IRT-22 Rail Transport & Management: Book-2 Legal & Technical Aspects of Railway Functioning

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INSTITUTE OF RAIL TRANSPORT
IRT-22
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Rail Transport
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& Management
Module
Book-2
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LEGAL & TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF RAILWAY FUNCTIONING
Unit 10
Electricity in Railways Signalling - I 1
Unit 11
Train Lighting 11
Unit 12
Air-Condition of Coaches 23
Unit 13
Electric Traction 33
Unit 14
Role of Telecommunication and Basic Infrastructure 61
Unit 15
Modern Telecommunication Systems 97
Unit 16
Track 123
Unit 17
Railways Act 1989 173
Course Preparation Team
Content Contributor
Shri Purushottom Guha

Former Principal Executive Director (Coaching)
Railway Board
Ministry of Railways
Smt. Amrit K. Brar

Director (Tourism and Marketing)
IRCTC Ltd.,
Course Writer
Course Contributor/ Revised/Updated
Shri R.C. Sharma Shri Y.K. Tyagi
Additional Member, Asstt. General Manager/
Tele (retd.) SEMU/WC, Dedicated
Railway Board Freight Corridor Corporation
Ministry of Railway of India Ltd, New Delhi
Shri H.L. Suthar

Former Assistant General
Manager (Project) Language Editing Format Editing
Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd. Prof. P.R. Ramanujam Prof. P.R. Ramanujam
New Delhi STRIDE, IGNOU STRIDE, IGNOU
Shri A.C. Bakshi

Former General Manager, Acknowledgements are due to
Institute of Rail Transport Dr. Sanjaya Mishra, STRIDE, IGNOU
Rail Bhavan for his Co-ordination
Copyright with
Institute of Rail Transport, 2018 (Revised Edition)
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph
or any other means, without permission in writing from the Institute of Rail Transport.
Further information about the Institute of Rail Transport and its courses can be obtained
from the Institute’s office at 104, NCRPU Building, Shivaji Bridge, Behind Shankar Market,
Near IRWO office, New Delhi - 110 001
Printed and published on behalf of Institute of Rail Transport by Shri Pramod Uniyal,
Executive Director.
Printed at : Allied Traders, 455, Patparganj Industrial Estate, Delhi-92

IRT-22 : RAIL TRANSPORT AND MANAGEMENT
MODULE - 1 : Overview of the Transport Sector
Unit 1 : Historical Developments - I

Unit 2 : Historical Developments - II
Unit 3 : Characteristics & Role of Different Modes of Transport
Unit 4 : Cost Structure of Different Modes of Transport
Unit 5 : Unit Cost in Indian Railways
Unit 6 : Pricing of Transport Services
Unit 7 : Urban Transport - I
Unit 8 : Urban Transport - II
Unit 9 : Organisational Structure of Indian Railways
MODULE - 2 : Rail Operations Management
Unit 1 : Transportation
Unit 2 : Organisation of Operations
Unit 3 : Passenger Operations
Unit 4 : Goods Train Operations
Unit 5 : Recent Developments in Freight Operations
Unit 6 : Operating Statistics
Unit 7 : Rules of Safety in Railway Operations
Unit 8 : Accidents - Relief Measures, Enquiry into Causes
MODULE - 3 : Marketing & Commercial Policy
Unit 1 : Commercial Organisation

Unit 2 : Coaching Traffic
Unit 3 : Reservation, Luggage and Parcel Rules
Unit 4 : Goods Traffic
Unit 5 : Pricing of Rail Transport
Unit 6 : Passenger Amenities
Unit 7 : Compensations/Claims
Unit 8 : Marketing Strategies
MODULE - 4 : Logistics & Supply Chain Management
Unit 1 : Basic Concepts of Supply Chain Management

Unit 2 : Supply Chain Operations : Planning and Sourcing
Unit 3 : Supply Chain Operations : Marketing and Delivering
Unit 4 : Supply Chain Management in Multi-Modal Transport
Unit 5 : ITS in Logistics and Transportation
MODULE - 5 : Costing & Pricing of Rail Transport Services
Unit 1 : Theory, Traffic Costing in Indian Railway System and

International Practices
Unit 2 : Costing of Freight and Coaching Services
Unit 3 : Pricing Concepts and Indian Railways’ Rating Policy
MODULE - 6 : Human Resource Management in Indian Railways
Unit 1 : Management - Concepts and Evolution

Unit 2 : Structure of Organisations and Management Processes
Unit 3 : Management in Future
Unit 4 : Personnel Management Discipline - An Overview
Unit 5 : Employee Relations and Labour Legislation
Unit 6 : Organisational Behaviour
Unit 7 : Management in the Indian Railways
MODULE - 7 : Legal & Technical Aspects of Railway Functioning
Unit 1 : Signalling - I
Unit 2 : Signalling - II
Unit 3 : Interlocking
Unit 4 : Systems of Train Working
Unit 5 : Modern Signalling Systems
Unit 6 : Locomotives
Unit 7 : Coaches
Unit 8 : Multiple Units and Other Coaching Vehicles
Unit 9 : Wagons
Unit 10 : Electricity in Railways
Unit 11 : Train Lighting
Unit 12 : Air-Condition of Coaches
Unit 13 : Electric Traction
Unit 14 : Role of Telecommunication and Basic Infrastructure
Unit 15 : Modern Telecommunication Systems
Unit 16 : Track
Unit 17 : Railways Act 1989
MODULE - 8 : Planning, Financial Management & Investment Policies
Unit 1 : Finances on Indian Railways

Unit 2 : Railways Financial Planning
Unit 3 : Organisation and Function of the Finance & Account
Management of the Railways
Unit 4 : Railways, The Public Accountability and Parliament
Unit 5 : Structure of Railways’ Accounts
Unit 6 : System of Railway Accounting : Classification and
Budgetary Management
Unit 7 : Exercising Budgetary Control, Conducting Review of
Financial Performance, Statistics & Economics Analysis,
Traffic Costing, Management Accountancy Performance
Budgeting and Zero-base Budgeting
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Institute of Rail Transport
Legal & Technical
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Aspects of Railway
Functioning
UNIT-10
Electricity in Railways
Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Evolution of Electricity in Railways
10.3 Use of Electricity in Railways
10.4 Workshops
10.5 Lighting
10.5.1 Yard Lighting
10.5.2 Lighting in Service Buildings
10.5.3 Lighting in Staff Quarters
10.6 Electricity for Water Pumps
10.7 Electricity for Signalling & Telecommunications
10.8 Power Supply for Traction
10.9 Stand-by Power Supply Arrangements
10.10 Decarbonization of IR’s Energy Needs-Power through Wind & Solar Plants.
10.11 Let Us Sum Up
10.12 Check Your Progress : The Key
Unit End Questions
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10.0 OBJECTIVES
After working through this Unit, you should be able to:
(i) List the uses of Electricity in Railways.

(ii) Distinguish between various Applications so as to Categorise them in to
Vital and non-Vital Applications.
(iii) Describe the importance of Stand-by Power Supply Arrangements made
in the Railways.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, we have discussed the Evolution of Electricity in Railways, why it is
required for Railways, what are the Applications of Electricity in Railways and
why Stand-by Power Supply arrangements so necessary in Management and
Operation of Railways.Electricity shoulders responsibility in proper operation
of railway service. Railway Electrification is on the rise. Electric traction hands
almost 60% of freight & 40% passenger traffic.
10.2 EVOLUTION OF ELECTRICITY IN RAILWAYS

The evolution of Electricity Supply Systems in Railways is directly connected
with the evolution of Electricity in the Country. Before Independence, the use
of Electricity was confined to the big cities and large industries, where small
Captive Powerhouses were located. Almost all these Powerhouses were
under the Private Electric Supply Companies. The Transmission System was
confined to these local centres and was managed by various Private Electric
Supply Companies. The position in the Railways before Independence was
also somewhat similar. The Railway Management was under the Private
Foreign Companies. Many of the princely States were having their own Railway
Systems which were confined to the boundaries of these States. Like Private
Power Companies, Railway Companies were having their own Power Plants
mostly located in big Workshops. Each Railway Workshop was having a small
Powerhouse to meet the demand of the Machines in the Workshop. Outside the
Workshops, even some offices were also not electrified.
The first major Powerhouse of the Railway was constructed in 1928 at Chola
near Bombay. This Powerhouse was needed to meet the load of Electric Traction
in Bombay Area. The capacity of this Powerhouse was increased form time
to time to meet the additional requirement of Power for Traction Load. This
Powerhouse functioned till the end of 1987, when it had to be closed down
as the condition of Equipment deteriorated so much that its running became
uneconomical. This Powerhouse, however, during its peak Generation days was
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able to meet the full requirement of the Railways. In addition, Railways were also
in a position to sell Power to the Grid.
After Independence, Electricity Boards were established in each State to cater for
Generation, Transmission and Distribution of Electric Power to meet the needs of
each State. With the start of Five-Year Plans for the development of the country
in agriculture and industrial sectors, the power requirement increased by leaps
and bounds. A large number of powerhouses were established by each State.
All the powerhouses in a State were connected to a common system, called the
‘State Grid’ so that failure of one powerhouse does not result in total shut down
of electricity. Besides, the electricity generated by all powerhouses is pooled
together to meet the overall requirement. Most of the private owned powerhouses
were also integrated with State Electricity Board Power Systems.
After Independence, Railways were called upon to carry out large-scale

expansion programme for movement of raw materials and finished products. The
requirement of power, particularly in workshops, therefore, increased many folds.
Additional power units were added in the powerhouses of various workshops.
Chola powerhouse was connected to Maharashtra and Tata Power Systems.
After the State Electricity Boards and the State Grids were fully established,
State Electricity Boards started meeting power requirement of Railways as well.
It was then decided to close down or keep as Stand-by many powerhouses
in the workshops on age-cum-condition basis and also on economy reasons.
However, due to shortage of power and poor reliability of State fed power supply,
it became necessary for Railways to install DG Sets at all important Stations and
Installations to feed the vital load. This practice of strengthening the State Power
Supply Systems at important Railway Installations is still continuing on Railways.
10.3 USE OF ELECTRICITY IN RAILWAYS

Electricity is used in Railways mainly for the following purpose:
(i) In Workshops and Production Units: For running of Machines.

(ii) For Lighting Purposes: Yards, Stations, Buildings, Platforms, Hospitals,
Colonies, Street lights and Approach Roads etc.
(iii) For Electrification of Staff Quarters & exclusive Railway Colonies.
(iv) For Water Supply Systems.
(v) For Signalling & Telecommunication Systems.
(vi) For Traction Purposes.
10.4 WORKSHOPS
Workshops were the first to use electricity in Railways. Before Independence,
power supply in workshops was of DC type as most of the Motors were DC. DC
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pPower was obtained by converting AC Power into DC. After Independence, with
the increase of Power needs and development of AC Motors, AC Supply was
required. Slowly, DC Motors were replaced with AC Motors. At present, supply to
Workshops is entirely AC.
The earlier Distribution System in the Railway Workshops was very simple. As
the Power load requirement increased, the workshops needed many staggered
points to feed load in various Shops. This necessitated establishment of a
Receiving sub-Station (66 KV or 33 KV) and a number of Distribution sub-
Stations at 11 KV. The Power supply in each Distribution sub- Station was
stepped down from 11 KV to 440 V to feed the Machines. The 11 KV sub-Stations
were inter-connected together forming a ‘Ring-main’ so that power supply to each
sub-Station is available through two independent Feeders.
10.5 LIGHTING
10.5.1 Yard Lighting

Properlighting is very necessary for night working in the various Yards. The
lines in the Yards are not straight and the Wagons / Coaches standing casting
shadows complicate the designing of Lighting System. Flood Light Towers of
about 70 ft. high are used at appropriate locations for Yard Lighting. Initially, 500
or 1000 W Incandescent Light Fittings were mounted on the Towers, which were
sited 300 to 400 ft. apart. Then came 1000 W High Pressure Mercury Vapour
(HPMV) Lamps and 300 to 400 W Sodium Vapour Lamps, which have longer life
and consume much less electricity. Presently, 150/250/400 Watt Metal Halide
and high Mast Tower Lighting with Metal Halide fittings are being mostly used to
improve the illumination level of the Yard.
10.5.2 Lighting in Service Buildings

Electrification of Service Buildings like Cabins, Sheds, Running Rooms, Hospitals
etc. require proper designing of Lighting System. Each place is to be lighted
as per the requirements from operational point of view and to facilitate general
working. Station Lighting requires special care, as it has to meet the needs of
travelling public. Station Lighting consists of lighting of the Approach Road to the
Station, Parking Area in front of the Station Building, Waiting Rooms, Booking
Windows, Exit and Entrance of the Platforms, Foot- over-bridges, Retiring Rooms
and other Offices on the Stations. On un- important Stations, arrangements
are made to switch-off 75% of the Lights when passengers do not occupy the
Platform. The scale of Illumination for covered Platforms circulating areas,
covered passage ways / Foot-over- bridges is 30 to 50 Lux for important Stations
and 20 Lux for small Stations.
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10.5.3 Lighting in Staff Quarters
Electrification of Staff Quarters is more of the essential Staff amenities. Street
lighting in the Railway Colonies and lighting of the recreation places like Institutes
requires proper attention.
Check Your Progress 1 : Note:

(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following
Questions.
(b) Write Your Answers in the space given below.
(c) Check your Answers with the ones given at the end of this Unit.
1. Enumerate the various uses of Electricity in Railways.
2. State whether the following Statements are True / False:
i) Grid System enables pooling of Electricity generated by all Powerhouses to

meet the overall requirements of Power in a State. ( )
ii) In India, State Electricity Boards cater for Generation, Transmission &
Distribution of Electrical Power in respective States. ( )
iii) Each of the Major Workshops of Indian Railways have a 66 KV / 33 KV
Receiving Sub-Station and a number of 11 KV Distribution Sub- Stations
to meet the Power requirements in various Shops. ( )
iv) 500 W or 1000 W Incandescent Light fittings are presently used for
providing Lighting in Railway Yards. ( )
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10.6 ELECTRICITY FOR WATER PUMPS
Reliable Water Supply System is very essential for Railway Operations. The
water is required for filling of Coaches at Platforms, Drinking Water for Public,
Washing & Maintenance of Passenger Coaches, Offices and Workshops and
Staff Colonies.
10.7 ELECTRICITY FOR SIGNALLING

& TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Signalling and Telecommunication Systems play an important role in Train
operation. S and T Systems are also important from Safety considerations.
In Electrified sections, Power is tapped from Overhead (Traction) Equipment

(OHE), to meet the requirements of S and T Systems. Else where, the Power
feed is generally provided from Electricity Board Feeders and further augmented
by installation of DG Sets of appropriate capacities. At Wayside Stations, the
DG Sets are usually provided and maintained by Signal and Telecommunication
Department.
10.8 POWER SUPPLY FOR TRACTION

The requirement of Power Supply for Electric Traction is large. AC Supply at 25
KV Single Phase is required in AC Electrified sections and DC Supply is required
for DC Traction. At present, DC Traction is available in Mumbai area at 1500
V DC. Conversion from AC to DC takes place with the help of converting sub-
Stations established along the track. DC Traction in Mumbai area is, however,
being converted to 25 KV Single Phase AC Traction.
10.9 STAND-BY POWER

SUPPLY ARRANGEMENTS
Power Supply arrangements, on Railways, are essentially required for Vital
Installations as also for Control & Operational Activities. During the period of
Power shortage, load shedding has to be introduced by the Electricity Boards.
During the failure of Electricity, Railway Operations in the Yards & at Stations
can come to a stand still. In the Sheds, Workshops and Production Units, the
entire work can get adversely affected when Power failure takes place. In case
of non-working of Water Pumps, due to non-availability of Power, water scarcity
can create numerous problems. At Stations, the failure of Lights can put the
Passengers into great inconvenience and in fact create chaotic & dangerous
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conditions. In Control Rooms, communication is disrupted, affecting Train
operations. Since the Operation of the Railways cannot be allowed to suffer,
Stand-by Power Supply arrangements are required to be provided to meet the
important requirements of Railways.
Stand-by Power arrangements, on Railways, include the following:
(i) Power Feeders from two different Sources.

(ii) DG Sets of appropriate capacities, with Stand-by, to meet the essential
load requirements. DG Sets are provided in Hospitals, Water pumping
Stations, Control Rooms, Workshops and at all important Stations.
Stand-by DG Sets are separately provided at Stations to meet the vital
Signalling & Telecommunication Load.
(iii) Integrated Power Supplies (IPS), with Battery Back-ups.
(iv) Solar Power Panels.
Questions.
(i) In Electrified Territories, Power Supply for Signalling & Telecommunications

Installations is directly tapped from 25 KV OHE. ( )
(ii) In Electric Traction Areas, Substation of appropriate capacities are

installed at regular spacing along side the Track to feed OHE. ( )
2. Choose the correct Answer:
(i) Stand-by Power arrangements, on Railways, include the following:
(ii) Power Feeders from two different Sources.
(iii) DG Sets of appropriate capacities.
(iv) Integrated Power Supplies (IPS), with Battery Back-ups.
(v) Solar Power Panels.
(vi) All of ‘a’ to ‘d’ above.
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10.10 Decarbonization of IR’s Energy
Needs-Power through Wind & Solar Plants.
Reducing Carbon footprints is presently most important activities towards
International need. Global warmimg is attributed to emissions of green house
gases (GHG). Global warming is measured in terms of global warming,potential
(GWP) of CO2. There is an increasing pressure on all countries to reduce
emissions while maintaining their levels of economic growth.
There is a need to reduce energy intensity and also to reduce carbon footprint of
economic activities of Indian Railways.
10.11 LET US SUM UP

Before Independence, Railway Companies had their own Captive Power
Plants, located in big Workshops to meet their essential Requirements. Post
Independence era saw the establishment of Electricity Boards and State Grids
in each State to cater for Generation, Transmission and Distribution of Electric
Power to meet the needs of each State. After these Electricity Boards and the
Grids were fully established, they also started meeting the Power requirements of
Railways as well. It was then decided to close down or keep as Stand-by many
Powerhouses of Railways in the Workshops, on age-cum-condition basis.
Electricity is used in Railways mainly for the following purpose:
(i) In Workshops and Production Units for running of Machines.

(ii) For Lighting Purposes in Yards, Stations, Buildings, Platforms, Hospitals,
Colonies, Street lights and Approach Roads etc.
(iv) For Water Supply Systems to feed Pumps.
(v) For Signalling and Telecommunication Systems.
(vi) For Electric Traction Purposes.
Workshops and Production Units need Power Supply for running of Production
Machines. With the increase in Demand of Power in Workshops and Production
Units, Railways have installed Receiving Sub-stations (66 KV or 33 KV) in
each major Workshop and Production Unit and a number of inter-connected
Distribution sub-Stations at 11 KV. The Power supply in each such Distribution
sub-Station is stepped down from 11 KV to 440 V to feed the Machines.
Proper lighting is very necessary for night working in the various Yards. It is
achieved by installing Flood Light Towers at strategic Locations in the Yards.
Electrification of Service Buildings like Cabins, Sheds, Running Rooms, Hospitals
8
etc. also requires proper designing of Lighting System. Each place is to be
lighted as per the requirements from operational point of view and to facilitate
general working. Station Lighting requires special care, as it has to meet the
needs of travelling public. Electrification of Staff Quarters and Colonies is more of
the essential Staff Amenities.
The requirement of Power Supply for Electric Traction is quite large. AC Supply at
25 KV Single Phase is required in AC Electrified sections. Electricity Boards were
supplying Power directly at the required Voltage but now Railways have their
own Traction Sub-stations alongside the Track, where the Power is received from
Electricity Board at EHV and then stepped Down to feed the OHE at 25 KV. You
will learn more on Power Supply Arrangements for Traction purposes in Unit ‘4’.
Since the Operation of the Railways falls under the Category of ‘Essential
Services’ and cannot be allowed to suffer, Stand-by Power Supply arrangements
are required to be provided to meet the important requirements of Railways.
These include Power Feeders at various Installations from two different Sources,
DG Sets of appropriate Capacities, with Stand-by, to meet the essential Load
requirements, Integrated Power Supplies (IPS) with Battery Back-ups and Solar
Power Panels.
10.12 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS : THE KEY

CYP 1 :
1. Uses of Electricity in Railways:
(i) In Workshops and Production Units - For running of Machines.

(ii) For Lighting Purposes - Yards, Stations, Buildings, Platforms, Hospitals,
Street Lights and Approach Roads etc.
(iv) For Water Supply Systems.
(v) For Signalling & Telecommunication Systems. (vi) For Traction
Purposes.
2. True / False:
i). True. ii). True. iii). True. iv). False.
CYP 2 :
1. True / False:
(i) False. (ii) True.
2. Correct Answer:
(vi).
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UNIT END QUESTIONS
Q. 1 What are various uses of Electricity on Railways?

Q. 2 Why Stand-by Power Plants are necessary for Railway Operations?
Q. 3 Write a Short Note on Evolution of Electricity System for use in Railways.
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Legal & Technical
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Aspects of Railway
Functioning
UNIT-11
Train Lighting
Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Initial Train Lighting System
11.3 Present Systems of Train Lighting on Indian Railways
11.4 Axle Generation System Working on DC 24 V Supply
11.5 Axle Generation System Working on DC 110 V Supply
11.6 Utility Appliances Provided in Coaches
11.7 Separate Generation Cars
11.7.1 Mid-On- Generation
11.7.2 End-On-Generation
11.7.3 Head-On-generation
11.8 Train Lighting in EMUs
11.9 Let Us Sum Up
11.10 Check Your progress : The Key
Unit End Questions
11
11.0 OBJECTIVES
(i) List the various Systems that are presently in use for Train Lighting on
Indian Railways.
(ii) Discuss the main Components of a typical Train Lighting System.
(iii) Explain the kind of Utility Appliances provided in different Class of
Coaches.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Train Lighting is one of the important passenger amenities which influence the
image of Railways.Train Lighting by Electricity was first introduced on Indian
Railways in 1897.Although first train run on 16 April 1883 from Mumbai CST to
Thane. Supply of Electricity in Trains, in addition to Lighting, is required for Fans
and Air-conditioning of AC Coaches and for meeting the Electrical Load in Pantry
Cars viz. Hot Plates, Bottle Coolers and Refrigerators etc. these days.
Provision of Train Lighting in Passenger Trains is one of the most important

amenities provided by the Railways for the use of Passengers. Train Lighting
function includes working of Fans. Non-functioning of Train Lighting System
causes great inconvenience to the Passengers.
In the olden days, the Passenger Trains used to have 7 or 8 Coaches hauled
by Steam Locomotive and those Coaches were divided into First Class, Second
Class, Inter Class and Third Class. First Class had a number of Fans and Light
points. Second Class had almost half of First Class load, while Inter class had
load, much less than Second Class and Third Class had only two Light points
at the Doors. After Independence, in the first Parliamentary meeting in 1952, a
resolution was passed that Passengers travelling in the Third Class should be
provided with basic Passenger Amenities. This Resolution covered adequate
Lighting and Fan requirement and running water in the toilets in all Class of
Coaches. Ministry of Railways accordingly, planned this work and in a period of
about 3 years all the Coaches were sent to Workshops for providing generating
Equipments and other fittings.
The Train Lighting System at that time consisted of Axle driven DC Generator
(Dynamo) working in conjunction with 24 V Batteries and Switch Gears for
controlling Lights and Fans. In Axle Generation, moving Axle of the Coaches
work as a prime mover for the Generator. The Axle Pulley and the Generator
Pulley are connected together by Flat / V-Belts.
In the subsequent sections of this Unit, we shall discuss, in brief, the Initial Train
Lighting System and the Systems now being used on the Indian Railways.
12
11.2 INITIAL TRAIN LIGHTING SYSTEM
The following were the main Components of the initial Train Lighting System:
(i) One DC Dynamo for each Coach.

(ii) Two sets of 24 V Batteries, with a Battery Change-over Switch to
alternately change the Batteries after each halt of the Train.
(iii) Auto Cut-in / Cut-out Switches to connect the Dynamo output to the
Battery, when Dynamo generates about 28 V, and to disconnect the same
when Dynamo output voltage is lower than the Battery Voltage.
(iv) A Magnetic Load switch for remote control of Lights and Fans.
(v) A Resistance to drop Voltage for protection of Lamps from high Voltage
i.e. 32 V generated by the Dynamo to 24 V.
(vi) Inter-vehicular flexible cable-jumpers at either end of the Coaches to
inter-feed electric Power between adjoining Coaches.
(vii) Control Switches for Lights and Fans to switch on and off as and when
required.
The above System was good. However, all the wiring and the parts of the
Switchgear had heavy Copper content and soon it became a target of theft. Over
a period of time, it became impossible to maintain the Train Lighting services on
account of theft and pilferages of Batteries, Dynamo parts and Cables.
During the course of time, developments took place in this area and a simplified
and much more reliable Train Lighting System got evolved. Two sets of Batteries
were replaced by the single Battery. Auto Cut-in / Cut-out Magnetic Switches
were replaced by Silicon Blocking Diode. Magnetic Load Switch got replaced
by Rotary Switches or Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCB). Copper Cables were
replaced by Aluminum Cables. Brass Components were replaced by Galvanised
Cast Iron Components. Lamp Resistance was replaced by Silicon Ballast.
Dynamo in the Train Lighting System, however, remained the same for quite
some time and pilferage of Dynamo parts still hampered the Train Lighting. In the
later Systems, this problem was tackled by replacing the Dynamo by Brushless
Alternator to evolve a new series of Train Lighting System.
11.3 PRESENT SYSTEMS OF TRAIN

LIGHTING ON INDIAN RAILWAYS
The following Systems are presently in use for Train Lighting on Indian Railways:
(i) Axle Generation System working on DC 24V Supply.

(ii) Axle Generation System working on DC 110V Supply.
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(iii) Separate Generation Cars:
(a) Mid-on-Generation with AC 415V 3-phase, AC 415 V utilisation for
Air Conditioning Equipments and AC 110 V / 24 V DC utilisation for
Train Lighting Equipments.
(b) End-on-Generation with AC 415V, 3-phase, AC 415V utilisation
for Air Conditioning Equipments and AC 110V utilisation for Train
Lighting Equipments.
(c) End-on-Generation with AC 750V, 3-phase, AC 415V utilisation
for Air Conditioning Equipments and AC 110V utilisation for Train
Lighting Equipments.
(d) Head-on-Generation, where Generating System is provided in the
Locomotive.
11.4 AXLE GENERATION SYSTEM

WORKING ON DC 24V SUPPLY
Most of the conventional Coaches provided with DC Dynamo have now been
replaced with brushless Alternator in view of simplicity in maintenance and
superior characteristics for both high and low speed. Alternators are of rating 100
Amps (3 KW) (for MG Coaches) & 150 Amps (4.5 KW) (for BG Coaches) and are
equipped with external Regulation. The Pulleys are mounted on Axles as well as
on brushless Alternators. Lead Acid Batteries of standard capacity 210 Amp Hrs.
or 320 Amp Hrs. are provided in each Coach depending on the connected load of
the Coach.
Normally, each Coach should be able to meet its own load independently.
Emergency feed Terminal Boards are, however, provided at each end of the
Coach to enable feeding from the adjoining Coaches on either side. This
emergency feed is availed of only in case the Coach is unable to feed the load
due to missing / defective Generating Equipment, Regulator or Batteries.
Provision is made for charging the Batteries from external source by means of a
Terminal Board.
Incandescent / Fluorescent Lamps are provided in the Coaches for Lighting

purposes. Fixed type 400 mm Fans are provided in 2nd Class Coaches and
Swivelling type 400 mm Fans in 1st Class or AC Coaches.
11.5 AXLE GENERATION SYSTEM

WORKING ON DC 110 V SUPPLY
This System has proved to be more reliable and capable of meeting future
increase in load as compared to 24 V DC System. It has, therefore, been
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adopted as standard for all future builds of self generating Coaches. The earlier
24 V Train Lighting System, as such, was also planned to be converted into
110 V Train Lighting System during the course of periodical overhauling of the
Coaches. Since April 1995, all the new Coaches manufactured have 110 V Train
Lighting System only.
In 110 V Train Lighting System, 3.0 KW / 4.5 KW brushless Alternators are driven
through Flat / V-Belt from Axle.
Lead Acid Batteries 110 V, 120 Amp Hrs, arranged from 3-Cell mono-block units,
are provided in the BG Coaches. Two numbers of Emergency feed Terminal
Boxes for BG and one number for MG Coaches are provided on each end wall
for inter-connecting the Coach to adjacent Coach to receive Power, in case the
generation fails. One number Emergency Terminal Box is provided centrally on
each side of under-frame to facilitate charging of Battery from an external source.
For BG AC Coaches, 18 KW / 22.75 KW / 25 KW brushless Alternators are used.
Two such Alternators are used in AC 2-Tier / AC 3-Tier / Chair Cars and one in
AC 1st Coach. Batteries of 800 / 1100 Amp Hrs. capacity at 10 Hr. rate are used
in AC 2-Tier / AC 3-Tier / Chair Cars and 525 Amp Hrs. for an AC 1st Coach.
3-Phase output from 4.5 KW Alternator mounted on the Bogie of the Coach is
fed to the static Regulator-cum-Rectifier Unit (RRU) for rectifying the AC output
to DC and regulating the output voltage & current at different speeds and loads.
The output from Regulator-cum-Rectifier on the under-frame is brought through
cables on the Coach. The load is fed through four Rotary Switches and Fuses,
connecting 2 Light circuits ‘L1’& L2’, one Fan circuit ‘F’ and 2 circuits feeding
Emergency Feed Terminals (EFT). Figure 7.35 provides for the Block Schematic
of the arrangement used.
Figure 7.35 A Schematic layout for 110 V DC Train Lighting System
15
25 and 40 Watt 110 V DC TL Lamps are provided in the non-AC coaches. 25
Watt Lamps are used in Corridor and for Light lamps at Wash-basin and Toilet. 40
W Lamps are used for Lights in the Coach. In AC Coaches, usually, Fluorescent
Tube Light is provided. It is a 2 feet long, 20 W 110 V DC Tube. Tube Lights give
better Illumination and, as such, are now being provided in all non-AC coaches in
place of TL Lamps.
11.6 UTILITY APPLIANCES PROVIDED IN

COACHES
Following are the Utility Appliances provided in Coaches:
(i) Compartment Lights.

(ii) Corridor Lights.
(iii) Night Lights.
(iv) Reading Lights (Berthing Lights), provided in 1st Class and AC Coaches.
(v) Embarkation Lights.
(vi) Tail Light for Brake Vans, Tourist cars and Saloons.
(vii) Signal Light, provided in Brake Vans.
(viii) DC Series universal Fans – 24 / 32 V, 12 inch / 16 inch Sweep, of Fixed /
Swivel type for the Compartment.
(ix) Water Raising Apparatus, provided in Dining Cars, Saloons and Tourist
Cars. (Water Raising Apparatus raises Water from Water Tanks mounted
on the under-frame of Coach to the Roof Tanks).

Questions.
1. Enumerate the Systems of Train Lighting in vogue on Indian Railways.
16
2. Enumerate the Utility Appliances provided in Coaches.
a) Lights and Fans in Axle Generation type System of Train Lighting are fed
from the Dynamo / Alternator and Battery. ( )
b) When Train is halting, Lights and Fans work on Batteries. ( )
c) Brushless Alternators have been replaced by Dynamos in present Train

Lighting Systems. ( )
d) Silicon Blocking Diodes have replaced Auto Cut-in / Cut-out Magnetic

Switches for remote control of Lights and Fans. ( )
e) In Axle Generation System, moving Axle of Coach works as a Prime-

mover for the Dynamo provided therein. ( )
f) Early Train Lighting Systems used 110 V DC Dynamo along with requisite
Battery Back-up & Switch Gears. ( )
g) Present Systems of Train Lighting use Brushless Alternators in place of

Dynamos. ( )
h) 110 V Train Lighting System of today use Brushless Alternators of 10 KW

Rating, which are driven through Flat / V-Belt from Axle. ( )
17
(x) Axle Mounted Brake System with WSP
(xi) Fire and smoke detection system
(xii) Electronic reservation chart
(xiii) Call bell
(xiv) CCTV Camera
(xv) Infotainment System
(xvi) PIS-Passenger Information System
(xvii) LED Destination Board
(xviii) Main Entrance Plug Door
(xix) Vacuum Evacuation System
(xx) Water level indictor for under slung water tank
(xxi) Chair for 200 kmph coaches
(xxii) Window venetian system
(xxiii) Odour dispenser system
11.7 SEPARATE GENERATION CARS
11.7.1 MOG-Mid-On-Generation
Mid-on-Generation Systems are generally used on Branch lines Trains, where
non-Generation period is much more than effective Generation time. There are
two kinds of Mid-on-Generation Systems in vogue:
(i) Mid-on-Generation System with 24 V DC output: Electric Power at 400

V 3-Phase AC is generated by a DG Set on the middle Compartment of
the Train Rake. Power to Coaches is provided at 24 V DC, through step
down Transformers and Rectifiers.
(ii) Mid-on-Generation System with 110 V AC output: Electric Power at
400 V 3-Phase AC is generated by a DG Set on the middle Compartment
of the Train Rake. Power to Coaches is extended at 110 V AC, through
step down Transformers.
The main advantages of Mid-on-Generation are the following:
(i) It does not require Batteries and other valuable equipment on Coaches.
(ii) There is almost uniform lighting throughout the Train Rake.
(iii) System is self-contained and easy to maintain.
The disadvantage is that it creates Noise disturbance and Smoke pollution.
18
11.7.2 EOG-End-On-Generation
A Power car equipped with DG capable of generating adequate Power of 3-
Phase 50 C/s 415 V or 750 V AC is provided at either end of the Train Rake.
The supply to the Coaches is made at 110 V AC for Lights and Fans. Power cars
have Control Panel consisting of Switch Gear and Protective Relays. Both the
Power cars are interconnected with each other through couplers.
The System is self-contained and is free from Pilferage and Miscreant activities.
Power Cars also supply Power to Air-conditioning, Water Raising Apparatuses
and Water Coolers. This type of System is used on most of the important Trains
like Rajdhani Expresses and Shatabdi Expresses.
11.7.3 HOG-Head-On-Generation
The Generating System provided on the Locomotive is known as ‘Head-on-
Generation’ System. In the beginning, Turbo-Generators mounted on Steam
Locomotives were used to supply electric current to a few lights in a Train
Rake of few Coaches. But, as the Train Rake Coaches increased in number
and light requirements also enhanced, the System could not sustain and was
discontinued. However, the HOG scheme is widely used power supply by
Railways world over.The Power Supply sytem for the coaches is either received
from locomotive or it is directly taped from traction overhead lines in to the Power
Cars. The system is considered to provide cost effective, reliable and energy
efficient system for coaches.
HOG scheme can be considered with following two options:-
(i) Hotel load Power taken Electric/Diesel locomotive.

(ii) Hotel load Power Supply taken directly from OHE through a Separate
pantograph mounted on the power car. However, presently this system is not
considered technically feasible for Indian Railways due to some limitations.
RDSO has developed Head on Generation system for electric locomotive. In this
system electrical power for lighting and air conditioning of coaches of EOG train
is fed from Hotel Load Converter on locomotive, rather than from diesel generator
in Power cars.
Total fuel cost of around of Rs.6 Crore per Rajdhani Express and Rs.1 Crore per
Shatabdi Express trains are being saved annually by regular operation on HOG
system considering diesel cost @ Rs.45.00 /litre and accordingly diesel energy
cost Rs.13.00 /KWH.
11.8 TRAIN LIGHTING IN EMUS

Mumbai EMUs take Power from the Overhead 1500 V DC line, and use a Motor
Generator to convert it to 110 V AC for powering Lights and Fans. The EMUs,
19
operating on 25 KV AC OHE, also take Power for lighting purposes from the OHE
and power the Lights and Fans, after stepping it down to 110V AC .
Check Your Progress 2 :

Note:
Questions.
(c) Check your Answers with the one given at the end of this Unit.
1. Enumerate Advantages of Mid-On-Generating Systems:
a) EMUs take Power from the OHE for powering Lights & Fans in Coaches.
( )
b) End-On-Generation System uses two Power Cars at each end of the
Rake to feed its Lighting, Fan & AC Load. ( )
c) Rajdhani Trains are provided with Mid-on Generation. ( )
d) Mid-on / End-on Generator Cars, when provided, also take care of Air-
conditioning Load of the Train. ( )
e) In future, Head-on generating Systems may replace End-on / Mid- on
Generation Systems. ( )
11.9 LET US SUM UP

Provision of Train Lighting in Passenger Trains is one of the most important
Amenities provided by the Railways for the use of Passengers. Train Lighting
function includes working of Fans.
Main Components of the Initially used Train Lighting System included one DC
Dynamo for each Coach, two Sets of 24 V Batteries with a Battery Change-
over Switch to alternately change the Batteries after each halt of the Train and
controlling Switches for connecting the Dynamo output to the Battery when
Dynamo generates adequate voltage to charge the Batteries. A Magnetic Load
switch was also provided for Remote control of all the Lights and Fans in the
Train.
During the course of time, developments took place in Train Lighting area and a
simplified and much more reliable Train Lighting System has now been evolved.
Dynamo has been replaced by Brushless Alternator for ease of Maintenance and
significantly reducing the chances of pilferage and theft. Two sets of Batteries
have been replaced by the single Battery. Auto Cut-in / Cut-out Magnetic
Switches have been replaced by Silicon Blocking Diode and Magnetic Load
20
Switch by Rotary Switches or MCBs. Copper Cables have been replaced by
Aluminum Cables and Brass Components by Galvanised Cast Iron Components.
Two distinct Categories of Train Lighting Systems are presently in use - Axle
Generation type and use of a separate Mid-on / End-on Generator Car.
Most of the modern Train Lighting Systems including Fans work on 110 V DC /
AC Supply.
Utility Appliances provided in Coaches on Lighting side include Compartment

Lights, Corridor Lights, Night Lights, Reading Lights (Berthing Lights) (provided in
1st Class and AC Coaches only), Embarkation Lights and Tail Lights for the Last
vehicle. Fans used are DC Series universal Fans of Fixed / Swivel type.
EMUs take Power for Lights and Fans from the OHE.

