Attributed to the 3 cosmic phases

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
- Big Bang
8/11/2020 ELEMENTS - Stellar Formation and Evolution
Carbon – pag sinunog mo, may mangingitim - Stellar Explosion

Nuclear reactions – processes in which of an atom Big Bang

either combines with other nucleus (fusions) or splits
(fission) to form new atoms. 1. Singularity – a point of infinite density and gravity
where space, time, and energy are all present; one single
Nucleus – protons and neutrons are located point where there is so much heat and density
Fission – splitting of nucleus 2. Inflation – the rapid expansion after the singularity
exploded
Fusion – combining 2 nucleus
14 billion years ago
 Singularity explodes and inflation follows. Wherein
explosion is emission of light and movement of cloud of
Types of Nuclear Reactions gas.

1. Alpha Decay – atom loses two neutrons and two Events that followed the explosion
protons
1. Elementary particles are forms (protons, neutrons, and
2. Beta Decay – an atom’s nucleus decomposes to yield electrons. These completes an atom.
an electron and proton
2. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis – combination of 2 nucleus
3. Gamma Emission – often occurs after a nucleus has nucleosynthesis
emitted an alpha or beta particle due to its instability
- protons and neutrons combined to yield heavy
4. Positron Emission – kabaliktaran ng Beta decay; nuclei of deuterium and helium
involves the conversion of a proton in the nucleus into a
- production of light elements (H, Helium,
neutron plus an ejected positron
Lithium) first 3 in periodic table
5. Electron Capture – the nucleus captures an inner-shell
electron from the surrounding electron cloud, thereby
converting a proton into a neutron STELLAR FOMATION AND EVOLUTION

- After explosion, it is believed that the universe

continuously expanded for years
- During expansion period, the clouds of
ISOTOPES
hydrogen and helium condensed together that
- Two or more atoms of the same element with resulted to the formation of stars.
diff. atomic masses but have the same atomic - A star develops an onion skin structure as more
number elements were formed
- Same number of protons but diff number of
1. Hydrogen fusion – hydrogen and helium
neutrons
2. Helium Fusion – these reactions are triggered
1. Radioisotope – radioactive isotope. 1. by the core temperature (berilium and carbon)
Radioisotope – radioactive isotope and its 3. Carbon Fusion – carbon nuclei concentrate at
radioactivity is the result of its unstable nucleus the core of the star (neon and sodium)
4. Neon Fusion – neon nuclei undergo fusion
process to produce oxygen
ELEMENT’S ORIGIN 5. Oxygen Fusion – silicon and helium
 6. Silicon fusion – Nickel and y

STELLAR EXPLOSION Atomic number = number of protons and

electrons (same)
S process/Slow process
- Occurs in seed nuclei with few neutrons (Fe-Bi) Electron Configuration = important in
where neutron capture occurs very slowly determination of valence electron of each
Rapid Process element
- Occurs very fast where the see nucleus turns into Electron-Dot = Li (1) Be (2) B (3)
heavier nuclei before beta decay takes place

Bond Polarity
Bond Polarity - Compounds around us are product of
chemical bonding
Electron-Dot Structure - Chemical bonding occurs btwn
- Element’s symbol representing the elements so that these elements will
nucleus surrounded bu dots that achieve stability (how – they will
represent element’s valence combine with other elements)
electrons - Among all the elements, noble gases
- Writing the symbol of the element, all are the most stable
of those symbols represent a nucleus
of an atom - Noble gases are considered most
stable elements because they have 8
valence electrons around their nucleus
(except Helium)
Valence Electrons
- Electrons in the atom’s outermost - Noble gases – Kr, Ne, Xe, Ar, Rn
shell/orbital that participate in
chemical bonding

1. Covalent bond – air we breathe (O2),

water
2. Ionic Bond – Asin (NaCl)
 Non-Polar Bonds are equally shared
between atoms
Electronegativity – ability of the atom to
attract electrons toward itself in chemical
bond

Higher electronegativity value of the

element, higher chance to attract electrons
toward itself
Flourine element has the highest value of
electronegativity

Polar bonds are formed when valence

electrons are unequally shared between
atoms; the bigger area, the bigger
electronegativity value; sigma negative
higher electronegativity

If one metal is present, that is ionic bond

(H is Nonmetal)
 Diff Nature of bond
O-H 3.5 – 2.1 = 1.4 Polar
N–H 3.0 – 2.1 = 0.9 Polar
Na-Br 0.9 – 2.8 = 1.9 Ionic
Ca – Cl 1.0 – 3.0 = 2.0 Ionic
Br - O 2.8 – 3.5 = .70 Polar

