
in A ∩ B .
Now A ∩ B = {1, 2}

1 ∈ C and 1 ∈ A ∩ B

Thus all elements in C are in A ∩ B and so, for the given

sets A, B and C, C ⊆ A ∩ B .

WUCT121 Logic 163

4.11.2. Disproof by Counterexample.

A set result can be disproven by giving a counterexample.

To find a counterexample often creating a Venn diagram

will be of benefit.

Example:

• Disprove A ⊆ A ∩ B .

To disprove the statement, we must give a counterexample.

Let A = {1, 2} , B = {3, 4}
Now A ∩ B = 
1 ∈ A, however 1 ∉ A ∩ B = 
Thus by counterexample A⊄A ∩ B .

Exercise:

• Disprove A ⊆ A − B .

To disprove the statement, we must show a

counterexample.

Let A = {1, 2} , B = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Now A − B = 

1 ∈ A, however 1 ∉ A − B = 
Thus by counterexample A⊄A − B .

WUCT121 Logic 164

4.11.3. Proof by Typical Element.

To prove set results for infinite sets, generalised methods

must be used. The typical element method considers a
particular but arbitrary element of the set and by applying
knows laws, rules and definitions prove the result.

It is the method for proving subset relationships.

So prove that A ⊆ B , we must show that

∀x, ( x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B )

Begin by letting x ∈ A , that is, we take x to be a particular

but arbitrary element of A. Using the definitions, we prove
that x ∈ B . As long as we use no special properties of the
element x, we can conclude that (U ) , which is what we
wanted to prove.

This method can be used to prove set equalities. By using

the definition A = B ⇔ ( A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ A) and showing
A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ A , that is proving ∀x, ( x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B ) and
∀x, ( x ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ A) , the result A = B follows. Using this
definition is sometimes called a “double containment”
proof.

WUCT121 Logic 165

Examples:

• Let U be a set and let A and B be elements of  (U ) .

Prove A ⊆ A ∪ B .
Need to prove ∀x, ( x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B )
Let x ∈ A , then
x∈ A ⇒ x∈ A∨ x∈B see note
⇒ x∈ A∪ B definition of ∪
∴ A ⊆ A∪ B

Note: Appling rules of logic, we know P ⇒ P ∨ Q is a

tautology. Let P( x ) : x ∈ A, Q( x ) : x ∈ B . Thus
x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B is a tautology in the proof above.

• Let U be a set and let A and B be elements of  (U ) .

Prove A ⊆ B ⇔ A ∪ B = B .
Need to prove two parts:
1. A ⊆ B ⇒ A ∪ B = B
2. A ∪ B = B ⇒ A ⊆ B

WUCT121 Logic 166

• Proof of 1:
KNOW: A ⊆ B , that is ∀x, ( x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B ) K (1)
PROVE: A ∪ B = B .
Need to prove two parts:
i. A ∪ B ⊆ B
ii. B ⊆ A ∪ B
Proof of i.:
Let x ∈ A ∪ B then
x∈ A∪ B ⇒ x∈ A∨ x∈B definition of ∪
⇒ x∈B∨ x∈B by (1)
⇒ x∈B∨ x∈B Logic rule P ∨ P ≡ P
∴ A∪ B ⊆ B
Proof of ii.:
Let x ∈ B then
x∈B ⇒ x∈ A∨ x∈B see previous example
⇒ x∈ A∪ B definition of ∪
∴B ⊆ A∪ B
Since A ∪ B ⊆ B and B ⊆ A ∪ B , A ∪ B = B
Thus A ⊆ B ⇒ A ∪ B = B .

WUCT121 Logic 167

Proof of 2:
KNOW: A ∪ B = B , that is
∀x, ( x ∈ A ∪ B ⇔ x ∈ B ) K( 2)
PROVE: A ⊆ B .
Let x ∈ A then
x∈ A ⇒ x∈ A∨ x∈B see previous example
⇒ x∈ A∪ B definition of ∪
⇒ x∈B by (2)
∴A⊆ B
Thus A ∪ B = B ⇒ A ⊆ B
Since A ⊆ B ⇒ A ∪ B = B and A ∪ B = B ⇒ A ⊆ B it is
proven that A ⊆ B ⇔ A ∪ B = B .

Exercise:

• Let U be a set and let A and B be elements of  (U ) .

Prove A ∩ B ⊆ A .
that is, prove ∀x, ( x ∈ A ∩ B ⇒ x ∈ A)
Let x ∈ A ∩ B , then
x∈ A∩ B ⇒ x∈ A∧ x∈B definition of ∩
⇒ x∈A
∴ A∩ B ⊆ A

WUCT121 Logic 168

4.11.4. Proof by Equivalence of Statements.

If A can be written as A = { x ∈ U : P( x )} and

B = { x ∈ U : Q ( x )}, the equality of specification theorem to
show that A = B by showing that P( x ) ≡ Q( x ) , that is, by
showing that P( x ) ⇔ Q ( x ) is a tautology.

Examples:

• Let A = { x ∈  : x 2 ≤ 1} and B = { x ∈  : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1} .
Prove A = B

Let P( x ) : x 2 ≤ 1 and Q( x ) : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 . Now

x 2 ≤ 1 ⇔ −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
∴ P( x ) ⇔ Q( x )
∴A= B

• Let U be a set and let A and B be elements of  (U ) .

Prove that ( A ∩ B ) = A ∪ B .
We need to show that the statements defining the sets
( A ∩ B ) and A ∪ B are equivalent.
( A ∩ B ) = { x ∈ U :~ ( x ∈ A ∩ B )} definition of A
A ∪ B = { x ∈ U : x ∈ A ∪ B}

WUCT121 Logic 169

Let P( x ) :~ ( x ∈ A ∩ B ) , and Q( x ) : x ∈ A ∪ B
x∈ A∪ B ≡ x∈ A ∨ x∈B by definition of ∪
≡ ~ ( x ∈ A) ∨ ~ ( x ∈ B ) definition of A
≡ ~ (x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B ) by Logic De Morgan' s
≡ ~ (x ∈ A ∩ B ) by definition of ∩
∴ Q( x ) ≡ P( x )
∴ (A ∩ B) = A ∪ B

Exercise:

• Let U be a set and let A and B be elements of  (U ) .