CYP 1 :
1. Systems of Train Lighting in vogue on Indian Railways:

(i) Axle Generation System working on DC 24V Supply.
(ii) Axle Generation System working on DC 110V Supply.
(iii) Separate Generation Cars:
(a) Mid-on-Generation with AC 415V 3-phase, AC 415 V utilisation
for Air Conditioning Equipments and AC 110 V / 24 V DC
utilisation for Train Lighting Equipments.
(b) End-on-Generation with AC 415V, 3-phase, AC 415V utilisation
for Air Conditioning Equipments and AC 110V utilisation for
(c) End-on-Generation with AC 750V, 3-phase, AC 415V utilisation
for Air Conditioning Equipments and AC 110V utilisation for
(d) Head-on-Generation, where Generating System is provided in
the Locomotive.
2. Enumerate the Utility appliances provided in Coaches.
(i) Compartment Lights.
(ii) Corridor Lights.
(iii) Night Lights.
(iv) Reading Lights (Berthing Lights), provided in 1st Class and AC
Coaches.
21
(v) Embarkation Lights.
(vi) Tail Light for Brake Vans, Tourist Cars and Saloons.
(vii) Signal Light, provided in Brake Vans.
(viii) DC Series universal Fans – 24 / 32 V, 12 inch / 16 inch Sweep, of
Fixed / Swivel type for the Compartment.
(ix) Water Raising Apparatus, provided in Dining Cars, Saloons and
Tourist Cars. (Water Raising Apparatus raises Water from Water
Tanks mounted on the under-frame of Coach to the Roof Tanks).
3. True / False :
a) True. b) True. c). False. d) True.
e) True. f) False. g) True. h) False.
CYP 2 :
1. Advantages of Mid-On-Generation System:

(i) It does not require Batteries and other valuable equipment on
Coaches.
(ii) There is almost uniform lighting throughout the Train Rake.\
(iii) System is self-contained and easy to maintain.
2. True / False :
a) True. b) True. c) False. d) True. e) False.
UNIT END QUESTIONS
Q. 1 Explain the various types of Train Lighting Systems and state their
advantages and disadvantages.
Q. 2 Explain in brief the principle of working of a typical Train Lighting System
in use at present.
Q. 3 State whether the following Statements are TRUE or FALSE:
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Aspects of Railway
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UNIT-12
Air-Conditioning of Coaches
Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Types of Air-conditioned Coaches
12.3 Essential Components of fully Air-conditioned Coaches of Self-
generating types
12.4 Functioning of Air-conditioning System
12.4.1 Principle of Air-conditioning
12.5 Roof Mounted Ventilation Units (RMVU) for EMU Trains
12.6 Maintenance of Train Lighting and Air-conditioning Systems
12.7 Let Us Sum Up
12.8 Check Your progress :
The Key Unit End Questions
23
12.0 OBJECTIVES
(i) List the various Systems that are presently in use for Air-conditioning of
Coaches on Indian Railways.
(ii) Discuss the types of Air-conditioned Coaches available on the System.
(iii) Describe the essential Components of a Self-generating type fully Air-
conditioned Coach.
(iv) Explain as to what comprises of a typical Air-conditioning System and
how it functions.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding Unit, we discussed the Train Lighting Systems on Indian
Railways and how these were evolved. In this Unit, we have discussed another
important application of the Electricity on Railways & the Air- conditioning of the
Railway Coaches and the Systems available for the same.
India is a tropical country where climate is dusty, humid and severely hot or
cold. Air-conditioning of Railway Coaches provides controlled temperature and
humidity and dust-free air to make the journey of Passengers more comfortable.
Air Conditioning of Coaches on Indian Railways began in 1960s. These were
equipped with under slung Equipments, interconnected with pipelines. The
introduction of self-contained Roof Mounted Package Units (RMPU) in Coaches,
with complete Equipments, pre-charged and tested needing only electrical and
ducting connections is of the recent origin. Almost all Mail and Express Trains
have now Air-conditioned Coaches to meet the Passenger requirements. In fact,
after noticing the popularity of 2-Tier AC Sleeper Coaches, where fare is almost
at par with 1st Class Fare, Indian Railways decided to stop further manufacture
of 1st Class Coaches and gradually replace the existing 1st Class Coaches by
2-Tier AC Sleepers. Recently, Indian Railways have also introduced AC 3-Tier
Coaches. Shatabdi and Rajdhani Express Trains, in addition, also have in their
Rake Composition AC Chair Cars Compartments. Shatabdi Expresses have two
kinds of AC Chair Cars – 2nd Class and the Executive Class.
12.2 TYPES OF AIR-CONDITIONED

COACHES
There are basically two types of Air-conditioned Coaches:
(i) Self-generating Type Coaches: In these Coaches Air-conditioning and

Coach Lighting Load is fed from Alternator (s) and Batteries mounted on
24
the Coach. This type of Coaches work on Trains where Generator Cars
are not provided.Power Supply for AC equipments is met from axle driven
transom mounted brushless alternator rated 110 V DC supply.
(ii) Non-self-generating Type Coaches: Here Electric Power to the Coach
is fed from Generator Cars in the Train. Normally, most of the Coaches
provided on Shatabdis and Rajdhani Trains are fed from Generator Cars.
The Air-conditioned Coaches, on Indian Railways, can be further divided into the
following categories:
(i) 1st Class Air-conditioned Coaches: Complete Coach is Air-

conditioned. The Coach Light and AC equipment work on 110 V DC
System. These Coaches are luxuriously furnished and provide very
comfortable travel.
(ii) Air-conditioned Chair Cars: These are non-Generating type Coaches,
provided on Rajdhani, Deluxe and Shatabdi Express Trains, where Power
is received from Generator Cars. Self-generating type Coaches are
provided on Jan Shatabdi Express Trains.
(iii) 2-Tier and 3-Tier Air-conditioned Sleeper Coaches: These are self-
generating type AC Coaches. The System works on 110 V DC. These
Coaches are provided in almost all important Trains. They have provision
of taking Power Supply from Generator Cars, when connected to Trains
having Generator Cars. In 3-Tier Air-conditioned Coaches, the Equipment
is Roof mounted, whereas the 2-Tier Coaches have under-slung
Equipment. Now 2-Tier Coaches are also provided with Roof-mounted
Package Units.
12.3 ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF

FULLY AIR-CONDITIONED COACHES
OF SELF- GENERATING TYPE
Following are the essential Equipments of Air-conditioning in Coaches of self-
generating type:
(i) 18 KW Brushless Alternator with Rectifier-cum-Regulator driven through

V-Belts from the Axle.
(ii) 110 V DC Batteries of 525 or 800 or 1100 AHr. Capacity.
(iii) Refrigeration System comprising of:
(a) Compressor, driven by DC Motor of 110 V.
(b) Condenser and Cooling Fan Motors.
(c) Refrigerant and Closed circuit Piping.
(d) Expansion Valve.
25
(e) Evaporator Unit with Blower Fans and driving Motors.
(f) Heaters.
(g) Controlling Thermostats and Pressure Switches.
(h) Switch Board and Master Controller.
(i) Water Raising Apparatus with Automatic Pressure Control Switch.

(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following
Questions.
1. Enumerate the essential components of Air-conditioning in Coaches of
self-generating type.

a) Earlier AC Coaches were equipped with RMPUs in Coaches. Under-slung
equipment interconnected with Pipelines is of recent origin. ( )
b) In Self-generating type AC Coaches, Air-conditioning & Lighting Load is
fed from Alternators and Batteries, mounted on the Coach. ( )
12.4 FUNCTIONING OF
AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM
Comfortable Temperature range is 720 F, during Summer and 650 to 700 during
Winter. In earlier Systems, there are three settings of controlled temperature viz.
720 F, 750 F and 780 F for Summer Cooling and corresponding Winter Heating is
effected at 650 F, 680 F or 700 F, depending on Low, Medium and High position
of Master Controller. Automatic controlled Electronic Thermostats are now being
provided with single Range setting viz.
26
230-250 C in Summer and 190-210 C in Winter to avoid manual setting for better
comfort to Passengers. Fresh Air 25% during each cycle is added continuously
and remaining 75% of the Air of the Coach is re-circulated.
12.4.1 Principle of Air-conditioning

Air-conditioning is the process by which Air is cooled and dehumidified. The
principles of Evaporation and Condensation are utilised in functioning of an
Air-conditioning System. There are seven basic components - the Compressor,
Condenser, Expansion Valve, Evaporator, Liquid Receiver, Dehydrator-cum-Filter
and the life-blood of the AC System, the Refrigerant. Refer to Figure 7.36.
Figure 7.36 Block Schematic of an Air-conditioning System
(i) Compressor: The Compressor is the power unit of the AC System. It has
a two fold function. It pumps out Refrigerant vapours from the Evaporator
under high pressure and high heat to the Condenser, at a rate, which
will permit steady state conditions of temperature and pressure in the
Evaporator. It discharges the vapours at a pressure and temperature high
enough to permit heat rejection along a descending temperature gradient
to the Cooling Water or Air of the Condenser.
(ii) Condenser: Its function is to change the high-pressure Refrigerant
vapours to liquid state. It may be air cooled or water cooled.
(iii) Expansion Valve: The function of expansion Valve is to control and
regulate the rate of flow of liquid Refrigerant (the Freon) under high
27
pressure and allow it into the Evaporator under low pressure. The
heat load on an Evaporator varies over a wide range. The Expansion
valve admits more Refrigerant, when Air-conditioning load is high and
reduces it to the minimum, when the load is low. All this is accomplished
automatically.
(iv) Evaporator: This constitutes the Cooling unit, in which the liquid Freon
under low pressure evaporates and in doing so, it takes away its quota of
latent heat, thereby cooling the medium surrounding the Cooling Coil.
(v) Liquid Receiver: The Refrigerant liquid leaving the Condenser is led into
the liquid Receiver, from where it proceeds to the Expansion Valve on the
Evaporator. The Liquid Receiver is a cylindrical container, which contains
a reserve of the liquid Refrigerant.
(vi) Dehydrator-cum-Filter: The moisture may freeze and block the
Expansion Valve orifice and also cause corrosion in working parts. The
Dehydrator is a drying device containing Silica gel or other similar drying
agent inserted in the Refrigerant line for removing the moisture from the
Refrigerant, while in operation. A Filter is also usually incorporated, to
prevent small particles or scales in pipes blocking the fine orifice in the
Expansion Valve.
(vii) Refrigerant: Refrigerant is a liquid, capable of vapourising at a low
temperature. Refrigerants accomplish energy transfer by means of a
cyclical thermodynamic process, which involves two changes of state.
Refrigerants absorb heat as they evaporate at a low temperature and
pressure and they surrender this heat, as they condense at higher
temperature and pressure.
In Heating cycle, the Thermostat Switches on Heaters and the Blower Fans
make the air pass through Heaters, thereby heating the air and so increasing the
Coach temperature above atmospheric temperature according to the position of
Selector. Electronic Thermostats are now being provided to automatically control
the Coach temperature. Manual change over is now not required.
12.5 Roof Mounted Ventilation

Units (RMVU) for EMU Trains
Roof Mounted Ventilation Units(RMVUs) are being provided for fresh air insid
EMU coaches to make the journey more comfortable for passengers in Mumbai
Suburban system.Two RMVUs have been installed in each unit provide fresh
air at the rate of 7500 m/hr. RMVU has been designed such that CO2 level in
side the Super Dense Crush Loaded ((SDCL) coaches does not exceed the
permissible threshold limit of the order of 700 ppm above the CO2 concentration
in air outside as per American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-
Conditioning Engineers (ASHARE).
28
12.6 MAINTENANCE OF TRAIN LIGHTING
AND AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
The Train Rakes are based at originating Station Depots, where Primary
Scheduled Maintenance is carried out for main Lighting and Air-conditioning
Equipment by checking and replacing the wearing out parts. Functioning of the
Equipment is also checked on each trip and defects set right for trouble free
working of the Systems.
Secondary Maintenance is carried out at the end of each trip of Train, where
Train Lighting and Air-conditioning Staff checks the functioning of all Equipment
and remove defects as noticed during checking. The Complaints of Guard and
accompanying Staff, if any, are attended to. Deficiencies found during checking
are replenished to make the Rake fit for the next trip. However, major deficiencies
are made good at the Primary Maintenance Depots only.
Normally, Stations where the Train Rakes are based, are responsible for carrying
out Primary as well as Secondary Maintenance and at other Stations where
Trains terminate, only Secondary Maintenance is carried out.
A. The following are the maintenance schedules carried out on air-conditioned

coaches.
OO Trip Schedule
OO Monthly Schedule
OO Three Monthly Schedule
OO POH-One year
Final testing of A/c coach after POH is done as per following instructions:-
 Visual inspection of coach for proper fitment of equipments.

 Ensure the refrigerant pipes are properly clamped.
 Check earth leakage by two lamp method.
 Check refrigeration system for any leakage before gas charging.
a. Vacuum test (for 12hrs)
b. Pressure test (by charging Freon 12 or Co2 gas)
 Vacuum test for 15 minutes for dehydration of refrigeration system.
 Check heaters for correct operation
 Spart the plant and check condenser motor, compressor motor, blower
motor for any abnormality.
 Check oil level in compressor.
29
 Run the plant for 4hrs. An equivalent heat load (convector heater) should
be kept for performance test of plain.
 Suction pressure gauge reading should be 2.6-2.8 kg/cm2.
 Delivery pressure gauge reading should be 10-12 kg/cm2.
 Oil pressure should be minimum 3kg/cm2 above suction pressure.
 Feel temperature- Suction should be cold and sweaty. Delivery should be
very hot and liquid line should be warm.

Note:
Questions.
State whether the following Statements are True / False:
i) Evaporator and Cooling Coils are two distinct items of an Air-
conditioning Circuit. ( )
ii) Rajdhani Express Trains employ Roof-mounted Units for Air-
conditioning of Coaches. ( )
iii) Expansion Valve is of large opening for allowing more Refrigerants.
( )
iv) Dehydrator is a device which is inserted in the Refrigerant line for
removing the moisture from the Refrigerant, while in operation. ( )
v) Primary Maintenance of an Air-conditioned Coach is always done at
the starting point of the Train-trip. ( )
12.7 LET US SUM UP

Air-conditioning of Railway Coaches provides controlled temperature and
humidity and dust-free air to make the journey of Passengers more comfortable.
There are basically two types of Air-conditioned Coaches, available on Indian

Railways – the Self-generating Type & Non-self-generating Types. In the latter
type, the Electric Power to the Coach is fed from Generator Cars in the Train. In
Self-generating Types, the Air-conditioning as also Coach Lighting Load is fed
from Alternator (s) and Batteries mounted on the Coach. The Equipment is either
Roof-mounted or slung under the Chassis.
Class-wise, Indian Railways have 1st Class Air-conditioned Coach, 2-Tier &
3-Tier Air-conditioned Sleepers and Air-conditioned Chair Cars.
30
Essential Equipments of Air-conditioning in Coaches of Self-generating type
include Brushless Alternator with Rectifier-cum-Regulator driven through V-
Belts from the Axle, 110 V DC Batteries and Refrigeration System comprising
of Compressor, Condenser, Refrigerant & associated Closed circuit Piping,
Expansion Valve, Evaporator Unit and Controlling Thermostats and Pressure
Switches. Heaters are also included in the System for maintaining good
temperature during Winters.
In earlier Systems, there are three settings of controlled temperature viz. 720
F, 750 F and 780 F for Summer Cooling and corresponding Winter Heating is
affected at 650 F, 680 F or 700 F, depending on Low, Medium and High position
of Master Controller. Automatic controlled Electronic Thermostats are now being
provided with single Range setting viz. 230-250 C in Summer and 190-210 C in
Winter to avoid manual setting for better comfort to Passengers. Fresh Air 25%
during each
The Train Rakes are based at originating Station Depots, where Primary
Scheduled Maintenance is carried out for main Lighting and Air-conditioning
Equipment by checking and replacing the wearing out parts. Functioning of the
Equipment is also checked on each trip and defects set right for trouble free
working of the Systems.
Secondary Maintenance is carried out at the end of each trip of Train, where
Train Lighting and Air-conditioning Staff checks the functioning of all Equipment
and remove defects as noticed during checking.

CYP 1 :
1. Components of Air-conditioning in Coaches of Self-generating type:

(i) 18 KW Brushless Alternator with Rectifier-cum-Regulator driven
through V-Belts from the Axle.
(ii) 110 V DC Batteries of 525 or 800 or 1100 AHr. Capacity.
(iii) Refrigeration System comprising of:
(a) Compressor, driven by DC Motor of 110 V.
(b) Condenser and Cooling Fan Motors.
(c) Refrigerant and Closed circuit Piping.
(d) Expansion Valve.
(e) Evaporator Unit with Blower Fans and driving Motors.
(f) Heaters.
(g) Controlling Thermostats and Pressure Switches.
31
(h) Switch Board and Master Controller.
(i) Water Raising Apparatus with Automatic Pressure Control
Switch.
2. True / False:
a) False. b) True.
CYP 2 :
True / False:
i) True. ii) True. iii) True. iv) True. v) False.
UNIT END QUESTIONS
Q. 1 Enumerate the various types of AC Coaches used on Indian Railways and

state where they are used?
Q. 2 Explain, in brief, the principle of working of a typical Air-conditioning
System.
32
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Aspects of Railway
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UNIT-13
Electric Traction
Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 History of Development of Electric Traction
13.3 Progress of Railway Electrification
13.4 Advantages of Railway Electrification
13.5 Systems of Electric Traction
13.6 Overhead Equipment
13.6.1 Regulated and Un-regulated OHE
13.6.2 Anti-creep Arrangement
13.6.3 Feeding Systems
13.7 Working of Electric Traction
13.8 Power Supply Arrangements
13.8.1 Neutral Section
13.8.2 Sectioning of OHE
13.8.3 Other Equipments at Switching Stations
13.9 Control of Power Supply Arrangements
13.10 Maintenance of Overhead and Power Supply Equipment
13.11 Electric Locomotives
13.12 Development of High Rise Overhead Equipment
13.13 Let Us Sum Up
Unit End Questions
33
13.0 OBJECTIVES
(i) List the advantages of Electric Traction and the impact it makes in the
Operation of Railways.
(ii) Distinguish between the various types of Railway Electric Traction
Systems available and those which are in use in our Country.
(iii) Compare the Superiority of AC Traction with DC Traction.
(iv) State the different Components / Sub-systems in a 25 KV AC Traction
System and describe Electric Traction works.
(v) Explain the Power Supply Arrangements made in a 25 KV AC Electric
Traction Scheme and the facilities needed for efficient Maintenance of the
Traction System.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
First Railway service started in India on 16 april 1853 when the first train was
flagged off from from Bombay (Mumbai) to Thane, to cover a distance of 34 kms
with 14 coaches and 400 passengers.
The First steam loco no.F-734 was built by Ajmer workshop of Rajputana Malwa
Railway.
Railway Board was formed in 1901.
First Train on electric traction started on 1500 V DC System from Bombay

Victoria Terminus to Kurla Harbour on 3rd. Feb.1925.
Upto Independence, India had only 388 RKM of electrified tracks.
Post-independence electrification of Howrah-Burdwan section was carried out at

3000 V DC EMU services were started on 14th.Dec.1957.
Keeping in line with international standards for electric traction 25000 V(25 kV
AC) Alternating Current traction System was adopted in IR in 1961.
13.2 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT

OF ELECTRIC TRACTION
Railway Electrification made a beginning with the inauguration of first Electric
Traction between Bombay VT and Kurla Harbour on 3rd February 1925 on Ex
GIP Railway System at 1500 V DC. This was an epoch-making development,
34
because it was realised that it would no longer be possible to run the suburban
trains with increasing frequency with Steam Traction in order to cater to the
heavy suburban traffic on both the GIPR (now Central Railway ) and the Bombay
Baroda and Central Indian Railway (BBCI) (now Western Railway ) Systems
in Bombay. It was also being realised that the Steam Traction was no longer
capable of hauling heavy freight Trains across the Western Ghats, with the
high gradient of one in 37 on both the Igatpuri and Pune Routes, with Steam
Locomotives. The Electric Traction, introduced between Bombay VT and Kurla
Harbour was, therefore, subsequently extended upto Igatpuri and to Pune to
meet the requirements of Ghat sections.
In 1928, 1500 V DC Traction was introduced on suburban line of BBCI (now

Western Railway) between Colaba and Borivli (Colaba Station of BBCI was later
demolished and the southern-most Terminus of BBCI was built at Churchgate),
which was later extended upto Virar. In 1931, in the South, the section ‘Madras
Beach - Tambaram’ on Southern Railway was electrified, again with 1500 V DC.
This was also an important busy suburban section. By the time Independence
came, the total Electrified Route Kilometres over the Indian Railway System
was 388 and this was DC Electrification, with 1500 V and with overhead current
collection.
In the post Independence era, Electrification of ‘Howrah - Burdwan’ section of

Eastern Railway was taken up, but with 3000 V DC during the First Five Year
Plan and completed in 1958. The first suburban Train, in the Calcutta Area,
however, ran in 1954.
The second Five Year Plan (1957-62) brought a boost in Railway Electrification
in the wake of Industrial development in the Eastern Region, due to setting up
of Steel Plants and consequent large scale movement of Iron Ore, Coal and
Minerals. The Steam Locomotives, which had served the Railways in India
faithfully for over a Century, were no longer capable of hauling Heavy Trains.
By this time, as a result of extensive Research and trials in Europe, particularly

on French Railways (SNCF), 25 KV AC System of Traction emerged as an
economical system of Electrification. Indian Railways in 1957, therefore, decided
to adopt 25 KV AC system of Electrification as a Standard with SNCF as their
Consultant in the initial stages. ‘Rajkharswan – Dongoaposi’ section (mainly an
Iron Ore carrying line) of South Eastern Railway was the first section electrified on
25 KV AC system in the year 1960. With a view to provide continuity of Traction
System, ‘Howrah - Burdwan’ section of Eastern Railway and ‘Madras Beach -
Tambaram’ section of Southern Railway were converted to 25 KV AC in 1968.
During early sixties, indigenous manufacture of Electric Multiple Units (EMUs)

was planned in Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Perambur and first EMU rolled out
in September 1962 and was put into service for suburban traffic in Calcutta.
With the passage of time and as a result of dedicated efforts, Indian Railways
now have near total indigenous capability for Electrification, both for fixed
Installations and Rolling Stock.
35
13.3 PROGRESS OF RAILWAY
ELECTRIFICATION
During 2nd Five Year Plan, 216 RKMs were equipped with 25 KV AC Traction.
During the 3rd Plan, along with considerable Indigenisation, the Electrification
was extended over another 1678 RKMs. The pace of Electrification, thereafter,
slowed down until the oil crisis of seventies. Oil crisis brought to the fore the need
for evolving a long term Policy for Electrification to reduce the dependence of
Railways on Petroleum based energy.
In 1980, a Committee of Secretaries headed by Cabinet Secretary decided that

the Railways should speed up Electrification at a pace of 1000 RKMs, every
year. Accordingly, the pace of Electrification on Indian Railways was considerably
speeded up and the Indian Railways achieved progress of 2812 RKMs, during
the 7th Plan making it a total of 9252 RKMs. Railways completed 2708 RKMs of
Electrification in 8th Plan and 2484 RKMs, during the 9th Plan. For the 10th Five
Year Plan (2002-2007), the Target for completion is 2500 RKMs.
As of March 2005, Indian Railways have electrified a total of 17,495 RKMs, which
constitutes 27.6% of the total Route Kilometrage. Three Zonal Railways, namely
North Eastern, North Frontier and North Western still are without any Electrified
Route. Electrified Route is carrying nearly 65% of the Freight and 48% of the
Passenger traffic on IR.
Electrified Route on Indian Railways now covers almost all the major Trunk
and Main Line Routes, namely ‘Delhi - Howrah (via Chord Line and via Main
Line)’, ‘Delhi - Mumbai (via Western and Central Railway Routes)’, ‘Delhi -
Chennai’, ‘Mumbai - Howrah’, ‘Chennai - Ernakulam - Trivendrum’, ‘Chennai -
Visakhapatnam - Bhubneshwar - Puri’ and ‘Delhi - Ambala - Ludhiana - Amritsar
- Pathankot – Jammu Tawi’ and ‘Delhi - Moradabad - Lucknow - Mughalsarai
- Patna’ etc. Works on left out sub-sections of ‘Howrah - Chennai’ and ‘Mumbai
-Chennai’ Trunk Routes are in progress.
ELECTRIFICATION
Route Kms. % of electrified to

Year Total Route Kms.
electrified total route kms.
1980-81 61240 5345 8.73
1990-91 62367 9968 15.98
2000-01 63028 14856 23.57
2010-11 64460 19607 30.41
2014-15 66030 22224 33.66
2015-16 66687 23555 35.32
The mismatch between the Bombay System of 1500 Volt DC and countrywide
25 KV AC 50 Hz. System is being removed by converting the old System also
36
to 25 KV System. For the present, dual voltage (WACM) Locos and dual-
voltage Traction Motors on Electric Multiple Units (EMU) are being employed to
continually carry the traffic.
13.4 ADVANTAGES OF RAILWAY

ELECTRIFICATION
The Projects of Railway Electrification are justified on the basis of Internal Rate
of Return (ROR) (14%, at present) as an alternative to Diesel Traction. Electric
Traction, provides for an economic Mode of Transportation with capability to Haul
of Heavier Loads at Higher speeds. On Electrified Routes, 4500 Tonne Freight
Trains are being run as a regular measure by a single Locomotive on Level and
slightly graded sections. On Passenger traffic side, a single Electric Loco is now
hauling 24 Coaches in Mail / Express Trains. Shatabdi / Rajdhani Express Trains
are operating at a speed of 130 / 140 Kmph.
Other spin-off benefits, offered by Electrification, which generally go un- noticed

but are significant to Railways and Public, are as under:
(i) Energy Conservation: Transport Sector has a substantial portion of

National Energy consumption. The improvement in energy efficiency
in the Transport Sector is of vital importance in the context of energy
economy as well as energy saving. Railways are far more energy
efficient in comparison of Road and within Railways, Electric Traction has
proved to be most energy efficient. Had Indian Railways totally remained
dependent on Diesel Haul, IR would have been consuming HSD worth
Rs. 4,500 Cr. or so every year additionally. Diesel, being imported,
Railway Electrification has, thus, helped in conserving precious Foreign
Exchange.
(ii) Electrification Makes the Railway System conducive to
Modernisation: Electrification has caused major impetus to Technological
up-gradation on Indian Railways. Some of these are listed below:
(a) Modernisation of Equipments: With Electrification, Indian
Railways have introduced State-of-Art Technologies, as prevalent
in International Arena, in Electrical as well as in Signalling &
Telecommunications, with accompanying benefits.
(b) Provision of Remote Supervisory Control: Power Supply
Network for Electrification extending along the Track over a Zone
of about 200 / 300 Kms. is centrally controlled from the Divisional
Control Centre through Remote Control arrangements (SCADA
- Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System) to ensure un-
interrupted Power Supply to the Track Overhead Equipment. SCADA
has facilities for Telemetering of Voltage, Current, Maximum Demand
and Power Factor on a Real Time basis, which enables control of
37
Maximum Demand and thereby the Charges thereof to be paid to
State Electricity Boards. In addition, the SCADA System provides for
automatic Trouble Shooting and speedy Isolation of faulty section.
(iii) Provides Neat, Clean and Pollution-free Mode of Transport. Surrounding
Environment also becomes Pollution-free. Electric Traction is proven to
cause no environmental pollution than the existing Diesel Mode and thus
is more eco-friendly. It also reduces Noise pollution and consequently
causes lesser disturbances to wild life in protected areas.In a study
conducted by TERI, electric traction is found to be about three times more
energy efficient than diesel traction.
(iv) Enables Faster and Cleaner Suburban and Inter-city Passenger Services
through EMUs (Electrical Multiple Units) and MEMUs (Main Line EMUs).
EMU services form the backbone of suburban Transportation in the
Metropolitan cities of Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and now in Delhi.
In Mumbai alone, around 2000 EMU Trains are running daily on the
suburban sections of Western & Central Railways, which cater to 5 million
Passengers every day.
(v) Enables Station Electrification even in areas not served by Electricity
Boards.
(vi) Provides Alternate and more Reliable Power supply to Stations for
Operational Needs and Passenger Amenities.
(vii) Safer than Diesel Traction as a Train in mid section can be stopped by
TPC on receipt of Warning / Emergency.
(viii) In the event of Derailment and subsequent OHE damage, Train coming
on adjacent line is protected against dashing with the derailed Train. This
is done by switching OFF Power of healthy line, as per extant rule.
(ix). Environmental Cost: Environmental cost of electric traction, based on
cost of abatement of green house gas emissions, is 0.015 Re./ton-km for
electric traction and 0.51 Re./ton-km for diesel traction.
(x). Carbon foot print: Contribution of electric traction of currently electrified
tracks towards reduction in green house gas (GHG) emission is 3.36
million tone carbon equivalents per day.
(xi). Regenerative energy produced in three phase Electrical Rolling Stock during
braking of trains, results in saving in energy consumption of about 30%.
(ix) Provision of most economic reliable electric contract system to
continuously supply power to the moving electric rolling stock.
(x) Modernization of Signalling & Telecommunication.
(xi) Provision of maintenance and operation facilities for electric traction.
(xii) Provision of colour light signals and immunization on the signalling

installation against induction effect of 25kv ac traction power supply
system.
38
(xiii) Provision of underground cables for Railway’s telecommunication lines
and provision of additional traction control circuits.
(xiv) Yard modelling, siding and oil track works.
(xv) Electrification and air-conditioning of service buildings and staff quart.
Despite the numerous Advantages, the main hurdle in spreading Electrification is

the Capital cost of the Electrification equipment, which tends to mitigate against
Electrification of long distance lines which do not carry a heavy & frequent
service. Keeping Capital cost in view, only the Suburban Railways with closely-
spaced Stations & High traffic density and the Main lines carrying Heavy and
Dense traffic can only be justified for remunerative returns.

Questions.
1. Enumerate, in brief, the Advantages of Railway Electrification.
2. What have been the main hurdles in spreading the Electrification on Indian
Railways.
39
3 State whether the following Statements are True / False:
a) Electrification Makes the Railway System conducive to Modernisation.( )
b) Railway Electrification made a beginning in India in the Year 1925 on Ex.
GIP Railway. ( )
c) 25 KV AC Electrification was first introduced on Indian Railways in the
year 1990. ( )
d) About 28% of Route Kilometres of Indian Railways are at present
electrified. ( )
13.5 SYSTEMS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION

The earlier Systems of Electric Traction were developed on 600 to 750 V DC.
Voltage was later raised to 1500 V and then to 3000 V. The DC system is quite
simple, but it requires thick conductors and short distances between Feeder
Stations because of the heavy currents required. Typical distance between the
two Feeder Stations at 3000 V System is about 25 Kms. Additionally, there are
significant Resistive Losses (I2R Losses) in DC System. Heavier Pantographs
(Current collecting Mechanism) are also required and the Pantograph is to be
kept pressed more firmly against the Contact wire, causing more wear and tear.
High Voltages for Traction were developed to reduce the size of the Power
carrying conductor and to reduce the Transmission Losses. High Voltage would
mean Low current for the same Power and consequent to that I2R Losses would
be lower and reduced size would be required for the current carrying conductors.
Research and Development undertaken in the area of Electric Traction proved 25
KV, as being the ideal Voltage for use for this purpose.
Basic requirements of Electric Traction System are mainly:
(i) Availability of High Starting Tractive Effort, and

(ii) Variation of Speed with ease.
(iii) High Traffic density.
(iv) Passenger commuter sections.
DC series Motors provide very high Starting Tractive Effort, Torque developed in
such Motors being proportional to square of the Starting Current. The Tractive
Effort reduces as the speed increases and then becomes almost constant above
certain speed. This characteristics of DC Series Motors is ideally suited for
Electric Traction and this was the reason as to why the early Systems developed
for Electric Traction used DC Power Supply. In fact, even in the AC Traction
Systems, AC Power is first converted to DC in the Locomotive and then fed to
DC Traction Motors. However, with the advancement of Technology, 3-Phase AC
40
Motors also have been adopted for Traction and are in use in some countries.
Indian Railways have also some Locomotives with 3-Phase AC Motors.
Various Systems adopted for Electric Traction can be classified by following two
main Parameters:
(i) The Feeding Voltage: DC or AC.

(a) 600 / 750 V DC.
(b) 1500 V DC.
(c) 3000 V DC.
(d) 25 KV AC 50 HZ.
(e) 11 KV AC 25 HZ.
(f) 50 KV 60 Hz.
(ii) Methodology of Current collection:
(a) Conductor Rail - Third Rail or Fourth Rail.
(b) Overhead Line - Catenary.
On Indian Railways, Voltages used are 1500 V DC and 25 KV AC for Main line
as well as suburban Trains. Mumbai Area still uses Overhead 1500 V DC but is
shortly getting converted to 25 KV AC.
Calcutta had an Overhead 3000 V DC System until 1968, when it was converted
to 25 KV AC.
The Madras suburban Routes ‘Madras - Tambaram’ in the 1960s, extended later
to Villupuram used to be 1500 V DC until about 1968, when it was converted to
25 KV AC.
The 25 KV AC System with Overhead Supply from a Catenary is mostly used

throughout the rest of the Country. Sections ‘Bishrampur - Katni’ of South Eastern
Central Railway and ‘Bina - Katni’ of West Central Railway have, however, been
provided with 2 x 25 KV Single Phase AC Traction.
The Kolkata Metro uses 750 V DC Traction. The Delhi Metro uses 25 KV AC
Traction.
Most Electrification Systems use Overhead wires, but Third Rail is an option up
to about 1200 V. While use of a Third Rail does not require the specific use of
DC, in practice all Third Rail Systems use DC because it can carry more power
than an AC System operating at the same peak Voltage. Third Rail is more
compact than Overhead wires and can be used in smaller Diameter Tunnels, an
important factor for Subway Systems.
In Third Rail Systems, electricity is supplied through the Third Rail, running
parallel to the track. The Loco has a Shoe, which maintains sliding contact with
it while the Train is in motion, to draw current from it. Third Rail systems can be
41
designed to use Top contact, Side contact, or Bottom contact. Top contact is
less safe, as the live Rail is exposed to people treading on the Rail unless an
insulating hood of some sort is provided. Side and Bottom contact Third Rail can
easily have Safety Shields incorporated and carried by the Rail itself.
In practice, the top speed of Trains on Third Rail Systems is limited to 160 Kmph
because above that speed reliable contact between the Shoe and the Rail cannot
be maintained.
Third Rail Traction is seen only in the Kolkata Metro in India.
Delhi Metro uses Overhead Traction with a Catenary on the ground level and
elevated Routes and a rather unusual ‘Rigid Catenary’ or ‘Overhead Power Rail’
in the underground Tunnel sections.
The London Underground Subway is one of the few Networks in the world that
uses a Four Rail System. The additional Rail carries the Electrical Return that
on the Third Rail and Overhead Networks is provided by the Running Rails. On
the London Underground a Top contact Third Rail is placed beside the track,
energised at (+) 420 V DC, and a Top contact Fourth Rail is located centrally
between the running Rails at (-) 210 V DC, which combine to provide a Traction
Voltage of 630 V DC.
In Overhead System, wires carrying Electric Power are provided over the track.
For collection of Power, the moving Vehicles are provided with a device called
‘Pantograph’, which maintains continuous touch with the overhead wires.

Note:
Questions.
1. Fill in the Blanks:
a) Basic Requirements of Electric Traction are ————— & ———
——.
b) System of Electric Traction in Mumbai Suburban sections is ——
———.
c) System of Electric Traction in Kolkata Suburban sections is ———
——.
d) System of Electric Traction in Kolkata Metro is —————.
e) System of Electric Traction in Delhi Metro is —————.
42
2. State whether the following Statements are True or False:
a) Underground portion of Delhi Metro uses Third Rail Method for current
collection. ( )
b) London Underground System uses Four Rail System, wherein Third and
Fourth Rails are used for current Collection & Return. ( )
c) High Voltages were developed for Electric Traction to reduce the size of
Power crying conductor & to reduce the Transmission Losses. ( )
d) DC Series Motors are used in 25 KV AC Electric Traction to provide for

high Tractive Effort. ( )
e) In Overhead System of Electric Traction, wires carrying Electric Power are

provided just on the side of track so that current collecting device called
‘Pantograph’ can make continuous contact with them. ( )
13.6 OVERHEAD EQUIPMENT:

The term ‘Overhead Equipment’ includes wires above the tracks for supply
of Electric Power for Trains and their supporting structures and fittings. Major
Components of OHE are as follows (Refer to Figure 7.37 & Photograph of OHE
at Figure 7.39):
Figure : 7.37 Schematic of Overhead Equipment (OHE)
43
Figure : 7.39: Photographs of an Overhead Equipment Structure &
Pantograph, a Current Collecting Device on the Locomotive
(i) Structure of Masts:

These are used to support Overhead Wires. This can be either a single
Mast or a Portal Structure spanning over a number of Tracks. On
sections, where 4 or more than 4 Tracks are running parallel and there
is no space between the lines to provide Masts, Portals are used. The
nearest Track implantation i.e. setting distance of any structure from the
centre of nearest Track should be minimum 2.8 m for tangent track in
order to facilitate Engineering Machine working. As a standard practice,
an independent mast is used to support the OHE for each track to obtain
mechanical independence steel masts are of four types i.e. BFB(Broad
Flanged Beam), RSJ (Rolled Steel Joist) and fabricated rectangular
sectional mast of K and B type.
(ii) Insulators:
These are used to insulate the live portion from structures or Masts. For
providing electrical Isolating arrangements on Emergency cross- over or
Loop lines, Section Insulators are used, which provide electrical Isolation
between the two OHE on either side of it with mechanical continuity to
enable Pantograph to glide over it smoothly for passage of Train. Solid
Core Porcelain Insulators are used to support the OHE as Bracket and
stay arm insulator. For termination 9 ton insulators are used.
(iii) Bracket Assembly:
This is used for supporting Contact and Catenary Wires.
(iv) Contact Wire:
The Wire, which comes directly in contact with Pantograph (current
collecting device on the moving Vehicle) is called the Contact wire. It
is a solid hard drawn grooved electrolytic copper Wire of 12.24 mm
dia and 107 sq. mm cross section (for 25 KV AC Traction) and made
of hard drawn copper (See Figure 7.38 for the Cross- section). Total
Current Carrying capacity of both wire is 600 amps. The condemning
size of contact wire is 8.25 mm.This is maintained in horizontal position
to achieve smooth current collection. The Contact wire is, however,
44
displaced with respect to centre line of the track on either side by 200
mm. on tangent track and up to 300 mm on curved track so that wear
in the Pantograph Strip / Shoe is uniform. This displacement is called
‘Stagger’ (Refer to Figure 7.38).
Figure 7.38 Schematic of Overhead Equipment (OHE)
(v) Catenary:
The wire provided over the Contact wire in a Parabolic shape to support
the Contact wire and maintain it in a horizontal position is called Catenary
wire. It is hard drawn Cadmium Copper Alloy Stranded wire of 19 / 2.11
mm size (19 Strands, each of 2.11 mm diameter), with an overall cross
section of 65 sq. mm.The OHE is supported by swiveling type cantilever
bracket assembly.A tension of 1000 kgs is given in each conductors i.e.
catenary & contact wire. This tension is kept constant, automatically
compensating the variations in conductor length due to change in
temperature through the regulating equipment erected at the termination
of conductors, also known as Automatic Tensioning Device.
(vi) Droppers:
Droppers provide support for Contact wire from Catenary wire. These are
normally spaced at 9 m interval except near the supports. The Droppers
consist of two parts, a fixed one and other of variable length.
(v) Jumpers:
Jumpers are the flexible wires used for providing electrical continuity and
for uniform distribution of current between Catenary and Contact wire.
(vi) Cantilever Assembly:
A single Mast with Insulators and supporting tubes for Contact and
Catenary wires is called the Cantilever Assembly.
(vii) Span:
The spacing between the consecutive Structures is called Span. It
depends upon the Wind pressure in the Area (more the Wind pressure,
smaller the Span) and the Degree of curvature of the Track (sharper the
Curve, smaller the Span). The OHE span varies between 72 meters and
27 meters with a step of 4.5 M.The maximum length of Span is 72 m in
45
Areas with Wind pressure less than 88 Kg / m2 and 67.5 m in Areas with
Wind pressure more than 88 Kg / m2. The maximum length of Span on
Sharpest Curves and very High Wind pressure Areas would be 27 m.The
span is reduced on curvature depending upon the degree og curvature.
(viii) Height of Contact Wire:
The minimum height of Contact wire is 4.80 m and maximum height 5.75
m. On Level crossings, it is obligatory to maintain normal height of 5.50
m. The minimum distance between centre line of the Track and face of
the Structure is 2.36 m, whereas the normal distance is 2.50 m.
13.6.1 Regulated and Un-Regulated OHE

Like the Rail, the Overhead wire is also subjected to expansion and contraction
due to variation in temperature. For low speeds (up to 100 Kmph), the Overhead
wires are left to themselves for variation in length due to change in temperature.
This type of OHE is called ‘Un-Regulated OHE’. OHE on 1500 V DC System and
some of the Yard on 25 KV AC System is of this type.
13.6.1
(z) In regulated OHE, to ensure uniform distribution of the mechanical tension in

the OHE conductors, an anticreep point is installed at the midpoint of the tension
length of OHE conductor. (viii) Height of Contract Wire. W.
(i) Over Line Structure to permit C-Class ODC 4.92m

(ii) Electric loco shed and Inspection Pits 5.80m
(iii) Level crossing 550m
Un-regulated OHE Temp. 4oc to 65oc 5.75m
(iv)
Temp 15oc to 65oc 5.65m
(v) Regulated OHE with 50 mm Sag 5.55m
(vi) Regulated OHE with 100mm Sag 5.60m
(vii) Height of the Rail Gauge at Level crossing 4.67m
For higher speeds, it is necessary to provide compensations so that Contact wire

is maintained at the same height under all conditions of temperature. For this
purpose, Contact and Catenary wires are connected to Regulatory equipment
comprising Pulleys and 400 Kg Counter Weights (See Figure 7.37). The Contact
as well as Catenary wires are kept under 1000 Kg Tension. In Summer, the
Weights will come down to compensate for expansion of conductors, while in
Winter they will go up to cater for the contraction of conductors. For limiting effect
of variation in temperature, one continuous stretch of Overhead wires is normally
limited to 1.6 Km. on the Mainline. OHE on Main lines on 25 KV AC System is of
this type.
46
13.6.2 Anti-creep Arrangement
In Regulated OHE, it is possible that due to some disturbance or other,
Regulating equipment on one side slips or creeps, while the Counter-weights
on other side go up to Pulleys. To avoid such a condition, the middle point of
Catenary wire is rigidly fixed by means of Anti-creep wires on both sides of the
Mast. This Arrangement is called ‘Anti-creep Arrangement’.
13.6.3 Feeding Systems

Following two Feeding Systems are being mostly employed on IR Electrified
sections:
(i) Earth Return based System:

In this System, the Catenary current ‘I ’ is returned as Rail current ‘I ’
and C R earth currents ‘I ’. As can be seen from the Figure 7.40, The
return path for the Traction current is through the body of the Locomotive
and the Wheels to the tracks, which are electrically grounded, Ground
connections (Earthing cables and Earth Bond Conductors) having been
provided from the Rails at periodic intervals. The Return current flows
through the Rails and also partly through the Earth beneath and along it.
Bonding cables or Bonding strips are provided, in this System, at Rail
Joints (connecting the Rails on either side of a Fish-plated Joint) to
ensure continuity of Return current flow in the Rails.
Figure 7.40 Power Feeding Systems
47
(ii) Return Conductor based System:
In the simple Earth Return based System, described above, there can be
severe Inductive Interference in Signalling & Telecom circuits and other
Equipments because of the large loop area between the Catenary and
the Rails which carry the Return current. Some of the Return current
also flows in the earth, causing conductive Interference and Corrosion
problems in the buried Cables and Pipes, etc. Such earth currents are
higher if the conductive path in the Rails is degraded because of the Rail
Joint problems.
The problem of Inductive and Conductive Interference, faced in the Earth Return
based System, can be resolved by providing Booster Transformers (BTs) and
Return Conductor (RC). In this System, the Booster Transformers force the
Return current through a separate Return conductor, instead of through the Rails
or Earth. Insulated Rail Joints ensure that currents flow in the Rails only in the
occupied track sections. Inductive Interference to Signalling & Telecommunication
circuits, running parallel to OHE get significantly reduced since the Return
conductor is close to and parallel to the Catenary. Figure 7.40 shows such a
System. The Return conductor is connected to the Rails (and earthed) as shown.
Periodically, there are breaks in the Catenary where the Supply current is forced
to flow through one winding of a Booster Transformer (marked BT), the other
winding is in series with the Return conductor. The 1:1 Turns Ratio of the BT
means that the current in the Catenary (I ) will be very nearly the same as the
current in the Return conductor (IR). The current that flows through the Loco
goes to the Rails but then up through a connecting wire to the Return conductor,
and through it back to the Sub-station.
Booster Transformers are provided at an interval of 2.6 to 4.0 Kms. Insulated Rail
Joints (marked IRJ) are also provided. This ensures that current flows in the rails
only in the particular section where the loco is present. At all other places, the
Inductive Interference from the Catenary current is nearly cancelled by that from
the Return current, thus minimising the Interference effects. The problem of stray
earth currents is also reduced.
One of the disadvantages in this System is that as a Loco passes a Booster

Transformer, there is a momentary interruption in the Supply (because of the
break in the Catenary) with the attendant problems of arcing and transients on
the line, as well as Radio Frequency Interference.
In recent years, as much Telecommunication lines have been moved away from
Railway lines or re-laid underground, Interference from the Electric Traction
System is not as much of a problem as it used to be in the past, and therefore
in many cases the Booster Transformers and Return Conductors (BTRC) have
been removed and the Traction System has been reverted to the plain Single
Wire System.
48
Note:
Questions.
a) Size of Contact wire in 25 KV AC Traction OHE is —————.
b) Contact wire in 25 KV AC Traction OHE is made of —————.
c) Span in 25 KV OHE System depends upon ————— & —————.
d) Tension in Contact wire in Regulated 25 KV AC OHE is maintained at
—————.
e) Catenary wire in 25 KV AC Traction OHE is made of —————.
a) OHE on Main line is of Regulated type. ( )
b) Contact wire as well as Catenary carries the Current in an OHE System.
( )
c) Insulators are used in OHE System to insulate the live portion from
Structures or Masts. ( )
d) OHE has to be essentially regulated type for speeds in excess of 75
Kmph. ( )
e) Return Conductor (RC) based OHE Structure along with Booster
Transformers (BTs) is employed to reduce the Inductive Interference on
adjoining Telecommunication circuits. ( )
13.7 WORKING OF ELECTRIC TRACTION:

As also discussed in Para 4.6 above, in Overhead Electrification Systems, the
supply of Electricity is through an OHE. The Locomotive uses a Pantograph (See
the Photograph at Figure 7.39), a metal structure which can be raised or lowered,
to make contact with the overhead Contact wire and draw Electricity from it to
power its Motors. The Pantograph has one or two Blades, Shoes or Collector
Pans that actually slide against the Contact wire. The DC Pantographs generally
have two Shoes owing to the higher current carried by the DC Pantograph, while
the AC Pantographs have one Shoe.
The WCAM series of Dual-voltage Locos have one DC Pantograph and one AC
Pantograph each, but either can be used as a back-up for the other Traction
49
Supply, if needed. The new AC-DC EMU on Western Railway uses a single Arm
Pantograph with twin Blades.
The Pantograph structure may be in the form of a single Arm - a single open Bent
Angle (‘>’) or in a Diamond (Rhombus) form (‘<>’). The Diamond form was more
common for the DC Locos. Newer Locos have the single Arm Pantographs. The
single Arm types are generally oriented with the bend of the Pantograph pointing
forwards (in the direction of motion), although this is not a strict rule and Locos
exist with Pantographs in both orientations. Compressed Air is used to raise the
Pantograph from its resting position to the raised position, where its Shoes touch
the Contact wire.
13.8 POWER SUPPLY ARRANGEMENTS

To feed Power to the Overhead wires, Supply is required at every 50 to 60
Kms. distance on 25 KV System. The Power supply is purchased from State
Electricity Boards from their Grid Sub-stations, nearest to Railway Sub- stations.
On earlier Electrification projects on Eastern, South Eastern and on some places
on Northern Railway, 25 KV Single Phase Supply was taken directly from State
Electricity Boards, but now-a-days, State Electricity Boards insist on Railways
taking Power supply at EHV 220 / 132 / 110 / 66 KV only.
The Power Supply taken from State Electricity Boards is on double circuit, so that
in event of failure of one circuit, Power Supply is still available. At Traction sub-
station, 132 KV Supply is stepped down to 25 KV by means of two Strep Down
Transformers of 10 MVA / 12.5 or 13.5 / 20 or 21.6 MVA / 30 MVA capacity. One
Transformer works at a time and the other is kept as a standby. 25 KV Supply
is then fed to various OHEs on the Tracks through individual Feeder Interrupters
through Circuit Breakers. In case one Sub-station is completely out, it is possible
to extend Power Supply from adjoining Sub- stations by-passing the Neutral
section through a Switch called ‘Bridging Interrupter’. Thus, reliability of Power
Supply for Train Operation is ensured against all possible Power System faults.
Power Supply equipments can be operated remotely by the Traction Power

Controller (TPC), who mans the Traction Power Control Room in the Divisional
Control Office. TPC is also equipped with the Facilities and Alarms / Indications
to isolate / get isolated the faulty section within a few minutes so that Train
operations on other sections are not affected.
13.8.1 Neutral Section

To separate OHE of two adjoining feed posts, a short neutral section (PTFE)
type is provided opposite the Traction Sub Station to avoid the need of lowering
the Pantograph during extended feed conditions.Normal System of generation
and transmission of Power Supply is on 3- Phase System. However, for
Traction purposes, only Single Phase Supply is required. To ensure that there
50
is no unbalance in the 3-Phase network, i.e. all the three Phases are almost
equally loaded, the Power Supply at adjacent Traction Sub-stations is taken
from different Phases. The Supply from two different Phases, however, can not
be paralleled or fed to the same wire. This necessitates provision of a ‘Neutral
section’ between two Sub-stations. Neutral section is a Dead section, with no
Electric Power. Length of standard Neutral section is 40.5 m. Now-a-days shorter
Neutral sections of 5.0 / 9.0 m are being adopted. Drivers have to open DJ /
VCB, while passing Neutral section which is cleared by momentum of Trains.
Care is, however, taken to locate Neutral sections on level tangent Tracks far
away from Signals and Level Crossing Gates etc. to ensure that the Train coasts
through the Neutral section at a sufficiently high speed, to obviate the possibility
of its stopping and getting stuck within the Neutral section.
To inform the Drivers of Electric Trains that they are approaching Neutral section,
Warning Boards are provided on the Traction Structures. First Board is provided
at 500 m away from the Neutral section and second Board at 250 m away. The
indication to the Driver to switch off Power Supply before Neutral section and
to switch on the Power Supply after crossing the Neutral section is provided by
locating two more Boards suitably, one on either side of the Neutral section.
13.8.2 Sectioning of OHE

For ensuring that a Shut down on any particular section does not have a large
scale effect on Train services, the Overhead Equipment is divided electrically into
small sections known as Sub Sector and Elementary Section by
providing Insulated Overlaps on Main lines and Section Insulators on Crossovers.

Besides, Interrupters are provided to electrically connect or disconnect OHE of
different Elementary section / Sub-sector. TPC can isolate a faulty section by
remote control of Interrupters to minimize effect on Train working. Refer to
Figure 7.41.
Figure 7.41 Power Supply Arrangements (Sectionalising of OHE)
51
OHE is divided electrically by provisions of 3 types of Sectioning Posts:
(i) Feeding Post(FP): The Sub-station where the Power Supply is taken
from Electricity Board and fed to OHE is called the ‘Feeding Post (FP)’.
The Supply is fed through Interrupters, one for each section of the OHE
on either side of it for each Track. Circuit Breakers are also provided at a
Sub- station for clearance of electrical faults.
(ii) Bridging Interrupter: At Neutral section, an Interrupter called ‘Bridging
Interrupter’ is provided for bridging the Neutral section in case Power
Supply is to be extended from adjoining Sub-stations. Also, another
Interrupter is provided to connect OHE of two different Tracks so that
Voltage drop is reduced due to paralleling of two OHEs. Neutral section is
also called ‘Sectioning and Paralleling Post (SP)’.
(iii) Sectioning Post (SP): To facilitate the extension of traction power from
one feed zone to half of the adjoining feed zone during emergency.
Parellel the UP and DN OHE in double section is provided.
(iv) Sub-Sectioning and paralleling post (SSP): OHE is further divided
between FP & SP. For this purpose, one or more ‘Sub-sectioning &
Paralleling Post (SSP)’ are provided where Interrupters are provided to
have through electrical continuity between two sections of the OHE on
either side of it for every Track. A Paralleling Interrupter is also provided
between OHEs of two Tracks for reducing the Voltage drop.
(v). Elementary Section(ES): This is the shortest section of the OHE which
can be isolated manually for carrying out OHE maintenance work.
In addition to above, manually controlled Isolators are provided at suitable

places for controlling Power Supply. These are provided with Padlocks, the key
of which are either available with Traction Staff or nearest Station Master who is
authorised to operate Isolators in case of any emergency, as per instructions of
Traction Staff.
13.8.3 Other Equipments at Switching

Stations
Certain equipments are installed at various points to protect the lines, to monitor
the availability of Power Supply and provide other facilities. These are generally
as under:
(i) Lightening Arresters (LA) are provided to protect every Sub-sector against
Voltage Surges.
(ii) Auxilliary Transformers (AT) are provided at all the Posts and also at
certain intermediate points to supply AC at 240 V 50 Hz., required for
Signalling and operationally essential Lighting Installations. To ensure
a fairly steady Voltage, Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVR) are also
provided where required.
52
(iii) Potential Transformers are provided at the various Switching Stations for
monitoring Supply to each Sub-sector.
(iv) A small cubicle is provided to accommodate Remote Control equipment,
Control Panel, Telephone, Batteries and Battery Chargers, required for
the Control of Interrupters and other similar Equipments.
13.9 CONTROL OF POWER

SUPPLY EQUIPMENT
Power Supply Equipment, except some Isolators within the Station Limits, can
be operated from a Centralised place called ‘Traction Power Control (TPC)
Room’ in the Divisional Control Office. It is manned by a Senior Supervisor, of
Traction Power Wing of Electrical Engineering Department, round the clock
who directs Staff for attending to Breakdowns, grants Power Block to the Staff
for Maintenance and attending to Breakdowns after ensuring that all necessary
Safety precautions are taken. He maintains close liaison with Traffic Controllers
to ensure smooth operation of Trains.
From the Traction Control Room, Supervisory Cables are laid to each and every
controlled Post i.e. Sectioning Post, Sub-sectioning Post, and Feeding Post
etc. The Command for closing or opening of particular Equipment is transmitted
through these Cables to the concerned Posts. The Command is in the form of
electrical pulses of different duration. The Command is decoded at the Post by
the Supervisory Equipment provided there and the operation is automatically
executed. This way, it is possible to control all the Power Supply Equipment from
Remote Control Centre or Traction Power Control Room.
In mid-eighties, Supervisory Remote Control Equipments based on Electro-

magnetic Relays were introduced. With the advent of Technology, old System
of Electro-magnetic type Remote Control Equipment has now been replaced by
Solid State Computer based SCADA System. This SCADA System, in addition,
provides for following features:
(i) Quick Operations.

(ii) Data Logging Facilities.
(iii) Memory Stocking of important Features. (iv) Auto-OHE Fault Localisation.
(v) Availability of Tele-metering Arrangements in Control Panel for
instantaneous Indication of Voltage, Current, Maximum Demand and
Power Factor.
13.10 MAINTENANCE OF OVERHEAD

AND POWER SUPPLY EQUIPMENT
For Maintenance of OHE, Maintenance Depots are provided at an interval of
about 120 Track Kms. Sub-OHE Maintenance Depots are also provided at
53
important points. Each Major OHE Depot is equipped with the following Vehicles
to facilitate Maintenance:
(i) OHE Inspection Car (Tower Wagon): It is a self propelled Vehicle to carry
Man and Materials to attend Breakdowns and Maintenance Works.
(ii) Motor Lorry or Truck.
(iii) Heavy Duty Motor Trolley, Push Trolleys and Ladder Trolleys. Ladder
Trolley can be hand pushed on Rail and is provided with a Ladder to
enable lineman to attend OHE.
Minor Depots are provided only Push Trolleys and Ladder Trolleys.
13.11 ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES

Along with Electrification, the Country has made significant progress in
manufacturing of Electric Locomotives at the Chittaranjan Locomotive Works
(CLW), Chittaranjan. Beginning with a factory building Steam Locomotives in
1950, CLW today is the largest producer of Electric locomotives in the World at
one location. Although in the initial years of Electrification, the Indian Railways
had to import a large number of Electric Locomotives from Japan and the
European Group, the Country now is not only self-sufficient in the manufacture of
Electric Locomotives, but is now in a position to export them too.

Note:
(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following
Questions.
i) Locomotive uses a Device called ————— to make contact with the
overhead Contact wire and draw Electricity form it to power its Motors.
ii) Distance between consecutive Traction Sub-stations is about ——
———.
iii) Normal length of a Neutral section is —————.
iv) At Neutral section, an Interrupter called ————— is provided for bridging
the Neutral section to facilitate extension of power from adjoining Sub-
station.
v) ————— are provided at the various Switching Stations for monitoring
Supply to each Sub-sector.
54
a) SCADA System provides for automatic Trouble Shooting and speedy
Isolation of faulty section in OHE. ( )
b) Neutral section is not always necessary. ( )
c) There can be more than one SSPs between two FPs. ( )
d) ATs are provided at all the FPs, SPs, SSPs and also at certain intermediate
points to supply AC at 240 V 50 Hz. ( )
e) SCADA can provide for Tele-metering Arrangements for instantaneous
Indication of Voltage, Current, Maximum Demand and Power Factor on
the Control Panel of TPC. ( )
13.12 Development of High

Rise Overhead Equipment
For operation of Double Stack Container(DSC) Trains, a major part of Delhi-
Ahmedabad route including port connectivity routes in Gujrat will be constructed
with High Rise OHE. This is first occasion when high rise OHE will be introduced
in Indian Railways for operation of 7.1 metre high Double Stack Container Trains.
Contact wire height of High Rise OHE will be 7.57 metr against 5.55 metre for
normal OHE, which is a completely new design concept. On Indian Railway
routes, high rise OHE being provided in Gurgaon- Mehsana, Jaipur-Phulera,
Rewari-Ludhiana. Totak 1188 RKM.
13.13 LET US SUM UP

Electrification on Railways became a dire necessity to cater for hauling of
heavy freight Trains required for growing Industrialisation in the Country, in post
Independence era, as the prevalent Steam Traction was not capable of doing
so. India’s Five Year Plans provided a boost to the Electrification Programme of
Railways. The embedded benefits of Electrification and the Impact it makes in
providing an economic Mode of Transportation with capability to Haul Heavier
Loads at Higher speeds were soon realised. The pace of Electrification, however,
slowed down after 3rd Five Year Plan until the occurrence of oil crisis of
Seventies. Oil crisis brought to the fore the need for evolving a long term Policy
for Electrification to reduce the dependence of Railways on Petroleum based
Energy and in mid-eighties, it was decided that the Railways should speed up
the Electrification at a pace of 1000 RKMs, every year. The pace of Electrification
was, thereafter, considerably speeded up during and after 7th Plan.
As of March 2005, Indian Railways have electrified a total of 17,495 RKMs, which
constitutes 27.6% of the total Route Kilometrage. Electrified Route on Indian
55
Railways, covering most of the major Trunk and Main Line sections, is carrying
nearly 65% of the Freight and 48% of the Passenger traffic on IR.
The earlier Systems of Electric Traction were developed on 600 to 750 V DC.
Voltage was later raised to 1500 V and then to 3000 V. The DC system is quite
simple, but it requires thick conductors and short distances between Feeder
Stations because of the heavy currents required. Additionally, there are significant
Resistive Losses (I2R Losses) in DC System. High Voltages for Traction were,
therefore, developed to reduce the size of the Power carrying conductor and to
reduce the Transmission Losses. High Voltage would mean Low current for the
same Power and consequent to that I2R Losses would be lower and reduced
size would be required for the current carrying conductors. Research and
Development undertaken in the area of Electric Traction proved 25 KV, as being
the ideal Voltage for use for this purpose. This System of 25 KV AC Overhead
Electric Traction has accordingly been Standardised for use on Indian Railways.
In Overhead Electrification Systems, the supply of Electricity is through an OHE.

The Locomotive uses a Pantograph, a metal structure which can be raised or
lowered, to make contact with the Overhead Contact wire and draw Electricity
from it to power its Motors.
To feed Power to the Overhead wires, Supply is required at every 50 to 60

Kms. distances on 25 KV System. The Power supply is purchased from State
Electricity Boards from their Grid Sub-stations, nearest to Railway Sub- stations.
The Power Supply taken from State Electricity Boards is on double circuit, so
that in event of failure of one circuit, Power Supply is still available. At Traction
sub-station, EHV Supply (usually at 132 / 220 KV) taken from the State Electricity
Boards, is stepped down to 25 KV by means of two Strep Down Transformers
of 10 MVA / 12.5 or 13.5 / 20 MVA Capacity. One Transformer works at a time
and the other is kept as a stand-by. 25 KV Supply is then fed to various OHEs
on the Tracks through individual Feeder Interrupters. In case one Sub-station is
completely out, it is possible to extend Power Supply from adjoining Sub-stations
by-passing the Neutral section through a Switch called ‘Bridging Interrupter’.
Thus, reliability of Power Supply for Train Operation is ensured against all
possible Power System faults.
Power Supply equipments can be operated remotely by the Traction Power

Controller (TPC), who mans the Traction Power Control Room in the Divisional
Control Office. TPC is also equipped with the Facilities and Alarms / Indications
to isolate / get isolated the faulty section within a few minutes so that Train
operations on other sections are not affected.
Normal System of generation and transmission of Power Supply is on 3- Phase

System. However, for Traction purposes, only Single Phase Supply is required.
To ensure that there is no unbalance in the 3-Phase network, i.e. all the three
Phases are almost equally loaded, the Power Supply at adjacent Traction Sub-
stations is taken from different Phases. The Supply from two different Phases,
however, can not be paralleled or fed to the same wire. This necessitates
provision of a ‘Neutral section’ between two Sub-stations. Neutral section is a
56
Dead section, with no Electric Power. Length of standard Neutral section is 40.5
m. Drivers have to lower Pantographs, while passing Neutral section which is
cleared by momentum of Trains. To inform the Drivers of Electric Trains that they
are approaching Neutral section, Warning Boards are provided on the Traction
Structures.
For ensuring that a Shut down on any particular section does not have a large
scale effect on Train services, the Overhead Equipment is divided electrically
into small sections by providing Insulated Overlaps on Main lines and Section
Insulators on Crossovers. Besides, Interrupters are provided to divide OHE
electrically. SPs and SSPs are provided for this purpose.
TPC, with the help of SCADA System, can isolate a faulty section by Remote
Control of Interrupters to minimise the effect on Train working. The Solid
State Computerised SCADA System provided now, in addition, caters for the
Quick Operations of the Equipments in field, Data Logging Facilities, Memory
Stocking of important Features, Auto-OHE Fault Localisation and Tele- metering
Arrangements for instantaneous Indication of Voltage, Current, Maximum
Demand and Power Factor on the Control Panel of the TPC.
For Maintenance of OHE, Maintenance Depots are provided at an interval of

about 120 Track Kms. Sub-OHE Maintenance Depots are also provided at
important points. Each Major OHE Depot is equipped with the Vehicles like Tower
Wagon, Motor Trolley and Ladder Trolley to facilitate Maintenance. Minor Depots
are also provided with Ladder Trolleys and other Vehicles, as required.

CYP 1 :
1. Advantages of Electric Traction:

(i) Energy Conservation: Electric Traction has proved to be most
energy efficient.
(ii) Electrification Makes the Railway System conducive to
Modernisation: Electrification has caused major impetus to
Technological up-gradation on Indian Railways, particularly so in
Electrical and Signalling & Telecommunications, with accompanying
benefits.
(iii) Provides Neat, Clean and Pollution-free Mode of Transport.
Surrounding Environment also becomes Pollution-free.
(iv) Enables Faster and Cleaner Suburban and Inter-city Passenger
Services through EMUs (Electrical Multiple Units) and MEMUs (Main
Line EMUs).
(v) Enables Station Electrification even in areas not served by Electricity
Boards.
57
(vi) Provides Alternate and more Reliable Power supply to Stations for
Operational Needs and Passenger Amenities.
(vii) Safer than Diesel Traction as a Train in mid section can be stopped
by TPC on receipt of Warning / Emergency.
(viii) In the event of Derailment and subsequent OHE damage, Train
coming on adjacent line can be protected against dashing with the
derailed Train, by switching OFF Power of healthy line.
2. Hurdles in Spreading Electrification:
The main hurdle in spreading Electrification has been the Capital cost of
the Electrification equipment. It is for this reason that only the Suburban
Railways with closely-spaced Stations & High traffic density and the Main
lines carrying Heavy and Dense traffic have been provided with Electric
Traction.
3. True / False:
a) True. b) True. c) False. d) True.
CYP 2 :

a). Availability of high Starting Tractive Effort & Variation of speed with
ease.
b). 1500 V DC c). 25 KV AC. d). 750 V DC. e). 25 KV AC.
2. True / False:
a) False. b) True. c) True. d). True. e) False.
CYP 3 :
a) 107 sq. mm.

b) Hard drawn Copper.
c) Wind Pressure in the Area & Degree of Curvature of the Track. d)
1000 Kg.
e) Hard drawn Cadmium copper alloy.
2. True / False:
a) True. b) True. c) True. d) False. e) True.

CYP 4 :

i) Pantograph.
ii) 50 to 60 Kms.
58
iii) 40.5 m.
iv) Bridging Interrupter.
v) Polar transformers (PTs).
2. True / False:
a) True. b) False. c) True. d) True. e) True.
UNIT END QUESTIONS
Q. 1 What are the advantages of Electric Traction? Why it is necessary for the
Railways to electrify their High density Routes?
Q. 2 What are the advantages of AC Traction over DC Traction?
Q. 3 What are the various methods adopted for supplying Electric Power to the
running Trains? Which method is used where and why?
Q. 4 What type of Traction Motor is used on the following Systems and why?
(i) 25 KV AC Single Phase System.
(ii) 1500 V DC System.
Q. 5 What are the Voltages used for Electric Traction in India?
Q. 6 How does Electric Traction work?
Q. 7 What do you understand by following Terms, when referred to an
Overhead equipment in 25 KV AC Traction Area:
(i) Stagger.
(ii) Span.
(iii) Jumpers.
(iv) Regulated and Un-regulated OHE.
(v) Return Conductor and Booster Transformers.
Q. 8 What System is adopted for Control of Power Supply Equipment? Explain
its working in brief.
Q. 9 What do you understand by the Term ‘Neutral Section’ and why it is
provided?
Q. 10 How are Phase breaks in 25 KV AC Traction handled by the Drivers?
59
60
7
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Aspects of Railway
Functioning
UNIT-14
Role of Telecommunication and Basic
Infrastructure
Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Telecom Needs of Indian Railways
14.2.1 Rudimentary Telecommunication System - the Morse Telegraphy
14.2.2 Early Circuits on Overhead Wires of P&T Department and
Problems faced
14.2.3 High Frequency (HF) wireless Sets
14.2.4 Underground Cabled Circuits
14.2.5 Multi-channel Multi-hop Radio Relay Microwave Systems
14.2.6 Optical Fibre Cable & Quad Cables
14.2.7 18 GHz. Digital Microwave Communication for Control Circuits
14.2.8 Planning of an Integrated Telecom Network
14.2.9 Mobile Train Radio Communication System
14.2.10 Emergency Communication Circuits
14.2.11 Setting up of a Telecom Corporation, the ‘RailTel Corporation of
India Limited’ and Expansion of OFC Network
14.3 Train Operational Circuits
14.3.1 Kinds of Operational Circuits
61
14.4 Train Control and Emergency Control Communication
14.4.1 Control Circuits on Non-Electrified Sections
14.4.2 Control Circuits on Electrified Sections
14.4.3 Selective Calling Equipment
14.4.4 Repeaters and Cable Huts
14.4.5 Patching of Controls
14.5 Administrative Voice Network
14.5.1 Trunk Circuits
14.6 Administrative Data Network of IR- The Railnet
14.7 Communication Needs for Passengers
14.7.1 Possible Enhancements in Passenger Amenities
14.8 Communication for Crisis & Disaster Managements
14.9 Let us Sum Up
Unit End Questions
14.0 OBJECTIVES
(i) Establish the essentiality of Telecommunication Facilities in efficient and

effective functioning of Railways.
(ii) Trace the History of Development of Telecommunications on Indian
Railways.
(iii) State and Explain the different types of Telecommunication Systems in
use on Indian Railways.
(iv) Define the purpose of providing Operational, Control, Administrative and
Emergency / Crisis / Disaster Communication circuits.
(v) Establish the superiority of Cabled Telecommunication circuits over
Overhead wired circuits.
(vi) State the Merits of different types of Telecommunication Systems in use,
and
(vii) Understand the Working Methodologies of different types of
Communication circuits used on Indian Railways.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Telecommunication is the Nerve System of any Business Organisation whose
Activity Centres are geographically separated and spread over a large Area.
It is needed, not only for conveying a set of Instructions or Orders down
62
the line but also for getting the Feedback from the field and monitoring the
Activities of the Business or Industry at different levels. A Manager who cannot
effectively communicate with his Staff or with his Colleagues cannot be an
efficient Manager. Telecommunication is, therefore, considered to be one of
the most important tools of the Management. Even in a compact Organisation,
where its Managers are seated in different Rooms or locations within the same
building, Telephones and Intercoms are found to be indispensable. In the case
of Railways, the field of Activity is so vast that the monitoring of its Operations
requires the assistance of a very intricate and reliable Network of communication.
Moreover, since the Assets of Railways like Wagons, Coaches and Locomotives
etc. are mobile and their position is always changing with respect to time, the
demand on the Telecommunication Network never ceases. Keeping all these
factors in view, Indian Railways have set up their own Telecommunication
Network with dedicated Telephone Exchanges, Trunk Boards, Overhead Lines,
Cables, High Frequency Wireless Installations and Multi Channel Radio Relay
Systems, Optical Fibre cable Systems and Data Communication Networks.
In the subsequent paras of this Unit, we shall further discuss the Telecom needs
of Indian Railways, trace the History of development of Telecommunication on
Indian Railways and explain the salient details and the working methodology of
the different types of the Telecommunications Systems used in Operational and
Control / Monitoring Activities and to meet the needs of Passengers. We shall
also list out the Communication Facilities, which are and can be commissioned
to satisfy the stringent requirements of Communications at the Site of Railway
Accidents.
14.2 TELECOM NEEDS OF INDIAN RAILWAYS

The Telecom needs of Indian Railways can be broadly categorised into following
Categories:
(i) Train Operational Circuits.

(ii) Train Control and Emergency Control Communication.
(iii) Administrative Networks for Audio and Video conferencing.
(iv) Data Communication Networks for Administrative and Managerial needs,
such as, the RailNet (Intranet for Railways) and MIS (Management
Information System) Networks.
(v) Data Communication Networks for Commercial needs, such as
passenger Reservation System (PRS), Freight Operations Information
System (FOIS) & Un-reserved Ticketing System (UTS).
(vi) Communication Needs for Passengers, such as:
(a) Display Systems: Closed Circuit Television Systems (CCTV) & Public
Address Systems (PAS) at major Stations and in Suburban Sections
63
(b) Cyber Cafes at major Stations including a few Wi-Fi Hot Spots.
(c) Mobile Voice and Data Access for Passengers from moving Trains.
(d) Call Centres based on Interactive Voice Response System (IVRS)
and Automatic Speech Recognition.
(vii) Communication for Crisis and Disaster Management with Voice, Data
and Video transmission from Disaster Site to remote Divisional / Zonal
Headquarters and Railway Train Traffic Control Centres.
As on (in units)
Installation
31.03.2015 As on 31.02.16
Optical Fibre Cable (in RKMs) 48293 49434
Quad Cable (in RKMs) 55376 58980
Railway Telephone Subscribers lines (Nos.) 395816 395816
GSM ® based (in RKMs) 2461 2461
TETRA based (in RKMs) 53 53
Digital Microwave (7 GHz) ( in RKMs) 2091 1852
Public Address System (in No. of stations) 4638 4780
Train Display Boards (No. of stations) 1090 1090
VHF Sets 5 watt set (Hand held) 141976 145947
VHF Sets 25 watt set (at stations) 9057 9461
V-SAT (No.) 1068 1117
Railnet Connections (No.) 120652 130185
UTS/PRS Circuits (No.) 10470 10760
FOIS Circuits (No.) 2186 2209
14.2.1 Telecommunication System - the Morse

Telegraphy’
One of the simplest and most rudimentary Telecommunication System is
‘Morse Telegraphy’ in which the messages to be transmitted are coded
into electric impulses of long and short durations (called ‘Dashes’ & ‘Dots’)
and transmitted electrically through Copper / Iron line wires. At the distant
end, the electrical impulses are again converted back into sound Signals,
which are decoded by the human agency listening into codes. The first
Telecommunication line in our country was established more than a Century
ago between Calcutta and Diamond Harbour by the P& T Department. This
was an Overhead Telegraph line, a single alignment with earth return. Since
then, Communication lines and Networks have proliferated all around and at
present they cover the length and breadth of the entire country on the surface
as well as above and below ground.
64
14.2.2 Early Circuits on Overhead Wires of
P&T Department and Problems faced
Most of the initial development in the field of Telecommunication in India was
carried out by the P&T Department (Department who designs and maintains
the Telecommunication System, primarily for the Public) (now separated into
two Postal & Telecommunications Departments). Since Telecommunication
has far wider application than simply passing of Telegraphic and Telephonic
messages, User Government Departments were quick to realise the advantages
of establishing their own Telecommunication Systems for their dedicated use.
In view of already established facilities and expertise available with the P&T
Department, the needs of Users Departments were initially met by obtaining
services of P&T Department to install and maintain their circuits. The Defense
Services and the Indian Railways were the first Government Departments
to adopt such a System. In the beginning, Communication Channels from
the already existing Networks of P&T Department were rented by these
Departments and were terminated in their own equipment rooms. As the Demand
increased, these Departments took a decision to install and maintain their own
Telecommunication Network.
Like elsewhere, Morse Telegraph was the first Telecommunication System

established on the Indian Railways for their Operational needs to ensure safe
working of Trains. It was used for asking ‘Line Clear’ for the Train running. In the
simplest form, it consisted of one Overhead wire between a pair of Stations with
earth serving as the return conductor. As the P&T Department from the early
days had generally constructed their Overhead communication alignment along
the Railway tracks, it facilitated the Railways to take on rent an Iron wire from
P&T Department for this purpose. This arrangement of hiring Overhead wires
from DOT (Department of Telecommunications - the Telecommunication Division
of the P&T Department) continues to be in operation even today on some of the
Branch lines, where Railways are yet to erect their own Communication circuits.
With increased Railway traffic and increased number of Trains on both Single
and Double line sections, control and coordination of movements of Trains
for arranging crossings and precedences became really important. This also
called for an efficient Telecommunication System connecting all Stations to a
Central Controlling Agency known as the Control Office. Train Control System
was, therefore, introduced on all busy sections of the Railways. Although the
arrangement of utilising the Overhead lines or Channels of the P&T Department
on rental basis had fairly satisfied the needs of Communication in the initial
stages of development of the Indian Railways, difficulties were experienced
by Railways in getting the requisite efficiency of circuits, maintained by P&T
Department. The specialised requirements of Railways were met by P&T
Department by building up the circuits partially through Trunk System and partly
through rural type Feeder lines. Such hybrid arrangement did not prove to be
satisfactory, as the performance of built-up circuits could never be as high as that
65
of Trunk Channels (Direct connectivity). Further, the Channels rented from the
P&T Department were without any Stand-by or alternate System and as such
no special priority was given by the P&T Department to provide for the alternate
path, when the Railways circuits failed.
14.2.3 High Frequency (HF) wireless Sets:

One of the earliest steps taken by the Railways in the direction of establishing
their own dedicated Telecommunication Network was to install High Frequency
(HF) Wireless sets as Stand-by to Channels, rented from the P&T. After the
Second World War, the Defense Services disposed of a number of Wireless sets.
Some of these were procured by the Railways for establishing their HF Wireless
links between Headquarters, Divisional Offices and other important Activity
Points. These Wireless sets generally operated as Stand-by for the Control links
but were also used at times for Radio Telephones. In due course, Single Side
Band (SSB) Wireless equipments were commissioned for linking the various
Zonal Headquarters with each other and with Railway Board’s Office at New
Delhi, to form an Admin Network.
14.2.4 Underground Cabled Circuits

The introduction of 25 KV, Single Phase, AC Traction brought in the specialised
requirements of Communication Channels. Due to the adverse effects of
Electromagnetic and Electrostatic Induction from the Traction current flowing in
the Catenary and the Contact wire, Communication circuits on Overhead wires
became unworkable. The Communication circuits, therefore, had to be either
routed through specially designed underground Cables or had to be diverted
far away from the Railway track. Those circuits which were established for
the running of the Trains, such as Train Wire Telegraph circuits, Block circuits,
Section and Deputy Control circuits etc., had to be essentially routed through
Cables as they could not be diverted away from the Railway track. In addition,
some more circuits were required in connection with Railway Electrification such
as Remote Control, Traction Loco Control (TLC), Traction Power Control (TPC)
and Emergency Control etc. The Overhead alignments running parallel to the
track, which were erected by the P&T Department, had to be dismantled and
the circuits transferred either to underground Cables or diverted away from the
Railway track.
In the early stages of AC Electrification of Indian Railways, the circuits which

were provided by the P&T Department on Overhead alignment were diverted
to underground Cables laid by the P&T Department and the additional circuits
required by Railways like TLC, TPC, Remote control and Emergency Control
etc. were also provided in the same Cable. Since the underground Cable had
circuits for Railways and P&T both and the circuits for Railways were the vital
Operational circuits, the sluggish and delayed maintenance of circuits and
attending to failures by P&T proved to be very unsatisfactory. P&T Department
66
could not maintain the stringent requirements of almost 100% availability.
Hence, in the latter Projects of Railway Electrification, Railways laid their own
underground Quad Cables to cater for their needs. Around the same time (Late
1960s), P&T Department also adopted the policy of routing their long distance
circuits in Co-axial Cables (along the National Highways) or Microwave Systems
and their short distance circuits on physical lines or open wire carriers along the
Road alignment away from the Railway tracks. No circuits belonging to the P&T
Department, therefore, now run along the electrified Railway tracks.
14.2.5 Multi-channel Multi-hop Radio Relay

Microwave Systems
With the further increase of traffic on the Indian Railways, due to general
Industrialisation in the country, a need was felt in early sixties for establishing
reliable means of communication between Load Centres, Divisional
Headquarters and the Zonal Headquarters of the Railways. Therefore, in 1964,
the Ministry of Railways took a prime decision in consultation with the Ministry of
Communication, to install their own captive Multi-channel Multi-hop Radio Relay
Microwave Systems, in SHF Band, and supported by UHF Spurs for meeting
the growing operational needs of the Railways. The first Radio Relay Microwave
System was commissioned on South Eastern Railway in December 1967. By
the end of 1989, more than 15,500 Route Kilometres of Microwave links had
been commissioned on the Indian Railways. The Microwave System, besides
serving the requirement of Administrative Trunk circuits, was also used for
‘Radio Patching’ the Control circuits to prop up the efficiency of DOT’s Overhead
alignment, whose maintenance standards had started declining.
14.2.6 Optical Fibre Cable & Quad Cables

Practice of laying Quad Cables continued for almost two decades since its
inception till Fibre Optics Technology became commercially viable. Keeping
in view the comparative Cost, enormous carrying Capacity, immunity to
Electromagnetic Interference and freedom from fear of Theft & Vandalism
(being of no value to Miscreants), the Railways decided to replace Overhead
line wires by Optical Fibre Cable (OFC) along with RE Works. Though
pioneering work on OFC was done by the Western Railway when OFC was laid
in 1986 on ‘Churchgate – Virar’ section, the laying of OFC along with Railway
Electrification works in late 1980s on ‘Itarsi – Bhusaval’, ‘Itarsi – Nagpur’ and
‘Nagpur – Durg’ sections of Central and South Eastern Railways ushered in
the OFC era on the Indian Railways. Owing to subsequent large- scale use of
OFC based Systems worldwide and consequent reduction in costs of these
Systems, Indian Railways extended the use of OFC and Quad Cables on busy
non-Electrified territories also. Norms set today on Indian Railways include use
of ‘OFC + 6 Quad’ System on busy Trunk and Main line routes and 6 Quad
System on other routes.
67
14.2.7 18 GHz. Digital Microwave
Communication for Control Circuits
In the mid 1980s, when the Train operations on the Eastern Railway were
crippled due to rampant thefts of Copper Quad Cables, a bold step was taken
to totally eliminate Station-to-Station Copper Cables and adopt 18 GHz. Digital
Microwave – a technology which was used for the first time by any railroad
System for such an application. The biggest challenge was the working of Block
circuits through Radio adopting Radio Block Interface, which the Eastern Railway
successfully adopted.
14.2.8 Planning of an Integrated Telecom

Network
In 1980s, German Consultants – M/s DETECON were appointed by IR to prepare
a Blue Print for modernisation of IR Communication Network. The Plan worked
out by M/s DETECON basically envisaged provision of integrated long-haul 34
MB Digital Microwave System and Mobile Train Radio Communication on Golden
Quadrilateral & Diagonals, supported by existing Analog Microwave & existing
/ redeployed UHF links on spur routes. This Blue Print did form an important
constituent of the basic frame work for planning of Telecommunication works on IR.
14.2.9 Mobile Train Radio Communication

System
Along with Railway Electrification works around the Nagpur Area, another
pioneering step was taken to go in for full Duplex Mobile Train Radio System,
providing direct communication between the Driver / Guard and the Control
Office and through to Stations, thereby doing away with the need for Telephone
sockets along the Railway track for Emergency Communication. With this,
instant communication became available even while the Train was on the move.
However, since the System was tailor made to suit IR’s specific requirements,
the cost of the System was high, which came in the way of deployment of such a
System on other routes.
14.2.10 Emergency Communication Circuits

Need for having a communication to driver, especially in case of emergencies,
could not be overlooked for long and the Railways were forced to develop a
cost-effective Emergency Communication System, which would be available to
the Driver in case of Accidents and unusual Occurrences. Accordingly, Research,
Design & Standards Organisation of the Indian Railways – the RDSO developed
a Universal Emergency Communication System (UECS) in close collaboration
68
of Bharat Electronics Ltd. (BEL), using a single VHF Frequency for all the users,
namely the Driver, Guard and Station Masters and working on Simplex Mode.
Another frequency was allocated for sending out an ‘SOS’ Signal in case of an
Emergency or an Accident. 10 W sets were chosen for the Driver & Guard and
25 W / 40 W Sets for the Stations. Since, prima-facie the Technology appeared
cost- effective and promising, trials were carried out on three Electrified sections
to ascertain its suitability and acceptability by the user Departments, particularly
Traffic, safety, Mechanical and Electrical. Trials brought out the limitations of the
System for its ‘Simplex’ Mode of working and use of single Frequency.
The System was found to get jammed, if strict discipline was not observed in its
operation. Also, the extension of communication by ‘patching’ at Stations to the
Control Office was time consuming, cumbersome and available only when the
Train was in the vicinity of a particular Station. Users felt that the System may not
be suitable for medium to high traffic density routes but may work satisfactorily
where traffic density is low.
Arising out of an Accident on Northern Railway, where a Guard of the Train

did not proceed back to plant Detonators to protect the disabled Train in the
mid- section for the fear of being left behind in wilderness, the need for some
sort of communication between the Driver and the Guard was felt. Keeping this
requirement in mind, in the interim till such time a full fledged full Duplex Mobile
Train Radio Communication was developed and provided, it was decided to
provide 5 W Walkie-talkie sets to all the Drivers and Guards of Passenger Trains,
starting with Mail / Express Trains. The feedback about the utility of the simple
gadget which could mostly be used in the stationary Mode was very positive and
it was subsequently decided to extend this facility to the crew of Goods Trains
as well. Later, 25 W sets were added at the Stations to make the communication
between Driver / Guard and Stations viable, though in slow speed Mode or
Stationary Mode.
After the unfortunate Accident at Gaisal in August 1999, the usefulness of

Handheld Satellite Phones for Rescue Operation and Disaster Management
was clearly demonstrated. It was, therefore, decided by the Railway Board that
Railways should equip the select Accident Relief Trains (ART) and Accident
Relief Medical Equipment Vans (ARMEs) with Satellite Phones and such Phones
should also be available in Divisional and Zonal Headquarters. This provision is
still continuing and working with good results.
14.2.11Setting up of a Telecom Corporation,

the ‘RailTel Corporation of India
Limited’ and Expansion of OFC Network
Indian Railways knocked at the Gates of the 21st Century with another
determined vision to improve their Telecom infrastructure by setting up a
Telecom Corporation, the ‘RailTel Corporation of India Limited’ in September
69
2000 whose first and prime objective was defined to expeditiously modernise
the Telecom Infrastructure of Railways encompassing Train Control, Operational
& Safety applications. The second main Objective in setting up the RailTel was
to earn revenues by marketing the surplus Capacity in the System. This was a
conscious, well-thought and well-churned decision, emphasising the crucial role
of Telecommunication in effective and efficient Operations of the Indian Railways.
The decision also proved to be timely for reaping the benefits of convergence of
the Telecom and Information Technology worlds.
Setting up of a separate Telecom Corporation for Indian Railways has flagged a

beginning of an era of application of Information Technology in Train Operations,
for providing passenger-related Information and Services at Platforms, Stations
and in Trains. This Corporation, in addition, is now all set and on the move to
create a Nation-wide Broadband Telecom and Multi-media Network to supplement
National Telecom Infrastructure and thereby spur growth of Telecom, Internet and
Information Technology enabled Value-added Services in all parts of the country,
specially rural, remote and backward areas. It will also generate much-needed
revenues for implementing Railways’ ambitious projects, Safety enhancement and
Asset Replacement Programmes. OFC, on around 40,000 RKms of routes has so
far been laid by Railways and RailTel and put in effective use.