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
OF ATTRACTION
Molecule – covalent compounds
Ions – ionic compound
TYPES OF IMFA
Inter – relationship with others
1. Dipole-dipole forces = only exists in
Intermolecular – forces of attraction present
polar molecule, the attractive force or
between 2 compounds
electrical attraction between positive and
negative ends of polar molecules, considered
weak when it comes to strength with a value
of 1kcal/mol (energy)
2. London Dispersion Forces – only exists
in non polar molecule, short-lived
attractive force due to the constant motion
of electrons within molecules, the electrons
in two adjacent atoms occupy positions that
Solid – lowest energy, strongest attractive make the atoms form temporary dipoles
force, particles are tightly packed and (right pic), weakest in terms of strength 0.5
vibrate in place kcal/mol, low elevation on boiling point,
low reduction on freezing point
Liquid – higher energy, weaker attractive
force, particles slide past each other
Gas – highest energy and weakest attractive
force, particles move fast and away from
each other

Intermolecular forces of attraction – act

between individual particles (atoms, 3. Hydrogen Bonding – only exists in
molecules, and ions) and hold individual polar, attraction between hydrogen atoms
particles close to one another. bonded to an electronegative O, N, or F
atom and to another electronegative O, N, F,
Atoms – element to element strongest with strength value 2-10 kcal/mol,
Molecules – compound to compound high elevation boiling point, high depression
Hydrochloric acid – stomach, chemical freezing point
digestion, breaks down the bonding between
food, gastric juice
 BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES Fromula: (CH2O)n whereby subscript n
refers to the number of carbon atoms.
Bio – Life
Logy – Study Photosynthesis: water plus carbon dioxide
Biology – study of life plus sunlight will yield to oxygen and sugar.
Molecules – compounds, covalent
Building Blocks: Monosaccharide, means 1
Macromolecules – large, organic
molecule of sugar (glucose
molecules that perform many important
biological functions – many Function: Provide cells with short term
micromolecules energy, source of dietary fiber.
Polar molecule due to polar OH group in its
structure
Organic Chemistry – study of structures,
properties, composition, and reactions of Soluble in many body fluids like blood
carbon containing compounds
Organic Compound – with Hydrogen and
Carbon

Carbon – backbone of life

- found in all living things
- primary components of macromolecules
2. Lipids – A naturally occurring molecules
- the carbon is often attached to hydrogen,
from a plant or animal that is soluble in non
which is called Hydrocarbons (CH) – polar
polar organic solvents
Monomer (Micromolecules)– molecule
Include fats, oils, waxes, vitamins and
that is a building block for larger molecules
hormones, and some components of
(polymers)
membrane
Polymer (Macromolecules) – a large
Oil is produced by plants, fats are produced
molecule made of repeating subunits
by animals.
(monomers)
When exposed in water, lipid molecules
cling together, exposing their polar groups
Types of Macromolecules to the surrounding water
1. Carbohydrates (sugar, glucose, or Lipid contains more energy than
starch) – main source of energy of animals carbohydrates
& humans that are often stored in plants and
mainly created through photosynthesis.
3. Proteins – large biological molecule
made of many amino acids linked together
through amide or peptide bonds. Most of the
time, proteins have both polar and non polar
COLLISION
Collision Theory
- the reactant particles require sufficient
kinetic energy to initiate successful
collisions that will lead to the formation of
products

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
parts. - process in which one or more substances
Building blocks: Amino acids are changed into different substances, these
substances may be element or compound.
Functions: provide cell structure, send
chemical signals, and speed up chemical
reactions
4. Nucleic Acid – polymer of nucleotide
(five-carbon sugar bonded to a cyclic amine
base and phosphate group) that serve as
storage of genetic information
DNA & RNA
Building Blocks: Nucleotides
Functions: Store and pass on genetic
information Reactants – compounds or elements undergo
Three groups: Nitrogenous base (Nonpolar), change during reaction. Initial substances.
phosphate group (polar), sugar (polar) Left side of the equation.
Products – right side, result of the equation
Issue POV Solution Coefficients – big numbers before the
Teenage We should not Sex education
Pregnancy view sex that covers compound or element that indicates the
education as abstinence, number of molecules or formula of units
taboo topic. pedophilia,
Being educated is grooming, substance that participate in the reaction
better than being abusive
ignorant. relationships, Types of Chemical Reactions
rape, and etc.
1. Combination Reaction / Synthesis
Reaction
- two or more elements or compounds
combine to form a single compound
 A + B = AB The more often reactant molecules collide,
the more often they react with one another,
2. Decomposition Reaction
and the faster the reaction rate.
- breaking down of a single
If a reactant particles do not collide with
compound into two or more simpler
enough energy and with right orientation,
substances
they will not react together
AB = A + B
Only a small number of molecules have the
Electrolysis is the process of breaking right orientation and the right amount of
down the bond of hydrogen and oxygen in energy at the moment of impact to break the
water existing bonds and form new ones
3. Single replacement / substitution
reaction / metathesis reaction
- one element replaces another
element in a compound
A + BC = AC + B
4. double replacement reaction / double
decomposition reaction
- when cations and anions switch
between two reactants
- cation positively charged ion, anion
negatively charged ion
AB + CD = AD + CB