Prove that ( A ∪ B ) = A ∩ B .
We need to show that the statements defining the sets
( A ∪ B ) and A ∩ B are equivalent.
( A ∪ B ) = { x ∈ U :~ ( x ∈ A ∪ B )} axiom of specification
A ∩ B = { x ∈ U : x ∈ A ∩ B} axiom of specification
Let P( x ) :~ ( x ∈ A ∪ B ) , and Q( x ) : x ∈ A ∩ B
x∈ A∩ B ≡ x∈ A ∧ x∈B by definition of ∩
≡ ~ ( x ∈ A) ∧ ~ ( x ∈ B ) definition of A
≡ ~ (x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B ) by Logic De Morgan' s
≡ ~ (x ∈ A ∪ B ) by definition of ∩
∴ Q( x ) ≡ P( x )
∴ (A ∪ B) = A ∩ B

WUCT121 Logic 170

• Let U be a set and let A, B and C be elements of P(U).
Prove that ( A − B ) − C = ( A − C ) − B .
Let P( x ) : x ∈ ( A − B ) − C , and Q( x ) : x ∈ ( A − C ) − B
x ∈ (A − B) − C ⇔ (x ∈ A − B) ∧ x ∉ C
⇔ (x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B ) ∧ x ∉ C
⇔ x ∈ A ∧ (x ∉ B ∧ x ∉ C )
⇔ x ∈ A ∧ (x ∉ C ∧ x ∉ B )
⇔ (x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ C ) ∧ x ∉ B
⇔ (x ∈ A − C ) ∧ x ∉ B
⇔ x ∈ (A − C ) − B
∴ P( x ) ⇔ Q( x )
∴ (A − B) − C = (A − C ) − B

• Let U be a set and let X and Y be elements of (U ) .

Prove that X − Y = X ∩ Y .
Let P( x ) : x ∈ X − Y , and Q( x ) : x ∈ X ∩ Y
x ∈ X − Y ≡ x ∈ X ∧ x ∉ Y Definition of set difference
≡ x ∈ X ∧ x ∈Y Definition of complement
≡ x∈ X ∩Y Definition of intersection
∴ P( x ) ≡ Q( x )
∴X −Y = X ∩Y

WUCT121 Logic 171

4.11.5. Proof by Set Laws.

Set equalities can be proven by using known set laws

Examples:

• Let U be a set and let A, B and C be elements of P(U).

Prove ( A − B ) − C = ( A − C ) − B
(A − B) − C = (A − B) ∩ C set difference
= (A ∩ B ) ∩ C set difference
= A ∩ (B ∩ C ) associativity
= A ∩ (C ∩ B ) commutativity
= (A ∩ C ) ∩ B associativity
= (A − C ) ∩ B set difference
= (A − C ) − B set difference

WUCT121 Logic 172

4.11.6. Further Examples.

Examples:

• Let U be a set and let A, B and B be elements of P(U).

Using the following:
(i) A ⊆ B ⇔ A ∪ B = B ,
(ii): A ⊆ B ⇔ A ∩ B = A ,
(iii): A ∪ B = ( A ∩ B ) .
Prove that A ⊆ B ⇔ B ⊆ A .
Proof:
A ⊆ B ⇔ A∩ B = A by part (ii)
⇔ (A ∩ B) = A by taking complements
⇔ A∪ B = A by part (iii)
⇔B⊆A by part (i)

• Let U be a set and let A, B and C be elements of P(U).

Disprove that A − (B − C ) = ( A − B ) − C .
Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 3}, C = {3}.
A − (B − C ) = A − {2} = {1, 3}
( A − B ) − C = {1} − C = {1} ≠ A − (B − C )

WUCT121 Logic 173

• Let U be a set and let X and Y be elements of  (U ) .
Use a typical element argument to prove X − Y = X ∩ Y .
Need to prove two parts:
1. X − Y ⊆ X ∩ Y
2. X ∩ Y ⊆ X − Y
Proof of 1:Let x ∈ X − Y be a typical element.
X − Y ≡ {x ∈ U : x ∈ X − Y } Axiom of Specification
⇒ {x ∈ U : x ∈ X ∧ x ∉ Y } Def of set difference
⇒ {x ∈ U : x ∈ X ∧ x ∈ Y } Def of complement
⇒ {x ∈ U : x ∈ X ∩ Y } Def of intersection
∴ ∀x ∈ U (x ∈ X − Y ⇒ x ∈ X ∩ Y )
∴ X −Y ⊆ X ∩Y
Proof 2: Let x ∈ X ∩ Y be a typical element.
X ∩ Y ≡ {x ∈ U : x ∈ X ∩ Y } Axiom of Specification
⇒ {x ∈ U : x ∈ X ∧ x ∈ Y } Def of intersection
⇒ {x ∈ U : x ∈ X ∧ x ∉ Y } Def of complement
⇒ {x ∈ U : x ∈ X − Y } Def of set difference
∴ ∀x ∈ U (x ∈ X ∩ Y ⇒ x ∈ X − Y )
∴ X ∩Y ⊆ X −Y
∴ ∀x ∈ U (x ∈ X − Y ⇔ x ∈ X ∩ Y ),
i.e. X − Y ⊆ X ∩ Y ∧ X ∩ Y ⊆ X − Y ,
∴ X −Y = X ∩Y Axiom of extent

WUCT121 Logic 174

Section 5. Relations and Functions

5.1. Cartesian Product

5.1.1. Definition: Ordered Pair

Let A and B be sets and let a ∈ A and b ∈ B .

An ordered pair ( a , b ) is a pair of elements with the
property that:
( a , b ) = ( c, d ) ⇔ ( a = c ) ∧ (b = d ) .

Notes:

∗ A pair set {a , b} is NOT an ordered pair, since

{a , b} = {b, a} .

∗ It should be clear from the context when ( a , b ) is an

ordered pair, and when ( a , b ) = { x ∈  : a < x < b} is an
open interval of real numbers.