Note:
Questions.
1. Why Telecommunication Facilities are required for Railways?
2. Enumerate, in brief, the Telecommunication Needs of Indian Railways.
70
3. State whether the following statements are True or False:
a) Most Rudimentary Telecommunication System used on Indian Railways

was Morse Telegrphy. ( )
b) Railways in the beginning had rented Overhead wires, laid along the
Track, from P&T Department to build their Communication circuits. ( )
c) Communication circuits on Railways in 25 KV AC Electrified areas can be

taken on Overhead alignments as well. ( )
d) OFC based Communication Systems on Indian Railways were first

commissioned in late 1980s. ( )
e) First Microwave Communication Link on Indian Railways was first

commissioned in 1967. ( )
f) VHF Sets introduced on Indian Railways to meet the emergency

communication needs had the facility of sending SOS Signal. ( )
g) Telecom Corporation of Indian Railways - the RailTel Corporation was set

up in the year 2004. ( )
h) Railways, so far, have OFC on around 40,000 Kilometres of their Routes.

( )
14.3 TRAIN OPERATIONAL CIRCUITS:

First Operational communication System on Indian Railways was ‘Block
Telegraph System’ for ensuring safe working of Trains, particularly on Single
track sections. Telegraph circuits remained in use on Indian Railways for quite
some time (up to 1960s and early part of 1970s) and included the following types:
(i) Train Wire circuit: Station-to Station circuit for transmitting messages in
connection with Train working.
(ii) Inter-wire circuit: For connecting Way stations and were also meant for
sending messages in connection with train movements.
(iii) Through Wire circuit: For point-to-point long distance Telegraphic traffic
between important Stations.
(iv) Teleprinter circuits: For High speed Telegraphic circuits, where traffic is
heavy and were used in place of Through Wire circuits Telegraphy circuits
used transmission of Messages in Coded Form (Dots & Dashes / Mark &
Space), which was decoded at the other end by the Operator. Teleprinter
circuits displayed the message at the receiving end in readable form.
Telegraph circuits are now Obsolete and no more in use on Indian Railways.
71
14.3.1 Kinds of Operational Circuits
The Operational circuits presently in use on Indian Railways are of following
kinds:
(i) Block circuits.

(ii) Magneto Telephone circuits.
(iii) Gate Telephone circuits.
(iv) Local Telephone circuits.
(i) Block Circuits : The Block circuit is the prime Operational circuit. These
circuits, with attached Telephones, are provided within Stations for Train
working purposes. These are landline circuits (on Overhead wires or
Underground Cables) and are meant for Granting and obtaining ‘Line
Clear’ for Trains. In Electrified Areas, these circuits are essentially taken
underground along with Control circuits to mitigate the evil effects of
Electromagnetic & Electrostatic Induction from Traction currents flowing
in OHE. Block Instruments used for running of Trains are connected to
these circuits. Block Telephones, integral part of the Block Instruments,
are used for communication between the Station Masters of consecutive
Stations.
In earlier times, these circuits used Iron Wires / ACSR Conductors
and were generally provided with Earth Return except under special
circumstances. Now a Days, dedicated 4 / 6 Quad Cable is used for this
purpose. On some sections, OFC has also been used for Block circuits,
employing a Fail-safe Interface between the Block Instruments and OFC.
(ii) Magneto Telephone Circuits : Simplest means of providing point- to-
point Communication circuit is through Magneto Telephones. It is very
commonly used to provide communication between Station Master
& LC Gate and Station Master & Cabins in multi-Cabins Signalling &
Interlocking Systems. The two Magneto Telephones, in a point-to-point
communication circuit are connected to each other either through a pair
of Overhead wires or with a single Overhead wire with earth providing the
return path for the circuit. Where underground cables are provided, these
Telephones can be connected on the Conductors in the Cable. To attract
the attention of the party at the other end, a small Handle attached to the
Magneto Telephone is rotated. This Handle is coupled to a small Dynamo
in the Telephone Instrument, which generates Alternating Current (AC) at
about 17 cycles per second. This current is used for ringing at the other
end. The source of Power supply for working the Telephone is a small
Battery of Dry Cells.
Magneto Telephones have been extensively used on Railways for
providing point-to-point communication between two Parties. Such
Phones can also be used to rig up an omnibus circuit on which 3 or
4 parties are connected on the same pair of wires. In such a case,
some mutually agreed ‘Ringing Code’ is adopted For example, for one
72
ring Party ‘A’ is to respond, for two rings Party ‘B’ and so on. Such an
arrangement is feasible and used satisfactorily when the number of
Parties connected to the same pair of lines are limited. When number of
Parties increase, the System no longer remains feasible and we have to
go in for a small Telephone Exchange.
(iii) Gate Telephone Circuits : Communication between the LC Gate and
adjoining Station in past had been mostly achieved though Magneto
Phones connected to the media of Copper wire running between the Gate
and Station, either on Underground Cable or on Overhead Alignment.
These Phones are on an Omni-bus circuit in case there are more than
one LC Gate under the control of ASM. One-to-one selectivity of a Gate is
achieved either by adopting distinct ring patterns on Magneto or separate
Magneto Phone can be provided for each Gate.
Laying of OFC + Quad Cables / Quad Cables for Control Communication
purposes, the task of providing Telephone at LC Gates has been
simplified but still there are sections where no media is available for
equipping the Gate with Telephones, Cable laying being prioritised on
heavy Traffic density sections only.
RDSO have developed Specifications for providing Voice connectivity
between LC Gate and Station Master through VHF based Wireless Network.
A number of Firms have come out with their Equipments meeting the
Specifications and the Trials conducted on such equipments have been
quite successful. A single ASM’s Control equipment can interact with all
the Gates in the controlled Block Section, eliminating the need for a Phone
for each Gate. The System is Microcomputer based and comprises of a
Keypad to facilitate Data Entry - Gate & Train Numbers, Programmable
Voice Chip to record and play the Messages, Non-volatile Memory for Event
Logging, Real Time Clock to Time Stamp the Events, 16 x 2 Alphanumeric
Display and Interface to provide connectivity with a PC for Data Transfer, as
and when necessary. Block Schematic is shown in Figure 7.26.
Figure 7.26
73
ASM / SM can send the Order Messages to Gateman to close / open the
Gate by pressing the relevant Buttons on the Front Panel of the ASM Unit.
Messages are field programmable. Control Unit can be programmed with
messages in a Language that the Gateman can understand. Message
is played at LC Gate and Acknowledgement is automatically received at
ASM’s Unit.
After executing the Order, Gateman enters 2-digit Private Number and
sends the status by pressing the relevant Buttons on the Front panel
of the Gate Unit. Status is played at ASM in voice form and an Event is
recorded. ASM sends a 2-Digit Private number to LC Gate. ASM’s Private
number is played at LC Gate in voice form.
In case the Gateman is unable to execute the order for closing / opening
the Gate, he presses ‘PROBLEM’ Button which will intimate the ASM
about his inability in execution of his Command.
All the Gate closing and opening Events or Liabilities are stored in the
ASM’s Control Equipment with Date & Time Stamping Data, which can be
downloaded on a Computer as and when required.
Voice communication is possible through Telephone Instruments.
Equipment is Password protected.
(iv) Local Telephone Circuits : These circuits are in the form of:
(i) Intercommunication Sets: Various facilities which can be made
available on Intercommunication Sets include Visual Identification
of the Calling Party, Secrecy of Talk, Touch Call selection for Instant
Contact, Priority Call Indication, Registering of the Call even when
the Called Party is Engaged or Not Available, Selective Conference
Facility, and Microphone & Loud Speaking facility to Master and
specific Slave Telephones. In addition, facility can be made available
to connect Intercommunication Sets with outside world through
DOT’s Telephone Network.
(ii) Local Telephone Exchanges, connected through Junction lines /
Tie lines to Main Divisional Telephone Exchange.

Note:
Questions.
74
1. Enumerate the types of Operational circuits presently in use on Indian
Railways.
Choose the Correct Answer:

2. Block circuits are meant for:
(a) Granting & Obtaining ‘Line Clear’ for Trains.
(b) Providing Point-to-Point Communication between a Block Station and the
Level Crossing Gates in the adjoining Block section.
(c) Connecting different Railway Officials working at a Block Station.
(d) Blocking a Line for Traffic Operation during Repair & Maintenance Works.
(e) All of the (a) to (d) above.
3. A Magneto Telephone circuit is:
(a) A Point-to-Point Communication circuit.
(b) An Omnibus circuit, which can connect multiple points using Magneto
Telephones.
(c) Usually employed for providing communication between the Station
Master & Cabins and the Station Master & adjoining LC Gates.
(d) All of the (a) to (c) above.
State whether the following Statements are True or False:

4. Gate Telephone circuits can work on a wireless Network. ( )
5. Intercommunication Sets usually are meant for Local Telephone circuits
but can also be wired to interlink with Public Telephone Network. ( )
14.4 TRAIN CONTROL AND EMERGENCY

CONTROL COMMUNICATION
Railway Control circuits are omnibus Telephone circuits, which provide
communication with each and every Train working point, thus facilitating efficient
Train Operations. An omnibus circuit is one in which all parties are hooked on the
same circuit or pair of wires and thus can talk to each other or to the Operator
75
of the circuit, known as the ‘Controller’. The ‘Controller’ can selectively call any
one of them or all of them. According to the traffic requirements and to cater to
the additional needs of Electric Traction, a Station or Train working point may be
provided with one or more Railway Control circuits as detailed in following paras.
14.4.1 Control Circuits on Non-Electrified

Sections:
The Control communication in non-RE areas was totally on Overhead Aerial wire
alignments till the early nineties when the use of 4/6 Quad cable was introduced.
With meticulous use of available Funds, more and more sections have been
commissioned with 4/6 Quad underground cables. Indian Railways, as a policy,
have now switched over to 6 Quad cables to provide Control communication
in non-RE areas. Replacement works as also New Works under Gauge
Conversion, Doubling and New lines are now being programmed with this Policy.
. A detailed Strategic Plan has been put into place to eliminate Overhead lines on
all routes of Indian Railways, including MG routes by 2007-08. Following types of
Control circuits are usually provided on Non-electrified sections:
(i) Section Control: This is provided for communication between Section

Controller in the Control Office and Wayside Stations, Junction Stations,
Block Cabins, Loco Sheds and Yards in a Division for the control of Train
movements and effective utilisatiion of the Section Capacity. Instructions
are given by the Controller to the Station Masters who report back to him
about the progress of movements of Trains.
(ii) Deputy Control: This is provided for communication between Deputy
Controller in the Control Office and important Stations, Junction &
Terminal Stations, Yard Masters Office, Loco Sheds and important Block
Cabins in a Division for supervisory Control of Traffic Operations in
general and for taking details of availability of Locos, other Rolling Stock
and Crew etc.
(iii) Emergency Control: There is no separate Control alignment for this
purpose. Guards and Drivers of the Trains are provided with Portable
Telephones and the Line alignment Charts, in case of Overhead Control
alignments. In case of emergency, they can connect the Portable
Telephones on the line wires of Section Control circuit and talk / inform to
the Section Controller about the emergency. In case of Cabled circuits,
6-Pin Emergency Sockets are provided every Kilometre along side the
track, with identification Marks, into which Drivers and Guards can plug-in
their Portable emergency Phone and enter into a conversation with the
Section Controller.
Overhead alignments are run parallel and quite near to Railway track. For
easy identification, the bracket carrying Section Control is coloured.
Cables providing Control circuits are also laid along side the track and an
Emergency Control circuit is separately wired. This Control is terminated
on the Section Control Console in Non-Electrified sections and on
76
the Console of Traction Power Controller (TPC) in case of Electrified
Sections. Since Emergency Sockets are provided only at an interval
of 1 Km., an Arrow with the symbol of a Telephone Handset is painted
on Electric Traction Masts giving the direction towards the nearest
Socket Post from the Mast. In Non- Electrified Areas, small Rail Posts
or Concrete Posts are erected to provide for Identification Marks of the
Emergency Sockets.
Besides the Drivers and Guards, the Emergency Control circuit is also used by
the Maintenance Staff, working in the section.
Figure ‘7.27’ shows the method of connecting a Portable Telephone in Non-

Electrified and Electrified sections.
Figure 7.27
14.4.2 Control Circuits on Electrified Sections:

On Electrified territories, Control communication is provided through underground
cables. Initially Paper Quad cables to configuration 0+18+2, 0+12+2 and 0+6+2
were provided. These cables were Aluminum sheathed to screen the effect of
Electromagnetic Interference of 25 KV AC Electric Traction. Instead of Paper
Insulated Composite Telecom cable, 4/6 Quad cables are now-a-days being
used in conjunction with OFC for extending the Control circuits from the Control
office to the Stations and other locations in the section as well as connecting to
the Wayside Sockets for enabling Emergency Communication. Cabled circuits
provide for high quality Control communication and are also highly reliable.
Following types of Control circuits are provided on Electrified sections:
(i) Section Control: This is provided for communication between Section

Controller in the Control Office and Wayside Stations, Junction Stations,
Block Cabins, Loco Sheds and Yards in a Division for the control of Train
movements and effective utilisatiion of the Section Capacity.
Instructions are given by the Controller to the Station Masters who report
back to him about the progress of movements of Trains.
77
(ii) Deputy Control: This is provided for communication between Deputy
Controller in the Control Office and important Stations, Junction &
Terminal Stations, Yard Masters Office, Loco Sheds and important Block
Cabins in a Division for supervisory Control of Traffic Operations in
general and for taking details of availability of Locos and Crew etc..
(iii) Stock Control: This is provided for communication between Stock
Controller in the Control Office and Yard Master’s Office and the Station
Master’s Office at junctions and Terminal Stations in a Division for getting
information on the movement of the Rolling Stock.
(iv) Traction Power Control: This is provided for communication between
the Traction Power Controller (TPC) in the Control Office and Station
Master’s Office of important Stations and Grid Stations, Feeding Posts
(FP), Sectioning Posts (SP), Sub-sectioning Posts (SSP), Important Block
Cabins, concerned Divisional Electrical & Traffic Officers in a Division
to facilitate efficient Maintenance and Operation of Electrical Overhead
Equipment (OHE) System and for arranging Power Blocks etc.
(v) Traction Loco Control: This is provided for communication between
the Traction Loco Controller (TLC) in the Control Office and the Electric
Loco Sheds, Station Master’s Office of important Stations, Yard Masters,
important Block Cabins, and concerned Divisional Electrical & Traffic
Officers in a Division for optimum utilization of Electric Locomotives and
their Crew.
(vi) Emergency Control Circuit: Selected points along the track at
a distance of about 1 Km. are provided on this Control circuit for
communication between the Train crew in emergency and Control Office.
This circuit is also used by Maintenance Staff working alongside the
Track. This circuit is terminated on the Console of TPC.
(vii) Supervisory Remote Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA)
Control: This is provided for controlling the operation of various OHE
equipments at Feeding Posts, Sectioning Posts, Sub-sectioning Posts
and Isolators etc. from the Remote Control Centre in the Control Office.
14.4.3 Selective Calling Equipment:

As described above, all Railway Control circuits are omnibus Telephone circuits ,
which means that the same pair of lines are used to connect the different points
such as Stations, Cabins, Yards and Loco Sheds etc. An omnibus circuit has the
advantage that it is very economical, as it is not necessary to run separate pairs
of lines from the Control Office to each of the Activity points. The disadvantages
are that there is no secrecy of communication and any party connected to the
circuit can lift the Telephone and hear the conversation which is going on and that
only one party can usefully talk to another party at a time. Since all the Stations
and Activity points are connected to the same pair of lines, some arrangement
is required to call any Station or Activity point, when the need arises. This is
78
done by the means of ’Selective Ringing’ by the Controller. Different types of
equipments are in use on the Railways for ‘Selective ringing’.
In the age old STC Key System, the Controller has a ‘Rotary Selector Key’ for
every Station / Activity point connected to the omnibus circuit. By turning the Key
corresponding to a Station / Activity point, the Controller is able to ring that point.
Turning of the Key generates Coded Impulses in 3 groups. One Key is turned at
a time to call a specific Station / Activity point on the System. In another System,
there is a Push Button corresponding to each such point. In yet another System,
like the one supplied by M/s ITI, and in use on Electrified sections, two Buttons
have to be pushed, depending on the pre- determined Code, to call a particular
Station / Activity point. The underlying principle of operation of all these Systems
is the same. A train of impulses is sent over the lines. The Impulses are produced
and sent from the Control Office and for each Way Station / Activity point, one
particular type of series of train of impulses is assigned. When these Impulses
are sent over the lines across which all the Way Stations sets are connected,
the Bell of the particular Way Station / Activity point only rings with the help of
equipment, called the ‘Selector’.
In STC type of equipment, the total number of Impulses for the Way Stations
/ Activity points is the same and equal to ‘17’ in number. These Impulses are
coded in to three groups and each separated from the next one by a pause.
For example, a Station Code could be 5-4-8, 4-8-5, 6-7-4 etc. A Group digit of
one pulse is not used either as Initial, Middle or Final Digit, with the result that
practical combinations get reduced to ‘78’, which are more than sufficient to
control a reasonably long Control section.
In STC type of equipment, the Way Station Selectors are operated by means of
a Polarised Relay. The Polarised Relay is so arranged that a ‘Ratchet Wheel’ is
advanced, tooth by tooth as successive impulses are received from the Control
Office. The ‘Ratchet Wheel’ carries a ‘Code Wheel’ into which a ‘Code Pin’
can be fitted in position corresponding to any ‘ratchet Wheel’ tooth. When the
Control Office sends a train of Impulses, that selectors of all Station advance
through the number of steps equal to the number of Impulses in the first Group,
but due to the ‘Pause’ after the first Group, all the Wheels return to their normal
positions except those coded for the first number, with the help of a ‘Code Pin’.
Similarly, when the second Group of Impulses is sent all Selectors advance by
steps equal to the number of Impulses in this Group, but all fall back to original
position during the inter- Group ‘Pause’ except the called Station, which has a
second ‘Code Pin’, which mechanically holds. The third set of Impulses advances
the Selector of the called Station to the 17th step, which is the ringing position.
At this strep, the circuit for ringing is completed. Thus, though all Selectors
respond to the Impulses, only the one which is coded to correspond with the
Code transmitted from the Control Office reaches the ringing position. The ringing
period is normally about 2 seconds, but the Controller can prolong the ringing, if
he so desires, by mechanically holding the Key. When this Key resumes normal
position, a clearance pulse is sent on the line which releases the held-up Selector
at the called Station.
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In the Push Button type equipment, used on Electrified sections, a number of
Relays or a combination of Relays & Uni-selectors or Solid State Electronics, are
used to decode the impulses sent by the Control Office. Though, the working of
this equipment is different, the underlying principle is the same i.e. all Selectors
respond to the Impulses sent by the Control Office but only the Selector whose
Code coincides with the Code of Impulses sent by the Control Office is able to
reach the ringing position. Other Selectors go back to the normal position during
the ‘Pause’ between the Code Pulses. Train of Impulses is initiated from the
Control Office from the Push Button Panel by momentary operation of the Push
Buttons corresponding to 1st and 3rd Digits of the Code, the Impulse train for the
second Digit is set up and transmitted automatically.
Push Button type equipment is also now used in Non-electrified sections because
of Convenience of Use, High Reliability and Ease of Maintenance.
14.4.4 Repeaters and Cable Huts:

In Cabled circuits, the speech suffers a heavy loss as the cross section of
Copper conductor is small and its Resistance high. The speech has, therefore,
to be amplified at regular intervals so that it does not drop below the threshold
level. Repeater Stations are installed for this purpose along the Cable route, at
intervals of 30 to 40 Kms., where the speech is amplified and ringing Impulses
are regenerated or repeated. Since two wire amplifiers are not stable, all cabled
Telecommunication circuits work on the principle of 4 wires, one pair is used
for transmission and the other pair for reception of speech. A Phantom circuit is
derived in 4-wire circuits for providing Signalling for selective calling purposes.
Further, to limit the building of Induced Voltage from Overhead Traction currents,
Isolating points known as ‘Cable Huts’ are introduced at an interval of 10 to
15 Kms., where the continuity of circuits is broken by introducing the Isolating
Transformers in the circuits.
14.4.5 Patching of Controls:

Control circuits normally take the same alignment as of the Permanent Way.
On Non-Electrified sections, out of two Control circuits viz. Section and Deputy,
the former one is an essential circuit and arrangements are, therefore, made to
provide un-interrupted working on this circuit by patching it with Deputy Control,
in event of certain failures. The physical patching is achieved by operating certain
Switches provided at various Wayside Stations. However, as both the Control
circuits on Overhead lines are prone to vagaries of nature i.e. Gale, Rains, Winds
and Storm and as such in the event of such like occurrences, if Section Control is
interrupted, Deputy Control shall also not be left intact. In such situations, when
the communication is of utmost importance, physical patching cannot be of any
help in providing an efficient un-interrupted Control communication System. In
such cases, Radio Patching is used provided Microwave Stations are available
at the ends of the section. Apart from end to end patching through Radio, the
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Section Control can also be patched from mid-way, if Repeater Stations are
available enroute on Control circuits.
Radio patching, not only provides the Control communication in grave

emergencies but also results in improvement in quality of speech, better working
of Wayside selectors and in addition improves the efficiency of Deputy Control as
now its efficiency no longer suffers due to physical patching.
Radio Patching and Physical Patching are also used on Cabled Control circuits,
when such circuits fail due to Cable cuts or other Faults.

Note:
Questions.
Distinguish between:
1. Operational and Control Communication circuits.
2. Section and Deputy Control circuits.
3. Repeaters and Cable Huts in an Underground Control Cable System.
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4. Emergency Control circuits on Electrified and Non-electrified Sections.
5. Physical Patching & Radio Patching of Control circuits.
14.5 ADMINISTRATIVE VOICE NETWORK

Administrative Voice Network of Indian Railways is a Hierarchical Network with
Railway Board at its Apex level, connected with all the Zones, Zones connected
with Divisions and Divisions with sub-Divisional Activity Centres. The network is
predominantly connected in a Mesh Configuration.
The legacy Administrative Voice Communication between Zones and Railway

Board was predominantly a Manual and Trunk Operator based. Connectivity was
through links on Analog Microwave Network or though Channels hired from DOT.
Switching Network was predominantly Electromechanical consisting of Strowger
type Telephone Exchanges. With Systematic Planning, commenced in early 90s,
Electronic Exchanges have now been provided in all the Zones and Divisions as
replacement of old & worn-out Exchanges.
Strowger type Telephone Exchanges as also Manual Telephone Exchanges have

now become obsolete.
In Electronic Exchanges, Microprocessor and Computer Technologies are

used for switching functions. PCM / TDM Technology are used to increase
the speed of Switching and to accommodate different types of Terminals and
Interfaces with Digital Transmission Systems. Digital Electronic Exchanges
provide several unique features like Abbreviated Dialing, Call Forward, Call
Waiting, Call Transfer, Conference Handling, Subscriber Trunk Dialing (STD),
and Electronic Mail Interface etc. The quality of Speech and Data Transmission
is also improved.
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The connectivity amongst the Exchanges has also improved, both in terms of
Capacity and Reliability and is being progressively provided on OFC Systems.
With formation of RailTel in September 2000, commissioning of the Long-haul
OFC system interlinking the Zonal headquarters has received a big boost and
this has enabled provision of an Integrated and Reliable STD Network with a
unified 5-digit Numbering Scheme, National STD Access across Zones and
Divisions of same & different Zones is now possible to the Railway Subscribers.
The STD Codes have been standardised as ‘0ZD’ where ‘Z’ stands for the
Zone and ‘D’ for the Division. Some of the Railways have implemented ‘Closed
Numbering Scheme’ at the Zonal level. Codes for such Zones are in the format
of ‘0Z0’. Schematic of Switching Network is illustrated in Figure ‘7.28’. Further
Planning is two fold - the first to avail of STD Access at a minimum of 2 Mbps
between Railway Board & Zones and between Zones & Divisions and the second
to implement ‘Closed Numbering Scheme’ over the respective Zones.
Figure 7.28
14.5.1 Trunk Circuits

Trunk circuits are used for establishing communication between Headquarters
of Railway and its Division & other important Activity points in the Division and
also between Divisional Office and important Stations on the Division. The
Headquarters Offices of various Zonal Railways are also connected with each
other and the Railway Board by Trunk circuits.
Trunk circuits can work on any of the following Systems:
(i) Overhead Line wires.

(ii) Overhead Carrier Channels.
(iii) Underground Telecommunication Cables.
(iv) Underground Co-axial Cables.
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(v) High Frequency (HF) Links (Single Side Band -SSB or Double Side Band
-DSB).
(vi) Multi Channel Radio Relay System such as VHF, UHF or Microwave . (vii)
Satellite Communication Channels.
(viii) Optical Fibre Communication.
Media listed at (i), (ii) & (v) have now become obsolete. Above circuits can either
be fully owned by the Railways or some Channels taken on rent from DOT and /
or other Telecom Service Providers.
Trunk circuits coming from various locations and working over any of the
Systems mentioned above are terminated on the Trunk Board. A number of Tie-
lines from the Local Telephone Exchange are also terminated on the Trunk Board
so that the Trunk Operator is able to connect any of the Subscribers of the Local
Telephone Exchange to any of the Trunk circuits.
14.6 ADMINISTRATIVE DATA

NETWORK OF IR - THE RAILNET
Indian Railways have established their own Nation-wide Intranet, known as
RailNet. In phase-I of the project ‘RailNet’, Railway Board, Zonal Railway HQs,
Production units, CORE - Allahabad, MTP - Kolkata, RDSO, Centralised and
other major Training Institutes were to be covered. In addition, Railway Board
had also decided to include Passenger Complaint Centres at 150 locations in
this phase for providing Dial-up Access to RailNet. All locations envisaged in the
scope of this work have since been covered and connected to RailNet.
At each location, 10 Mbps Ethernet Local Area Net work (LAN) of varying
number of Nodes and Server has been installed. These LANs are connected
amongst each other on Wide Area Network (WAN) on 64 / 9.6 Kbps Data circuits,
using Routers of appropriate Port capacities. In addition, Internet connectivity
of 2 Mbps Bandwidth has been provided at Railway Board, Mumbai (WR),
Chennai (SR) and Kolkata (ER) for providing Access to Internet to RailNet users
connected either on LANs or through Dial-up on selective basis. Firewall has
been provided at all these 4 Servers to ensure access to RailNet from Authorised
Users only. The main four Servers of the RailNet at Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai &
Kolkata are connected in Mesh Configuration to provide ‘Route Diversity’.
In phase-II of the Project, RailNet has been extended to Divisional Headquarters

& important Railway Workshops.
The Architecture of the System has been broadly designed to serve the following
Objectives:
(i) Exchange of quick and efficient Information updates amongst Servers

placed in Railway Board, Zonal HQs / Divisional HQs. and important
Activity Centres in a Hierarchical manner.
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(ii) To provide high speed Internet Access at 4 Key locations i.e. Delhi,
Mumbai, Chennai & Kolkata.
(iii) To Monitor and Control usages of RailNet and Internet.
Consequent upon the rapid growth of Computer population over Indian Railways
and increased use of RailNet for Intranet & Internet Web Browsing, e-mailing
and File Transfers, the RailNet Network has been further augmented to handle
the obtainable and expected growth in traffic between the Zonal Railway
Headquarters and between Zones and Divisions. Access & Connectivity has
been improved by employing 2 Mbps OFC links and upgradation of Routers,
Switches & Modems. In addition, effective tools for Accountal & Control of usage
time as also for providing Security against possible Hacking and Attacks by
Viruses, have been put into place.
The Block Schematic Arrangements of RailNet are illustrated in Figure ‘7.29’.
Figure : 7.29
The complex Data Networks for the Managerial, Revenue and Commercial
needs of Railways, such as Management Information Systems (MIS), Passenger
Reservation System (PRS), Freight Operations Information System (FOIS) &
Unreserved Ticketing System (UTS) etc. require availability of Communication
Network with high quality of Reliability, Availability & Serviceability. These mission
critical applications need a Carefully Engineered, Redundant and Error-free
Network. It is now possible to network these applications in-house as the OFC
Network with alternate Routes and Protection Rings is now available in all parts
of the Indian Railways.
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14.7 COMMUNICATION NEEDS
FOR PASSENGERS:
These would include the following:
(i) Train Arrival and Departure Boards at Stations.

(ii) Public Address (PA) Systems at Stations.
(iii) Public address (PA) Systems in Trains.
(iv) Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) Systems for displaying Train Passing
Information, Useful Messages for the benefit of Passengers and for
Surveillance of Strategic Areas at Stations by Station Staff.
(v) Enquiry Systems for Train Arrival / Departure Times, Time Table
Information, Reservation Status, Fares & Concessions, Plans for
Journeys between two / multiple points and other general facilities
provided by Indian Railways at Stations like Retiring Rooms, Dormitories
and Cloak Rooms etc.
(vi) Cyber Cafes at major Stations including a few Wi-Fi Hot Spots.
(vi) Call Centres or Integrated Enquiry-cum-Facilitation Centres based on
Interactive Voice Response System (IVRS) and Automatic Speech
Recognition, wherefrom the Rail Users could get all kinds of Information
Services, mentioned in sub-para (v) above, as also Services like SMSs
on Mobile Phones on Reservation / Train Passing Status, Complaints &
Grievances Recording and Replies thereof within a stipulated time, Goods
Movement & their Delivery details etc.
(vii) Mobile Voice and Data Access for Passengers from moving Trains.
(viii) Train Information Display Board- Telecommunication plays a major role in
ensuring passenger comfort. For the convenience of passengers, Train
Information Board has been provided at 1090 stations, Public Address
(PA) system at 638 stations and coach guidance systematic stations.
14.7.1 Possible Enhancements in Passenger

Amenities:
Passenger Amenity requirements can now be really revolutionised with the
availability of equipments like STM-1 & 10/100 Mbps Ethernet Interface, through
OFC link, at Stations on important routes. Following Schemes can be considered
to cater for improvements in Services to the passengers:
(i) Terminals of Passenger Reservation System (PRS) can be provided at

each and every potential Station.
86
(ii) Terminals of Unreserved Ticketing Systems (UTSs) can be provided at all
Stations and networked to the Divisional Office. UTS provides for even
advance issue of Un-reserved Tickets.
(iii) All Platforms of all important Stations on Indian Railways can have
‘Coach Guidance System’, wherein Information with regard to position
of Coaches can be made available, using Information & Communication
Technology (ICT) Infrastructure, to the next halt Station of a Train.
(iv) The Data Loggers in conjunction with OFC Network can be made use
for automating the Control charting and automatically updating the
Platform Train Indicators, thereby giving the precise position of the
Train at that specific time and its expected Arrival at that Station. The
same information can also be made use of in automatically initiating the
Passenger Announcement System at the respective Stations for the
similar function of indicating the actual position of expected Arrival of the
Trains.
(v) Contents of Train position information, available through Data Loggers
and Control chart, can be suitably compiled and a message can be sent
to the passing Train at the Station giving information inside the Coach
by moving Displays, indicating where this Train is presently running, and
whether it is running right time or late, brief reasons if it is running late and
at what time it is expected at its next scheduled halt. This will be a great
aid to the travelling public especially during the night when it is difficult
to find out whether the Train is running right time or late and if late, how
much and why late.
(vi) Ethernet Interface can enable easy spread of Internet Access through
Cyber Cafes at important Stations, enabling facilities of Web- browsing,
e-mailing, VoIP and Video Conferencing. These Cafes, in addition, can
provide other Utility Services like Printing, Photocopying, Faxing and
Scanning, etc.
(vii) Vision 2020 envisages provision of Internet on the running Train.
Provision of Broadband Internet connectivity in running train will keep
the travelling public connected to the rest of the world in spite of the
long journeys in the Train by using two way Satellite hybrid with 2G/3G
with Wifi. The system consists of on board satellite tracking antenna,
multiboard antenna & Wifi broadcasting equipments for on board last mile
connectivity. The primary broad band link to back haul the Internet traffic
is established via satellite and in the event of non-availability of stallite the
multi access router automatically switches from satellite to 2G/3G links to
achieve 99% connectivity.
(viii) Transmission of Broadband Data to the moving Train quite effectively to
enable provision of live TV Channels and live Radio in Train Coaches.
(ix) Provision of VoIP telephones, through Internet, for Voice Calls by
Passengers - both domestic as well as international.
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14.8 COMMUNICATION FOR CRISIS &
DISASTER MANAGEMENT:
Following Communication facilities can now be provided on Accidents and
Disaster Sites, depending upon the requirements:
(i) BSNL / Railway Telephone lines: Telephone lines can be extended from
Stations to mid-section Sites using OFC and underground Quad cables
and / or Satellite Terminals, called V-SATs.
(i) 50-line Telephone Exchange: A WiLL (wireless in Local Loop) (newly
developed Cor-DECT Technology) 50-line Exchange may be kept in
Accident Relief Trains (ART) in Divisional Headquarter. This Exchange
can provide for Telephones on wireless within a range of 2- 3 Kms. and
can be commissioned within half an hour of arrival of ART at the Accident
Site. This Exchange also has the facility to extend the range by installing
another Base Station, besides catering for connectivity from PSTN (Public
Phone Network), using OFC links.
(iii) Walkie-Talkie & VHF Sets: ARTs have been equipped with 30 Nos. of
Walkie-Talkie Sets and two 25 W VHF Sets. These can be commissioned
immediately after the arrival of the ART to provide for wireless
communication.
(iv) Control Phones: Control Phones from nearby Emergency Sockets can
be extended, by laying (spreading along the ground) additional Cable. In
case the Control circuits are on Overhead alignment, 2-3 Portable Control
Telephones can be hooked straightaway. Control Phones are immensely
useful in getting directions from the Divisional Officers and providing them
with the feed back of Relief and Restoration works.
(v) Satellite Phones: A minimum of 2 Satellite Phones can be put into use
immediately after arrival of Telecom Personnel from the Division at the
Accident Site. These can be later increased by ordering Satellite Phones
from adjacent Divisions and Zonal Headquarters.
(vi) Cellular / Mobile Phones: A few Mobile Phones are always available
in the Division for usage at accident Site and additional such Phones, if
needed, can be hired from the Local Service Providers.

Note:
(a) Please do not proceed until you have answered the following Questions.
(c) Check your Answers with the ones given at the end of this Unit. State
whether the following statements are True / False:
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1. Admin Voice Network of Indian Railways is based on Hierarchical Meshed
Architecture. ( )
2. Strowger type Automatic Telephone Exchanges are now used on Indian
Railways. ( )
3. Quality of Speech is better in Digital Electronic Exchanges as compared
to Strowger type Automatic Telephone Exchanges. ( )
4. Trunk circuits are used to connect two Telephone Exchanges. ( )
5. ‘RailNet’ is a part of Admin Voice Network. ( )
6. Mesh Configuration in a Network is employed to obtain ‘Route Diversity’.
( )
7. ‘FOIS’ is an important Commercial Data Network of Indian Railways. ( )
Choose the correct Answer :
8. Which of the following Services fall under the Category of Passenger
Amenity Service?
(a) Cyber Café.
(b) Internet in Running Train.
(c) Call Centre.
(d) CCTV.
(e) All of the ‘a’ to‘d’ above.
9. Which of the following Telecom facilities can be provided at a Rail- way
Accident Site, between the two Stations?
(a) Control Phone.
(b) Satellite Phone.
(c) BSNL / DOT Phone.
(d) Cellular Phone.
All of the ‘a’ to‘d’ above.
14.9 LET US SUM UP

A reliable Telecommunication network is an Operational Necessity for a vast
and geographically spread out organisation like the Indian Railways. It provides
an effective tool for Planning, Control and Coordination of various Functions and
Departments of the Railways and for the Optimum Utilisation of their precious Assets.
For meeting the Telecommunication requirements IR, until early 1960s, were
largely dependent on the Department of Telecommunication (DOT) but since
then over the years have built up their own Nation wide Telecom Network,
89
basically consisting of multi-Hop, multi-Channel Microwave in SHF Band,
supported by UHF Spurs, Copper Quad Cables, Optical Fibre Cables,
Overhead Line wires, Telephone Exchanges and Trunk Systems. Mobile
Communication and Intranet & Internet Services have also been introduced in
recent past and are now on threshold of expansion.
In late 1990s, Indian Railways took a primer Decision on Techno-economic

considerations, to provide Optical Fibre Cable System on RE Sections for Train
Control, Operational and Safety circuits. Owing to large-scale use of OFC world-
wide and consequent reduction in costs of OFC based Systems, Indian Railways
have extended the use of OFC and Copper Quad Cables on busy non-Electrified
Territories also. As a fraction of the available capacity of the available capacity
of OFC System was only being utilised for Railways’ own needs & enough
surplus capacity was available in the links already commissioned, in the year
2000, formation of a Telecom. Corporation – the RailTel – was conceived of to
build Nation-wide Broadband & Multi-media Network with twin prime Objectives
of modernising the Railways’ Communication Systems & Networks and earn
Revenues by marketing the surplus Capacity.
The Telecom needs of Indian Railways can be broadly categorised into following
Categories:

(ii) Train Control and Emergency Control Communication circuits.
(iii) Administrative Networks for Audio and Video Conferencing.
(iv) Data Communication Networks for Administrative and Managerial needs
such as, the RailNet (Intranet for Railways) and MIS (Management
Information System) Networks.
(v) Data Communication Networks for Commercial needs, such as
passenger Reservation System (PRS), Freight Operations Information
System (FOIS) & Un-reserved Ticketing System (UTS).
(vi) Communication Needs for Passengers, such as Display Systems
comprising of Arrival / Departure Boards, Closed Circuit Television
(CCTV) & Public Address Systems (PAS), Cyber Cafes, Mobile Voice and
Data Access for Passengers from moving Trains and Call Centres based
on Interactive Voice Response System (IVRS) and Automatic Speech
Recognition.
(vii) Communication for Crisis and Disaster Management with Voice, Data
and Video transmission from Disaster Site to remote Divisional / Zonal
Headquarters and Railway Train Traffic Control Centres.
The Block circuit is the prime Operational circuit. These circuits, with attached
Telephones, are provided within Stations for Train working purposes and are
meant for Granting and Obtaining ‘Line Clear’ for Trains. In Electrified Areas,
these circuits are essentially taken underground along with Control circuits
to mitigate the evil effects of Electromagnetic & Electrostatic Induction from
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Traction currents flowing in OHE. Block Instruments used for running of Trains
are connected to these circuits. Block Telephones, integral part of the Block
Instruments, are used for communication between the Station Masters of
consecutive Stations.
Magneto Phones are largely employed to meet the point-to-point voice

communication requirements such as between the Station Masters and LC gates,
and Station Masters and Cabins in a multi-Cabin Signalling System.
Control circuits are omnibus Telephone circuits, which provide communication

with each and every Train working point, thus facilitating efficient Train
Operations. An omnibus circuit is one in which all parties are hooked on the
same circuit or pair of wires and thus can talk to each other or to the Operator of
the circuit, known as the ‘Controller’. The ‘Controller’ can selectively call, through
‘Selective Calling Equipment Set-up’, any one of them or all of them. According to
the traffic requirements and to cater to the additional needs of Electric Traction, a
Station or Train working point may be provided with one or more Railway Control
circuits. Section and Deputy Control circuits are the two circuits usually provided
on non-Electrified sections. On Electrified sections, however, Stock Control, TLC,
TPC, Emergency Control and Supervisory Remote Control & SCADA System
are the additional circuits to cater for the special requirements of Electrified
territories. Each of these circuits fulfills the specific needs of various facets of in
Monitoring and Control Activities of the Controllers, sitting in the Control Centre.
Radio patching is often used to meet out the fault situations in Control circuits. It
helps in providing the Control communication in grave emergencies.
Administrative Voice Network of Indian Railways is a Hierarchical Network with

Railway Board at its Apex level, connected with all the Zones, Zones connected
with Divisions and Divisions with sub-Divisional Activity Centres. The Network is
predominantly connected in a Mesh Configuration. Setting-up of calls is either
through STD Calling facility provided in different Telephone Exchanges or through
Trunk circuits. Exchanges are now mostly Electronic Exchanges. Strowger type
Electro-mechanical Exchanges are now on way out.
Digital Electronic Exchanges provide several unique features like Abbreviated

Dialing, Call Forward, Call Waiting, Call Transfer, Conference Handling,
Subscriber Trunk Dialing (STD), and Electronic Mail Interface etc. The quality of
Speech and Data transmission is also improved in these
exchanges as compared to what was available in Strowger type of Exchanges.

The connectivity amongst the Exchanges has also improved, both in terms of
Capacity and Reliability and is being progressively provided on OFC Systems.
Trunk circuits are used for establishing communication between Headquarters

of Railway and its Division & other important Activity points in the Division and
also between Divisional Office and important Stations on the Division. The
Headquarters Offices of various Zonal Railways are also connected with each
other and the Railway Board by Trunk circuits. Trunk circuits are mostly working
91
on Multi Channel Radio Relay Systems and / or Optical Fibre Cable (OFC) based
Communication links.
Indian Railways have also established their own Nation-wide Intranet,

known as RailNet, which cover Railway Board, Zonal Railway HQs, Divisional
Headquarters, Production units, RDSO, Training Institutes, other important
Offices and Workshops. Internet connectivity has been provided at Railway
Board, Mumbai (WR), Chennai (SR) and Kolkata (ER) for providing Access
to Internet to RailNet users connected either on LANs or through Dial- up on
selective basis.
The main four Servers of the RailNet are at Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai & Kolkata
and are connected in Mesh Configuration to provide ‘Route Diversity’.
The Data Networks for the Managerial, Revenue and Commercial needs
of Railways, such as Management Information Systems (MIS), Passenger
Reservation System (PRS), Freight Operations Information System (FOIS) &
Unreserved Ticketing System (UTS) etc., requiring availability of Communication
Network with high quality of Reliability, Availability & Serviceability, have been
Networked in-house, using the OFC Network which is now equipped with
alternate Routes and Protection Rings.
Communication facilities provided on Accidents and Disaster Sites, depending

upon the requirements, mostly include BSNL / Railway Telephone lines -
extended from Stations to mid-section Sites using OFC and underground Quad
cables and / or V-SATs., Walkie-Talkie & VHF Sets,
Control Phones, Satellite Phones and Mobile Phones. In cases of severe

emergent requirements at a Disaster Site, a small 50-line Telephone Exchange,
catering for WiLL (wireless in Local Loop) connectivity can, however, be quickly
commissioned at the Accident Site. This Exchange can provide for Telephones
on wireless within a range of 2-3 Kms. and has the facility to extend the range by
installing another Base Station. This Exchange can also provide connectivity to
Public Phone Network, using OFC links.
14.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: THE KEY

CYP 1 :
1. Telecommunication is one of the most important tools of the Management

for conveying a set of Instructions or Orders down the line and for getting
the Feedback there from. In the case of Railways, the Activity Centres
are geographically separated and spread over a large Area. The field
of Activity is so vast that the monitoring of its Operations requires the
assistance of a very intricate and reliable Network of communication,
comprising of Operations, Control & Monitoring circuits. Also, since
the Assets of Railways like Wagons, Coaches and Locomotives etc.
92
are mobile and their position is always changing with respect to time,
the demand on the Telecommunication Network never ceases on the
Railways.
2. The Telecom needs of Indian Railways can be broadly categorised into
following Categories:
(ii) Train Control and Emergency Control Communication.
(iii) Administrative Networks for Audio and Video conferencing.
(iv) Data Communication Networks for Administrative and Managerial
needs.
(v) Data Communication Networks for Commercial needs such as
Passenger Reservation System, Freight Operations 7 Control
Systems etc..
(vi) Communication Needs for Passengers like Enquiry Systems, Display
Systems, Closed Circuit Television Systems (CCTV), Public Address
Systems (PAS) & Cyber Cafes etc.
(vii) Communication for Crisis and Disaster Management with Voice,
Data and Video transmission from Disaster Site to remote Divisional
/ Zonal Headquarters and Railway Train Traffic Control Centres.
3. True / False:
a) True. b) True. c) False. d) True. e) True. f) True.

g) False. g) True.
CYP 2 :
1. Types of Operational circuits presently in use on Indian Railways:

(i) Block circuits.
(ii) Magneto Telephone circuits.
(iii) Gate Telephone circuits.
(iv) Local Telephone circuits.
Correct Answer:
2. (a). 3. (d).
True / False:
4. True. 5. True.
CYP 3 :
Distinguish Between:
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1. Operational and Control Communication circuits:
Operational circuits are meant for working of Trains from Station to Station. Block
circuits, Magneto Telephone circuits, Gate Telephone circuits and Local
Telephone circuits fall under this category. The Block circuit is the prime
Operational circuit and is used for Granting and Obtaining ‘Line Clear’ for
Trains. Other Operational circuits are also employed for communication
relating to direct operation of Trains. For example, the circuit between the
Station Master & the Gateman is used for advising the Gateman about
the oncoming Train movement and directing him to close the LC Gate
against the Road traffic etc.
Control circuits are omnibus Telephone circuits, which provide
communication with each and every Train working point to facilitate Train
Operations. An omnibus circuit is one in which all parties are hooked on
the same circuit or pair of wires and thus can talk to each other or to the
Operator of the circuit, known as the ‘Controller’. The ‘Controller’ can
selectively call any one of them or all of them.
2. Section & Deputy Control circuits:
Section and Deputy Control circuits both are used for Train Traffic
Control. While Section Control primarily is meant for the control of Train
movements and effective utilisatiion of the Section Capacity, the Deputy
Control is provided for Supervisory Control of Traffic Operations in
general and for taking details of availability of Locos, other Rolling Stock
and Crew etc.
Section Control is for communication between Section Controller in the
Control Office and Stations, Block Cabins, Loco Sheds and Yards. Deputy
Control is for communication between Deputy Controller in the Control
Office and important Stations, Junction & Terminal Stations, Yard Masters
Office, Loco Sheds and important Block Cabins.
3. Repeaters and Cable Huts in an Underground Control Cable System:
In Cabled circuits, the speech has to be amplified at regular intervals
to counter the losses so that it does not drop below the threshold level.
Repeater Stations are installed along the Cable route, for this purpose,
at intervals of 30 to 40 Kms. ‘Cable Huts’ are the Isolating points and
provided at an interval of 10 to 15 Kms. to limit the building of Induced
Voltage from Overhead Traction currents. At these points, the continuity of
circuits is broken by introducing the Isolating Transformers in the circuits.
There is no amplification done at these Isolating points.
4. Emergency Control circuits on Electrified and Non- electrified
Sections:
On Electrified sections a separate Emergency Control circuit is
provided, tapping from which along the track, at a distance of about 1
Km. are terminated in to 6-Pin Sockets. Drivers and Guards can plug-
in their Portable Emergency Phone in to these sockets and enter into
94
a conversation with the TPC, on whose Console this Control circuit is
terminated. Facilities are provided for the TPC to transfer the Call to
Section Control, if required.
On non-Electrified sections, equipped with Overhead Control circuit
alignment, there is no separate Emergency Control circuit. Guards and
Drivers of the Trains are provided with Portable Telephones and the Line
alignment Charts. In case of emergency, they can connect the Portable
Telephones on the line wires of Section Control circuit and talk / inform to
the Section Controller about the emergency. In case of Cabled circuits, on
non- electrified sections, 6-Pin Emergency Sockets are provided, like that
in Electrified section, every Kilometre along side the track. This Control, in
non- Electrified sections, is terminated on the Section Control Console.
5. Physical Patching & Radio Patching of Control circuits.
Patching facilities are to be essentially provided to maintain the working

efficiency of Control circuits in event of occurrence of fault on the circuit
alignment.
The Physical patching is achieved by patching the wires in Section
Control circuit from a less important circuit like Deputy Control. This is
done by operating certain Switches provided for the purpose at various
Wayside Stations. Physical patching can help if the other circuit is in-tact,
which is not a usual situation.
Radio Patching uses Radio for the purpose of patching. It provides a good
& reliable method for patching provided Microwave Stations are available
at the ends of the section. Apart from end to end patching through Radio,
the Section Control can also be patched from mid-way, if Microwave
Repeater Stations are available enroute on the Control circuit alignment.
The Speech as also the Ring is transmitted to the other end through
Radio and then fed backwards on the Control circuit to cover Stations on
the other side of the fault.
CYP 4 :
True / False :
1. True. 2. False. 3. True. 4. False. 5. False. 6. True. 7. True.
Correct Answer :
8. (e). 9. (e).
UNIT END QUESTIONS
Q. 1 Enumerate the functions / purpose of different Control circuits provided in

an Electrified Railway section.
Q. 2 State, in brief, the difference between Operational and Administrative
circuits.
95
Q. 3 What kinds of facilities can be configured in an Intercom Telephone
Network?
Q. 4 What is ‘Selective Ringing’? Where is it used?
Q. 5 State the main Objectives behind setting up of a separate Intranet for the
Railways.
Q. 6 What kinds of Telecommunication facilities would you, as a Rail User, like
to be provided by the Railway Administration at Stations and in running
Train?
Q. 7 How can the communication be established by a Train Driver / Train
Guard at the Site of Accident in case of (a) Non-electrified Section, and
(b) Electrified Section?
Q. 8 Where do you use Administrative Trunk circuits and how are they
worked?
Q. 9 Write Short Notes on the following:
(i) Magneto Telephone.

(ii) Block circuit.
(iii) Patching of Control circuits.
(iv) Telecom Needs of Indian Railways.
(v) Communication Facilities at a Railway Accident Site.
96
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Aspects of Railway
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UNIT-15
Modern Telecommunication Systems
Structure
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Optical Fibre Cable (OFC) Communication
15.2.1 OFC in Railways
15.2.2 Electronics
15.2.3 Channel Capacity
15.2.4 DWDM Systems
15.2.5 Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable Communication
15.2.6 Limitations in using Optical Fibre Cables
15.3 Train Radio Communication
15.3.1 Universal Emergency Communication System (UCES)
15.3.2 Walkie-Talkie Sets
15.4 Train Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) –an Automatic Train protection
(ATP) System with cab signaling.
15.5 Advanced Auxiliary Warning System(AAWS) installed on Mumbai suburban
section for preventing SPAD.
15.6 Train Protection & Warning System
15.7 VSAT based Accident Site Communication System
15.8 Advance Warning System (Radio & RFID Based) for Approaching Trains at
Unmanned Level Crossing Gate
15.9 VHF Based Approaching Train Warning System for Track Maintainers
15.10 Mobile Train Radio Communication (MTRC) System
15.10.1 Objectives of Mobile Train Radio Communication (MTRC) System
15.10.2 Principle of Working and Block Schematic of MTRC System
15.10.3 Available Technologies in MTRC
15.10.4 Facilities Available in a Typical MTRC System
15.11 Let Us Sum Up
Unit End Questions
97
15.0 OBJECTIVES
(i) Discuss the importance of the two modern telecommunication systems

viz. OFC Based Systems and Mobile Train Radio Communication (MTRC)
Systems in Railways.
(ii) Explain the basic principles of working of OFC Based Systems and
Mobile Train Radio Communication (MTRC) Systems, and
(iii) Discuss the potential use of each of the above Systems in meeting the
needs of ever increasing Rail Traffic.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
As we have already discussed in the preceding Unit, the Telecommunication
Systems have an important role to play in Control and Operations of Indian
Railways. This has further assumed significance in view of the increased train
speeds and traffic densities on Rail sections. The role is now not merely limited in
Operational and Control Activities but also has a significant part in managing the
Accident and Disaster situations. Failures in Telecommunication Systems have a
definite crunching effect on Operations. Non-availability of an effective, speedily
implementable and instantly available Telecommunication System in Emergency
cases can cause abnormal delays in Relief and Restoration works and be, thus,
instrumental in the loss of many lives. Modernisation of Telecommunication,
therefore, is an inescapable necessity.
On Indian Railways, Modernisation of Telecommunications, though has not

kept pace with the developments elsewhere in this arena, yet a good beginning
has been made at the advent of the 21st Century. A clear Vision has now been
formulated to improve the Telecom. Infrastructure by induction of State-of-Art,
Practicable and User-friendly Technologies. Programmed Replacement of
Overhead Control Alignments with underground Quad / OF Cables, Provision of
Reliable, Effective and Full Duplex Mobile Train Radio Communication, Wiring
of an all India Administrative Voice Network built around Software controlled
Electronic Exchanges inter-linked, through OFC / Digital Microwave links, in a
mesh configuration with Close Numbering Scheme over a Zone as a whole, and
Incorporation of RailTel Corporation – a Telecom. PSU under Ministry of Railways
are a few steps, IR have taken in the right direction.
OFC has already been laid on about 30,000 Route Kilometres. All the
Zones, Production Units, Workshops, Training Centres and other important
Establishments of the Indian Railways are now inter-connected with STD
Administrative Voice Network. RailTel has implemented State-of-Art Data
Communication Networks across the length and breadth of the Country. Works of
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MTRC on around 2,500 Route Kilometres are in progress and further proliferation
of this System is expected on successful implementation and trials. With these
all around developments, Telecommunications on Indian Railways are poised
for a great leap and have acquired status of a front line player to not only bring
in enhancement in safety performance but also in optimising train operations,
resulting in cutting of Costs, increase in the profitability and efficiency.
In subsequent sections of this Unit, we shall be discussing in a some detail the

two important Modern Telecommunication Systems, viz. Optical Fibre Cable
(OFC) Communication and Mobile Train Radio Communication (MTRC) referred
to above, which can be effectively employed to cope up with the increased
demands to provide Communications, commensurate with the requirements of
Capacity and Safety in Rail Transportation.
15.2 OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE

(OFC) COMMUNICATION
Optical Fibre Cable (Refer to Figure 7.30 for Cross section view of a typical
Optical Fibre Cable) comprises of very thin fibres of hair’s size. Fibres are
made of non metallic conductor (Plastic Clad Silica / Glass) and can transmit
Light energy from one end to the other end by utilising the phenomena of ‘Total
Internal Reflection of Light’. A Fibre has two concentric layers called the Core
and the Cladding. The inner Core carries the Light. The Refractive Index of Core
is slightly higher than that of Cladding, typical values being 1.48 to 1.5 for the
Core and 1.46 to 1.48 for the Cladding. It is because of this difference between
the two Refractive Indices which affects Total Internal Reflection to take place in
the Fibre Core, when a Light source of a particular wavelength is injected at a
critical angle in it.
Figure 7.30 :Cross-section of Optical Fibre Cable (Armoured Loose Tube type)
99
The Information (voice, video, data etc) is multiplexed and modulated into the
Light source at the Transmitter end and then it travels along the Fibre to the other
end where the Information is de-multiplexed in the Receiver. As it travels, it gets
attenuated and Repeaters are required to be installed at appropriate intervals.
Typically for Long-haul Systems, Repeater spacing can be around 80 Kms. which
can go up to 160 Kms. using ultra Long-haul Lasers in SDH (Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy) Technology.
The Transmitter uses either a Laser Diode or a Light Emitting Diode (LED)
for Electrical to Optical conversion. The Receiver uses either a Pin Diode or an
Avalanche Photo Diode (APD) for Optical to Electrical conversion.
Figure 7.31 shows an OFC Link, with one Regenerator.
Figure 7.31 Schematic of an OFC Link
Long lengths of Cables are joined by Splicing the Fibres.
Optical Fibre cables are now extensively used for building long distance
communication systems (Long-haul Systems) by Telecom Service Providers.
Earlier Microwave and Co-axial copper cable based communication systems
were installed for this purpose. OFC based systems have become popular
as these have got enormous capacity to carry Video, Data and Voice Signals
and their costs have become lower than the conventional Co-axial cable and
Microwave systems. Microwave Communication Systems and Satellite based
Communication Systems are still used, wherever it is not feasible to lay Optic
Fibre Cables due to terrain and geography.
Although the Optic Fibre has got enormous Capacity which is also referred to
as Bandwidth, the actual utilization of the Capacity would depend upon the
technology and type and size of Electronics installed for lighting up of the Fibre.
100
The technology and the size and type of electronics are decided by the Service
Providers as per the requirement of Bandwidth in the Sector.
Attenuation and Dispersion of the Light Signal when it travels in the Fibre are two
very important parameters for OFC communication. Dispersion is zero at 1310
nm while Attenuation is lowest at 1550 nm in the Silica. Therefore, these two
windows are used for OFC Communication system. While 1310 nm is used for
Short-haul communication, 1550 nm is used for Long-haul communication.
15.2.1 OFC in Railways

Railways have been using conventional Copper Quad Cable for their Control
communication requirement in RE areas and Microwave Systems for
Administrative and Data Transmission circuits (Long-haul Systems).
Copper Cable systems suffered due to the problem of Electromagnetic induction

in the RE areas and the poor quality of Voice communication. To obviate this
problem, Railways have started using OFC since early 90s in lieu of conventional
Copper Cable System. The Control Communication system is referred to as
Short-haul System as the communication is provided between Station to Control
and Station to Station within a Division. OFC based systems do not suffer with
Electromagnetic Induction problems as the Signal travels in the form of Light
in the Fibre. Further it uses Digital Technology for transmission of Signal which
improves the quality of Voice communication.As on March 2013, Indian Railways
has about 48293 kilometres of Optical Fibre Cable(OFC) that is carrying
Gigabites of traffic. Railway Control Communication which is quinterrential for
train operation and control is also being transferred to OFC system. Till March
2013, Control Communication on 45307 RKM has been shifted to OFC system.
This OFC network is also contributing significantly in building National Knowledge
Network through Railtel.A Plan to provide broadband connectivity to Panchayts is
also being contemplated through this OFC network.
Other important Applications of OFC in Railways are:
(i) Short haul circuits for linking of Telephone Exchanges (Tie-lines and
Junction Lines).
(ii) Signalling Applications for Fail-safe Transmission of Digital Signals. Indian
Railways have standardized use of 24-Fibre Armoured Optic Cable. Initially,

Railways were using 8-Fibre cables. In some sections 10 or 18 Fibres Cables
have also been laid. Steel Tape Armouring of the Cable has been specified to
avoid damage to Cable by Rodents. Cable is either directly buried in the trench at
a depth of 1 metre or blown in the HDPE Duct which is also laid at 1 metre depth
in the trench along the Railway track.
For making a Communication network, only two Fibre strands are used. The rest
of the Fibres can be used for building another independent network or kept as
101
standby for the lit Fibres. Fibres are said to be lit when electronics is installed on
it for deriving circuits. Unlit Fibres are called Dark Fibres.
15.2.2 Electronics
Electronics is required to be provided on the fibre pair for deriving channels.
Even if channels are not required to be dropped at the station, Electronics
(Regenerator) may have to be provided, if distance between the two stations
is large.
Two technologies PDH (Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy) and SDH

(Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) are used for deriving channels. PDH technology
was earlier used. It is now an obsolete technology. Now a days mostly SDH
technology is used as the technology can provide very large capacity and also
has got very effective network management capabilities.
15.2.3 Channel Capacity

In SDH technology, the lowest capacity available is STM-1 (Synchronous
Transfer Mode) which can give 63 E1s. One E1 is equal to 2 Mbps (Mega bits
per seconds) which can carry 30 voice channels. Thus STM-1 system can
provide 63 x 30 = 1890 telephone lines simultaneously. In terms of speed STM-1
is 155 Mbps. Additional bits are used for management information.
1,890 channels is the ultimate capacity but the equipments can be equipped for
less number of channels. Systems are available to provide modular upgrades
from 21 E1s to 42 & finally to 63.
Next higher capacity electronics is STM-4 which can give 4 times more channels
than STM-1 i.e. 1,890x4 = 7560 telephone channels. In terms of speed STM-4 is
655 Mbps. Additional bits are used for management information.
Next higher capacity electronics in SDH system is STM-16 which can give 16
times more channels than STM-1 i.e. 1,890x16 = 30,240 telephone channels.
In terms of speed, STM-6 is 2.5 Giga bits per second (Gbps). Additional bits are
used for management information.
Highest capacity electronics available in SDH system at present is STM- 64

which can give 64 times more channels than STM-1 i.e. 1,890x64 = 1,20,960
telephone channels. In terms of speed, STM 64 is 10 Giga bits per second
(Gbps).
Thus by installing STM-64 electronics, one can get more than one lakh telephone
lines on just 2 fibres of the optic fibre cable. Capacity can be further increased by
lighting other fibres of the cable.
STM-1 & STM-4 Systems are being commonly used on Indian Railways, STM-1
for Control Communication and STM-4 for Long-haul circuits. STM-1 electronics
102
equipped with 21 E1s is being provided at every Station on a separate pair of
Fibre for Train Control communication. Here to derive individual Channels (64
Kbps) from E1 stream of STM-1 equipment, equipment which is called primary
multiplexing equipment is provided which converts 1 E1 into 30 individual
Telephone circuits as the requirement of Railways is at the Channel’s level. Since
this is a Short-haul system requiring droppings at each Station, the System is
worked at 1310 nm as it is cheaper than 1550 nm. On another Fibre pair, STM-4
Electronics has also been provided. STM-4 Electronics is provided at every 4th of
5th Station to provide back up to the STM-1 Station to Station System and also
for other Administrative circuits.
RailTel Corporation of India Limited (RCIL), a Public Sector Undertaking under

the Ministry of Railways, has also provided multiple STM-16 Networks across the
length and breadth of the Country to commercially exploit the potentials of high
Capacity available in OFC based Communication Systems. Repeater spacing is
60 to 90 KM. The system works at 1550 nm as it provides longer spans without
regeneration.
15.2.4 DWDM Systems

DWDM (Dense Wave Division Multiplexing) are used in backbone communication
network for increasing capacity of network and for providing different type of
services using same platform. As the name suggests, several wave lengths (ës)
can be multiplexed on one pair of fibre and STM-1 to STM-64 electronics can
be provided on each of the pairs. In conventional SDH system, only one wave
length is used on one pair of fibre. Commercially 128 channel DWDM systems
are available, wherein on one pair of fibres upto 128 STM-64 systems can be
provided.
15.2.5 Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable

Communication
(i) Low Transmission Loss, resulting in larger spacing between Repeaters:
Loss in Twisted pair and Coaxial cable increases with frequency, where
as, in the Optical Fibre Cable losses remain reasonably flat over a wide
range of frequencies.
(ii) Availability of Wide Bandwidth, resulting in very large Channel Capacity.
(iii) Immunity to Electromagnetic and Radio Frequency Interferences: Being
an Insulator, no electric current flows through the Fibre and due to this
reason Fibres neither Radiate nor pick up Electromagnetic Radiation.
(iv) Small size of Optical Fibre Cable makes it lighter in Weight and so easy to
handle.
(v) Safety: Optical Fibre does not carry any electricity even if the cable is
damaged or short circuited. It, thus, does not cause any Spark or Fire
hazard.
103
(vi) Signal Security: As the Fibre do not radiate energy, it can not be detected
by any nearby Antenna or any other Detector.
(vii) No Cross Talk: As the Signal Transmission is by Digital Modulation, there
is no chance of Cross Talk between the Channels.
(viii) WPC (Wireless Planning Commission) Clearance is not required, as no
Radiation of Electromagnetic power is involved.
(ix) Easier Availability of Raw Material: Raw material is Silica, which is
available easily.
(x) Less prone to Theft: As the Fibre does not have resale value in the
market, Optical Fibre Cable is not Theft prone.
(xi) Flexibility in System Upgradation: Only by adding a few additional
Terminal and Repeater equipments, the capacity of the System can be
increased, at any time once the Cable has been laid.
(xii) High Resistance to chemical effects and temperature variations.
15.2.6 Limitations in Using Optical Fibre

Cables
(i) Difficulty in Splicing (Jointing): Skilled Staff and costly Equipments are
required to Splice / Joint the two Optical Fibre Cables.
(ii) Highly Skilled Staff and Precision & costly Equipments / Instruments would
also be required for Maintenance of OFC based Communication Systems.
(iii) Tapping an Optical Fibre Cable is difficult for Emergency and Gate
communication Circuits.
(iv) OFC based Communication Systems turn out to be costlier, if
underutilised.
(v) Special Interface Equipments would be required for Block working.

Note:
1. What is the basic Principle of Transmission in Optical Fibre Cables?
104
2. What are the specific Advantages of Optical Fibre Cables based
Communication Systems?
3. What are the basic limitations of Optical Fibre Cables based

Communication Systems?
Fill up the Blanks:

4. Refractive Index of the Cladding is ————— than the Refractive Index
of the core.
5. ————— is used as a Light source at the Transmitting end and
————— is used as the ————— at the Receiving end.
6. Wavelength ————— and ————— are used for Optical Fibre based
Communication Systems.
7. Tapping an Optical Fibre Cable is —————- for Emergency and Gate
8. As the Optical Fibre does not have any resale value in the market, it is not
—————-.
9. A STM-1 System can provide —————- telephone lines simultaneously.
10. OFC based Communication System is immune to ——————————
—————————————————.
15.3 TRAIN RADIO COMMUNICATION

Traditionally, Emergency Communication on Railways was provided by the
following means:
(i) Hooking the Portable Control Telephone on the Overhead Alignment in

non-RE Areas, where Control Communication used to be provided using
Overhead Wire Alignments of Iron / ACSR Wires.
105
(ii) Provision of Emergency Sockets in RE Areas, every Kilometre, on the
Cabled Control Communication System.
The disadvantages of the above Mode of Communication are:
(i) The Driver / Guard have to carry the cumbersome Telescopic Mast and
heavy Telephone set.
(ii) Hooking up of Telescopic Mast on the Overhead Alignment is a difficult
process. In some cases, Overhead Alignment may be far away from the
Track.
(iii) In RE Areas, Driver / Guard have to walk about 500 meters for
establishing Emergency Communication.
(iv) The Emergency Sockets and Posts are prone to Vandalism.
(v) Emergency Communication is initiated only from the Site of Emergency
by the Driver / Guard of the affected Train.
(vi) The Emergency Communication is initiated only in Static condition after
the Train comes to a halt and not in Mobile conditions.
(vii) All Emergency Calls are directed to Control Office and not to the nearest
Station Master.
(viii) SOS Calling facility is not available in the System.
With the increase in speed of Trains and Traffic Density on Indian Railways
as also due to the above facts and limitations of existing Systems of setting
Emergency communication between Driver / Guard and Control, Indian Railways
took up the task of planning for providing direct Radio Communication between
the Driver / Guard of running Train and the nearest Station Master as also
between the Driver / Guard and the Controller in the Control Office. Various
Parliamentary Committees on Railways and Commissioners of Railway Safety
in their Accident Inquiry Reports also have repeatedly recommended the urgent
need for providing such direct Communication to the Driver / Guard with Station
Master / Control Office in view of increased Speeds, Trailing Loads and Line
capacity requirements on Railway Systems.
The first Train Radio Communication was provided on Indian Railways in 1980s
along with the Railway Electrification of ‘Nagpur – Itarsi’, ‘Nagpur – Durg’ and
‘Itarsi – Bhusaval’ Sections. Full Duplex Train Radio System was installed with
Optical Fibre System for Emergency Communication. A similar System was
later installed on Delhi - Mughalsarai. This type of System was imported and
was costly for the introduction on all important Routes of the Railway. As such,
Indian Railways decided to develop a Reliable and Cost effective Indigenous
System to provide:
(i) Communication between Driver and Guard.

(ii) Emergency communication between the Driver / Guard and the Station
Master of the nearest Station.
106
(iii) Emergency communication between the Driver / Guard of a Train and
Driver / Guard of another Train in the vicinity of 5 Kms.
(iv) Facility to extend communication from the Driver / Guard of a Train to
Section Controller, when required, with the help of Interface Units (Manual
Switching), provided at Base Stations.
(v) Facility of the Driver / Guard / Station Master to initiate Distress Warning
(SOS) Calls to the Trains / Stations which are equipped with Mobile
Communication Systems and are within the vicinity of 5 to 7.5 Kms. from
the origin of Distress Signal.
(vi) Arrangements to ensure that Un-authorised Persons were not able to
interfere with the Emergency Communication System.
The System so conceived of was called Universal Emergency Communication
System (UECS).
15.3.1 Universal Emergency Communication

System (UCES)
UECS, as planned above, comprises of following Component sub-Systems:
(i) VHF Base Stations at all Railway Stations.

(ii) Mobile VHF sets for Locos.
(iii) VHF Hand sets for other Essential Operating and Maintenance Staff.
(iv) Two separate Channels, Channel 1 (Frequency F1 in the range 146.2 to
151.45 MHz. or 159.6 to 162.45 MHz.) for Voice communication amongst
Driver Guard and Station Master and Channel 2 (Frequency F2 also
in the range 146.2 to 151.45 MHz. or 159.6 to 162.45 MHz.-160.450
MHz.) for Distress Warning (SOS Call). Normal Mode of Communication
was planned to be through Voice Calling only and for the Distress Call,
the Distress Channel was to be scanned once in ten seconds. Mode of
communication was conceived of as Simplex in both static as well as
running condition of the Train.
In UECS, the VHF equipment is installed in each Railway Station to work as the
Base Station. The equipment is fixed permanently in the Station Master’s Room.
Though the VHF equipment is primarily meant for Emergency communication
between the Station and the Train, in exceptional cases it can also be used for
Communication between two adjacent Stations. It is designed to take care of the
vibrations to which it may be subjected during its normal operation. The power
output of VHF Base Station set is 40 W but it is switchable to 25 W or 10 W as
per the requirement.
The Base Station works with a Ground plane Antenna. It is an Omni- directional
Antenna. The Antenna is permanently fixed on a GI Pipe or a lightweight Mast
erected by the side of the Station Building. The equipment is connected to the
Antenna through low loss coaxial VHF Cable.
107
The Base Equipment also has an Interface Unit which provides Interface from
Control circuit to the Radio Unit. The Patching can be done by pressing a Button.
When Patching is done, the Station Master can not talk on omnibus circuit by
using his Microphone, but he can listen to the conversation between the Driver /
Guard and the Control Office.
The Locomotives, in UECS, are equipped with a Handset, a low profile Omni-
directional VHF Antenna mounted on the roof of Locomotive and a Coaxial VHF
cable connecting the VHF Antenna to the Mobile VHF Handset. An external
speaker of 2 W Capacity is also provided so that Driver’s hands are free during
conversation.
Mobile Handsets with in-built Speaker, Microphone, PTT Switch and an Antenna
and linked with UECS were also given to essential Operating and Maintenance
Staff for their use of Operational requirements.
Since such a System (UECS) had not been used anywhere, it was decided
to introduce the System initially on three Pilot sections, namely ‘Chennai –
Gudur’ on Southern Railway, ‘Mumabi – Vadodara – Ahemedabad’ on Western
Railway and ‘Delhi – Ambala’ on Northern Railway, to ascertain its suitability and
acceptability by the User Departments, particularly Traffic, Safety, Mechanical
and Electrical. The Trials of the System did not prove to be very encouraging.
Limitations of the System primarily were on account of ‘Simplex’ Mode of working
and use of ‘Single Frequency’. Simplex Mode of communication requires strict
discipline in use and all users being on same Frequency creates confusion.
Further extension of the communication to Control Office required patching at
Stations which was time consuming, cumbersome and was available only when
the Train was in the vicinity of a Station. Users felt that the System may not be
suitable for medium to high traffic density Routes, but may work on sections
where traffic densities are low. UECS was, thus, not proliferated further and the
development ended with the Trials.
15.3.2 Walkie-Talkie Sets

In the interim, to provide means of direct communication between the Driver
and the Guard of a Train, and between the Driver / Guard of a Train and the
Station Master of the nearest Station, 5 W Walkie-talkie sets were provided to
Drivers and Guards and 25 W Sets at Stations. The System provides facility
to the Train Crew to instantly communicate with the Station Master of nearest
Station in cases of Emergency. Working of this System is still continuing. The
communication, however, is available in Static Mode or at low speeds of the
Trains, is ‘Simplex’ in working and can not be extended to the Control Office.
Also the Communication system built around VHF sets is not Reliable as 5
W VHF Sets are not designed for Safety systems, requiring a high level of
Reliability.
108
15.4 TRAIN COLLISION
AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (TCAS)
TCAS has dual capability of preventing train accidents caused due to signal
passing at Danger (SPAD) or non-observance of speed restrictions by train
drivers as well as preventing train collision. TCAS equipment is developed by
RDSO. Field trials were conducted in Lingampalli – Vikarabad – Wadi – Bider
section of SCR during 2015-16.
TCAS is based on proven European train control system (ETCS-1) technology. It

is also known as automatic train protection. Through this, loco pilots get real time
display of signals inside the cabin, also indicating the distance to be travelled
safely. It also traces the location of the train through the distance traversed from
Radio frequency identification tags installed on tracks transmits the signals to all
other trains in the vicinity.
15.5 ADVANCED AUXILLIARY

WARNING SYSTEM (AAWS)
AAWS- provides train protection function.
It is advanced version of AWS is use in Mumbai Suburban Section. AAWS is a

microprocessor based control system, which continuously monitors the speed
direction of based, distance travelled, aspect of the signal passed and the
alertness of the motorman and thus increases the safety of railway system. It
is a safety device preventing the unsafe situations due to the human failure. It
compels the Motorman to obey the aspect of the signal and maintain the current
speed otherwise it applies brakes to decelerate the train to a stop. If it is not well
acknowledge with in time AAWS decelerates the train and applies brake to stop
train. The AAWS system shall consist of:
OO On – Board System
OO Track Device
AAWS is a system of providing some advance notification of upcoming signal

aspects to the motorman via a display panel in the driving cab of the motorman
via a display panel in the driving cab of the EMU. The advance notification is
done through trackside electromagnets that trigger relays in the passing EMU
cabs. The AAWS panel in the driving cab has an alarm bagger, a vigilance
button, and can show indicator lights in red, yellow, or blue. When the bugger
alarm goes off, the motorman must press the vigilance button within 4 seconds,
otherwise the breaks will be applied and the motorman will not be able to release
them until the take comes to a complete half.
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15.6 TRAIN PROTECTION AND
WARNING SYSTEM (TPWS)
To prevent train accidents, North Central Railway has installed Train Protection
and Warning System (TPWS) on trains. This protection device would automatically
apply brakes on a train if it approaches a fitted signal at danger too fast or fails to
stop at a signal set at danger. It also automatically applies the brakes if a train is
travelling too fast on the approach to certain speed restriction and buffer stops.
A Standard TPWS installation consists of an on-track transmitter placed to a

signal and activated when the signal is at ‘danger’ point. Any train that tries to
pass the signal will have its emergency brakes activated. If the train is travelling
of speed, this may be too late to stop it before the point of collision, therefore a
second transmitter may be placed on the approach to the signal that applies the
brakes on trains going too fast to stop at a signal and this is positioned to safely
stop trains approaching at up to 120km/h. One pair of electronic loops is placed
50-450 metres on the approach side of the Stop signal. The distance separating
the loops is used to control the speed of the train.
In a Standard installation of TPWS, there are two pairs of loops. Both pairs consist of
an ‘arming’ and a ‘trigger’ loop. If the signal associated with the TPWS is at ‘danger’
the loops will be energized. If the signal is at ‘proceed’, the loop will de-energise.
The TPWS panel is located is the train cab along with TPWS temporary isolation
switch. The TPWS panel comprises two indicator lamps and a push switch. One
lamp is used to indicate that a TPWS/AWS brake demand has occurred (the
AWS and TPWS System are inter-linked). A temporary isolation indicator/fault
indicator indicates that the system has been isolated with the temporary isolation
switch or a fault has occurred with the TPWS. The push switch marked “train
Stop overside” is used to pass a signal at danger with authority, it temporarily will
ignore the TPWS TSS loops at a signal for a period of around 20 seconds or as
soon as the loops have been passed.
The temporary isolation switch may be operated when the train is being operated
in in degraded conditions and multiple stop aspects will be required to be passed
at danger with authority, after which the system must immediately be reinstated.
TPWs is a fool proof system that would prevent train accidents and thus ensure
safety of passengers.
15.7 VSAT based Accident Site

Communication System
Accident site communication system is cater for onsite wireless voice
communication and also to provide voice, data and video connectivity of the
accident site to Divisional HQ, Zonal HQ and Railway Board.
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The voice, data and video connectivity with remote locations are provided
through VSAT network. Indian Railways have established its own VSAT network
including hub. Presently Indian Railways have hired bandwidth from transponder
of INSAT-4CR (Ku Band) satellite. Hub for this VSAT network has been set at
New Delhi by M/s Hughes. The network is in star topology.
The VSAT terminal to be used for Accident Site Communication is able to

deliver bidirectional composite data traffic (Voice, Video and Data) at a speed of
2Mbps. However the actual working bandwidth may be limited in compliance of
regulatory requirements.
The VSAT terminal deliver the composite data traffic from site to the VSAT hub at
New Delhi. From here the composite data traffic are transported to Divisional HQ,
Zonal HQ and Railway Board on existing MPLS network.
A video server is provided at New Delhi VSAT hub to enable web based access
to live and stored videos.
15.8 Advance Warning System

(Radio & RFID Based) for Approaching
Trains at Unmanned Level Crossing Gate
RDSO has developed “Advance Warning System (Radio & RFID Based) for
Approaching Trains at Unmanned Level Crossing Gate” to prevent Road user
about approaching trains at unmanned level crossing gate. The GPS Module
collects location information of locomotive/ Train/Rolling stock and RFID reader
of locomotive equipment reads the information of RFID tags(Passive device)
installed on track. Location information so received is broadcasted through Radio
Frequency (865 MHz) transreceiver from locomotive of train. RF masseges are
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continuously broadcasted by locomotive equipment (which contains informations
about Rolling stock’s coordinates, time and speed) which is received by LC gate
equipment. This information is sent to LC gate to generate Audio-Visual warning
to road users to prewar about approaching train/Rolling stock from distance of
approximately 1.5 KM.
15.9 VHF Based Approaching Train

Warning System for Track Maintainers
To avoid trackman/ESMs run over, It was a urgent need to develop a warning
system for trackman/ESMs which may sent pre warning of an approaching train
with a Audio/Visual indication for up & down direction trains.
The system mainly consist of a VHF transmitter & a hand held VHF
Receiver(HHR) available with maintenance staff. Based on starter signal(Green),
RF coded signals about approaching train on UP/DN track are transmitted by a
VHF transmitter working at 160.450 MHZ provided at station. Starter signal status
(Relay Contact) is used to activate transmission of alert signal. The transmitter
provides a coverage of about 10 KM under proper line of site. This unit is
installed in Relay Room or Station Master’s room.
Small VHF receiver is used for audio/visual alarm to indicate an approaching

train on UP/DN track.
15.10 MOBILE TRAIN RADIO

COMMUNICATION (MTRC) SYSTEM
Train Radio communication System provided in 1980s along with the Railway
Electrification of ‘Nagpur – Itarsi’, ‘Nagpur – Durg’ and ‘Itarsi – Bhusaval’
Sections, though catered for ‘Duplex’ Mode, was in reality not a full fledged
Mobile Train Radio Communication System in its true sense, as the System
was designed to be an alternative to Emergency Communication only. The first
Mobile Radio Communication on Indian Railways in the real sense was provided
on ‘Delhi – Mughalsarai’ section of Northern Railway. The system caters for Full
Duplex communication between the Driver / Guard and the Controller. It operates
in 314 – 322 MHz. Band and the Backbone initially was on 2.1 – 2.5 GHz.,
which was later shifted to Digital Microwave in 7 GHz. Band. This was an Analog
System and is now in dis-use due to non availability of Loco equipment in all the
Locomotives passing through / running in the section. Analog Systems have now
become obsolete.
What Indian Railways need today is an integrated communication system

which can fulfill the existing requirements as well as new emerging needs
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of Mobile Communication and Communication Based Signalling (CBS). The
communication has to be of Full Duplex, utmost reliable, secure and available all
the time.
15.10.1 Objectives of Mobile Train Radio

Communication (MTRC) System
The MTRC System, as envisaged now, serves as a technical tool in enhancing
safety, improving operating effectiveness and efficiency through better monitoring
and, inter-alia, covers the following objectives:
(i) Prevention of accidents due to Infringement of adjoining Line (s).

