Statistics and probability

second SEMESTER
S.Y. 2020 – 2021

Module 1: Concept of Statistics and Probability, Random variables, and Probability

Distributions
Time allotted: 1 week

Quest
The learner will be able to:
• Know the meaning and importance of statistics;
• Solve problems involving permutation, combination, and probability;
• Illustrate a random variable (discrete and continuous);
• Distinguish between a discrete and continuous variable; and
• Find the possible values of a random variable.

Equip
Why study statistics?
Statistics is basic to all facets of man’s life, all fields of human endeavor, so that it has
come to be referred to as the tool of all the sciences. It is said to be one of the devices by which
men try to comprehend the generality of life. Knowledge of statistical methods and techniques,
therefore, is valuable to all of us.
Nature and Meaning of Statistics
Statistics is a field of study concerned with mathematical characterizations of an aggregate
of items. As a science it is fundamentally a branch of applied mathematics. The science of statistics
has to do with the methods used in collection, organization, presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of numerical data.
Another meaning of the word statistics is that it is the plural of statistic, a term for a certain
kind of measure used for evaluating a selected property of the collection of items under
investigation. Statistical investigation may be descriptive or inferential.
Origin of Statistics
The modern science of statistics traces its origins to two quite diverse interest of man:
political state and games of chance. With that being said, Statistics was described as the study of
“the political arrangements of the modern states of the known world” and the “Mathematics of
Probability”.
Fundamentals Principle of Counting - If one event can occur in 𝑚 ways, and another event can
occur in 𝑛 ways, then, these events can occur 𝑚𝑛 ways, provided that the two events are
independent events.
Example: The answer to the first question in a test is either true or false, while the second question
is a multiple-choice question with the possible answers marked 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, and 𝑒. How many
different possible answer sequences will there be?
𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 = 2 𝑥 5 = 10 different possible answer can be given. (You may also use a diagram to
illustrate the solution)
Permutation - refers to an arrangement of objects in a definitive order. The permutation of an 𝑛
things or objects taken 𝑟 at a time can be denoted in different ways.
For example, the objects may be wooden blocks shaped into letters 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, and 𝐷. How many
different possible groups of size 2 can we select considering that two groups with the same letters
but in different order are distinct groups?
𝑛P𝑟 or P(𝑛, 𝑟) = 4 x 3 = 12
Combination – refers to a collection of objects with no definite arrangements in mind. In other
words, it is a process of selecting 𝑟 objects from 𝑛 without regard to order.
For example, how many different committees consisting of 3 men and 2 ladies each can be formed
from a group of 6 men and 5 ladies?
𝑛C𝑟 or C(𝑛, 𝑟) = C(6,3) 𝑥 C(5,2) = 200 committees
Probability – is the ration of the number of possible outcomes in the event 𝑛(𝐸) to the number of
all outcome 𝑛(𝑆) in the sample space.
For example, a bag contains 5 red marbles, 3 yellow marbles, and 7 blue marbles. A marble is
taken at random from the bag. What is the probability of obtaining a red marble?
𝑛(𝐸) 5 1
𝑃= = =3
𝑛(𝑆) 15

Random Variable – is a variable whose possible values are determined by chance. A random
variable is typically represented by and uppercase letter, usually 𝑋, while its corresponding
lowercase letter in this case, 𝑥, is used to represent one of its values.

In this illustration, random variable is represented by the uppercase 𝑋. The lowercase 𝑥 represents
the specific values. Hence, 𝑥 = 3, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = 1, and 𝑥 = 0. The value of the variable
𝑋 can be 0, 1, 2, or 3.
The sample space for the possible outcomes is
𝑆 = {𝐻𝐻𝐻, 𝐻𝐻𝑇, 𝐻𝑇𝐻, 𝐻𝑇𝑇, 𝑇𝐻𝐻, 𝑇𝐻𝑇, 𝑇𝑇𝐻, 𝑇𝑇𝑇}

Random variables can either be discrete or continuous.

Discrete Random Variable
• Variable can only take a finite number of distinct values.
• The values are exact and can be represented by nonnegative whole numbers.
Example: Let X = number of students randomly selected to be interviewed by a researcher.
Continuous Random Variable
• Can assume an infinite number of values in an interval between two specific values.
• This means they can assume values that can be represented not only by nonnegative whole
numbers but also by fractions and decimals.
• These values are often resulting of measurement.
Example: Let X = the lengths in centimeters of randomly selected shoes of senior students.