WUCT121 Logic 175

Examples:

• Points in the plane  2 are represented as ordered

pairs.
y

2 (1, 2)

1
(2, 1)
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

(-2, -1) -1

-2
(-1, -2)
-3

From the graph it can be seen (1, 2) ≠ (2,1) and

( −1, − 2) ≠ ( −2, − 1) .

• Complex numbers a + ib where i = − 1 and a, b ∈  ,

are ordered pairs in the sense that,
a + ib = c + id ⇔ ( a = c ) ∧ (b = d ) .

WUCT121 Logic 176

5.1.2. Definition: Cartesian Product

Let A and B be sets, then the Cartesian Product of A and B,

denoted A × B , is defined by
A × B = {(a , b ) : a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B}.

Example:

•  ×  = {( x, y ) : x ∈  : ∧ y ∈ }.

Sketch a graph of  ×  , otherwise known as  2 .

 2 is the usual Cartesian plane with the usual graph.

y

x
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

-2

-4

WUCT121 Logic 177

Exercises:

• Let A = {3} and B = {2, 3} . Write down A × B . Sketch

a graph of A × B in  2 .

A × B = {(3, 2), (3, 3)}

y
6

(3, 3)
2
(3, 2)
x
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

-2

-4

-6

• Let C = { x ∈  : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1} and D = {1, 2} . Write

down C × D . Sketch a graph of C × D in  2 .

C × D = {( x, y ) : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 ∧ y ∈ (1, 2)}
y
4

x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

-2

-4

WUCT121 Logic 178

5.2. Relations

5.2.1. Definition: Binary Relation

Let A and B be sets. We say that R is a (binary) relation

from A to B if R ⊆ A × B .

Notes:

∗ If R ⊆ A × A , we say that R is a relation on A.

∗ If ( a , b ) ∈ R , we will frequently write aRb and say

that “a is in the relation R to b”.

∗ Every relation is a subset of a Cartesian product

Examples:

• Let A be the set of all male human beings and let B be

the set of all human beings. The relation T from A to B is
given by T = {( x, y ) : x is the father of y}.

• W = {(1, 2 ), (2, 1), (5, π )}.

Note: W cannot be defined by a “rule”. Sometimes relations
are simply defined by a listing of elements.

WUCT121 Logic 179

• Let R be the relation on  , defined by

R = {( x, y ) : x 2 + y 2 = 1} . Sketch the graph of R in  2

y

x
-2 -1 0 1 2

Exercise:

• Let S be the relation on  , defined by

S = {( x, y ) : 4 x + y = 4} . Sketch the graph of S in  2

y

x
-2 -1 0 1 2

WUCT121 Logic 180

Example:
Consider the relation R on  given by R = {( x, y ) : x = y}

• Sketch the graph of R in  2

y
4

x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

-2

-4

• Are the following true or false?

o 1R1 True

o 1R2.2 False

o ( −3, 3) ∈ R False

• If aR100, what is the value of a? 100

Note. The relation R in this example is called the identity

relation on  and is usually written R = {( x, x ) : x ∈ }.

WUCT121 Logic 181

Exercises:

• Let X = {0, 1, 2, 3}, and let the relation R on X be

given by R = {( x, y ) : ∃z ∈ , x + z = y}.

o What is an easier way of expressing the relation R?

R = {( x, y ) : x, y ∈ X ∧ x < y}

o List all the elements of R.

R = {(0, 1), (0, 2 ), (0, 3), (1, 2 ), (1, 3), (2, 3)}

o Sketch X × X , and circle the elements of R.

y

x
0 1 2 3 4

• Let S be the relation on  − {0} given by

S = {( x, y ) : ∃z ∈ , xz = y}

o Describe the relation S.

x is a factor of y, or x | y .

WUCT121 Logic 182

 o Are the following true or false?

ƒ (2,−4) ∈ S True, since 2 | −4 .

ƒ −3S0 False, since 0 ∉  − {0}.

ƒ (3, 5) ∈ S False, since 3F5.

• Let R be the relation on  given by

R = {( x, y ) : y = x 2 } and let S be the relation on  given

by S = {( x, y ) : y = x 2 }.

o Sketch each relation. What difference does the

input” set make to the elements in each relation.
y

x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

R is a set of isolated points.

WUCT121 Logic 183

 y

x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-1

S is a continuous curve.

Note. Care must be taken when writing relations. As can be

seen from this example, it must be very clear the sets a
relation is from and to.

• Let A = {0, 1} and B = {− 1, 0, 1}. Let two relations

from A to B be given by R1 = {(0,−1), (1,−1), (1, 0 )}, and
R2 = {(0, 0), (1,1), (1, − 1)}.
Determine:

o R 1 ∩ R 2 = {(1,−1)}.

o R 1 ∪ R 2 = {(0,−1), (0, 0 ), (1,−1), (1, 0 ), (1, 1)}

WUCT121 Logic 184

• Let R3 and R4 be relations on  defined by
R3 = {( x, y ) : x = y}, and R4 = {( x, y ) : x = − y}.
Determine:

o
R3 ∪ R4 = {( x, y ) : x = y ∨ x = − y}
= {( x, y ) : x = ± y}
= {( x, y ) : x = y }

o R3 ∩ R4 = {(0, 0 )}

WUCT121 Logic 185

5.2.2. Definition: Domain

Let R be a relation from A to B.

Then the domain of R, denoted Dom R, is given by

Dom R = {x : ∃y , xRy}.

Notes:

∗ Let R be a relation from A to B, then Dom R ⊆ A .

∗ Dom R is the set of all first elements in the ordered

pairs that belong to R.

5.2.3. Definition: Range

Let R be a relation from A to B.

Then the range of R, denoted Range R, is given by

Range R = {y : ∃x, xRy}.

Notes:

∗ Let R be a relation from A to B, then Range R ⊆ B .

∗ Range R is the set of all second elements in the

ordered pairs that belong to R.

WUCT121 Logic 186

Examples:

• Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3} and let R1 be the relation on A

given by R1 = {(0, 0), (0,1), (0, 2), (3, 0)}.
Determine:

o Dom R1 = {0, 3}

o Range R1 = {0, 1, 2}

Exercises:

• Let R2 be the relation on  given by

R2 = {( x, y ) : xy ≠ 0}.
Determine:

o Dom R2 =  − {0}

o Range R2 =  − {0}.

• Let R3 be the relation from  to  given by

{
R3 = ( x, y ) : x ≠ 0 ∧ y = 1 .
x
}
Determine:

o Dom R3 =  − {0}

o {
Range R3 = 1 : n ∈  ∧ n ≠ 0
n
}

WUCT121 Logic 187

5.2.4. Definition: Inverse Relations

Let R be a relation from A to B. The inverse relation,

denoted R −1 , from B to A is defined as

R −1 = {( y , x ) : ( x, y ) ∈ R}.

Notes:

∗ For a relation R from A to B, the inverse relation

R −1 can be defined by interchanging the elements of all the

ordered pairs of R. This turns out to be easier for a finite
(listed) relation than an infinite (given by formula) relation.

∗ Dom R −1 = Range R ⊆ B and

Range R −1 = Dom R ⊆ A .

Examples:

• Define a relation R on  as R = {( x, y ) : y = 2 x}.

o Write down 3 elements of R.

(1, 2 ), (2, 4 ), (3, 6)

o Write down 3 elements of R −1

(2, 1), (4, 2), (6, 3)

WUCT121 Logic 188

 o Sketch a graph of R and R −1 on coordinate axis,

circle elements of R −1 .
y
6

1
x
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1

o Write down a simple definition for R −1 .

R −1 = {( y , x ) : y = 2 x}
= {( x, y ) : x = 2 y}
{
= ( x, y ) : y = 12 x }
Exercise:

• Let S be the identity relation on the set of reals. What

is S −1?

S = {( x, x ) : x ∈ }

S −1 = {( x, x ) : x ∈ }
=S

WUCT121 Logic 189

5.2.5. Directed Graph of a Relation

When a relation R is defined on a set A, we can represent it

with a directed graph. This is a graph in which an arrow is
drawn from each point in A to each related point.

∀x, y ∈ A , there is an arrow from x to y ⇔ xRy ,

⇔ ( x, y ) ∈ R

If a point is related to itself, a loop is drawn that extends

out from the point and goes back to it.

Example:

• Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3} and let R1 be the relation on A

given by R1 = {(0, 0), (0,1), (0, 2), (3, 0)}. Draw the directed
graph of R1 .

0 1

2
3

WUCT121 Logic 190

Exercise:

• Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3} and let R2 be the relation on A

given by R2 = {(0, 0), (1, 2), ( 2, 2)}.
Draw the directed graph of R2 .

0
2

WUCT121 Logic 191

5.2.6. Properties of Relations

Let R be a relation on the set A.

Reflexivity:
R is reflexive on A if and only if ∀x ∈ A, ( x, x ) ∈ R .

Example:

• Let R1 be the relation on  defined by

R1 = {( x, y ) : x is a factor of y}.
For each x ∈  , we know that x is a factor of itself. Thus,
( x, x ) ∈ R1 , and so R1 is reflexive
Symmetry:
R is symmetric on A if and only if
∀x, y ∈ A, (( x, y ) ∈ R ⇒ ( y , x ) ∈ R ) .

Example:

• Let R2 be the identity relation on  .

For x, y ∈  , if x = y , then y = x , that is, if ( x, y ) ∈ R2 ,
then ( y , x ) ∈ R2 and so R2 is symmetric

WUCT121 Logic 192

Transitivity:
R is transitive on A if and only if
∀x, y , z ∈ A, ((( x, y ) ∈ R ∧ ( y , z ) ∈ R ) ⇒ ( x, z ) ∈ R ) .

Example:

• Let R3 be the relation on  defined by

R3 = {( x, y ) : x < y}.
For x, y , z ∈  , if x < y and y < z , then x < z , that is, if
( x, y ) ∈ R3 and ( y, z ) ∈ R3 , then ( x, z ) ∈ R3and so R3 is
transitive.

Notes:

∗ A relation R on a set A is reflexive if each element

in A is in relation to itself.

∗ A relation R on a set A is symmetric if you can

“swap” the ordered pairs around and still get elements of R.

∗ A relation R on a set A is transitive if pairs of

elements are “related via” a third element (x and z related
via y).

WUCT121 Logic 193

Exercises:

Which of the three properties do the following relations

satisfy? Give reasons why or why not.

• R1 on  , given by R1 = {( x, y ) : x | y}.
∀x ∈ , x | x. ∴ ( x, x ) ∈ R1 Thus R1 is reflexive.
Consider ( 2, 4) ∈ R1 , since 2 | 4 , however ( 4, 2) ∉ R1 , as
4 F 2, so R1 is not symmetric.
∀x, y , z ∈ , x | y ∧ y | z ⇒ x | z.
∴ ( x, y ) ∈ R1 ∧ ∴ ( y , z ) ∈ R1 ⇒∴ ( x, z ) ∈ R1, thus R1 is
transitive.

• R2 , the identity relation on 

Reflexive: Yes
Symmetric: Yes
Transitive: Yes

• R3 on  given by R3 = {( x, y ) : x < y}
Reflexive: No
Symmetric: No
Transitive: Yes

WUCT121 Logic 194

• R4 on  given by R4 = {( x, y ) : y = x 2 }
Reflexive: No
Symmetric: No
Transitive: No

• R5 on A where A is the set of all people.

R5 = {( x, y ) : x is in the family of y}
Reflexive: Yes
Symmetric: Yes
Transitive: Yes

• R6 on A where A is the set of all people.

R6 = {( x, y ) : x loves y}
Reflexive: ?
Symmetric: ?
Transitive: ?

WUCT121 Logic 195

5.2.7. Definition: Equivalence Relation

Let R be a relation on the set A. R is an equivalence relation

on A if and only if R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive
on A.

Example:

From the previous exercises, R2 and R5 are equivalence

relations.

Notes:

∗ If R is a relation on a set A, you must be able to

either prove or disprove the statement
“R is an equivalence relation.”

∗ To prove a relation R is an equivalence relation, it is

necessary to prove all three properties hold.

∗ To disprove that a relation R is an equivalence

relation, it is sufficient to show that one of the three
properties does not hold. This can usually be shown by
counterexample.

WUCT121 Logic 196

Example:

• Let R1 be the identity relation on  .

Prove or disprove R1 is an equivalence relation.
Proof:
Reflexive:
∀a ∈ , a = a , that is (a , a ) ∈ R1 . Thus R1 is reflexive.
Symmetric:
∀a , b ∈ , if a = b, then b = a , that is,
(a , b ) ∈ R1 ⇒ (b, a ) ∈ R1. Thus R1 is symmetric.
Transitive:
∀a , b, c ∈ , if a = b and b = c, then a = c , that is
(( a , b ) ∈ R1 ∧ (b, c ) ∈ R1 ) ⇒ ( a , c ) ∈ R1 . Thus R1 is
transitive.
Since R1 is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, R1 is an
equivalence relation.

WUCT121 Logic 197

Exercises:

• Let n ∈  . Consider the relation R2 on  given by

R2 = {(a , b ) : a ≡ b(mod n )}.
Prove or disprove R2 is an equivalence relation.

Recall: a ≡ b(mod n ) ⇔ ∃k ∈ , a − b = nk .
Proof:
Reflexive:
∀a ∈ , a − a = 0 = n × 0 , which implies that
a ≡ a(mod n ) , ∴ (a , a ) ∈ R2 Thus R2 is reflexive.
Symmetric:
∀a , b ∈ , if a ≡ b(mod n ), then a − b = nk
∴ b − a = − nk = n(− k ), giving b ≡ a (mod n ). Thus
(a , b ) ∈ R2 ⇒ (b, a ) ∈ R2 . So R2 is symmetric.
Transitive:
∀a, b, c ∈ , if a ≡ b(mod n ) and b ≡ c(mod n ), then
( a − b = nk ) ∧ (b − c = nl ) , ∴ a − c = n( k + l ) = np ,
so a ≡ c (mod n ) . That is
(( a , b ) ∈ R2 ∧ (b, c ) ∈ R2 ) ⇒ ( a , c ) ∈ R2 . Thus R2 is
transitive.
Since R2 is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, R2 is an
equivalence relation.

WUCT121 Logic 198

• Let R3 be the relation on  given by
R3 = {(a , b ) : ab ≠ 0}.

o Prove or disprove R3 is an equivalence relation.

Disprove:
Reflexive:
We must show ∀a ∈ , a × a ≠ 0 .
However 0 ∈ , and 0 × 0 = 0 .
Thus R3 = {(a , b ) : ab ≠ 0} and so R3 is not
reflexive.
Therefore R3 is not an equivalence relation.

o Is R3 symmetric or transitive?
ab ≠ 0 ⇒ ba ≠ 0 ∴ symmetric
ab ≠ 0 ∧ bc ≠ 0 ⇒ ac ≠ 0 ∴ transitive

o How can we adjust the relation so it becomes an

equivalence relation?
R3 on  − {0}.

WUCT121 Logic 199

• Let A = {0, 1, 2} and let R be the relation on A given by
R = {(0, 0 ), (1, 1), (2, 2 ), (0, 1), (1, 0 )}.
Prove or disprove R is an equivalence relation on A.

Reflexive:
For a = 0 : (0, 0 ) ∈ R . For a = 1 : (1, 1) ∈ R .
For a = 2 : (2, 2 ) ∈ R .
So, ∀a ∈ A, (a , a ) ∈ R . Thus R is reflexive.
Symmetric:
For (0, 0 ), (1, 1) and (2, 2 ) symmetry obviously holds.
(0, 1) ∈ R ⇒ (1, 0 ) ∈ R , (1, 0 ) ∈ R ⇒ (1, 0 ) ∈ R ,
So, ∀(a , b ) ∈ R ⇒ (b, a ) ∈ R , thus R is symmetric.
Transitive:
(0, 0 ), (0, 1) ∈ R ⇒ (0, 1) ∈ R , (1, 1), (1, 0 ) ∈ R ⇒ (1, 0 ) ∈ R ,
(0, 1), (1, 1) ∈ R ⇒ (0, 1) ∈ R , (0, 1), (1, 0 ) ∈ R ⇒ (0, 0 ) ∈ R
(1, 0 ), (0, 1) ∈ R ⇒ (1, 1) ∈ R , (1, 0 ), (0, 0 ) ∈ R ⇒ (1, 0 ) ∈ R ,
So ∀(a , b ) ∧ (b, c ) ∈ R ⇒ (a , c ) ∈ R , thus R is transitive.
Therefore, since R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, R
is an equivalence relation.

WUCT121 Logic 200

5.2.8. Directed Graphs of Equivalence Relations

The directed graph of an equivalence relation on A has the

following properties:

∗ Each point of the graph has an arrow looping

around from it back to itself. (Reflexivity)

∗ In each case where there is an arrow going from one

point to a second, there is an arrow going from the second
point back to the first. (Symmetry)

∗ In each case where there is an arrow going from one

point to a second and from a second point to a third, there is
an arrow going from the first point to the third.
(Transitivity)

WUCT121 Logic 201

Example:

• Let A = {0, 1, 2} and let R be the relation on A given

by R = {(0, 0 ), (1, 1), (2, 2 ), (0, 1), (1, 0 )}.
Draw the directed graph for R.
Previously R was shown to be an equivalence relation on A.
The directed graph is then :

0 1

WUCT121 Logic 202

Exercise:

• Let A = {2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9}, and define a relation R on A

by R = {(a , b ) : a ≡ b(mod 3)}.
Draw the directed graph for R.

Solution:

R = {(2, 2 ), (3, 3), (4, 4 ), (6, 6 ), (7, 7 ), (9, 9 ), (3, 6 ),

(6, 3), (3, 9 ), (9, 3), (6, 9 ), (9, 6 ), (4, 7 ), (7, 4)}
It can be shown that R is an equivalence relation, and thus
the directed graph is:

2 3

7 9

WUCT121 Logic 203

5.2.9. Equivalence Class

The fundamental property of equivalence relations which

makes them important is that each one determines a
partition of the set A into a family of disjoint sets.

Definition:
Let R be an equivalence relation on the set A. Then for each
a ∈ A , we define the equivalence class of a as
class( a ) = {b ∈ A : (a , b ) ∈ R}.

Example:

• Let A = {0, 1, 2} and let R be the relation on A given

by R = {(0, 0 ), (1, 1), (2, 2 ), (0, 1), (1, 0 )}. For each element in
A, we define equivalence classes as follows:

class(0 ) = {b ∈ A : (0, b ) ∈ R} = {0, 1}

class(1) = {b ∈ A : (1, b ) ∈ R} = {1, 0} = class(0 )

class(2 ) = {b ∈ A : (2, b ) ∈ R} = {2}

WUCT121 Logic 204

Exercises:

• Let R1 be the identity relation on  . Write down the

following equivalence classes:

o class(1) = {1}

o class(π ) = {π }

( ) {}
o class 12 = 12

o For any x ∈  , class( x ) = {x}.

• Consider the relation R2 on  given by

R2 = {(a , b ) : a ≡ b(mod 3)}.
What kind of numbers are in class(2) (otherwise written as
[2])?
class(2 ) = {K − 4,−1, 2, 5, 8, 11, K ,3k + 2,K}.

• Let R3 on A, the set of all people, be given by

R3 = {(a , b ) : a is in the family of b}.
Who is in your equivalence class?

WUCT121 Logic 205

5.3. Functions

5.3.1. Definition

If F is a relation from A to B, then we say F is a function

from A to B, if and only if the domain of F is all of A and
for each element x ∈ A , there is only one value y ∈ B such
that ( x, y ) ∈ F .

Note:
A relation from A to B becomes a function if the domain is
all of A and if every first element is related to only one
second element. This last property is sometimes known as
the vertical line test.

Examples:

• Is R1 on  , R1 = {( x, y ) : y = x 2 } a function?
y

x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-1

Dom R1 =  , vertical line test holds, thus R1 is a function.

WUCT121 Logic 206

• Is R2 on  , R2 = {( x, y ) : x = y 2 } a function?
y

x
-1 0 1 2 3

-1

-2

-3

Dom R2 =  , vertical line test fails, thus R2 is not a

function.

Exercises:

• Is R3 on A = {x ∈  : x ≥ 0}, R3 = {( x, y ) : x = y 2 }
a function?
y

x
-1 0 1 2 3

-1

Dom R3 = A , vertical line test holds, thus R3 is a function.

WUCT121 Logic 207

• Is R4 on  , R4 = {( x, y ) : y = x } a function?
y

x
-1 0 1 2 3

-1

Dom R4 = [0, ∞ ) ≠  , thus R4 is not a function.

Notes:

When determining if a relation is a function:

∗ Infinite Case: Is the domain is the entire set A.

Finite Case: Is every element of A a first element in
an ordered pair?

∗ Infinite Case: Graph the relation and apply the

vertical line test.
Finite Case: List the ordered pairs and check each
first element appears only once.

WUCT121 Logic 208

Exercises:

• Let A = {2, 4, 6} and let B = {1, 3, 5}. Which of the

following relations from A to B are functions?

o R1 = {( x, y ) : x + 1 = y} = {(2, 3), (4, 5)}

Dom R1 = {2, 4} ≠ A .
Thus R1 is not a function.

o R2 = {(2, 5), (4, 1), (4, 5), (6, 5)}.

Dom R2 = {2, 4, 6} = A .
However, (4, 1) ∈ R2 ∧ (4, 5) ∈ R2
Thus R2 is not a function.

o R3 = {(2, 5), (4, 1), (6, 5)}.

Dom R3 = A , and each first element only appears
once.
Thus R3 is a function.

WUCT121 Logic 209

• Which of the following are functions?

o F1 , the identity relation on A = {1, 5, 10}.

F1 = {(1,1), (5, 5), (10,10 )}
Dom F1 = A , and each first element only appears
once.
Thus F1 is a function

o F2 on  , F2 = {( x, y ) : y = 1}.
y

x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-1

Dom F2 =  , vertical line test holds, thus F2 is a

function.

WUCT121 Logic 210

 o F3 on  , F3 = {( x, y ) : y = x + 1}.
y
4

1
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1

-2

Dom F3 =  , vertical line test holds, thus F3 is a

function.

WUCT121 Logic 211

5.3.2. One-to-one

Let F be a function from A to B. F is one-to-one if and only

if ∀x1 , x 2 ∈ A, (( x1 , y ) = ( x 2 , y ) ⇒ x1 = x 2 ).

For one-to-one functions, any given element from the

Range is related to only one element from the Domain.
That is each element in both the domain and the range is
related to just one element.

Notes:

∗ Only functions can be one-to-one.

∗ It is often the case that if a function F is one-to-one,

it satisfies a horizontal line test.

∗ To establish if a relation is one-to-one show if the

relation is, in fact, a function. Then determine if it is
one-to-one.

∗ To show a function is one-to-one, show each

element in the range occurs once in an ordered pair.

∗ To show a function is not one-to-one, give a

counterexample, that is, find an element of the
range that is related to two elements in the domain.

WUCT121 Logic 212

Examples:

• Consider the relation F1 on  given by

F1 = {( x, y ) : y = x 2 } . Is F1 a one-to-one function?
y

x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-1

Dom F1 =  , vertical line test holds, thus F1 is a function.

Horizontal line test fails: ( −1,1) ∈ F1 ∧ (1,1) ∈ F , therefore
F1 is not a one-to-one function

WUCT121 Logic 213

• Consider the relation F2 on  + = {x ∈  : x ≥ 0}

given by F2 = {( x, y ) : y = x 2 }. Is F2 a one-to-one
function?
y

x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-1

Dom F2 =  + , vertical line test holds, thus F2 is a

function. Horizontal line test holds, therefore F2 is a one-
to-one function

• Let X = {0, 1, 2, 3}.

Consider the function F3 from  ( X ) to  given by
F3 = {( A, n ) : n is the number of elements in the set A}.
Is F3 a one-to-one function?
Consider A = {0, 1}∈ ( X ) and B = {1, 2} ∈ ( X ) .
Then ( A, 2 ) ∈ F3 and (B, 2 ) ∈ F3 , that is, 2 ∈  appears
twice.
Thus, F3 is not a one-to-one function.

WUCT121 Logic 214

Exercises:

Which of the following relations are one-to-one functions?

• F1 on A = {1, 2, 3}, F1 = {(1, 2 ), (2, 3), (3, 1)}.

5 y

x
0 1 2 3

-1

-2

Dom F1 = A , vertical line test holds, thus F1 is a function.

Horizontal line test holds, therefore F1 is a one-to-one
function.

• F2 on A = {1, 2, 3}, F2 = {(1, 2 ), (2, 1), (3, 1)}.

5 y

x
0 1 2 3

-1

-2

Dom F2 = A , vertical line test holds, thus F1 is a function.

Horizontal line test fails: ( 2, 1) ∈ F2 ∧ (3, 1) ∈ F2 , therefore
F2 is not a one-to-one function.

WUCT121 Logic 215

• F3 on  , F3 = {( x, y ) : y = 2 x}.
y
4

1
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1

-2

-3

-4

Dom F3 =  , vertical line test holds, thus F3 is a function.

Horizontal line test holds, therefore F3 is a one-to-one
function

• F4 from  − {0} to  , F4 = ( x, y ) : y = { }
x2 −1 .
y

x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-1

Dom F4 =  − {0}, vertical line test holds, thus F4 is a

function.
Horizontal line test fails: (1, 0) ∈ F4 ∧ ( −1, 0) ∈ F4 ,
therefore F4 is not a one-to-one function.

WUCT121 Logic 216

5.3.3. Onto

Let F be a function from A to B. F is onto if and only if

Range F = B , that is,
∀y ∈ B, ∃x ∈ A, ( x, y ) ∈ F .

For a function to be onto, every given element from the

range must be related to at least one element from the
domain.

Notes:

∗ Only functions can be onto.

∗ To establish if a relation is onto show if the relation

is, in fact, a function. Then determine if it is onto.

∗ To show a function F from A to B is onto, show that

Range F = B , that is every element in the range
occurs at least once in an ordered pair.

∗ To show a function is not onto, give a

counterexample, that is, find an element of the
range that is not related to an element in the
domain.

WUCT121 Logic 217

Example:

• Consider the relation F1 from

A = { x ∈  : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1} to  given by

F1 = {( x, y ) : y = 1 − x 2 }. Is F1 an onto function?
y

x
-2 -1 0 1 2

Dom F1 = { x ∈  : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1} = A , vertical line test holds,

thus F1 is a function.
Range F1 = { y ∈  : 0 ≤ y ≤ 1} ≠  , thus F1 is not an onto
function.

By defining the function to F2 from

A = { x ∈  : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1} to B = { x ∈  : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1} given by

F2 = {( x, y ) : y = 1 − x 2 }.
Now Range F2 = { y ∈  : 0 ≤ y ≤ 1} = B , thus the function
F2 is an onto function

WUCT121 Logic 218

Exercises:

Which of the following functions are onto?

• F1 from A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} to B = {a , b, c, d } ,
F1 = {(1, a ), ( 2, c ), (3, c ), ( 4, d ), (5, d )}
Range F1 = {a , c, d } ≠ B . Therefore F1 is not an onto
function.

• F2 from A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} to B = {a , b, c, d } ,
F2 = {(1, a ), ( 2, b ), (3, c ), ( 4, d ), (5, a )}.
Range F2 = {a , b, c, d } = B . Therefore F2 is an onto
function.

• F3 on  , F3 = {( x, y ) : y = 4 x − 1}.
y +1
For each y ∈  , let x = ∈  , then
4
∀y ∈ , ∃x ∈ , ( x, y ) ∈ F3 . Thus Range F3 =  . Therefore
F3 is an onto function.

• F4 on  , F4 = {( x, y ) : y = 4 x − 1} .
Consider y = 0 ∈  , then for ( x, 0) ∈ F4 requires
0 +1
x= ∉  . Thus Range F4 ≠  . Therefore F4 is not an
4
onto function

WUCT121 Logic 219

5.3.4. Inverse

Every relation has an inverse and this holds for functions

also.

For any function, there is an inverse relation; however, this

inverse relation is not always a function.

The inverse of a function F will also be a function when F

is one-to-one and onto.

Example:

Consider the relation F on the interval

[ −1,1] = { x ∈  : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1} , given by

F = {( x, y ) : y = 1 − x 2 } .

• Sketch F. Is F a one-to-one and onto function?

y

x
-2 -1 0 1 2

WUCT121 Logic 220

Dom F = [−1,1] , and the vertical line test holds. Thus F is
a function. Horizontal line test fails, thus F is not a one-to-
one function. Range F = [0,1] ≠ [ −1,1] , thus F is not an
onto function.

−1 −1
• Sketch F . Is F a function?

Since F is function, and thus a relation, there is an inverse

relation F −1 on [−1,1] given by

F −1 = {( x, y ) : x = 1 − y 2 } .
y

x
-2 -1 0 1 2

Dom F −1 = [0,1] ≠ [ −1,1] , and the vertical line test fails.

Thus F −1 is not a function.

WUCT121 Logic 221

Exercises:

Consider the relation F on A = { x ∈  : x ≥ 0} given by

F = {( x, y ) : y = x 2 } .

• Sketch F. Is F a one-to-one and onto function?

y
8

x
0 1 2

Dom F = A , vertical line test holds, horizontal line test

holds, Range F = A , thus F is one-to-one and onto
function.

• Sketch F −1 . Is F −1 a function?
y

x
0 1 2

Dom F −1 = A , vertical line test holds, thus F −1 a function.

WUCT121 Logic 222

5.4. Permutations

5.4.1. Definition

Let A be a set and let F be a function on A. Then F is a

permutation of A if F is one-to-one and onto.

Example:

Let A = {0,1, 2, 3}. Define F = {(0,1), (1, 2), ( 2, 3), (3, 0)}.

F is a one-to-one and onto function on A and thus is a

permutation of the elements of A.

Using conventional function notation each ordered pair in F

can be written as:
F (0) = 1, F (1) = 2, F (2) = 3, F (3) = 0

“Matrix” representation can also be used for permutations.

The function F can be written as

⎛ 0 1 2 3⎞
F =⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 2 3 0 ⎠

F is one possible permutation of the set A.

Other permutations are:

⎛ 0 1 2 3⎞ ⎛0 1 2 3⎞ ⎛ 0 1 2 3⎞
I =⎜ ⎟ ,G = ⎜ ⎟, H = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 1 2 3 ⎠ ⎝ 1 0 3 2 ⎠ ⎝ 1 3 2 0 ⎠

WUCT121 Logic 223

There will be 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 total different permutations
of the set A.

I is known as the identity permutation, where each element

in A is mapped to itself.

Notes:

∗ In general, if A is a set with n elements, there are n!

different permutations of A.

∗ The set of all permutations on a set A with n

elements is often denoted by S n .

Exercises:

⎛0 1 2 3⎞
Let A = {0,1, 2, 3}and let G = ⎜ ⎟ and
⎝ 1 0 3 2 ⎠
⎛ 0 1 2 3⎞
H =⎜ ⎟ be permutation on A.
⎝1 3 2 0⎠
Write down the following.

• G (1) = 0 • H (1) = 3

• G (3) = 2 • G ( H (0)) = 0

• H (0 ) = 1 • G ( H (1)) = 2

WUCT121 Logic 224

5.4.2. Cycle notation

Obviously, the matrix notation for permutations can be

confusing when we start to combine permutations.

This notation can be mistaken for “normal” matrix

multiplication. Therefore, we introduce what is called cycle
notation for permutations.

Example:

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and let F be a permutation on A given

⎛ 1 2 3 4 5⎞
by F = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 3 4 5 1 ⎠

we note that:
1 “goes to” 2
2 “goes to” 3
3 “goes to” 4
4 “goes to” 5
5 “goes to” 1.
This can be written as a cycle: (1 2 3 4 5) .

Diagrammatically, this can be represented as

(1 2 3 4 5)

WUCT121 Logic 225

If an element is mapped onto itself, then it is left out of the
cycle.

Examples:

Write the following permutations using cycle notation.

• Let A = {0,1, 2, 3}

⎛ 0 1 2 3⎞
F =⎜ ⎟ = (0 2 )
⎝ 2 1 0 3 ⎠

• A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

⎛1 2 3 4 5⎞
G=⎜ ⎟ = (1 2 )(4 5)
⎝ 2 1 3 5 4 ⎠

• A = {1, 2, 3}

⎛1 2 3 ⎞
I =⎜ ⎟ = (1) or (2 ) or (3) or (1)(2 )(3)
⎝1 2 3 ⎠

WUCT121 Logic 226

Exercises:

Write down the following permutations on

A = {0,1, 2, 3}, using cycle notation.

⎛ 0 1 2 3⎞
• F =⎜ ⎟ = (1 3)
⎝ 0 3 2 1 ⎠

⎛0 1 2 3⎞
• G =⎜ ⎟ = (0 1 3 2 )
⎝ 1 3 0 2 ⎠

⎛0 1 2 3⎞
• H =⎜ ⎟ = (0 1)(2 3)
⎝ 1 0 3 2 ⎠

WUCT121 Logic 227

5.4.3. Composition

In traditional Calculus, composition of functions is defined

to be ( g o f )( x ) = g ( f ( x )) .

The same idea is used when considering composition of

permutations.

Examples:

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and let F = (1 2 3 4) ,

G = (1 2)(3 4) be permutations on A.
Write down the following:

• G ( F (1)) = G (2) = 3

• G ( F (2)) = G (3) = 4

• G ( F (3)) = G (4) = 3

• G ( F (4)) = G (1) = 2

What is G o F written using cyclic notation?

G o F = (2 4)

WUCT121 Logic 228

This could be calculated by writing each function in cyclic
notation in the appropriate order, then determining the
resultant permutation.

G o F = FG = (1 2 3 4)(1 2)(3 4)

1 “goes to” 2 in the first cycle, then 2 “goes to” 1 in the

second. Thus, 1 “goes to” 1 overall.

2 “goes to” 3 in the first cycle, then 3 “goes to” 4 in the

third. Thus, 2 “goes to” 4 overall.

3 “goes to” 4 in the first cycle, then 4 “goes to” 3 in the

third. Thus, 3 “goes to” 3 overall.

4 “goes to” 1 in the first cycle, then 1 “goes to” 2 in the

second. Thus, 4 “goes to” 2 overall.

These calculations give G o F = FG = ( 2 4) .

(1 2 3 4 )(1 2 )(3 4 ) = ⎛⎜11 24 33 42 ⎟⎞ = (2 4 )

⎝ ⎠

WUCT121 Logic 229

Exercises:

Calculate the following compositions of permutations on

A = {0,1, 2, 3}.

⎛ 0 1 2 3⎞
• (1 2)(1 0 2) = ⎜ ⎟ = (0 2 )
⎝ 2 1 0 3 ⎠

⎛ 0 1 2 3⎞
• (0 1)(2 3)(0 1 2 3) = ⎜ ⎟ = (0 2 )
⎝ 2 1 0 3 ⎠

⎛ 0 1 2 3⎞
• (1 2 3)(3 2) = ⎜ ⎟ = (1 3)
⎝ 0 3 2 1⎠

5.4.4. Inverse Permutations

Permutations are one-to-one and onto functions, thus their

inverses are also functions which are one-to-one and onto.
Thus, the inverse of a permutation is also a permutation.

Recall that to find the inverse of a relation or function, we

simply reverse the ordered pairs. For permutations, the
process is identical.

WUCT121 Logic 230

Examples:

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and let F = (1 2 4 3) .

In F:

1 “goes to” 2. Thus, in F −1 , 2 “goes to” 1.

2 “goes to” 4. Thus, in F −1 , 4 “goes to” 2.

3 “goes to” 1. Thus, in F −1 , 1 “goes to” 3.

4 “goes to” 3. Thus, in F −1 , 3 “goes to” 4.

Putting all these calculations together, we have

F −1 = (1 2 4 3) −1
= (1 3 4 2)
= (3 4 2 1)

Note that F −1 is just F written in the reverse order.

Exercises:

Let A = {0,1, 2, 3} Write down the following.

• (1 2 3)−1 = (3 2 1)

• (0 3 1)−1 = (1 3 0 )

WUCT121 Logic 231