(ii) Running of trains in foggy weather.
(iii) Protection of train, by the crew, in the mid-section during unusual
stoppages.
(iv) Running of Trains, when signals are defective.
(v) Facilitate checking of Complete Arrival of the train by SM and ASM. (vi)
Facilitate Reception of a Train through Calling-On Signal.
(vii) Obtaining Release of Maintenance Block, facilitating in cutting down the
duration of Blocks.
MTRC, in addition, shall help in troubleshooting and sending information to

Control on Loco Failures, C&W Defects and Law & Order problems. In Relief
Operations, during Accident situations, constant flow of two-way information
for communicating the Directives from Control and getting a Feedback with
regard to assistance required and progress made in restoration work shall be
instantly possible through MTRC Network, without wiring any supplementary
Telecommunication system, as is the case today.
Figure 7.32 MTRC System - General Principle
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Figure : 7.33 MTRC – A Block Schematic
Figure : 7.34 GSM-R, A Typical Architecture
15.10.2 Principle of Working and Block

Schematic of MTRC System
General Principle of Working and Block Schematic of MTRC System are shown
in Figure 7.32, Figure 7.33 & Figure 7.34. The System is built of several Cells
alongside the track. Each Cell is equipped with one or more Transceivers,
depending upon the communication density. The entire Network can be divided
into following 4 main parts:
(i) Mobile Station: The Mobile hand set or the Mobile Equipment installed in
Driver’s Cab or in any other moving Vehicle.
(ii) Base Station Sub-system (BSS): Comprises Base Stations (BTSs)
(Transceivers in the centre of Cells) and Base Station Controllers (BSCs).
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One BSC controls a group of BTSs and manages handovers from one
BTS to the other. BSCs are connected to Mobile Switching Centre (MSC).
(iii) Network Switching Sub-system (NSS): The primer function of NSS is
to manage the communication between Mobile Users and other Users,
such as Mobile Users from other Systems, Fixed Telephony Users etc.
NSS includes Database to store Information about the Subscribers and
Information needed to manage their mobility. The Central component of
NSS is MSC, which performs all the Switching functions of the Network.
In a wide MTRC Network, multiple MSCs are provided and those ore
interlinked amongst themselves. MSCs provide connectivity to Fixed
Telephony Networks, Internet and other Intelligent Networks (IN).
(iv) Operation and Maintenance Centre (OMC): Controls and Monitors the
entire Network. It is connected to the different components of NSS and BSSs.
15.10.3 Available Technologies in MTRC

Presently, mainly two Technologies of Mobile Train Radio Communication are
available – GSM (R), the GSM for Railways and TETRA. Both Systems are in
use on Railways. TETRA is being largely used in METRO Systems and GSM (R)
in Long Distance Rail Networks. TETRA, as available today, does not support
Railway Signalling Applications like Automatic Train Control and Automatic Train
Supervision etc. On the other hand, GSM (R) supports these Attributes.
15.10.4 Facilities Available in a Typical MTRC

System
(i) Voice Telephone Services: Point to Point Voice Calls, Group Calls, and
Broadcast Calls.
(ii) Data Communication Services: Point to Point and Point to Multi- point
Data Communications.
(iii) Call Related Services: Display of Identity of Calling / Called User,
Priorities in Handling Calls, Closed User Group Calls, Call Forwarding,
Call Hold, Call waiting and Call Barring and Auto Answering.
(iv) Railway Specific Services: Railway Emergency Calls and Addressing a
Subscriber based on Function and his / her Location.
(v) Coverage and Performance:
(a) Level of Coverage upto 99% of time and 99.9% of the designated
Coverage Area.
(b) Communication for Mobiles traveling at Speeds upto 250 Kmph.
(c) Call set-up Time in order of Seconds, setting of Emergency Call in
less than a Second.
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(vi) Other Value Added Services: Short Messaging Services (SMSs) and
Connectivity to Management Information System (MIS) Computers,
Internet, etc.
(vii) Frequency of Use: 400 / 900 / 1800 MHz., as allocated for use by the
Railways and the concerned Authorities. Works of GSM (R) based MTRC,
on around 2,500 Kms., are at present under progress on Indian Railways.

Note:
1. Enumerate the component Sub-systems of a typical MTRC System.
2. What are the specific Advantages of GSM-R / TETRA based Mobile Train
Radio Communication System?
State whether the following statements are True / False:

3. GSM (R) or TETRA Based MTRC System is full Duplex Communication
System. ( )
4. MTRC System can be inter-connected to DOT’s Telephone Network. ( )
5. Facility of sending SMSs shall be possible in a typical GSM-R based
MTRC based System. ( )
6. A Mobile Subscriber in a Railway MTRC System can not be called by
simply knowing his / her Function. Instead, knowing his / her number shall
be necessary. ( )
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7. 5 W / 25 W VHF Sets based Train Radio System can work at Train speeds
of up to 250 Kmph. ( )
8. UECS may be suitable for Low traffic density Rail Sections. ( )
9. SOS Calling facility is available in both UECS and 5 W / 25 W VHF Sets
based Train Radio Systems. ( )
Choose the correct Answer :
10. Call set-up time for an SOS Call in a MTRC System shall be of the order of:
(a) 1 sec. (b) 15 sec.
(c) 30 sec. (d) 1 min.
11. A Typical MTRC System can work in the following Frequency Band:
(a) 400 MHz. (b) 900 MHz.
(c) 1800 MHz. (d) All of the ‘a’ to ‘c’ above.
15.11 LET US SUM UP

Optical Fibre Cable comprises very thin Fibres of hair’s size which are made of
non-metallic conductor (Plastic Clad Silica / Glass) and can transmit Light energy
from one end to the other by utilising the phenomena of ‘Total Internal Reflection
of Light’.
The Information (voice, video, data etc) to be transmitted through OFC is

multiplexed and modulated into the Light source at the Transmitter end, using an
Electrical to Optical Conversion Device and then it travels along the Fibre to the
other end where the Information is de-multiplexed in the Receiver and Signals
extracted. Repeaters are provided at appropriate spacing to take into account the
Attenuation in the Signal. Two Wavelengths of 1310 nm and 1550 nm are used
for OFC Communication Systems in Railways, as Dispersion is zero at 1310 nm
while Attenuation is lowest at 1550 nm in the Silica, the material used for Fibre
construction. While 1310 nm is used for Short-haul communication, 1550 nm is
used for Long-haul communication.
Long lengths of Cables are joined by Splicing the Fibres.
Optical Fibre cables are now extensively used for building long distance
communication systems (Long-haul Systems) and are progressively the
Microwave and Co-axial Copper cable based Communication Systems. OFC
based systems have become popular as these have got enormous capacity to
carry Video, Data and Voice Signals and their costs have become lower than the
conventional Co-axial cable and Microwave Systems.
Railways are using OFC in Control Communication circuits, Short-haul circuits for
linking of Telephone Exchanges, Long-haul Administrative Voice and Data circuits
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and in Signalling Applications for Fail-safe Transmission of Digital Signals. OFC
based systems do not suffer with Electromagnetic Induction problems as the
Signal travels in the form of Light in the Fibre. OFC based Systems are Secure
as these can not be easily tapped, are not affected by Miscreant Activities
because of practically no monetary value to the miscreants and are flexible
in upgradation as far as the Capacity Augmentation is concerned. Further,
due to use of digital technology for transmission of the Signal, the quality of
communication is improved one. The main problem encountered in the use of
Optical Fibre Cables is the difficulty in Splicing (Jointing), for which the Skilled
Staff and costly Equipments are required.
Indian Railways have standardized use of 24-Fibre Armoured Optic Cable.
On Optical Fibre Cable, depending upon the Electronics provided, number of

Channels can be increased. Typical Capacity of different type of Electronics
equipment, in equivalent of Voice Channels that can be carried on two Fibres in
an Optical Fibre Cable Networks is as under:
STM-1:155 Mbps (63 E1s, one E1 (2Mbps) can carry 30 Voice Channels, which
would mean one STM-1 stream can provide for Equivalent to 1,890 Channels).
STM-4: 4 X STM-1.
STM-16: 4 X STM-4.
STM-64: 4 X STM-4.
8-Channel DWDM: 128 X STM-1.
The MTRC System, as envisaged on Indian Railways now, provides for Mobile
Radio communication between the Train Driver & Guard and between Train
Driver / Guard and Station Master / Controller. It works in full Duplex Mode and
can have suitable Interfaces with Administrative Voice Network of Railways
as also Public Telephone Network of DOT. The System is designed to work
satisfactorily at Train speeds of upto 250 Kmph.
Handsets networked with MTRC can also be given to essential Maintenance

Staff and other Key Officials to enable them to remain in contact with the Moving
Train Staff as and when needed, as well as the Control Office during their
Operational and Maintenance Activities on the Section.
Presently, mainly two Technologies of Mobile Train Radio Communication are

available – GSM (R), the GSM for Railways and TETRA. Both Systems are in
use on Railways. TETRA is being largely used in METRO Systems and GSM (R)
in Long Distance Rail Networks. TETRA, as available today, does not support
Railway Signalling Applications like Automatic Train Control and Automatic Train
Supervision etc. On the other hand, GSM (R) supports these Attributes.
Frequencies in 400 / 900 / 1800 MHz. Band can be used to design a MTRC
System.
Facilities Available in a Typical MTRC System include Voice Telephone

Services to make Point to Point Voice Calls, Group Calls, and Broadcast Calls,
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Data Communication Services for Point to Point and Point to Multi-point Data
Communications and Call Related Services like Display of Identity of Calling
/ Called User, Priorities in Handling Calls, Closed User Group Calls, Call
Forwarding, Call Hold, Call waiting and Call Barring and Auto Answering.
A unique facility of MTRC System is in its capability of setting Emergency Calls in

less than a second and Addressing a Subscriber based on the Function and his /
her Location. Other Value Added Services in MTRC System could be possibilities
of enabling SMSs and Connectivity to MIS Computers and Internet etc.
MTRC System has been designed to achieve Level of Coverage upto 99% of
time and 99.9% of the designated Coverage Area. Communication shall be
possible for Mobiles traveling at Speeds upto 250 Kmph.
15.12 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: THE KEY

CYP 1 :
1. Basic Principle of Transmission in Optical Fibre Cables:

The Information (voice, video, data etc) is multiplexed and modulated into
the Light source at the Transmitter end and then it travels along the Fibre
to the other end, utilising the phenomena of ‘Total Internal Reflection of
Light’, where the Information is de-multiplexed in the Receiver.
2. Advantages of Optical Fibre Cables based Communication Systems:
(i) Low Transmission Loss, resulting in larger spacing between
Repeaters.
(ii) Availability of Wide Bandwidth, resulting in very large Channel
Capacity.
(iii) Immunity to Electromagnetic and Radio Frequency Interferences.
(iv) Small size of OFC makes it lighter in Weight and very easy to
handle.
(v) Safety: Optical Fibre does not carry any electricity. As such, it, thus,
does not cause any Spark or Fire hazard even when the cable is
damaged or short circuited..
(vi) Signal Security: As the Fibre do not radiate energy, it can not be
detected by any nearby Antenna or any other Detector.
(vii) No Cross Talk: As the Signal Transmission is by Digital Modulation,
there is no chance of Cross Talk between the Channels.
(viii) Less prone to Theft: As the Fibre does not have resale value in the
market, it is not Theft prone.
(ix) Flexibility in System Upgradation: Only by adding a few additional
Terminal & Repeater equipments, the capacity of the System can be
increased at any time.
119
3. Limitations of Optical Fibre Cables based Communication Systems:
(i) Difficulty in Splicing (Jointing).
(ii) Highly Skilled Staff and Precision & costly Equipments / Instruments are
required for Maintenance of OFC based Communication Systems.
(iii) Tapping an Optical Fibre Cable is difficult for Emergency and Gate
(iv) OFC based Communication Systems turn out to be costlier, if
underutilised.
(v) Special Interface Equipments are required for Block working.
Fill up the Blanks:
4. Lesser. 5. Laser Diode / Light Emitting Diode, PIN Diode / Avalanche Photo
Diode & Detector. 6. 1310 nm & 1550 nm. 7. Difficult. 8. Theft prone. 9. 1890. 10.
Electromagnetic & Radio Frequency Interferences.
CYP 2 :
1. Sub-systems of a typical MTRC System:

(i) Mobile Station: The Mobile hand set or the Mobile Equipment
installed in Driver’s Cab or in any other moving Vehicle.
(ii) Base Station Sub-system (BSS): Comprises of Base Stations (BTSs)
(Transceivers in the centre of Cells) and Base Station Controllers
(BSCs). One BSC controls a group of BTSs. BSCs are connected to
MSC (Mobile Switching Centre).
(iii) Network Switching Sub-system (NSS): Primer function of NSS is to
manage the communication between Mobile Users and other Users
such as Mobile Users from other Systems and Fixed Telephony
Users. The Central component of NSS is MSC, which performs all
the Switching functions of the Network.
(iv) Operation and Maintenance Centre (OMC): Controls and Monitors
the entire Network. It is connected to the different components of
NSS and BSSs.
2. Advantages of GSM-R / TETRA based Mobile Train Radio
Communication System:
GSM-R / TETRA based MTRC provides for a secure, reliable, efficient &
full Duplex communication System to meet the Railways’ needs of instant
mobile communication between the Train Crew and Station Masters and
Controller in the Control Office, the Emergency Call set-up time being
less than 1 sec. Level of Coverage up to 99% of the time and 99.9% of
the designated Coverage Area can be accomplished in a well designed
System. It can have suitable Interfaces with Administrative Voice Network
of Railways as also Public Telephone Network of DOT. MTRC, in addition,
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can provide un- interrupted communication at higher speeds of travel,
even up to 250 Kmph. Other facilities provided in MTRC System are:
(i) Voice Telephone Services: Point to Point Voice Calls, Group Calls,
and Broadcast Calls.
(ii) Data Communication Services: Point to Point and Point to Multi-point
Data Communications.
(iii) Call Related Services: Display of Identity of Calling / Called
User, Priorities in Handling Calls, Closed User Group Calls, Call
Forwarding, Call Hold, Call waiting and Call Barring, Auto Answering
etc.
(iv) Railway Specific Services: Railway Emergency Calls and Addressing
a Subscriber based on his / her Function and Location.
(v) Other Value Added Services: SMSs and Connectivity to
Management Information System (MIS) Computers, Internet etc.
True / False:
3. True. 4. True. 5. True. 6. False. 7. False. 8. True. 9. True.
Correct Answer :
10. (a). 11. (d).
UNIT END QUESTIONS
Q. 1 Justify the following Statement: ‘OFC based Communication Systems are

Secure and Tamper proof’
Q. 2 Enumerate the important Applications of OFC based Systems on Indian
Railways?
Q. 3 What are the traditional Methods for establishing Emergency
Communication on Railways? What are the inherent Drawbacks in these
Methods and how are these overcome in a MTRC System?
Q. 4 Explain, with the help of a Block Schematic Diagram, the functioning of a
MTRC System.
Q. 5 Compare, in brief, the Systems of Radio Communication, available / tried
out on Indian Railways.
Q. 6 Write Short Notes on :
(i) Advantages of OFC Based Communication Systems.
(ii) Channel Capacities possible in OFC Based Communication
Systems.
(iii) VHF Sets based Emergency Communication System.
(iv) UEC System.
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122
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Aspects of Railway
Functioning
UNIT-16
Track
Structure
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Railway Track (Permanent Way)
16.2.1 Formation
16.2.2 Ballast
16.2.3 Sleepers
16.2.4 Rails
16.2.5 Fastening
16.2.6 Rail Joints
16.3 Gauge
16.4 Classification of Railway Lines
16.4.1 Broad Gauge routes
16.4.2 Metre Gauge routes
16.5 Track Geometrics
16.5.1 Curves (Horizontal)
16.6 Conning of wheels and Canting of Rails
16.6.1 Coning of Wheels
16.7 Turnouts
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16.8 Railway Bridges and Foundation of Structures
16.8.1 Railway Bridges
16.8.2 Foundation of Structures
16.9 Inspection of Track
16.10 Maintenance of Track
16.10.1 Manual Maintenance of Track
16.10.2 Annual Programme of Track Maintenance
16.10.3 Mechanised Maintenance of Track
16.11 Welding of Rails
16.11.1 Methods of welding rail joints
16.12 Long Welded Rails
16.12.1 Theory of LWR
16.12.2 Track Structure for LWR/CWR
16.12.3 Track Maintenance for LWR/CWR
16.13 Track Modernisation
16.14 Let Us Sum Up
16.0 OBJECTIVES
In this lesson, we shall study about component parts of Permanent Way,
requirement of an ideal Permanent way, gauge, and various gauges being used
in India, the factors affecting the adoption of a particular gauge so as to have a
basic knowledge about the constructional details of a permanent way.
We shall also study about other features of permanent way such as Points &
crossing, bridges, foundations, about routine maintenance of permanent way and
modernization of track.
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Permanent Way (Track) is important part of Railway system. The load from
wagons (rolling stock) is directly coming on track and from it the same is
transferred to ground. Bridges are required to be constructed to carry the track
across river, nallah, canal or to bridge the gap between a valley.
Traffic carried on Railway lines is different in different sections. Maximum

permitted speed on a line is also different for different sections. Requirement
of infrastructure to be provided in a section is thus different. To standardize the
scale of facilities to be provided, routes are classified in different categories (
for the same gauge), depending on maximum speed permissible and annual
traffic density of the route.
124
After any Railway track is constructed and opened to traffic, its formation,
side slopes, ballast, sleepers, rail, fixtures and fastening etc are subjected to
damages due to movement of trains and under the effect of weathering agencies.
If constant and proper upkeep of these track components is not made, they
get deteriorated and may result into unsafe, uneconomical and inconvenient
movements of trains. Hence maintenance i.e. up keeping of track components
and other facilities, provided on tracks in their best condition is essential to
provide safe and smooth movement of traffic.
16.2 RAILWAY TRACK (PERMANENT WAY)

The total route kilometers as on 31.03.2017 was 67,368 Kms. Out of this 31.85%
is double/multiple track.
TOTAL ROUTE KILOMETRES

Year BG MG NG Total
1980-81 31827 25167 4246 61240
1990-91 34880 23419 4068 62367
2000-01 44776 14987 3265 63028
2010-11 55188 6809 2463 64460
2014-15 58825 4908 2297 66030
2015-16 60510 3880 2297 66687
2016-17 61680 3479 2209 67368
DOUBLE/MULTIPLE TRACK
Year Route Kms. % of Total Route Kms.
1980-81 13040 21.3
1990-91 14331 23.0
2000-01 16010 25.4
2010-11 19223 29.82
2014-15 20633 31.25
2015-16 21237 31.85
2016-17 22021 32.69
A railway track consists of a pair of steel rails laid parallel to each other at a fixed
distance apart. The rails are connected end to end by means of fish plates, fish
bolts or by welding. The rails thus laid rest on transverse members known as
sleepers. The sleepers in turn, are bedded and packed in ballast. The ballast is
spread on the formation or subgrade which may be constructed in embankment,
cutting or at ground level, according to the topography of the area.
The word permanent is used to distinguish it from temporary tracks laid in mining
area to transport coal and at construction projects to transport construction
125
material. Such temporary tracks are dismantled as soon as the work is
completed. For example tracks laid inside an under ground coal mine.
Track (Permanent Way) has following components.
OO Formation
OO Ballast
OO Sleepers
OO Rails
OO Fastening
OO Rail joints
16.2.1 Formation
Sub grade and sub soil which support the track structure and its foundation is
called formation. It includes sub ballast, blanket etc. The formation must have
sufficient bearing strength and stability, reasonable settlement behavior and must
provide good drainage of rain water from the ballast bed. Formation may be in
embankment or in cuttings i.e. above existing ground level or below existing
ground level. Side-slopes, compaction density etc. need to be designed based on
loads coming on it.
Minimum top width of formation
Minimum top width of formation shall be as under:-
Formation in Line BG MG
Single 6.85 m 5.85 m
Embankment
Double 12.15 m 9.81 m
Single 6.25 m 5.25 m
Cutting Double 11.55 m 9.21 m
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Functions of formation
Various functions of formation are indicated as under
OO Provide an even and regular surface to lay ballast and track.

OO Ensure laying of track well above High Flood Level (HFL)
OO Distribute the load over a wide area on natural ground.
16.2.2 Ballast
The granular material spread on the formation of a railway track for the sleepers
to rest upon is known as ballast.
Functions of ballast
Ballast is used, under the sleepers, which has following functions:-
– Provides resilience to the track which gives good running.

– Provides good drainage
– Helps in transferring the load from sleepers to the formation.
– Provides lateral resistance against buckling of track.
– Provides a level and hard bed for the sleepers to rest on.
– Holds the sleepers in position during the passage of trains.
– Provides elasticity and resilience to the track for proper riding comfort.
– Provides an effective means of maintaining the level and alignment of the
track.
"Requirements of a good ballast"
To satisfy the functions properly, ballast should fulfill the following requirements
– It should be hard, durable and wear-resistance.

– It should be angular to provide good interlocking.
– It should resist weathering effect.
– Strong enough, so that does not get crushed under load and vibrations.
– It should allow for good drainage of water.
– It should be cheap and economical.
– It should resist both attrition and abrasion.
– It should be non-porous and should not absorb water.
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Ballast Profile
Now a days mostly Long Welded Rails (LWR) are used. To provide sufficient
lateral resistance ballast is heaped 100mm above top of sleeper. Ballast cushion
depends on route classification and type of sleeper ‘A’ shall be 350 mm for LWR
track. ‘A’ needs to be increased to 500 mm on outside of curves for LWR track.
Minimum cushion for concrete sleeper track is 250 mm.
GROUP CUSHION “A” “A” FOR LWR

A 300 mm 300 350 [On outside]
B & C 250 mm 300 350 [of curves]
D 200 mm 300 350 [on LWR]
E 150 mm 300 350 [ A = 500]
16.2.3 Sleepers
Sleepers support rails and transfer the live load of moving trains to the ballast
and formation. Wooden sleepers are the best, as they satisfy almost all the
requirements of an ideal sleeper. Scarcity of timber has led to the development
of metal and concrete sleepers. Concrete sleepers have high strength and a long
life, and are most suitable for modern tracks. Indian Railways has developed
designs for prestressed concrete sleepers and these are being extensively used
on all important routes.
The member laid transversely under the rails for supporting and fixing them to
the gauge distance apart are known as sleepers.
Main purpose of providing sleepers is to hold the rails so as to get correct gauge
and transfer the load from rails to down below to ballast. To achieve above
function, a sleeper should have following properties:-
OO Strong
OO Capacity to absorb vibrations
OO Correction of gauge shall be possible with ease.
OO Heavy enough to provide stability in lateral and longitudinal direction.
OO Packing shall be possible with ease.
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OO Minimum damage during derailments.
OO Economical.
Types of sleepers
Different types of sleepers used on IR are based on material being used for their
manufacturing. They are mainly four types. They are :
(i) Wooden sleepers – These are very good sleepers to absorb vibrations
but are not very durable and do not provide much lateral stability.
Light in weight, therefore, easy to handle manually. These are good
for track circuiting works. Not being procured and used now due to
environmental reasons and are gradually replaced with other type of
sleepers.
(ii) Steel Trough (ST) sleepers – These are made from rolled trough section
of steel and then pressed hot to obtain desired shape. These sleepers
are having longer life, have better stability and maintain gauge properly.
Service life of steel sleepers is 25 to 40 years depending upon traffic.
Holes in the sleepers have a tendency of elongating and cracks can be
seen under rail seat after certain time span. These are not suitable for
track circuiting. Weight of a BG sleeper is about 81 kg.
Steel Trough Sleeper
(iii) CST-9 sleepers – (Central Standard Trial-9) cast iron sleeper - In this,
there are two pots connected with a steel tie bar. These sleepers are of
very good strength. These are not fit for high speed or heavy traffic.
There is problem of wear at rail seat. Lateral stability is poor and packing
cannot be retained for long. Damage to sleepers is very heavy in case
of derailments. These cannot absorb vibration and are not suitable for
welded track and also not fit for track circuiting. Weight of complete set is
102 kg for BG.
CST-9 Sleeper
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(iv) Concrete sleepers – Indian Railways is modernizing its track in a big way
to meet the challenges of heavier traffic at faster speeds. The modern
track consisting of long welded 52-kg/ 60-kg rails, concrete sleepers, and
elastic fastenings can meet the above requirements. Prestressed concrete
sleepers are most economical and technically best suited for high speeds
and heavy traffic density. They provide a stable track structure, which
requires less maintenance efforts. Maintenance of concrete sleepers track
should, however, be done using track machines only.
Concrete sleepers are made of pre-stressed concrete designed suitably
to take stresses safely.
a) PSC Sleeper for 25T Axle Load: Considering wider PSC aspect of
tamping and shape optimization, PSC sleeper for 25T axle load has
been developed. Use of wider sleeper shall help in improving lifr of rail
pad, reducing ballast pressure and enhancing the overall track structure
weight which may facilitate lowering de-stressing temperature.
The advantages & disadvantages of concrete sleepers are indicated below:
Advantages of concrete sleepers
Following are various advantages of concrete sleepers.
OO Concrete sleepers being very heavy, provide good stability to track.

OO It maintains gauge and cross levels very efficiently.
OO The sleepers can be used in track circuited area.
OO Life of concrete sleepers is very long, of the order of 50-60 years.
OO The concrete sleepers resist weather efficiently.
Disadvantages of concrete sleepers
Following are various disadvantages of concrete sleepers
OO Handling of sleepers is very difficult due to heavy weight (295kgs.)

OO Damage to sleepers during derailment is very heavy due to brittleness.
OO Manual beater packing is not possible.
Two types of concrete sleepers are
a) Twin block sleeper: This is in the shape of two blocks connected by an

angle iron. This is of ordinary reinforced cement concrete (RCC).
Twin Block RCC Sleepers
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b) Mono-block Sleepers:This is in the shape of a single block and is made
of prestressed reinforced concrete (PRC). Concrete sleepers require
rubber pads and elastic fastenings to save the sleepers from vibration.
These are used mostly on IR.
Mono Block PRC Sleeper
16.2.4 Rails
Rail is the main component of track which provides a continuous and hard
surface for smooth running of wheels of railway vehicles.
Rails are similar to steel girders. These are provided to perform the following
functions in a track.
(a) Rails provide a continuous and level surface for the movement of trains.
(b) Rails provide a pathway which is smooth and has very little friction. The
friction between the steel wheel and the steel rail is about one-fifth of the
friction between the pneumatic tyre and a metalled road.
(c) Rails serve as a lateral guide for the wheels.
(d) Rails bear the stresses developed due to vertical loads transmitted to
them through axles and wheels of rolling stock as well as due to braking
and thermal forces.
(e) Rails carry out the function of transmitting the load to a large area of the
formation through sleepers and the ballast.
Shape of rails
Rails are designed as beams supported on a number of flexible supports.
For optimum design, the shape of rail is such that it has maximum material at top
and bottom. Mainly there are two shapes.
OO Double headed/Bull headed: Both top and bottom are either similar or
top is a little heavy.
OO Flat footed: Bottom flange is flat. The top head is designed in such a
manner that it takes stresses and also there is provision for wear during
the service life. The bottom flange or foot is designed so that it can be
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fixed to the sleepers effectively. This is standard section on Indian
Railways as it provides better arrangements with the sleepers.
Nominal weight of rails
The rail section is known by its weight which is nominal weight of rail per yard or
metre. The following rail sections are standardized on Indian Railways.
Gauge Rail Sections Type of section Height Actual Weight

60 kg UIC 172 mm 60.34 kg/m
BG 52 kg IRS 156 mm 51.89 kg/m
90 R RBS 142.9 mm 90 lbs/yd or 44.61 kg/m
MG 75 R RBS 128.6 mm 75 lbs/yd or 37.18 kg/m
Quality of Steel
Two types of steel are used in Rails 72UTS and 90UTS. Rails with 90UTS have
ultimate tensile strength of 90 Kg/mm2 as compared to 72 Kg/mm2 in 72UTS
rails. Rails are made wear resistant by adding more manganese. Chemical
composition of rail steel is as discussed below in a table.
Carbon 0.45 to 0.60%

Silicon 0.05 to 0.3%
Sulphur 0.06%
Manganese 0.95 to 1.40%
Phosphorus 0.06% (max.)
Service Life of Rails
Total traffic which a rail can take during its primary service life is as under:
Rail Section Type of steel Total

52 kg 72UTS 350 GMT
52 kg 90UTS 525 GMT
60 kg 72UTS 550 GMT
60 kg 90UTS 800 GMT
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16.2.5 Fastening
Fittings which fix rails to sleepers are called fastening.
Types of Track Fittings
Purpose and type Details of fittings

Joining rail to rail Fish plates, combination fish plates, bolts, and
nuts
Dog spikes, fang bolts, screw spikes, and
Joining rail to wooden sleepers
bearing plates
Joining rail to steel trough sleepers Loose jaws, keys, and liners
Joining rail to cast iron sleepers Tie bars and cotters
Elastic or Pandrol clip, IRN 202 clip, HM
Elastic fastenings to be used with
fastening, MSI insert, rubber pads, and nylon
concrete, steel and wooden sleepers
liners
Number of Fastenings
Type of Ordinary Fastenings Elastic fastening

Number Number
sleeper per sleeper per sleeper
Wooden Dog spikes or Screw 8 CI bearing plates 2
spikes Keys for CI 8 Plate screws 8
bearing plates 4 Pandrol clips 4
Rubber pads 2
Concrete No Ordinary fastening - Pandrol clips 4
Nylon liners 4
Steel trough Keys 4 Rubber pads 2
Loose Jaws 4 MCI inserts 4
Modified loose jaws 4
CST-9 Plates 2 Pandrol clips 4
Tie bar 1 Rubber pads 2
Cotters 4 Pandrol clips 4
Keys 4 Rubber pads 2
Fittings which fix rails to the sleepers vary in shape and size according to the
type of sleepers. Important types of fittings with various types of sleepers are
described in the following paragraphs:
Fittings for Wooden Sleepers
Following fittings and fastenings are used to fix rail with wooden sleepers.
(i) Spikes Spikes are required to fix the rails, bearing plates or chairs to
wooden sleepers. There are three types of spikes as mentioned below.
(a) Dog Spike This is one of the most basic types of fittings. Due to its
shape resembling the head of a dog, it is called as Dog Spike. It is
square in cross section and does not have much holding power. Rail
is fixed directly to the sleeper.
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(b) Round Spike It is round in section with a round head at the top. The
spike is used to hold the bearing plate. Its holding power is very poor.
(c) Screw Spikes These are having shape like screw and are of two types.
The one used to fix the rail directly is called “rail screw” and the one used
to fix the bearing plate is called “plate screw”. Its holding power is much
superior to the round spike or dog spike.
Different Types of Spikes
(ii) Bearing Plates These are used in between sleeper and rail. There are
three types of bearing plates as mentioned below.
(a) Flat bearing plates These are having uniform thickness of generally
19mm and are used with points and crossing sleepers.
Flat MS Bearing Plate
(b) Canted bearing plate These plates are thick on one end and thin on
the other end, the slope being called as cant.
Canted MS Bearing Plate
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(c) Cast Iron anti Creep Bearing Plate These plates are made of cast
iron and are used to fix the rail tight with the help of keys.
Cast Iron Anticreep Bearing Plate
Fittings for Steel Trough (ST) sleepers and CST-9 Sleepers
Various types of fittings used to fix rail with ST or CST-9 sleepers are as under
(i) Lose Jaws: Loose jaws are used to fix the rail to the steel trough
sleepers with the help of keys. There is another type of jaw, which is
specially designed to fix pandrol clips instead of keys, and is called
‘modified loose jaws’.
Loose Jaw
(ii) Keys: These are mild steel keys which are tapered in shape and are
used with steel trough sleepers as well as CST-9 sleepers and also with
wooden sleepers along with anti creep bearing plates. The keys are
known as ‘two way keys’ as the same can be driven both ways left to
right or right to left.
Rail Fixing with Loose Jaws and Two Way Keys
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Fittings for Concrete Sleepers
Elastic fastening are used to fix rail with concrete sleepers. Elastic fastening
consists of following
Elastic Rail Clips (ERC) or Pandrol Clips: These clips are widely used with
concrete sleepers and also with steel trough sleepers. These are elastic in nature
made from silicon steel rod of 20.6 diameter. Each sleeper needs 4 clips. These
clips are able to absorb vibrations being elastic in nature and do not fall down.
Each clip gives a toe load of 710 kgs. The clips are generally used along with
rubber pad and liners (mild steel or nylon)
Elastic Rail Clip
Grooved Rubber Pad The rail seat is provided with the rubber pad which is of
size 130mm x 125mm x 6mm with grooves at 11 mm centre to centre and
3mm deep on either side alternatively at top and bottom. The placing of pad
has to be done with grooves parallel to the rail. The rubber pad as shown in
an integral part of an elastic fastening. The functions of the rubber pad are as
discussed below :
OO It absorbs the shocks.