■ Discrete Probability Distribution – A listing of all possible values of a discrete random

variable along with their corresponding possibilities.
■ The properties must be satisfied before a distribution can be considered a discrete
probability distribution:
a. The probability of each value of a discrete random variable is between 0 and 1 inclusive.
0 ≤ 𝑃 (𝑥 ) ≤ 1
b. The sum of all the probabilities is 1.

∑ 𝑃 (𝑥 ) = 1

Example:
■ The given spinner is divided into eight sections. Let X be the score where the arrow will
stop (numbered as 1, 2, 3, and 4, in the drawing below).
a. Find the probability that the arrow will stop at 1, 2, 3, and 4.
b. Construct the discrete probability distribution of the random variable X.

1 2

3 4

4 3

1 4

• The first property 0 ≤ 𝑃 (𝑥 ) ≤ 1 is met. Each of the probabilities is greater than 0

but less than 1.

∑ 𝑃(𝑥 ) = 𝑃(1) + 𝑃(2) + 𝑃(3) + 𝑃(4)

1 1 1 1
= + + +
4 8 4 8
=1
• The sum of all the probabilities is 1.
Since the two requirements for a discrete probability distribution are satisfied, therefore,
the distribution is discrete probability.
 Mean of a Discrete Random Variable
■ The mean of a discrete random variable 𝑋 is also called the expected value of 𝑋. It is the
weighted average of all the values that the random variable 𝑋 would assume in the long
run.
■ The expected value of 𝑋 is denoted by 𝐸 (𝑋).
■ The mean or expected value of a discrete random variable X is computed using the
following formula:

𝐸 (𝑋) = ∑[𝑥𝑃(𝑥 )]

𝑋 = discrete random variable

𝑥 = outcome or the value of the random variable
𝑃(𝑥) = probability of the outcome x.
Example: A security guard recorded the number of people entering the bank every hour during one
working day. The random variable X represents the number of people who entered the bank. The
probability distribution of X is shown below.

What is the expected number of people who enters the bank every hour?

So, 𝐸 (𝑋) = 3.0 Therefore, the average number of people entering the bank every hour during
that working day is three.
Variance and Standard Deviation of a Discrete Random Variable
■ The variance of a random variable X is denoted by 𝜎 2 . It can likewise be written as Var
(x).
■ The variance of a random variable is the expected value of the square of the difference
between the assumed value of random variable and the mean.
■ The variance of 𝑋 is:

𝜎 2 = ∑[(𝑥 − 𝜇 )2 𝑃(𝑥 )] 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑥 ) = ∑[(𝑥 − 𝜇 )2 𝑃 (𝑥 )]

𝑥 = outcome; 𝜇 = population mean; 𝑃(𝑥) = probability of the outcome

 ■ It is the square root of the variance. The standard deviation is computed as:

𝜎 = √∑[(𝑥 − 𝜇 )2 𝑃 (𝑥 )]

Example: Determine the variance and the standard deviation of the following probability mass
function.

Answer:

𝐸 (𝑥 ) = ∑[𝑥𝑃(𝑥] 𝜎 2 = ∑[(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 𝑃(𝑥 )]

= 2.95 = 1.8475 ≈ 1.85

𝜎 = √∑[(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 𝑃(𝑥 )]

= 1.359227 ≈ 1.36

Stack
Sample space – is the set of all possible outcomes of an experiment.
Descriptive Statistics – to summarize and describe data
Inferential Statistics – to draw inferences from the data.

Mission
Solve the following problems given:
1. A student is given five wooden blocks marked A, B, C, D, and E. He is asked to come up
with the three – letter initials of an imaginary corporation, using the blocks. In how many
ways can he do this?
2. In how many ways can 4 men be seated in a row of 6 chairs?
 3. In how many ways can a baseball team of 9 players be formed from a group of 18
players, if only 3 can be catchers, only 6 can be pitchers, and the rest can only take one of
the other positions?
4. If a number of four distinct digits is formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, find the
probability that digits 5 and 6 are used.
5. Find the expected value and determine whether the given problem is a Discrete
probability distribution or not:

6. Find the Variance and Standard Deviation of the given problem:

Checkpoint
Solve the following problems:
1. A student was asked how many two – digit numbers could be formed using the digits
1,2,3, . . ,9 where repetition of digits is allowed?
2. A man wishes to give his 12 books to his 3 children, so that the first shall receive 5, the
second 4, and the third 3. In how many ways can he give the books?
3. In how many ways can 4 boys and 4 girls be seated in a row of 7 chairs, if the girls are to
sit by side?
4. Find the probability of getting a sum of at least 6 in a single throw of 2 dice.
5. Find the expected value and determine whether the given problem is a Discrete
probability distribution or not:

6. Find the Variance and Standard Deviation of the given problem: