INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

DEFINITION SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

o collection, organization, presentation, analysis, interpretation A. Categorical
of all kinds of data pertinent to the study being considered so 1) Nominal
that meaningful conclusion can be drawn • classifies data into distinct categories
• collecting data • identification purposes
s question • no quantitative values
s survey • example: bank account types, cable TV provider,
s interview religion, gender
s observation 2) Ordinal
s experiment • classifies data into distinct categories
• organization and presentation • ranking is implied
s simply collecting • example: faculty ranking, employee’s performance
s arranging the data B. Nominal
s presenting through table or graph 1) Interval
• analysis and interpretation • ordered scale
s analyzing, comparing • difference between measurements is meaningful
s contrasting quantity
• conclusion • measurements do not have a true zero point
s based on the study conducted • example: IQ test scores, temperature
2) Ratio
terminologies • ordered scale
1) Data • difference between measurements is meaningful
• body of information or observation considered by the quantity
researcher • measurements have a true zero point and
• example: weight, height, number of siblings multiplication and division of measurements can be
2) Population performed
• all items or individuals about which you want to draw a • example: height, weight, distance, income
conclusion
3) Parameter DIFFERENT WAYS OF GATHERING DATA
• numerical measure that describes the characteristics of 1) Questionnaire Method
population • provided by respondents; writing the responses
• example: using mean score • may be sent through email or other forms of technology
4) Sample 2) Document Method
• portion of population selected for analysis • availing information stored by individuals or institutions
5) Statistic • private or government made available to researchers
• numerical measure that describes the characteristic of a 3) Observation
sample • data is acquired or recorded through direct
observation
BRANCHES OF STATISTICS • relatively inexpensive
I. Descriptive Statistics 4) Experiment
• group of statistical measurements that aims to provide • data gathered by researcher
the basic characteristics of data set through tables and • allowed to make manipulations as required by
graphs experimentation
• measures of central tendency • time-consuming
• measures of position and variation 5) Interview
II. Inferential Statistics • one on one, oral, exchange of question
• meaningful conclusion • taxing and time-consuming
• analysis of variance, t-test, chi-square test, correlation
and regression analysis DIFFERENT WAYS OF PRESENTING DATA
• infer or make interpretations by making a concluding 1) Textual Form
statement • expressed through printed or spoken word
2) Tabular
CLASSIFICATIONS OF DATA • data arrayed in rows and columns
1) According to Nature • Frequency Distribution Table
a. qualitative or categorical data – obtained from s large number of observations, summed table, data
categories, characteristics, names, labels (example: arranged into groupings
gender, socio-economic status) s categorical frequency distribution – data placed in
b. quantitative or numerical data – obtained from variables specific categories; nominal, ordinal, level data
in the form of numbers (example: age, height, weight) • Steps for Categorical Frequency Distribution
2) According to Source § Make table
a. primary data – from first-hand information § Tally the data
b. secondary data – second-hand information; collected by § Count the tallies
another person or organization (example: information § Find the percentage of values
from journals, economic indicators) s grouped frequency distribution – grouping large
3) According to Arrangement range of data into classes that are more than one
a. ungrouped data – without specific order or arrangement, unit in worth
RAW DATA • Steps for Frequency Distribution Table
b. grouped data – arranged, presented, tabulated in an § Determine the range. (Difference between the
organized manner largest and smallest observation)
4) According to Measurement § Class Intervals or Groupings
a. discrete – obtained from counting process, data are • number should be between 5 and 15
whole numbers (example: number of cans of sardines) • Sturge’s Formula: Number of class intervals –
b. continuous – result of measurement, decimals or fractions 1 + (3.322)(logn)
(example: weight in kilograms, height in centimeters) § Class Size

BORROMEO, G.A.R
 • CS = Range/number of class intervals
§ Class Limits
• must include all observations
§ Class Boundaries
• Subtract the lower class by 0.5 and upper
class by 0.5
§ Tally
§ Frequency
§ Class Mark
• CM = (lower limit + upper limit)/2
• middle value
§ Less than cumulative frequency
• from the frequency of the lowest interval to
the highest interval
§ Greater than cumulative frequency
• from the frequency of the highest interval to
the lowest interval
§ Relative Frequency
• frequency of each class/total frequency
§ Percentage Frequency
• f/n x 100

GRAPHICAL FORM
o data are depicted in terms of graphs

1) Frequency Polygon
• line graph
• frequency of each class interval is plotted against the
corresponding class mark
• x-axis: class mark, y-axis: frequency
2) Histogram
• bars are used to depict frequency of each class
boundary
• x-axis: class boundaries, y-axis: frequency
3) Less than Ogive
• presenting the less than cumulative frequency
distribution
• x-axis: upper class boundaries, y-axis: <Cf
4) Greater than Ogive
• presenting the greater than cumulative frequency
distribution
• x-axis: lower class boundaries, y-axis: >Cf
5) Bar Graph
6) Pie Chart
7) Pictograph
8) Cartograph

BORROMEO, G.A.R