OO It dampens and absorbs vibration
OO It resists longitudinal movement of rail.
OO It prevents abrasion of rail on the top of sleeper
OO It acts as an insulator between rail and sleeper.
Liners Fittings used between foot of rail and ERC is known as liners. In track
circuited portions, glass filled nylon (GFN) liner (insulated) are used whereas in
non-track circuited area Metal liners are used.
16.2. Rail Joints

Two rails are joined together with the help of fish plates and fish bolts or by weld,
these joints are called rail joints.
Rail joints are the weakest points in the track. The joints also cause knocking
and reduce the life of rolling stock. Due to knocking, the maintenance of joints
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sleepers poses special problem. Rail ends also get battered due to joints which
causes rough running. Incidences of rail fractures are also more at joints. In view
of these rail joints related problems, a good track always has least number of
joints. Most of the fish-plated joints can be avoided by welding the rails.
Types of rail joints
There are two types of rail joints
Fish Plated Rail Joints There are two plates (in pairs) which are provided at
joint to connect the two rails end to end, often provided with 4 bolts called fish
bolts. Since the depth of fish plates is less than rail, the strength of a pair of fish
plates, in bending, is about 55% of the rail. To keep the stresses within limit,
sleeper spacing is reduced at joints.
Fish Plate (52 Kg. Rail)
Welded Rail joints. – There are two types of welded joints:-
OO Flash Butt welded joints

OO Alumino Thermit Welded Joints.
Thermil Welding of Rail
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Note:
1. Why railway tracks are termed as permanent way ?
2. Which are component parts of railway track ?
3. Why sleepers are provided in railway track ?
4. Which type of rail is mostly used on Indian Railway (IR)?
138
16.3 GAUGE
The clear horizontal distance between the inner (running) faces of the two rails
forming a track is known as gauge.
On Indian Railways, three different gauges are in use, these are

(i) Broad Gauge (BG) - 5’ 6” or 1676 mm
(ii) Metre Gauge (MG) - 1000 mm
Narrow Gauge (NG) - There are two gauges under Narrow Gauge, which are 2’
6” (760 mm) and 2’ 0” (610 mm) respectively.
Various Gauges on Indian Railways
Name of Gauge Width (mm) Width(feet) Route Kilometre % of RKM

Broad Gauge(BG) 1676 5’6” 60510 91
Metre Gauge(MG) 1000 3’3.37” 3880 6
762 2’6”
Narrow Gauge(NG) 2297 3
610 2’0”
Total as on 31.03.2016 66687
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Various gauges on world railways
Width % of total
Name of Gauge Width(feet) Countries
(mm) length
UK,USA,Canada,
Standard Gauge 1435 4’8.5” 62
Turky,China
India,Pakistan,
Broad Gauge(BG) 1676 5’6” 6
Brazil,Srilanka, Argentina
Broad Gauge(BG) 1524 5’.0” 9 Russia,Finland
India,japan,Java, Australlia,
Metre Gauge(MG) 1000 3’3.5” 9
Newzyland
Different Different
Other Gauges 6 Various Countries
Gauges Gauges
Criteria for adoption of Gauge
Adoption of Gauge is based on geographical conditions available along the

alignment. In hilly areas metre gauge and narrow gauge are economical as
compared to broad gauge. Sharp curves and steep gradients can be provided
on smaller gauge. But with the smaller gauge, capacity and speed go down
drastically.
Disadvantages of having different gauges
Following are some of the disadvantages of having different gauges

a) Change of trains (transshipment) at junction is required.
b) Extra cost and risk of theft due to transshipment at junction.
c) Detention of wagons at change points.
d) Inconvenience to passengers.
e) Missing connections with the later trains in case the earlier train is late.
f) Harassment caused by porters.
g) Uncertainty and delay in reaching the destination
h) Inefficient Use of Rolling Stock.
i) Hindrance to Fast Movement of Goods and Passenger Traffic.
j) Difficulties in Balanced Economic Growth.
Mostly Board Gauge is being used on IR. Railway has adopted policy of
unigauge and gradually existing metre gauge and narrow gauge lines are being
converted into broad gauge.
140
Note:
1. What is gauge ?
Maximum dimensions of rolling stock on Indian Railways
Gauge Max.Height of Rolling Stock Max.Height of Rolling Stock

BG 4140 mm (13’7”) 3250 mm (10’8”)
MG 3455 mm (11’4”) 2745 mm (9’0”)
Uni-gauge Policy of Indian Railways: The multi-gauge system is not only costly
and cumbersome but also causes serious bottlenecks in the operation of the
Railways and hinders the balanced development of the country. Indian Railways
therefore took the bold decision in 1992 of getting rid of the multi-gauge system
and following the unigauge policy of adopting the broad gauge (1676 mm)
uniformly.
Benefits of Adopting BG (1676 mm) as the Uniform Gauge:
OO No Transport Bottlenecks
OO No Trans-shipment Hazards
OO Provisions of Alternate Routes
OO Better Turnaround
OO Improved Utilization of Track
OO Balanced Economic Growth
OO No Multiple Tracking Works
OO Better Transport Infrastructure
OO Boosting Investor’s Confidence
141
16.4 CLASSIFICATION OF RAILWAY LINES
Classification of various Railway lines has been done based on the importance of
route. It mainly depends upon speed potential of lines and annual traffic density.
16.4.1 Broad Gauge routes

have been classified as under.
OO Group ‘A’ route- Speeds upto 160 kmph (projected)

OO Group ‘B’ route- Speeds upto 130 kmph (projected)
OO Group ‘C’ route- Suburban sections of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and
Chennai
OO Group ‘D’ route- Sections where the sanctioned speed is 100 kmph at
present.
OO Group ‘D Spl’ route- Sections where the sanctioned speed is 100 kmph at
present and traffic density is high or likely to be increased in future.
OO Group ’E’ route- Sections and branch lines with the present anctioned
speed less than 100 kmph.
OO Group ’E Spl’ route- Sections and branch lines with the present
sanctioned speed less than 100 kmph and traffic density is high or likely
to be increased in future.
16.4.2 Metre Gauge routes

have been classified as under
OO Group ‘Q’ routes- Sections where speed is to be more than 75 kmph and
traffic density more than 2.5 GMT.
OO Group ‘R ’ routes- Sections where speed potential is 75 kmph and traffic
density more than 5 GMT.
density between 2.5 and 5 GMT.
density between 1.5 and 2.5 GMT.
OO Group ‘S’ routes- Sections where speed potential is less than 75 kmph
and traffic density is less than 1.5 GMT.
142
1. On what basis routes are classified ?
16.5 TRACK GEOMETRICS

The physical features of a Railway track related to civil engineering are known as
track geometrics. Some of these are described in following paragraphs.
16.5.1 Curves (Horizontal)

The geometrical arcs provided at the change in alignment of a track are known
as horizontal curves. Curves are necessary evil. We cannot avoid provision of
curves in Railway alignment as it is not possible to have the entire alignment in a
straight line. Curves are necessary because of
OO The necessity of avoiding natural obstructions such as built up areas,

ponds, hillocks etc.
OO To connect several important cities which are not on a straight line.
OO To provide extra length to regulate the gradient.
Defining curvature
One of the important parameter of a curve is its curvature. It is defined either by

radius or degree of curvature. One degree curvature is such that a 30.5 meter
long chord subtends one degree angle at the centre. One degree curvature is
equivalent to 1750m radius. Thus two degree curvature is equivalent to 875 m
radius. Formula for relation of degree of curve and radius of curve is as under.
1750
Degree of curvature =
Radius (in m)
143
Degree of Curve
Maximum permissible curvature
Maximum curvature depends on gauge of the route and following are the limits.
Gauge Maximum curvature permitted

BG 10°
MG 60°
NG 40°
Super-elevation on curves
Whenever a vehicle moves in a circular path, a radial force called centrifugal

force is applied on it. This is because of the natural tendency of the vehicle to
move always in a straight line. This causes extra vertical load on the outer wheel.
To neutralize the effect of centrifugal force, the outer rail is raised by certain
amount which is called super elevation or cant.
Calculation for equilibrium super elevation
Centrifugal Force (F) on an object moving with velocity (V) in circular path of
radius (R), having mass (M) is given by
F = (M V2/R)
or (W/g) X (V2/R) Since mass can be represented by (W/g) where W is
weight of object and g is acceleration due to gravity.
144
Also F = W. tanQ
And tanQ = e/G where e is cant and G is dynamic gauge
Therefore, F = W (e/G)
Or (W/g) x (V2/R) = (W) X (e/G)
Or e = GV2/(gR)
In metric system, e = GV2/127R
Where e = Super elevation in mm
V = Speed in Kmph
R = Radius in metres
G = 1750 mm for BG and 1058 mm for MG.
Equilibrium speed for providing super elevation
Super elevation for a curve is calculated with reference to equilibrium speed

which is not always the maximum sectional speed. It can be fixed as under:
(i) for maximum sectional speed of more than 50 kmph

Equilibrium speed = ¾ x maximum sectional speed or safe speed of the
curve whichever is less.
(ii) for maximum sectional speed of 50 kmph, or less
Equilibrium speed = maximum sectional speed or safe speed of the curve
whichever is less.
Safe Speed on Curves
(i) Earlier practice
The safe speed is based on Martin’s formula for BG & MG (for

transitioned curves)
V = 4.4 ( R-70)1/2 where V = Speed in kmph
R = Radius in metres.
for non transitioned curves, the safe speed shall be 4/5th of the speed
calculated through equation at (i) above
145
(ii) Modern Practice (for transitioned curves)
For BG Safe speed V = 0.27 [(Cd + Ca) R]1/2
For MG Safe speed V = 0.347[(Ca + Cd) R]1/2
Where Cd = cant deficiency permitted
Ca = actual cant
R = Radius in metres.
Maximum super elevation
Maximum value of super elevation on curves shall be as under:
Maximum super elevation

Gauge Group Normal value With special permission
BG A 165 mm 185 mm
B&C 165 mm -
D&E 140 mm -
MG - 90 mm 100 mm
NG - 65 mm 75 mm
Cant deficiency : The actual cant provided is always less than the equilibrium
cant required as per calculations. Maximum cant deficiency allowed is as under:
Gauge Cant deficiency (max. value)

BG 75 mm
MG 50 mm
NG 40 mm

Note:
1. What is super elevation?
146
16.6 CONING OF WHEELS &
CANTING OF RAILS
Wheel of rolling stock are not cylindrical, similarly rails are not provided truly
vertical. These special features are described as under.
16.6.1 Coning of Wheels

The art of providing an outward slope of l in 20 to the trads of wheels of rolling
stock is known as coning of wheels.
Unlike the arrangement of wheels and axles in road vehicles, the Railway
vehicles have unique design of wheels and axles. The 2 wheels and axle form a
rigid arrangement where the wheels and axle rotate together. The movement of
wheels is guided by flange provided on the inside of the wheels which prevent
derailment of vehicles. The tread of wheels is provided with a slope of 1 in 20, the
main function of which is to keep the vehicle centrally.
As the axle and wheels move to the right, the diameter of contact surface on the
right side wheel ‘B’ increases and the same on the left side wheel decreases.
Because of this, the wheels and axle have a tendency to move in a circular path
and move to the left. Thus coning of wheels help in neutralizing the sidewise
movement of wheels and keep them centrally reducing the side wear on rails and
wheels.
Coning of wheels causes wear and tear due to the slipping action. It is, however,
useful as
(a) it helps the vehicle to negotiate a curve smoothly,

(b) it provides a smooth ride, and
(c) it reduces the wear and tear of the wheel flanges.
As far as the slip is concerned, it can be mathematically calculated as follows.
2лӨ
Slip = G
360
where Ө is the angle at the centre of the curve fixed by the rigid wheel box and
G is the gauge in metres. The approximate value of the slip for broad gauge is
0.029 metre per degree of the curve.
16.6.2 Canting of Rails (Rail Tilting)

The art of placing the rails of a track at an inward slope of 1 in 20 is called
canting or tilting of rails.
147
To match the coning of wheels and to ensure proper contact of wheels and rails,
the rails are also provided at a slope of 1 in 20 from the vertical.
As the pressure of the wheel acts near the inner edge of the rail, there is heavy
wear and tear of the rail. Lateral bending stresses are also created due to
eccentric loading of rails. Uneven loading on the sleepers is also likely to cause
them damage. To reduce wear and tear as well as lateral stresses,rails are titled
at a slope of 1 in 20, which is also the slope of the wheel cone. The rail is tilted
by ‘adzing’ the wooden sleeper or by providing canted bearing plates.The cant is
also provided in C.I bearing plates and M.S. plates (except in flat bearing plates)
which are provided on wooden sleepers.

Note:
1. What is canting of rails?
16.7 TURNOUTS
The arrangement by which different routes either parallel or diverting from the
first track are connected to facilitate the diversion of trains from one track to
another track without any obstruction are known as turn-outs.
Purpose of providing turnouts
Turnouts facilitate the trains changing of tracks, which is required
OO for crossing on single line sections.

OO For giving precedence for one train over the other train on double line
sections.
148
Main components of a turnout are:
(a) Switches (b) lead rails (c) crossing.
Turn Out
Switches
A switch is composed of a stock rail and a tongue rail. A set of two switches is
called a point. Tongue rail is a piece of rail, one end of which is tapered (called
toe) and the other end is fixed to the lead rail (called heel). The two tongue rails
are joined together with the help of 2 or 3 stretcher bars. The rear end of the
tongue rail is joined with the stock rail with the help of heel blocks. If the tongue
rail has a joint at the heel block, it is called a loose heel and if the joint in tongue
rail is behind the heel block, it is called as fixed heel type.
Switches (Point)
Types of Tongue rails The tongue rails are of two types.
OO Straight tongue rail The tongue rail is straight upto the heel block.
OO Curved tongue rail The tongue rail is in the shape of a curve. This
ensures smooth entry of the trains into the curved track.
Lead Rails : Lead rails serve to join the switches to the crossing. These rails are
ordinary rails and fixed to the sleepers rigidly.
Crossing : This is built up assembly and provide necessary gap for the passage
of wheel-flange to either direction. The nose assembly is made up of a point
rail and a splice rail. There are two wing rails attached to the nose assembly.
The minimum distance between the wing rails is called throat. Opposite to the
crossing, a check rail is provided on both sides which avoid hitting of wheels
against the nose of crossing.
Crossing
149
Crossing
Angle of crossing : The angle made at crossing between the two tracks is
known as angle of crossing. These are various standard angle of crossings.
(i) 1 in 8-1/2 (ii) 1 in 12 (iii) 1 in 16.
Angles of Crossing
Angles of Crossing
A flat crossing provides higher speed but the length of turn out becomes more. 1
in 8-1/2 crossings are not permitted for passenger lines.
Permissible speeds on turn outs The speeds of trains negotiating a crossing

and entering the curved side are regulated as under:
Type of crossing Speed Permitted

1 in 8-1/2 (straight switch) 15 kmph
1 in 12 (straight switch) 15 kmph
1 in 12 (curved switch) 30 kmph
1 in 16 (curved switch) 40 kmph
Various Assemblies:
OO Diamond Crossings When two tracks with same or different gauge cross
each other.
Diamond Crossing (BG + MG)
OO Cross over A set of two turnouts is called across over.
Cross Over
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OO Ladder When a number of parallel tracks are joined to main line, the
arrangement is known as a ladder.
Ladder
OO Symmetrical split: When the two directions are making equal angle with
the main line, it is called a symmetrical split.
Symmetrical Split
OO Single and double slips It is a combination of diamond crossing and

turnouts so that there is facility available from either track on one side to
go to either track on the other side.
Diamond Crossing with Single Slip and Double Slip (Shown in Doted)

Note:
1. Why turnouts are provided in track ?
151
16.8 RAILWAY BRIDGES AND
FOUNDATION OF STRUCTURES
16.8.1 Railway Bridges

Bridges are natural part of Railways and the same are provided to cross streams,
rivers and other obstructions coming in the way of railway alignment. Different
types of bridges are described below.
OO Pipe Bridges These are either metal pipes or reinforced RCC pipes also
known as hume pipes. The opening varies in size from 0.6 m to as much
as 2.0 m or even more.
Pipe Bridge
OO Arch Bridges These are built in the form of arches and can be from 0.3
m to 20 m in span. These are built in brick or stone masonary. It is no
more a standard type of bridge.
Arch Bridge
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OO RCC Slab Bridges These bridges are having either plain RCC slabs or
prestressed. RCC slabs. Span varies from 0.6 to 6 m.
RCC Slab Bridge
OO RCC Box Bridges The opening is in the form of a single RCC box or twin
RCC box. Span varies from 2 m to 6 m or even more. Box type openings
are suitable where there is no scour problem.
Twin Box Culvert
OO RCC Girder Bridges For spans above 6m, RC plain or prestressed

Girder Bridges are more economical. The bridge may have 2 T-shape
girders for each track. A single box type girder may also be provided for
larger span of 30m or so.
OO Steel Girder Bridges Steel girders are of two types.
(i) Solid web type: These are built either with steel joists or with built
up section. Span may vary from 3m to 20m.
Steel Girder Bridge
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(ii) Open web type For larger spans (say more than 20m), the solid
web type girders may not be economical. In such cases where the
span is 30m or as much as 90m, the girders are designed as open
web triangulated girders having built-up top and bottom chords,
vertical and diagonal members and end portals. These girders can
be through type or underslung type. In case of a through girder, the
track is supported on flooring system consisting of stringers and
cross girders. Cross girders are connected to the bottom chord at
junction points of verticals and diagonals. Underslung girders do not
require elaborate flooring system and are much more economical.
Traingulated Girder Bridge (Through Type) (Stringers Show in Dotted)
16.8.2 Foundation of Structures

Main purpose of foundation is to transmit the load of the structure to the ground
safely without causing yielding or failure of soil and thereby controlling excessive
settlements and cracks in the structure. Foundations also provide a level surface
for building super structure masonry.
Types of Foundations
OO Open or Spread foundations. Used for simple structures like walls and
columns where soil is of good quality.
Spread Footings For a Wall Spread Footing for a Column
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OO Grillage foundation:- Specially for columns where area required for
foundation is too large due to poor soil.
PLAN ELEVATION
Grillage Foundation
OO Raft foundation:- Where a number of column have combined foundation

and loads are transferred through an arrangement of beams and slab
provided in inverted position. Mostly suitable for water tanks in poor soil.
Raft Foundation
OO Pile foundation:- When the loads are required to be transmitted to a

deeper level due to very poor soil conditions at shallow depth, piles either
single or in a group are used. Piles are either wooden, steel or made of
RCC with or without bulbs and are either driven or cast in situ.
Reinforced Concrete Pile
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OO Well Foundation: These are generally provided for bridges having deep
scour during high floods. The purpose of wells is to have a system where
the loads are transferred at a level much below the scour level and
also it has adequate lateral strength to withstand pressure under scour
conditions. Well foundations can be of single well or with two wells joined
together as double ‘D’.
Well Foundation

Note:
Questions.
1. Why foundations are required to be provided for structure ?
156
16.9 INSPECTION OF TRACK
Inspections are carried out to know the defects in track components and other
facilities provided on railway track so as to decide maintenance inputs required.
Purpose of Inspection
With the running of trains, there is continuous degradation of track due to

vibrations. The packing of sleeper gets disturbed, the fastenings become loose or
some time come out of sleepers and there is general wear and tear in rails and
sleepers. The purpose of inspection of track is to detect various flaws such as
looseness of packing, loose or missing fittings, wear in rails, disturbance in cross
levels and versine in curves, deficiency of ballast, unusual movements in Long
Welded Rails, inadequate or excessive gaps at joints, defects at level crossings
such as inadequate gap at check rail and condition of track and bridges in
general.
Methods of Inspections
Various methods adopted for inspection are as under:
OO By Push Trolley/Motor Trolley

OO By Engine of a fast train
OO By rear most vehicle of a train
OO By Amsler Car and
OO By Oscillograph Car and OMS instrument.
Push Trolley/Motor Trolley This is the age old method of inspecting the track
visually by Permanent Way Inspectors and Assistant Divisional Engineers. All
visual defects of track such as loose packing, missing or loose fittings, broken
sleepers, deficiency of ballast are noted during the inspection.
Engine of a fast train This method of inspection gives an idea of running quality
of track. The inspecting officer keeps standing in the engine and records all
jerks, verticals or lateral which are mainly due to loose packing, cross level or
alignment defects.
Rear most vehicle of a train By traveling at the rear end of the last coach, in a
running train, one gets an idea of the running quality of track just as
traveling in an engine. Main difference is that lateral alignment defects and cross
level defects get amplified in the rearmost coach.
Amsler Car Amsler car is an instrumented car which records defects like
misalignment, gauge, vertical unevenness of both the rails, twist i.e. difference in
cross levels and super elevation at curves. The recording is done in a continuous
form and defects are shown as peaks.
157
Oscillograph Car & OMS Instrument Oscillograph car records accelerations in
vertical and lateral direction when the train is running at full speed. The recording
probes are kept at pre-determined locations which carry the accelerations
through electric cables to the recording machine. This method of recording gives
a very fair idea of various defects generated by rail-wheel interaction due to track
defects. OMS is the short name of Oscillations Monitoring System, which is a
portable electronic machine, which records both vertical and lateral accelerations.

Note:
Questions.
1. Why inspections are carried out ?
16.10 MAINTENANCE OF TRACK

The art of up keeping the track components and other facilities provided on
Railway track in good condition to provide safe and smooth movement of traffic is
known as track maintenance or maintenance of track.
Need for Maintenance
Every structure which is subjected to wear and tear due to continuous use
requires maintenance. Railway track is also subjected to heavy wear and tear
due to constant use, which generates heavy vibrations and tends to loosen the
packing and fastenings. On curves, due to continuous rubbing of wheel flanges
against the rail, there is heavy side wear in the head of outer rail. At joints due
to existence of gap, there is vertical knock with the passage of each wheel,
which loosens the packing and also causes battering of rail ends. It is therefore
necessary to keep the general condition of track under constant watch and take
adequate action from time to time to make good the deficiencies caused due to
continuous use of the track.
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Requirements of a good track
A good track should have generally the following characteristics:-
OO Sound condition of rails, sleepers and fittings

OO All fittings be available and properly tightened
OO Adequate quantity of good quality and clean ballast under the sleepers
and also around it with full shoulder width
OO Wear in rails, horizontal or vertical, should be within allowable limits
OO Alignment of rails should be perfect. Kinks or other defects should be
within permissible limits
OO Formation should be stable with good drainage and slopes well protected
by grass or stone pitching, and
OO Longitudional and cross levels should be in good condition and within
allowable limits.
16.10.1 Manual Maintenance of Track

Most stretches of track on Indian Railways are still maintained manually. The
manual maintenance involves use of gang men to correct the deficiencies in the
track. Track is divided into gang beats each of 6 to 8 km under the charge of a
gang comprising 16 to 20 gang men headed by a Mate. Some time two gangs
are put under the charge of a Permanent Way Mistry who looks after about 12 to
16 km length of track (single line) or 6 to 8 km double lines.
The maintenance of track can be divided into various activities as described

below:
OO Daily patrolling of track by keymen

OO Systematic through packing
OO Overhauling and
OO Picking up of slacks
Daily Patrolling of Track: The first thing in the day is the patrolling of track done
by the Keyman of the gang who goes up and down looking for missing bolts,
keys and other important fixtures like fish plates. He also looks for fractures in the
rails. Later in the afternoon after completing one round of inspection, the Keyman
tightens the fittings in a systematic manner from one end to other end completing
about 250 metres every day.
Systematic Through Packing: At least one round of through packing of track

is done immediately after the monsoon season and well before the onset of
summer season. Every week, 4 to 5 days are allotted for doing the work of
through packing starting from one end of the beat. If possible, a second round of
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through packing is also done before the onset of rainy season. Each gangman is
allotted 12 sleepers of work. Through packing consists of the following activities:-
i) Opening of track: Ballast is opened out either side on the rail seat for a
depth of 50mm below the bottom of sleepers and for a width of 450 mm
from the end of sleepers to inside.
ii) Examination of Rails, Sleepers and Fastenings: The rails, sleepers
and all fastenings are thoroughly examined for wear and cracks,
Defective sleepers and fastenings are replaced by new ones and loose
fastenings are tightened.
iii) Respacing & Squaring of Sleepers: Sleeper spacing get disturbed quite
often due to creep in the rail. The spacing of sleepers is corrected on one
of the rails and they are made square so that the sleepers are at right
angle to the rails.
iv) Aligning the track: Alignment of the track is corrected by sighting one of
the rails as base rail. Alignment of the other rail is done by checking the
gauge and adjusting the same if found slack or tight.
v) Gauging- The track gauge should be adjusted. It should be done by
adjusting the gauge on the opposite to the base rail.
vi) Packing-of sleepers: The purpose of packing is to fill up all the voids
under the sleepers. Before packing of sleepers is started, the vertical
level of one of the two rails is corrected by sighting and lifting the track
wherever required. Sleepers are then packed manually by two gang men
working simultaneously at each rail seat. The other rail is then packed
while correcting the cross levels. After packing is completed, alignment of
track and top levels should be checked once again and minor adjustment
carried out wherever required.
vii) Repacking of Joint Sleepers: Before close of the work, joint sleepers
should be attended once again.
viii) Boxing ballast section and Dressing: The last activity of packing is
boxing and dressing of ballast section. Boxing means filling up the spaces
between the sleepers back to its original profile. The bank should be
attended and cess be dressed to give proper slope to it for proper drainage.
OVERHAULING: Over a period of time, the ballast section becomes full of dirt
and does not provide good drainage. It becomes therefore necessary to clean
the ballast in shoulders occasionally to ensure good drainage. To achieve this
object, about 1/3rd to 1/4th track is attended every year so that the entire length
of track is attended in 3 to 4 years. Overhauling should normally commence after
one round of through packing but it may be done some time along the cycle of
through packing to avoid doing overhauling during summer season.
Overhauling comprises the following activities:
OO Screening of ballast in shoulders

OO All items of through packing
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PICKING UP OF SLACKS: ‘Slacks’ are generally those points where the running
is not good and the defects are to be attended to on priority. One or two days
are allotted in a week for picking up the slacks. During picking up slacks, the
following items are attended to generally:-
OO Joint sleepers along with at least 3 sleepers on either side;

OO Approaches of level crossings and bridges;
OO Transition lengths of curves;
OO Approaches of points and crossings;
OO Breathing lengths in LWR, and
OO Stretches running bad.
16.10.2 Annual Programme of Track

Maintenance
The following programme is normally followed annually on Indian Railways for
systematic maintenance of track:-
Period Work
1 Post –monsoon attention 1 Attention to run down lengths in the
2 For about six months after end of 2 entire gang beat to restore section to
3 monsoon 3 good shape
Pre-monsoon attention For about 1 One cycle of through packing from
2 months prior to break of 1 one end of the gang beat to the other
monsoon 2 end including overhauling of ½ to ¼ of
Attention during the monsoon: 3 the beat
For about 4 months Lubrication of rail joints, gap
adjustment and curve re- alignment
Cleaning of side drains, catch water
drains, repairs to bank and picking up
of
slacks
Attention to track as required; picking
up of slacks
Attention to side drains, catch water
drains and waterways
patrolling of track during heavy rains.
16.10.3 Mechanised Maintenance of Track

Manual methods of track maintenance are not suitable for modern tracks
consisting of long welded rails and heavy concrete sleepers. Mechanized
maintenance has many advantages over manual maintenance. Measured shovel
packing (MSP) and directed track maintenance (DTM) are two modern methods
of track maintenance that have been found suitable for high-speed tracks in
161
India. They are cost effective, time effective, and efficient. Indian Railways is
slowly switching over to these methods of track maintenance.
The mechanised maintenance of track implies the deployment of track machines

for day to day track maintenance work which are otherwise done by manual
labour.
Need for Mechanised maintenance
The need to switch over from manual to mechanized methods of track

maintenance is progressively being felt due to the following reasons.
 Beater packing is a very hard and strenuous job and thus the labourers
have a tendency to shirk from doing this type of work.
 It is difficult to ensure the uniform quality of the compaction under
thesleepers carried out by manual means due to the uncertainties
associated with the varying physical strength of the labourers, commitment
of the workers, varying weather conditions, and other allied factors.
 The intensity of the pressure and shock that the ballast is subjected to
when the beater is being used is very high and in many cases exceeds
the crushing strength of the stone. This results in the progressive clogging
of the ballast section.
 Traffic densities, axle loads, and speeds have increased considerably on
Indian Railways considerably in the recent past. Beater packing does not
enable track geometry to be maintained within the tolerances prescribed
for a satisfactory length of time.
 The retention of the packing done via manual maintenance is not very
good and the track geometry gets distorted in a short time due to high-
speed traffic.
 Manual maintenance is not much suited to the modern track, which
consistsof long welded rails and heavy concrete sleepers.
 With the increase in traffic density, the time available between trains
isbecoming progressively short. It is, therefore, becoming increasingly
difficult to maintain tracks by manual methods, which take a considerably
long time.
 When a track is maintained manually, it takes considerable time for it to
get fully consolidated and, therefore, speed restrictions exist for a long
period after track renewal work has been completed.
 Manual methods do not emphasize on the identification of defects and
monitoring of the work being done. These are, however, done in the case of
modern methods of track maintenance, thereby giving move effective results.
 With the introduction of concrete sleepers, the track structure has become
very heavy. It is no more possible for gangmen to lift the track manually.
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 There are chances of breakage of concrete sleepers if the same are hit by
gangmen using the beaters.
 Manual packing is very hard and strenuous job. It is not possible to get
good quality track which is essential for high speed operations.
Procedure for Mechanised Maintenance
Mechanised maintenance of track is done with the help of machines which are
self propelled and run on the track while doing the maintenance operations.
These machines are called ‘On Track Tampers’ and are also called as ‘Tie
Tamping Machines’ as they tamp sleepers (which are known as ties in USA)
mechanically.
Most of the tamping machines carry out the following operations automatically
and simultaneously:
OO Tamping one or two sleepers at a time by vibrating and squeezing the

ballast bed under the sleepers
OO Lifting of the track up to pre-determined value
OO Levelling the track to correct longitudinal and cross levels
OO Aligning the track to perfect alignment
Output of various types of machines
OO Universal tamper (UT) - 500 to 600 sleepers per hr

OO Duomatic tamper - 1200 to 1400 sleepers per hr
OO Continuous tamper (CSM) - 2200-2300 sleepers per hr

Note:
1. Why track need maintenance ?
163
16.11 WELDING OF RAILS
A rail joint, besides being weakest point in the track, gives lot of headache
to the Permanent Way Inspector from the maintenance point of view. Due to
discontinuity in the rail surface, it gives a knocking jerk to the moving wheel while
the packing of ballast under joint sleepers becomes loose very often leading to
loosening of fittings such as keys and fish bolts. Gap at the joints also widens
during winter periods due to low temperature causing shrinking in the length of
rails. Wide gap at joints give further rise to the knocking forces, which damages
the rail ends due to battering. During summer season, the rails expand in length
which results in jamming of gap at joints leading to buckling if other precautions
are not taken. The best solution to avoid the problems of a joint is to
eliminate the joint itself which is done by welding the two ends of the rails
together.
Purpose of welding
Purpose of welding is to fuse two ends of the two rails in such a manner so as to
provide
OO geometric continuity and smoothness in top table of the rails

OO return the original hardness and toughness of the rail metal
OO retain the chemical composition of the metal at and around the joint and
OO Obtain the strength in tension, compression and bending as per original
section of the rail.
16.11.1 Methods of welding rail joints

Various methods adopted to weld a joint are described in the following
paragraphs.
OO Thermit welding
OO Flash butt welding
OO Electric arc welding
OO Gas pressure or Oxyacetylene welding
16.12 LONG WELDED RAILS

Long welded Rails is a welded rail, the central part of this shall not undergo any
longitudinal movement due to temperature variations. A length, greater than
200 metres on BG and 300 metre on MG will be normally function as LWR.The
maximum length of LWR under Railway condition should be 1.0 km. Continuous
Welded Rail (CWR) is a LWR, generally stretching over a section. Short Welded
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Rail (SWR) is a welded rail, which is contracts and expands throughout its
length. The length at either end of LWR/CWR which is subject to expension or
contraction is called the “Breathing Length”.
It is a known fact that rails expand or contract with the change in temperature,
due to steel being a metal which expands due to rise in temperature. To take
care of expansion and contraction of rails, gaps are provided at joints. Now there
are rails where the joints are eliminated by welding the same. Such longer rails,
panel is more than 200m, are called Long Welded Rails.
16.12.1 Theory of LWR

When a rail panel is supported on rollers which allow free expansion, the
expansion due to increase in temperature by t°C can be expressed as
l=L*a*t
Where, L = length of Panel
T = increase/change in temperature
a = coefficient of thermal expansion
But when the rail panel is fixed to sleepers firmly and the sleepers are embeded
in the ballast, the rail panel can not expand freely. While the rail panel tends to
expand, the ground resistance due to ballast tries to check the expansion of
the panel. Let A be free end of the rail panel and sleepers shown as No. 1, 2,
3 and 4 each of them providing an average resistance of p tonne, then as the
temperature starts rising:-
resistance from sleepers at sleeper No. 1 = p, resistance from sleepers at

sleeper No. 2 = 2p, resistance from sleepers at sleeper no. 3 = 3p and so on. The
force goes on increasing in the rail till it is equal to the force required to neutrilise
the expansion in the rail. Let this force be P tonnes.
then P = l*A*E L
where I = thermal expansion to be neutrislised
A = Area of cross section of rail
E = modulus of Elasticity substituting the value of I
P = aLt *AE/L
or P = atAE
165
E = 2.15 x 106 kg/sq cm
A = 66.15 sq cm
á = 1.152 x 10-5 per degree centigrade
P = 1.152 x 10-5x 66.15 x 2.15 x10 6 per degree centigrade
or P = 1638.4 kg per degree centigrade
It is seen that for every one degree centigrade increase in temperature, the force
in the rail of 52kg section increases by 1638 kg. For 90R section where the area of
cross section is 58.95 sq cm, the corresponding increase in force will be 1460 kg.
It can be seen that the force in rail:
OO is proportionate to the cross section area of rail

OO is proportionate to the increase in temperature and
OO does not depend on the length of rail panel
Force Diagram in LWR
Thus it can be seen that at B and B , the sleeper force induced will be such that
it equals to the thermal force due to rise in temperature. Thereafter the force in
the length of Panel from B to B remains the same. Due to triangular distribution
of force in AB and B, A , which are called as “Breathing lengths”, the points A and
A, move by half the amount of free expansion. Breathing length is assumed as
100m, it can be seen that movement of free end A or A will be = 1/2 x 100 x 64 x
1.152 x 10-5 x 1000mm (for 64°C increase in temperature) = 36.8 mm
Thus from minimum to maximum temperature (which is about 64°C for plain area
of Northern Railway) one of the rail ends expands by 36.8 mm. Total change in
gap (with both ends expanding) will be about 74mm. To accommodate such large
gap, special types of joints are provided which are called Switch Expansion joints
or (SEJ).
Standard length of a long welded rail is 1000m or one km but some time the rails
are welded from one station to another. In such a case the welded panel is called
Continuous Welded Rails or (CWR).
16.12.2 Track Structure for LWR/CWR

Due to very high force induced in LWR/CWR, the track has to be of high strength.
The following track standard has been laid down for LWR/CWR.
166
For Broad Gauge
Rails
OO 60kg/52kg/90R
Sleepers
OO Concrete sleepers with elastic fastenings;

OO Steel trough sleepers with elastic fastenings and
OO Durable wooden sleepers with elastic fastenings.
OO Under special circumstances, steel trough sleepers and CST-9 sleepers
with keys can be permitted.
Ballast Minimum cushion
OO 300mm for speeds above 130 kmph and 250mm for speeds upto 130
kmph. The shoulder width is to be provided as 350 mm on straight and
500 on the outside of curves.
For Metre Gauge
Rails
OO 52kg/90R
Sleepers
OO Concrete sleepers with elastic fastenings;

OO Steel sleepers with elastic fastenings and keys and
OO Durable wooden sleepers and CST-9 sleepers.
16.12.3 Track maintenance for LWR/CWR

The standard of maintenance of LWR/CWR track has to be of very high order.
The following precautions should be kept:
OO Maintenance should be done only when the temperatures are below td

+ 10°C, where td is destressing temperature. De-stressing of the whole
panel of LWR/CWR shall be done when the expansion/contraction
observed at the SEJ(Switch Expansion Joint) differs by more than 20 mm
from the theoretical range given for different types of track structures or
when the maximum gap exceeds 120 mm or stock/tongue rail crosses the
mean position.
OO Lifting of track should be done when the temperature is below td + 10°C.
Track should not be lifted by more than 50mm at a time.
OO Special attention should be paid to locations such as breathing lengths,
switch expansion joints etc.
167
OO All fastenings should be kept tight.
OO Ballast should not be deficient as it plays most important part against
buckling. Ballast section shall always be adequate.

Note:
Questions.
1. Why rail welding are resorted to ?
16.13 TRACK MODERNISATION

The conventional fish plated track using 90R rails with joints at every 13m or 39m
and sleepers CST-9 or wooden or steel has not been found good for heavy and
fast speed traffic, due to various maintenance problems associated with joints
and ordinary fittings of CST-9, wooden or steel trough sleepers. Effective steps
have been taken to modernise the Indian Railway Track by adopting various
measures and techniques as described in the following paragraphs.
Use of welded rails By adopting welding in a big way and converting a large
length of single rail and SWR into long welded and continuous welded rails, the
number of joints to be maintained have been drastically reduced.
Use of heavy weight rails Use of 60kg and 52kg rails with 90UTS steel, which
is having 25% more strength in tension compared to conventional 72UTS rails,
has been done in a big way along with renewal of track.
Use of Concrete Sleepers and Elastic Fastenings Concrete sleepers of

monoblock design along with elastic fastenings (elastic rail clips and rubber
pads) is being done in very large number. India has capacity to produce more
than 90 lakh concrete sleepers, annually, which is sufficient to convert/lay nearly
6000km of track, annually, into modern track. With the use of concrete sleepers
and elastic fastenings, the track is comparable to the world’s best tracks in other
countries.
168
Mechanised maintenance With the use of concrete sleepers, track maintenance
i.e. packing of sleepers including points and crossing- tamping and deep
screening is being done using heavy on track tamping machines on most of the
length of group ‘A’ and `B’ broad gauge routes. On metre gauge routes also,
machines are being used for tamping of track.
Use of machines for laying of track Heavy machines like Track Renewal Train
(TRT) and PQRS (Plasser Quick Relay System) are being used to lay new track
with concrete sleepers which produce track of very high geometrical standards fit
for high speed.
Improved method of Monitoring and Inspections In earlier times the track

used to be inspected manually using trolleys and foot plate in an engine of the
train. Now automatic recording machines are used like Amsler Car, Oscillograph
Cars, which can record the defects in track, while running at full sectional speeds.
Inherent defects of rails are detected using ultrasonic rail flaw detectors and self-
propelled ultrasonic rail flaw detector (SPURT) machines.

Note:
Questions.
1. What do you understand by modernization of track ?
16.14 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have learnt about various components of permanent way which
are formation, ballast, sleepers, fittings and fastening, rails and rail joints.
Sleepers are classified in four types based on material of construction i.e.
wooden, CST-9, ST and concrete.
Three different gauges are used on Indian Railways which are Broad Gauge,
Metre Gauge and Narrow Gauge. Selection of gauge depends on geographical
conditions and traffic to be carried. Adoption of different gauge has some
169
disadvantages, mainly multiple handling of goods and therefore railway has
adopted policy of uni-gauge. As per this policy many routes having Metre Gauge
or Narrow Gauge are being converted to Broad Gauge.
Railway lines are further classified in different groups depending on speed and
annual traffic density.
Special types of assembly known as Points & Crossing are required to be

provided to change the lines of trains which are required to divert a train from one
line to other or to give precedence.
Bridges are required to be provided to cross the railway line across river, nallah
and/or irrigation canal etc. Different types of bridges are constructed depending
upon the requirement of linear waterway or span to be provided. Different types
of Foundations are provided for structures and bridges keeping the loads to be
taken and bearing capacity of soil in view.
Inspection and maintenance of track are essential to keep the track in

fit condition. Safety of traffic is given utmost importance for planning of
maintenance. Passenger comfort is another important aspect kept in view for
planning maintenance. Modern track structure is being provided at the time of
renewals depending upon route type and annual traffic. Heavier trackstructure
provided to take care of heavy axle load at high speeds. Modern track needs
mechanized maintenance. Mechanisation of relaying and track maintenance is
accordingly being done. Inspections are required to be carried out to know the
extent of inputs required to maintain the track/infrastructure. On IR both manual
and machine methods are used for inspection of track and structures.

CYP 1 :
1. To distinguish it from temporary tracks laid in mining or at construction

sites to transport materials.
2. Railway track have following components. Formation, ballast, sleepers,
fitting & fastening, rails and rail joints.
3. Sleepers are provided to hold the rails so as to get correct gauge and
transfer the load from rails to down below to ballast
4. Flat footed type of rails is mostly used on IR.
CYP 2’:
1. The clear horizontal distance between the inner (running) faces of the two
rails forming a track is known as gauge.
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CYP 3 :
1. Routes are classified based on speed of trains (permitted or expected in

future) and annual traffic carried.
CYP 4 :
1. To compensate centrifugal force, on vehicle running in a circular path,

outer rail is raised to certain amount, this is called super elevation.
CYP 5 :
1. The art of placing the rails of a track at an inward slope of 1 in 20 is called

canting or tilting of rails.
CYP 6 :
1. Turnouts are provided in track to facilitate trains to change track.