Rate of Reaction
1. Concentration
- reaction rate is directly proportional to
reactant’s concentration
2. Particle size
Activation Energy (Ea)
- reaction rate is inversely proportional to
- Initiator of chemical reaction
particle’s size
- Energy required to start the reaction
3. Temperature
- Needed to overcome the energy
barrier and to breakdown bonds of the - directly
reactants 4. Catalyst
- substances that speeds up chemical a. combustion – burning of carbon-
reaction without being consumed in the containing fuels
reaction b. cellular respiration – utilization of
glucose to provide energy of the
- direct
human’s body and keeps the body warm
c. nuclear fission – splitting of heavy
nuclei into simpler nuclei
ENDOTHERMIC
- Type of chemical reaction that absorbs
more energy than it releases
- reactants + energy  products
- reactants’ energy > products’ energy
- melt
a. photosynthesis – plants absorb
energy from the sun to produce sugar
b. cooking – foods absorb heat to be
cooked
c. water evaporation – water absorbs
energy to change its phase into gas

2ND QUARTER
BOND ENERGY
EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC
REACTIONS
- energy that is either released or absorbed
during chemical reaction
EXOTHERMIC Sources of Energy
- type of chemical that releases more energy - Energy is vital in our daily lives. This
than it absorbs allows us to enjoy the maximum
- reactants  products + energy utilization of technology that eases
reactants’ energy < products’ energy life.
 - Where do we harnessed these - Renewable source of energy from
energies? solar radiation emitted by the sun
- Photovoltaic system 0 a device that
will convert solar energy into heat and
electrical energies
Wind
- Renewable source from kinetic
energy of the wind that causes the
rotation of turbine
- Windmill is an infrastructure that
converts wind energy, with the help of
turbine, to electrical energy

Geothermal
- Renewable source of energy that
comes from the heat energy of earth

Fossil Fuels
- Stored energy from the fossil remains
of plats and animals that lived
millions of years ago and were
formed due to intense heat and
pressure
- Harnessed thru mining (solid fossil
Hydropower
fuels) and drilling (extraction of liquid
and gaseous fossil fuels) - Renewable source of energy that
- Examples are petroleum and natural comes from the kinetic energy of the
gas flowing water
- Country’s largest renewable source of
Biomass
energy
- Wood and agricultural products, solid - Falls, rivers, dams
waste, landfill gas and biogas,
Chemical
ethanol, biodiesel
- Source of energy from stored energy
Solar
such as batteries which will be
converted into electrical energy
 - Electrolyte is present inside the
battery that allows the flow of
electrical charge from the battery to
the device

Oblate Spheroid – specific shape of the

Earth
 Light has the properties of both wave and a
particle
Wave – disturbances propagating carries
energy with it

Wavelength (λ)– distance between any two

successive points
Frequency (f) – number of waves pass
through a given point in a given amount of
time
Velocity (v) – speed of wave travels

Light as a Wave
NATURE OF LIGHT
1. Light is a transverse wave
- the direction of the propagation is
perpendicular (having an angle between 90
degrees) to the direction of the movements
of its components

2. The speed of light is constant

- The speed is 3x10^8 m/s
- 499 seconds from sun
3. visible light is only one part of
electromagnetic spectrum
- wavelength ranges from 380nm to 750 nm
(10^-9 m)
- frequency ranges from 4x10^14 Hz to
7.90x10^14 Hz
4. Light does not need any medium to
propagate
- light can propagate in vacuum or empty
space
- other waves such as sound wave needs a
medium to propagate
5. Visible light is made up of many colors
- ROYGBIV