CYP 7 :
1. Foundations are provided to transmit the load of the structure to the

ground, safely without causing yielding or failure of soil and thereby
controlling excessive settlements and cracks in the structure.
CYP 8 :
1. Inspection of track is carried out to detect various flaws such as

looseness of packing, deficiency of ballast, wear & tear in rails & fastening
and condition of track and bridges in general.
CYP 9 :
1. Track need maintenance to make good the deficiencies caused due to

continuous use of the track.
CYP 10 :
1. A rail joint is weakest point in the track. To avoid the problems of a joint
(fish plated joint), two ends of the rails are welded together.
CYP 11 :
1. Heavy track structure consisting of higher UTS rails, concrete sleepers

and elastic fastening with long welded rails are used. Track is maintained
with use of heavy on track tempers, modern equipments are used
for scanning of rails and track inspections. These are parts of track
modernization.
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172
7
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Legal & Technical
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Aspects of Railway
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UNIT-17
Railways Act 1989
Structure
17.0 Objectives
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Railway Principal Transport Mode – Legal Regimes
17.3 Railway Organisation (Structure)
17.3.1 Ministry of Railways as a part of the Central Government
17.4 The Railway Act, 1989
17.4.1 Provisions Relating to Powers and Facilities of the Railway Ministry
in the Railway Act, 1989
17.4.2 Railway Administration – Formation of Zonal Railways
17.4.3 Fixation of rates
17.4.4 Acquiring land for extension / maintenance of Railway network
17.4.5 Local taxes & the Railways
17.4.6 Penalties
17.5 Liabilities of the Railways in the Railway Act, 1989
17.5.1 Liabilities of railways as carriers
17.5.2 Substantive liability
17.5.3 Limitation of monetary liability
17.5.4 Liability of railways towards passengers
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17.6 Other Provisions
17.6.1 Railway Claims Tribunal
17.6.2 Railway Rates Tribunal
17.6.3 Carriage of Passengers
17.6.4 Carriage of Goods (Railway Receipt)
17.6.5 Carriers’ Liability
17.6.6 Accidents and Liabilities of the Railways
17.7 Multi-modal Transport Legislation
17.8 Liability of Terminal Operator
17.9 Let us Sum Up
17.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you should be able to :
OO Describe the structure of the railway organization

OO Know how it is a part of Central Government
OO Understand importance of the Railway Act 1989
OO Explain the provisions relating to powers and facilities for the Railway
Ministry in the Railway Act 1989
OO Differantiate between the Railway Claims Tribunal and Railway Rates
Tribunal.
OO Discuss the changes made in the Act in Chapter VIII which deals with
carriage of passengers.
OO Explain the changes made in Chapter XII pertaining to accidents and
liabilities of the railways.
OO Describe the multi-modal transport legislation.
OO Understand the progress in respect of liability of terminal operator in
international movement of goods.
17.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit the student is made familiar with the setup, i.e. the structure, of the
railway organisation and legal sanction behind the railway organisation. The unit
also explains the main features of the Railway Act 1989 which are mainly three
fold as mentioned below :
i) The powers and facilities provided by the Railway Act to the railway
organisation
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ii) The legal liabilities of the railways as carrier of goods and passengers.
iii) Other provisions including the Railway Claims Tribunal and Railway Rates
Tribunal which are basically the agencies for making the railways meet its
liabilities.
This unit also explains the concept of Multi-Modal Transport as compared to the
conventional segmented transport system. The development of legal format in
this respect internationally and within the country have also been explained.
17.2 RAILWAY PRINCIPAL

TRANSPORT MODE- LEGAL REGIMES
The Indian Railways Organisation having evolved historically & independently
has inherited specific legal regimes. Prior to independence, there was the
Railway Act of 1890 which imparted certain powers to the Railways Organisation
and also spelt certain liabilities on the part of the Railways as a carrier of goods
& passengers. There was also the Railway Board Act of 1905, which defined
the role and powers of the Railway Board. After Independence of the country,
and with the introduction of the constitution of India the Railway Organisation as
Railway Ministry became a part of Central Government. The Railway Act of 1890
was replaced by the Railway Act of 1989. The Railway Board Act of 1905 stayed
in vogue.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1

1. What acts regulated the railway working prior to independence and what
is the position in this respect after independence?
17.3 RAILWAY ORGANISATION (STRUCTURE)

The Railway Organisation at the apex level is represented by the Ministry of
Railways, of which, the Minister of Railways is the head. The Minister is advised
and assisted by the Railway Board consisting of a Chairman and 6 Members.
The Board also exercises powers vested in them through rules or by delegation
of powers. The Ministry also has the supporting officers and staff for discharge of
their functions and duties. Under the Ministry, there are 16 zonal Railways and 5
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Production Units, each headed by a GM. The structure thus can be viewed in the
following manner.
17.3.1 Ministry of Railways a part of Central

Government
It is provided in the Constitution of India Article 77 Section 3 that, “The
President shall make rules for the more convenient transaction of the business
of the Government of India, and for the allocation among Ministers of the
said business.” Invoking this provision, President of India has laid down the
Transaction of Business Rules, 1961, which have been supplemented from
time to time. According to the Transaction of Business Rules, each Minister
is incharge of the affairs allotted to that Ministry in the Allocation of Business
Rules. In the Allocation of Business Rules, Ministry of Railways has been given
full powers in all Railway matters. There is, therefore, a separation of Railway
finances from general revenues with provision for payment of dividend liability on
the Capital at charge by the Railways to the general revenues.
By virtue of Transaction of Business Rules, each Minister represents the Central

Government and the Ministry of Railways also forms a part of the Central
Government. Any powers of the Railway Minister can be delegated to the
Railway Board in keeping with Railway Board Act, 1905.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2

1. State the Structure of the Railway Organisation from the apex level.
2. Explain how Railway Ministry is a part of the Central Government.
176
17.4 THE RAILWAY ACT, 1989
To strengthen and assist the Ministry of Railways in the discharge of their
duties, the Parliament had earlier enacted an Act called the Railway Act, 1890.
This Act has been replaced by the Railway Act, 1989, which simultaneously
repeals the earlier Act of 1890. The Railway Act, 1989, on the one hand provides
certain powers and facilities to the Railway organization in the pursuance
of their functions, while at the same time, it stipulates certain liabilities and
responsibilities of the Railways as a carrier of goods and passengers.
The notable features of the Railways Act 1989 can be divided under the following
three heads :-
A) Provisions Relating to Powers and Facilities for the Railway Ministry

B) Liabilities of the Railways
C) Other Provisions
17.4.1 Provisions Relating to Powers and

Facilities for the Railway Ministry in
the Railway Act-1989
The Railway Act 1989 mainly provides powers in the following areas for the
railway organisation for discharge of other functions :-
i) Railway Administrations – Zonal Railways - Formation of

ii) Fixation of Rates
iii) Acquiring Land for Extension / Maintenance of Railway Network
iv) Local Taxes and the Railways
v) Penalities in relation to the various offences carried out by the customer,
passenger or even Railway employees.
17.4.2 Railway Administrations – Formation of

Zonal Railways
Para 3 of the Railway Act in Chapter II provides that the “Central Government
may, for the purpose of the efficient administration of the Government
railways, by notification, constitute such railways into as many Zonal
Railways as it may deem fit and specify in such notification the names
and headquarters of such Zonal Railways and the areas in respect of
which they shall exercise jurisdiction.” This means the Railway Ministry can
constitute zonal Railways as deemed required by the administration.
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17.4.3 Fixation of rates
Chapter VI deals with fixation of rates. Under this Chapter, the Central Government
has been empowered to fix standard rates for the carriage of passengers and
goods, classify or re-classify any commodity, and increase or reduce the class
rates and other charges. An important addition in this Chapter is that the railway
administration has been empowered to charge a lumpsum rate which has been
defined as the rate mutually agreed upon between a railway administration and a
consignor for the carriage of goods and for any service in relation to such carriage.
This provision will enable the Railways to enter into long term contracts with big,
important customers, and fix even higher rates for better quality of service. This
provision empowers the Railway Ministry to fix fares and freight charges.
17.4.4 Acquiring land for extension/

maintenance of Railway network
Para 11 of Chapter IV of the Railway Act provides that “a Railway
administration may, for the purposes of constructing or maintaining a
Railway – (a) make or construct in or upon , across, under or over any
lands, or any streets, hills, valleys, roads, railway, tramways, or any rivers,
canals, brooks, streams or other waters, or any drains, water- pipes, gas-
pipes, oil-pipes, sewers, electric supply lines or telegraph lines, such
temporary or permanent inclined-planes, bridges, tunnels, culverts,
embankments, aqua-ducts, roads, lines of railways, passages, conduits,
drains, piers, cuttings and fences, in-take wells, tube wells, dams, river
training and protection works as it things proper…”. This provision, in
nutshell, empowers the Railway Ministry to acquire land, etc. State or private, for
the purposes of extension or/and maintenance of the railway network.
17.4.5 Local taxes & the Railways

Section 184 of the Act provides that , “a railway administration shall not be
liable to pay any tax in aid of the funds of any local authority unless the
Central Government, by notification, declares the railway administration
to be liable to pay the tax specified in such notification.” This in essence
means that no local or State Government can levy tax on Railways without the
consent of the Central Government. In other words, it implies that any taxes like
for example, the property tax, etc. cannot be levied by the State Government
suo-moto on Railway property.
17.4.6 Penalties
The Railway Act, 1989 in Chapter XV empowers the Railway department to
levy penalties in relation to the various offences carried out by the customers,
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passengers or even Railway employees in the functioning of the Railway system.
The summarized statement indicating punishments viz-a-viz the offences is given
in Annexure I. The following new offences have been added in this Chapter in the
Railway Act, 1989.
OO Preferring a false claim against the railway for loss of or damage to

goods.
OO Making of a false report by a railway servant while conducting an enquiry
into a claim for loss of goods.
OO Negligently crossing unmanned level crossing.
OO The punishment have been enhanced under most of the provisions.
A summarized statement indicating punishments is given in Annexure -I. Some of

the important changes in chapter of Railway Act, 1989 made are:
a) the minimum charge for traveling without ticket has been enhanced from
10 rupees to 50 rupees.
b) The punishment for misuse of means of communication alarm chain
pulling has been enhanced from imprisonment of 3 months or fine of 250
rupees to imprisonment of one year or fine upto 1,000 rupees or both.
The minimum fine for the first offence has been enhanced from 25 rupees
to 500 rupees.
For second or subsequent offence, imprisonment of one month has been
enhanced to imprisonment of 3 months.
c) Begging on a railway has also been made an offence alongwith
unauthorized hawking.
(d) In respect of 26 offences, a railway servant has been empowered to
arrest any person without warrant, and to produce such arrested person
before the nearest Magistrate within the period of 24 hours of such arrest
excluding the time necessary for the journey from the place of arrest in
the court of Magistrate. List of such offences is at Annexure II.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 :

1. What are the provisions relating to powers and facilities for the Railway
Organisation in the Railway Act 1989?
179
17.5 LIABILITIES OF THE RAILWAYS
IN THE RAILWAY ACT, 1989
Liabilities of the Railways have been defined in the Railway Act 1989 in the
following areas :-
i) Railway liabilities as carrier.

ii) Substantive liability
iii) Limitation of monetary liability
iv) Liability of railways towards passengers
17.5.1 Liabilities of railways as carrier

Till 1961, the liability of railways in respect of loss, or damage to goods carried by
rail was that of a bailee. Bailee’s liability is generally understood as that expected
of a man of ordinary prudence exercising the same level of care in respect of
his own goods under similar circumstances. In 1961, the railways liability was
changed to that of a common-carrier-one who carries goods for reward under a
common (uniform) tariff as a public carrier and accepts statutory responsibility
as distinct from contractual liability in relation to the cargo-owner. The present
Railways Act, 1989 retains the common- carrier’s liability but at the same time
enables a railway administration to enter into contractual lumpsum rates with
individual customers and to prescribe conditions attached to such lumpsum
rates. This is an important provision by which railways can function as contractual
carriers (as distinct from common carriers with rigid tariff structures and fixed
liabilities) to be able to render flexible market-oriented service in a competitive
environment for specific bulk customers. A beginning has been made by
Railways offering trains on charger basis quoting lumpsum rates between fixed
points. This has been done in the case of transport of ISO containers between
ports and inland terminals. This can be extended to other rail borne traffic under
special contractual arrangements. Bulk cargo like coal, minerals, petroleum
products etc. lends itself ideally for charter train operations leaving the high value
low volume general merchandise traffic to be carried under containerized “box-
rate” tariff or under “Conventional common carrier tariff” in break-bulk.
17.5.2 Substantive liability

The general principle of common carrier liability is laid down in Sec.93 of
the Act which says that a railway administration shall be responsible for the
loss, destruction, damage or deterioration in transit, or non-delivery of any
consignment arising from any Cause except the following:
(a) Act of God;
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(b) Act of war;
(c) Act of public enemies
(d) Arrest, restraint or seizure under legal process;
(e) Orders or restrictions imposed by the Central Government or a State
Government or by an officer of a State Government authorized by it in this
behalf;
(f) Act or omission or negligence of the consignor or the consignee or the
endorsee or the agent or servant of the consignor or the consignee or the
endorsee;
(g) Natural deterioration or wastage in bulk or weight due to inherent defect,
quality or vice of the goods;
(h) Latent defects;
(i) fire, explosion or any unforeseen risk:
It is further provided that even where the loss of damage etc arises due to any
or the above causes, railway is not absolved of its responsibility unless it proves
that is has exercised reasonable foresight and care in the carriage of goods.
There is an exception to the above general principle. It relates to goods booked

at owner’s risk rate which is a lower tariff than the railway risk rate in respect of
certain commodities. It provides that the burden of proof will lie on the consignee
to prove that there was negligence or misconduct on the part of the railway or its
servants (Sec 97) when goods are carried at Owner’s risk rate.
17.5.3 Limitation of monetary liability

Common-carriers the world over are now called upon to accept only a limited
monetary liability with reference to the weight of the cargo in the absence of any
agreement to the contrary. This means that in the event of loss or damage etc.
to the cargo, the maximum amount of money which the carrier is to pay is limited
irrespective of the value of the cargo or the actual loss suffered by the cargo
owner. The Act (Section 103) has adopted this international practice and provides
that unless the value of the cargo has been declared by the consignor at the
time of booking and an additional percentage charge paid (in addition to normal
freight), the railways’ liability will be limited only to a fixed amount per Kilogram
of the weight of the goods. Presently this maximum limit (as fixed by the Central
Govt. under the Act) is as follows:
i) Rs. 100 per kg in case of baggage

ii) Rs. 50 per kg in case of other goods
In respect of animals, a fixed amount per head has been prescribed under the
Railways (Extent of Monetary Liability and Prescription of Percentage Charge)
Rules 1989 framed under Sec.103 of the Act.
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17.5.4 Liability of railways towards
passengers
In regard to railways liability for death or injury to passengers, arising out of train
accident, the Act provides that railways shall pay compensation irrespective of
whether there has been any negligence or wrongful act on the part of railway
administration. The liability in respect of passengers is thus absolute similar to
that of an insurer, unlike that in respect of goods which is on proof of negligence.
Presently, the amount payable for death of a passenger is Rs. 2 lakhs. In respect
of injuries, the amount varies between Rs. 16,000/- to Rs. 2 lakhs depending on
the nature of injury as given in the Railway Accident Compensation Rules, 1990
framed under Sec.124 of the Act. In the case of death, the compensation is paid
to the ‘dependent’ of the deceased as defined in the Act.

1. Explain the various liabilities which devolve on railway organisation in
keeping with the Railway Act 1989?
17.6 OTHER PROVISIONS

Other provisions provide for the Railway Claims Tribunal and Railway Rates
Tribunal some requirements on the part of the railways in displaying things like
time-table etc. Some of these provisions are explained below:-
17.6.1 Railway Claims Tribunal

There is now a standing forum for disbursement of accident compensation
relief in the form of Railway Claims Tribunal and its Benches located all over
the country. Presently, the Benches are located at 17 places, i.e. Ahmedabad,
Bangalore, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar, Bombay, Chandigarh, Calcutta, Ernakulam,
Guwahati, Gorakhpur, Jaipur, Lucknow, Nagpur, Delhi, Patna, Madras &
Secunderabad.
The Tribunal established under the Railway Claims Tribunal Act 1987 since
November, 1989 also decides disputes relating to claims against railway in
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respect of loss, damage, destruction, deterioration or non-delivery of goods
under the Railways Act and also those relating to refund of fare and freight. This
tribunal has replaced the jurisdictions earlier exercised by civil courts thereby
providing speedy settlement of claims cases including accident compensation
and refund through a quick and summary procedure. IR Paid Rs. 43.45 Crores
as claim compensation for goods/parcel luggage in the year 2016-17 as compared
to Rs. 11.56 Crores Paid in the year 2015-16. The trend of claims settlement in the
preceding five-years is given below:-
Crores amount
No. of Claims
Year No. of Claim Paid of compensation
Received
Paid of Crores
2012-13 18,715 3305 26.15
2013-14 18,133 2927 2.33
2014-15 15,450 2561 6.69
2015-16 12,607 1469 11.56
2016-17 8,533 1747 43.45
17.6.2 Railway Rates Tribunal

Chapter VII of the Indian Railway Act provides for constitution of the Railway
Rates Tribunal. Railway Rates Tribunal (RRT) decides disputes/cases referred
to if in respect of Rates fixed/charges by the Railway Organisation. The
Tribunal has been empowered not only to fix a rate or a charge as it considers
reasonable, but also to direct refund of an amount, if any, as being in excess of
the rate or charge fixed by the Tribunal.
17.6.3 Carriage of Passengers

Chapter VIII of the Act deals with carriage of passengers. Some of the important
changes made in this chapter are:
i) It is not obligatory on the part of the Railway to paste the entire timetable
at each station. It would be sufficient if a copy of the time-table is kept in
the office of the Station Master.
ii) Under the old Act, particulars on the ticket are to be set forth in Hindi,
English and the regional language. The new provision empowers the
Central Government to grant exemption of writing particulars in all the
three languages in the context of mechanization or any other reason.
iii) The railway administration has been empowered to cause means of
communication to be disconnected in the train (alarm chain disconnected
for certain periods) if it is satisfied that the same is being misused.
17.6.4 Carriage of Goods (Railway Receipt)

Chapter IX deals with carriage of goods. A new provision has been added
regarding issue of railway receipt. The railway receipt shall be prima facie
183
evidence of weight and number of packages stated therein. However, where
the weight or the number of packages is not checked by the railway servant, the
burden of proving the correct weight or the number of packages shall lie on the
consignor.
Overloading of Wagons: A new section has been added, under which the railway
administration has been authorized to levy penal charge for overloading of goods
in a wagon.
Negotiable Document: The railway receipt has been made negotiable.
Re-weighment of consignments: A new provision has been added, under which, on

the request of the consignee, the railway administration may allow re-weighment,
in special circumstances mentioned in the Act or prescribed under rules.
Open Delivery: A new section has been added under which it is obligatory on the
part of the railway administration to give open delivery where the consignment
arrives in a damaged condition.
Disposal of Unclaimed Goods: Under the old Act, unclaimed goods must
be disposed of by public auction only. Under the new provision, for special
reasons to be recorded in writing, the goods can be sold in any other manner
as prescribed under rules. This will help in getting reasonable price of goods
whenever in any auction, bidders form a ring.
17.6.5 Carriers’ Liability

Monetary Liability: The concept of “Excepted articles” has been done away with.
At the same time, the monetary liability of the railways for loss of or damage to
booked goods of all descriptions has been limited to a rate on the basis of the
weight of the consignment. This rate is to be prescribed by Central Government.
If consignor wants the railway to accept higher liability, he will be required to pay
additional freight on the basis of value.
Under the existing provision, where any goods, which, under ordinary
circumstances, would be carried in covered wagons are in fact, carried in open
wagons on the request of the consignor, railways are fully exempted from the
liability for any damage. Under the revised provision, the liability is to be equally
shared between the railways and the consignor.
17.6.6 Accidents and liabilities of the Railways

Commissioner of Railway Safety, who conducts an enquiry into an accident has
been given the powers of a civil court in respect of summoning and enforcing the
attendance of persons, requiring the discovery and production of documents,
receiving evidence of affidavit and requiring production of any public record from
any court or office.
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Chapter XII of the act deals with liability of railway administration for death and
injury to passengers due to accidents.
Important changes made in this Chapter are:-
‘Dependent’ : The word “dependent” has been re-defined so as to include the

parents in the case of a minor deceased passenger. Under the old Act if a minor
passenger dies in a train accident, none of his relative could get compensation.
Amount of compensation: Under the Act, the maximum amount of

compensation was fixed as Rs. 1 lakh Under the new provision, it has been left
to the Central Government to prescribe the amount of compensation. Thus it will
not be necessary to amend the Act to increase the maximum liability from time to
time. Presently this limit is raised to Rs. 2 lakhs for death or total disablement.
Railway servant on duty : It has been clarified that if a railway servant on

duty traveling on a train is involved in an accident, he will be entitled to receive
compensation under this special provision. Under the old Act, there was no
statutory provision.

1. What are the distinguishing features between Railway Claims Tribunal
(RCT) and Railway Rates Tribunal (RRT)?
2. It is necessary for Railways to paste the entire timetable at station?
3. It is necessary for Railways to keep an alarm chain connected throughout?
185
17.7 MULTIMODAL TRANSPORT LEGISLATION
The conventional segmented transport where goods are shipped under a separate
contract over each mode&rail, sea, air or road has now been replaced by Multi
Modal Transport where Multi Modal Transport Operator (MTO) undertakes as a
principal, to perform the entire carriage from origin to final destination involving 2
or more modes of transport in course of international carriage. The technological
advancement made by containerization has made it possible for international
trade to be conducted more efficiently without intermediate handling of cargo by
mechanized loading/unloading of maritime containers which can be freely moved
by ship, rail and road under a single transport document. The UN Convention on
International Transport of Goods 1980 provides a model law which will regulate
the extent and scope of liability of an MTO who in turn has recourse to actual
carriers under a sub-contract. The MTO assumes direct responsibility in relation to
the cargo owner and provides a through tariff for his services. The Convention has
not yet been ratified by the requisite number of countries.
In India the format of a model legislation called Multi Modal Transport of goods
Act has been prepared by the Foreign Exchange Dealers Association of India
(FEDAI). This legislation is under the consideration of the Government and when
enacted, it would enable Indian MTO to issue their own Combined Transport
Document instead of working as agents of foreign MTOs. The FEDAI has also
recommended certain consequential amendments in related laws such as
Railways Act, Sale of Goods Act etc. so as to bring the national legislation in
conformity with the requirements of Multi Modal Transport. The new legislation
will also lay down the qualifications for functioning as MTO and their regulation.
In the absence of this legislation, the Indian laws as presently mostly applicable,
contemplate only segmented transport, each mode being regulated by its own
legislation and a separate document being issued by the carrier of each mode.
Container Corporation of India is however a multi-modal transport operator.

1. What do you understand by Multi Modal Transport System?
2. What has been the progress of Multi Modal legislation in India?
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17.8 LIABILITY OF TERMINAL OPERATOR
In the course of international carriage, it often happens that the liability of a
carrier comes to an end, in point of time, at the termination of transit by that
mode. The new mode of carriage would commence sometime later and there
would be thus a zone of gap where the goods are not under the control of any
carrier but are in the custody of an intermediate agency such as ports, inland
container depots, railway stations or other transport terminals. Presently there
is no international convention governing the liability of a terminal operator in
relation to the cargo. A draft convention on the liability of Operators of Transport
Terminals in International Trade has been prepared by the UN Commission
on International Trade Law (1989). Under this draft convention it is provided
that the terminal operator shall be responsible for loss resulting from loss of
or damage to the goods, as well as for delay in handling over the goods if the
occurrence which caused loss, damage or delay took place during the period of
operators responsibility. The period of responsibility is defined as starting from
the time he has taken the goods in charge until the time he has handled them
over to or placed them at the disposal of the person entitled to take delivery
of them. The limit of liability is proposed to be not exceeding 8.33 units of
account (corresponding to SDRs) per kg of gross weight of the goods lost or
damaged. If the carriage involves sea transport then a lower limit of 2.75 units
of account per kg will be applicable. In respect of delay in handling over the
goods the liability of a terminal operator is limited to an amount equivalent to
2/1/2 times the charges payable to the operator for his services in respect of the
goods. The consignments for transportation can be in any form. Sometimes the
consignments are charged according to the volume, while at their times they are
charged as per weight. Units refer to above are accordingly corresponding to
chargeable volume and weight etc.
Operator of a transport terminal is defined as:
“a person who, in the course of his business, undertakes to take in charge

goods involved in international carriage in order to perform or to procure the
performance of transport related services with respect to the goods in an area
under his control or in respect of which he has a right of access or use. However,
a person shall not be considered an operator whenever he is responsible for the
goods under applicable rules of law governing carriage.”
International carriage has been defined as follows :
“....... any carriage in which the place of departure and the place of destination
are identified as being located in two different States when the goods are taken in
charge by the operator.”
The Convention will not be applicable in those cases where the applicable rule
of law governing carriage (for Railway Act, 1989) itself regulates the liability of a
carrier after the end of transit. For instance, under the Raiwlay Act, 1989, railway
administration is responsible for loss, damage, etc. during transit and also at
187
terminals. The railways are liable as bailee up to a period 7 days from the end of
transit. The Railway Act is, thus, a comprehensive legislation which regulates the
liability of Railway both as common carriers and also as terminal operators, the
railways goods sheds and stations being directly managed by the railways.
However, in the case of maritime ISO containers where CONCOR (Container

Corporation of India Ltd.) has taken over the management and operation of
terminal facilities from the railways, CONCOR is discharging the responsibilities
of a terminal operator in relation to the cargo owner. There is as yet no domestic
law governing specifically the liability of a terminal operator in India. In the
absence of this, the normal Law of Contract will apply and certain standard terms
and conditions of responsibility as a custodian/ bailee of goods are being evolved
by CONCOR as evidence of contract viz-a- viz the cargo owner.

1. What do you understand by the term terminal operator?
2. What has been the progress of legislation in this respect?
17.9 LET US SUM UP

To sum-up this unit contains the legal strength and sanction for the railway
organisation or the Ministry of Railways, based on which the Railway Ministry
acts as part of the Central Government. The structure of the organisation is also
explained. The unit lays stress on the importance of the Railway Act for providing
i) powers and facility to the railway department in discharge of its functions

ii) the legal liability for the railway department
iii) the agencies through which the legal liability can be enforced etc..
In addition the unit explains the concept of multi-modal as distinct from segmented
transport system and the development of this movement in India so far. The
position in respect of the legal standing of this concept and responsibility of terminal
operators internationally and progress in this respect have also been explained.
188
ANNEXURE II
189
PUNISHMENT FOR VARIOUS OFFENCES UNDER THE RAILWAYS
ACT SHOWN IN JUXTA-POSITION
Indian Railways Act 1980 Railways Act 1989
Sr. No. Offence Maximum Punishment Minimum Punishment Maximum Punishment Minimum Punishment
1. Abandoning of trains etc. No minimum Two years imprisonment or fine No minimum
upto one thousand rupees or both
(Section 173)
2. without authority by Railway Imprisonment upto two years or i) For Hose-Pipe disconnection mprisonment upto two years OR - do-
servants (Section 100A) fine upto two thousand rupees Six months improsonment & Five fine upto two thousand rupees or
Obstructing running of Trains : or both hundred rupees both (Section 174)
i) by Hosepipe disconnection ii) For other causes - three
ii) by other causes (Sec. 100B) months imprisonment or fine of
one thousand rupees or both.
3. Endanging the safety of any Two years imprisonment or fine of No minimum Two years imprisonment or fine
person by a Railway servant 500/- rupees or both upto one thousand rupees or both - do-
(Section 101) (Section 175)
4. Unlawfully bringing dangerous Fine of five hundred rupees -do- Three years imprisonment or fine - do-
goods upon a railway upto one thousand rupees or both
(Section 107) (Section 164)
5. Needlessly interfering with the Three months imprisonment i) For first offence fine twenty five One year imprisonment or fine i) For the first offence fine five
means of communication (Alarm of fine of two hundred and fifty rupees one thousand rupees or both hundred rupees
Chaim Pulling) (Section 108) rupees. ii) for second or subsequent (Section 141) ii) For second & subsequent
offence - imprisonment of one offence - imprisonment of 3
month months
6. Defacing public notices Fine upto fifty rupees No minimum Imprisonment upto one month or No minimum
(Section 111) fine upto five hundred rupees or
both
7. Fraudulently travelling or i) Three months imprisonment or i) No minimum i) Six months imprisonment or Fine of five hundred rupees
attempting to travel without fine five hundred rupees. ii) Minimum ten rupees one thousand rupees or both
proper pass or ticket ii) Excess charge equivalent to ii) same as, Col. 3
(Section 112) single journey fare. iii) One default of payment -
iii) On default of payment upto upto six months imprisonment
three months imprisonment (Section 137)
8. Travelling without pass or ticket i) Excess charge equivalent to Ten rupees i) Excess charge equivalent to Fifty rupees minimum
or with in sufficient pass or ticket single journey fare No minimum single journey fare imprisonment ten days.
beyond authorised distance ii) On default of payment- ii) On default of payment
(Section 113) imprisonment upto one month. imprisonment upto one month
(Section 138)
9. Penalty for transfer of tickets For both unauthorised seller and No minimum A fine of two hundred and fifty
(Section 114) buyer of tickets - imprisonment Imprisonment upto three months rupees
upto three months or fine two of fine five hundred rupees or both
hundred and fifty rupees or both (Section 142)
10. Penalty for unauthorised carrying Three years imprisonment and No minimum Three years imprisonment or fine One month’s imprisonment or fine
on of business of procuring and fine one thousand rupees upto ten thousand rupees or both of five hundred rupees.
supply of railway tickets (Section 143)
(Section 114A)
11. Improperly travelling on a railway Imprisonment upto three months - do- Imprisonment upto 3 months OR No minimum
roof top (Section 118) OR fine upto hundred and fifty fine upto five hundred rupees Or
rupees or BOTH both (Section 156)
12. Canvasing or hawking on a i) For first offence-Fine upto two i) Minimum fifty rupees Imprisonment upto one year Or A fine of one thousand rupees
railway without any authority hundred and fifty rupees ii) No minimum fine upto two thousand rupees,
(Section 120A) ii) For second OR subsequent
offence - imprisonment upto six
months or fine upto two hundred
and fifty rupees OR BOTH
13. Trespass and refusal to desist i) For Unlawfully entering upon a i) No minimum irrespective of first or subsequent A fine of five hundred rupees
from trespass (Section 122) railway- Imprisonment upto one ii) No minimum offence Or both (This will also
month or fine upto fifty rupees or apply to begging (Section 144)
both (i) and (ii) For either unlawfully
ii) For refusal to desist from entering or refusing to leave-
trespass- imprisonment upto imprisonment upto six month or
three months or fine upto one fine upto one thousand rupees Or
hundred fifty rupees or both. both (Section 147)
14. Disobedience by Drivers of Fine upto twenty rupees. iii) No minimum No minimum Imprisonment upto one month or No minimum
vehicles of instructions of railway fine upto five hundred rupees Or
servant (Section 123) both Section 159)
15. Maliciously working or attempting Imprisonment for life or rigorous i) three years for first offence. No change (Section 150) No change
to wreck a train (Section 126) ii) seven years for second
offence
190
191
16. Malicious hurting or attempting to imprisonment upto ten years. No minimum No change (Section 152) No change
hurt persons travelling by railway
(Section 127)
17. Unauthorised opening or shutting Fine upto fifty rupees. No minimum After amendment of the No minimum
of a level crossing gate (Section section to include the offence
124) of breaking of level crossing
gate, punishment prescribed
is imprisonment upto 3 years
(Section 160)
18. Damage to or destruction Imprisonment upto ten years. No minimum Imprisonment upto five years No minimum
of certain railway Properties Or fine Or both
(Section 126 A) (Section 151)
19. Endanging safety of persons Imprisonment upto five years. i) In case of first conviction - six No change (Section 153) No minimum
traveling by railway by wilful act months
or omission (Section 128) ii) Subsequent
20. Endanging safety of persons Imprisonment upto one year or No minimum No change (Section 154) No minimum
travelling by railway by rash fine or both.
or negligent Act or omission
(Section 129)
ANNEXURE II
LIST CF OFFENCES IN RESPECT OF WHICH RAILWAY SERVANT MAY

ARREST WITHOUT WARRANT UNDER RAILWAYS ACT 1989.
Sr. No. Offence Section

1. Fraudulently travelling without proper pass or ticket. 137
2. Interfering with means of communications in a train 141
3. Unauthorised transfer of tickets. 142
Unauthorised carrying on of business of procuring and supplying
4. 143
of railway tickets.
5. Prohibition on hawking & begging 144
6. Drunkenness or nuisance on the railway. 145
7. Obstructing railway servant in his duties. 146
8. Trespass. 147
9. Maliciously wrecking or attempting to wreck a train. 150
10. Damage to or destruction of certain railway properties. 151
11. Maliciously hurting persons travelling by railway. 152
Endangering safety of persons travelling by railway by wilful act
12. 153
or omission.
Endangering safety of persons travelling by railway by rash and
13. 154
negligent act.
14. Entering into a reserved compartment. 155
15. Travelling on roof/step or engine of a train. 156
16. Altering or defacing pass or ticket. 157
17. Opening or breaking a level crossing gate. 160
18. Negligently crossing unmanned level crossing. 161
19. Entering carriage or other place reserved for femeles. 162
20. Unlawfully bringing dengerous goods on railway. 164
21. Defacing public notices. 166
Commission of offence by children of acts endangering safety of
22. 168
persons travelling on railway.
23. Intoxication 172
24. Abandoning train without authority 173
25. Obstructing running of train 174
26. Endangering the safety of persons 175
192
CYP 1 :
1. Prior to independence it was the Railway Act of 1890 which gave certain
powers to the Railway Organization and also spelt out liabilities of the
railways as a carrier of goods and passengers. There was also the
Railway Board Act 1905 which defined the role and powers of the Railway
Board. After independence the Railway Act of 1890 was replaced by the
Railway Act of 1989 with the same purpose. The Railway Board Act of
1905 stayed in vogue ever after independence.
CYP 2 :
1. At the apex level Ministry of Railways is handed by the Minister incharge
who is assisted by the Railway Board consisting of Chairman and six
members. Under the Ministry of Railways / Railway Board there are 16
Zonal Railways and 5 Production Units each headed by the General
Manager.
2. According to Article 77 Section 3 of the Constitution, President shall
make the rules for the convenient transaction of the business of the
Government of India i.e. the Central Government. In exercise of this
power President has laid down transaction of business rules which
make each Minister in-charge of the affairs allotted to that Ministry in the
allocation of the business rules. All the Ministries including Ministry of
Railways therefore, represent and form a part of the Central Government.
CYP 3 :
1. Broadly speaking the powers and facilities proved in the Railway Act 1989
for the Railway Ministry are as follows :-
a) It gives powers to the Railway Ministry to form as many Zonal
Railways as it consider required for convenient discharge of the
functions.
b) Empowers the Railway Ministry to fix rates for carriage of goods and
to fix fares for carriage of passengers.
c) It gives powers to the Railway Ministry to acquire land etc. for
extension / maintenance of railway network.
d) It provides facility to the railways that no local taxes can be
imposed on the railway organisation without the approval of Central
Government. For example no State Government can levy property
tax on the railway property on their own.
e) The Act gives powers to the Railway Ministry and Railway Staff to
impose penalties as spelt out in details in relation to the various
offences carried out by the customers, passengers and even railway
employees.
193
CYP 4 :
1. The liabilities which the Railway have to meet in keeping with the Railway
Act 1989 can be broadly categorized as follows :-
a) Railway Liabilities as carrier – Prior to 1961 the liability for Railways
in respect of loss or damage to goods carried by rail was that of a
man of ordinary prudence exercising the same level of care, as he
would exercise for his own goods. In 1961 this liability was changed
to that type of common carrier who carries goods for reward under
common tariff and accepts statutory responsibility as distinct from
contractual liability in relation to the owner of the goods. The Railway
Act 1989 retain this common carrier liability but at the same time
permits railway administration to enter into contractual rates with
customers alongwith the conditions attached to the lumpsum rates
so charged.
b) Substantive Liability – The Act provides the Railway Administration
shall be responsible for the loss, destruction, damage or
deterioration in transit, or non-delivery of consignment from any
cause for which basically the railway department is responsible and
it has not exercised reasonable foresight and care in the carriage of
goods.
c) Limitation of Monetary Liability – As a common carrier of goods
the liability of the railways like common carrier all over the world is
limited in monetary terms. This means in the event of loss or damage
etc. to the cargo, the maximum money which the carrier is to pay
is limited irrespective of the value of the cargo or the actual loss
suffered by the cargo owner. In the railways at present in keeping
with this provision in the Railway Act 1989 the maximum monetary
limit has been fixed as Rs. 100 per kg in case of baggage and Rs. 50
per kg in case of other goods. In respect of animals a fixed amount
per head has been prescribed under this provision.
d) Liability of Railways towards passengers – In the event of a train
accident the railway liability for death or injury passengers is
absolute and railway are required to pay compensation irrespective
of the fact whether there was any negligence or wrongful act on the
part of the railway administration or not. Presently amount payable
for death is Rs. 2 lakhs and in respect of inquiry the amount varies
from Rs. 16,000/- to Rs. 2 lakhs depending on nature of injury.
CYP 5 :
1. The Railway Claims Tribunal (RCT) deals with the complaints about
the claims i.e. disputes relating to their claims vis-à-vis what is being
paid by the railway department in respect of loss, damage, destruction,
deterioration or non-delivery of goods under the Railway Act relating to
refund of fare and freight. The RCT also deals with complaints regarding
194
disbursement of accident compensation relief. The Railway Rates
Tribunal (RRT) on the other hand entertains complaints in respect of
fixation of rates or a charge and is empowered not only to fix a rate as
it consider reasonable but also direct refund of any amount as being in
excess of rate for charge fixed by the tribunal.
2. No it would be sufficient if a copy of the time-table is kept in the office of
the Station Master.
3. No, the railway administration can disconnect the alarm chain if it is
satisfied that the same is being misused.
CYP 6 :
1. The convention system of transport is segmented transport where goods

are carried under a separate contract over each mode of transport i.e.
rail, seal, road or air. The multi modal transport system is were a single
operator undertakes and books the consignment for carrying it from the
origin point to destination point by all modes of transport involved in the
process. The Multi-Modal Transport Operator enters into a contract with
the cargo owner and he has his contract with other modes of transport
operators involved in the process.
2. In India format of a model legislation called Multi-Modal Transport
of Goods Act has been prepared by the Foreign Exchange Dealers
Association of India (FEDAI). This legislation is under consideration of
the Government and when enacted, it would enable Indian Multi-Modal
Transport Operators to issue their own combined transport document
instead of working as agents of foreign MTOs. Though there has been no
legislation on Multimodal Transport so far in India, Container Corporation
of India (CONCOR) is effectively acting as a Multimodal Transport
Operator within the country.
CYP 7 :
1. The term essentially applies to international movement of goods. In the

course of international carriage of goods it often happens that the liability
of a carrier comes to an end, in point of time, at the termination of transit
by that mode. The new mode of carriage commences after a time lag and
there is, thus a period when the goods are not under the control of the
carrier but are in the custody of some agencies like ports, inland container
depots, railway stations or other transport terminals. Operator of transport
terminal is one, who undertakes to take in charge of goods involved in
international carriage for the transport services in the area under his
control or in respect of which he has a right of access or use.
2. Presently there is no International Convention Governing liability for
a terminal operator in relation to the cargo. A draft convention on the
liability of terminal operator has been prepared by the UN Commission
on International Trade Law. In this draft it is provided that the terminal
operator shall be responsible for loss, resulting from loss or damage
195
to goods as well as for delay in handing over the goods, if the loss of
damage take place during the period of operators responsibility. The
period of responsibility is defined as starting from the time he has taken
the goods in charge until the time he has handed them over to or placed
them at the disposal of the person entitled to take delivery of them. The
convention will not be applicable in cases where the applicable rule of
law governing carriage (for instance Railway Act 1989) itself regulates the
liability of a carrier after the end of transit. In such cases the liability is in
terms of the Act governing the movement. The Railway Act regulates the
liability of railway both as common carrier and as also terminal operator
(within India). There has been no domestic law governing specifically
the liability of the terminal operator for international movement of ISO
containers. In respect of India Container Corporation of India (CONCOR)
is discharging the responsibilities of a terminal operator in relation to the
cargo owner.
196

IRT-22 Rail Transport & Management: Book-2 Legal & Technical Aspects of Railway Functioning

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u

Shri Purushottom Guha

Smt. Amrit K. Brar

Shri H.L. Suthar

Shri A.C. Bakshi

Printed at : Allied Traders, 455, Patparganj Industrial Estate, Delhi-92

Unit 1 : Historical Developments - I

MODULE - 2 : Rail Operations Management

MODULE - 3 : Marketing & Commercial Policy

Unit 1 : Commercial Organisation

MODULE - 4 : Logistics & Supply Chain Management

Unit 1 : Basic Concepts of Supply Chain Management

MODULE - 5 : Costing & Pricing of Rail Transport Services

Unit 1 : Theory, Traffic Costing in Indian Railway System and

MODULE - 6 : Human Resource Management in Indian Railways

Unit 1 : Management - Concepts and Evolution

MODULE - 7 : Legal & Technical Aspects of Railway Functioning

MODULE - 8 : Planning, Financial Management & Investment Policies

Unit 1 : Finances on Indian Railways

(i) List the uses of Electricity in Railways.

10.2 EVOLUTION OF ELECTRICITY IN RAILWAYS

After Independence, Railways were called upon to carry out large-scale

10.3 USE OF ELECTRICITY IN RAILWAYS

(i) In Workshops and Production Units: For running of Machines.

10.5.1 Yard Lighting

10.5.2 Lighting in Service Buildings

Check Your Progress 1 : Note:

2. State whether the following Statements are True / False:

i) Grid System enables pooling of Electricity generated by all Powerhouses to

10.7 ELECTRICITY FOR SIGNALLING

In Electrified sections, Power is tapped from Overhead (Traction) Equipment

10.8 POWER SUPPLY FOR TRACTION

10.9 STAND-BY POWER

Stand-by Power arrangements, on Railways, include the following:

(i) Power Feeders from two different Sources.

Check Your Progress 2 : Note:

(b) Write Your Answers in the space given below.

1. State whether the following Statements are True / False:

(i) In Electrified Territories, Power Supply for Signalling & Telecommunications

(ii) In Electric Traction Areas, Substation of appropriate capacities are

2. Choose the correct Answer:

(i) Stand-by Power arrangements, on Railways, include the following:

(ii) Power Feeders from two different Sources.

(iii) DG Sets of appropriate capacities.

(iv) Integrated Power Supplies (IPS), with Battery Back-ups.

(v) Solar Power Panels.

(vi) All of ‘a’ to ‘d’ above.

10.11 LET US SUM UP

Electricity is used in Railways mainly for the following purpose:

(i) In Workshops and Production Units for running of Machines.

10.12 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS : THE KEY

1. Uses of Electricity in Railways:

(i) In Workshops and Production Units - For running of Machines.

i). True. ii). True. iii). True. iv). False.

Q. 1 What are various uses of Electricity on Railways?

Provision of Train Lighting in Passenger Trains is one of the most important

(i) One DC Dynamo for each Coach.

11.3 PRESENT SYSTEMS OF TRAIN

(i) Axle Generation System working on DC 24V Supply.