MACROEVOLUTION

Macroevolution is an evolution that occurs at or above the level of the species. It may

involve evolutionary changes in two interacting species or it may involve the emergence
of one or more brand new species.
 The big chances that can happen in allele frequencies among population is called
“macroevolution.”
 Macroevolution focuses on the major differences that have occurred over long
periods, which led to a genetic change that allowed a new kind of species to emerge.

Patterns of Evolution Within the Species Level

Gene flow - The movement of alleles into, or out of, a population as a result of
immigration or emigration.
Speciation - Evolutionary process that results in the formation of a new species from a
pre-existing species. It occurs when reproductive isolating mechanisms prevent two
breeding organisms from producing fertile, viable offspring.

Physical Separation and Genetic Isolation

1. Geographic Isolation - Occurs when two populations occupy different habitats or

separate niches within a common region.
2. Reproductive isolation - Reproductive isolation is when two populations of the same
species are isolated so they no longer breed with each other.
3. Temporal or Seasonal Isolation - Temporal isolation occurs when two populations
differ in their periods of activity or reproductive cycles.
4. Behavioral Isolation - Behavioural isolation occurs when two populations exhibit
different specific courtship patterns.
5. Mechanical Isolation - Form of reproductive isolation that prevents two different
species from interbreeding with one another.
6. Gametic Isolation - Egg and sperm come into contact but reproductive cells are not
compatible.

Patterns of Evolution Above the Species Level

Divergent Evolution – Occurs when closely related species divert to new habitats, often
as a result of diverging lifestyles, ultimately producing distinct species.
Convergent Evolution – Tend to evolve similar structures adaptations to a similar habitat
or way of life.

Extinction
 Extinction is the total cessation of a species or higher taxon level, reducing
biodiversity. It can be caused by a range of factors, including habitat degradation,
predation, disease or natural disaster.
 Mass extinction events are categorised by an unusually high number of species
dying out in a relatively short period.

Mass Extinction Events

1.  Ordovician–Silurian mass extinction (~450 million years ago): Approximately 60 –
70% of all species wiped out
2.  Late Devonian mass extinction (~370 million years ago): Over 75% of all species
wiped out
3.  Permian mass extinction (~250 million years ago): Roughly 96% of all species were
wiped out
4.  Triassic mass extinction (~200 million years ago): Over 50% of all species were wiped
out
5.  Cretaceous mass extinction (~65 million years ago): Approximately 80% of all species
wiped out
Pace of Evolution
- The rates of evolution could vary depending on environmental conditions.

Systematics: Tracing Our Life’s History

- Classification of organisms can be traced from their evolutionary relationships.

Tree of life by Charles Darwin

-On the origin of species
- Phylogenetic system classification
- Modern approach classification

Taxonomy
the scientific study of naming, defining and classifying groups of biological organisms
based on shared characteristics.

Cladistics
 It is an approach to biological classification in which organisms are categorized in
groups based on hypotheses of most recent common ancestry.
 Acentral Characteristics
 Derived Characteristics

Cladogram
It is a diagram used in cladistics to show relations among organisms.

Hierarchy of taxonomic classification

Theophrastus
-Greek philosopher who is the father of “Plant Taxonomy”

-Classification of plants was based on:

1. Mode of generation
2. Size
3. Usefulness and Locality

Domain – Eukarya
Kingdom – Animalia
Phylum – Cordata
Class – Mammalia
Order – Primates
Family – Hominidae
Genus – Homo
Species – Homo sapiens

Kingdom is the highest level of classification, which is divided into subgroups at various
levels. There are 5 kingdoms in which the living organisms are classified, namely,
Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, and Monera.

Phylum is the next level of classification and is more specific than the kingdom. There are
35 phyla in kingdom Animalia. For Example – Porifera, Chordata, Arthropoda, etc

Class was the most general rank in the taxonomic hierarchy until phyla were not
introduced. Kingdom Animalia includes 108 classes including class mammalia, reptilia,
aves, etc. However, the classes used today are different from those proposed by
Linnaeus and are not used frequently.

Order is a more specific rank than class. The order constitutes one or more than one
similar families. There are around 26 orders in class mammalia such as primates,
carnivora, etc.

Organism are classified into eight levels. “The more classification levels two organisms
share, the more characteristics they share as well”. Taxon ( taxa -plural) is a category
into which related organisms are placed.

- There is a hierarchy of groups (taxa) from broadest to most specific (Domain, Kingdom,
Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, species )

Domain is the highest level of organization

-There are several kingdoms within the Domain Eubacteria and Archaea.
1. Plantae
2. Animalia
3. Fungi
4. Protista

Linnaean Classification System

 The science of classifying organisms is called taxonomy.
 Developed by Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus in the 1700s

The Linnaean system of classification consists of a hierarchy of groupings,

called taxa(singular, taxon).
 Taxa range from the kingdom to the species
 The kingdom is the largest and most inclusive grouping.

Classification is an important step in understanding life on Earth.

All modern classification systems have their roots in the Linnaean classification system.

The Linnaean system is based on similarities in obvious physical traits. It consists of a

hierarchy of taxa, from the kingdom to the species.
- Each species is given a unique two-word Latin name.
The recently added domain is a larger and more inclusive taxon than the kingdom

The kingdom is the largest and most inclusive grouping. It consists of organisms that
share just a few basic similarities. Examples are the plant and animal kingdoms

The species is the smallest and most exclusive grouping. It consists of organisms that
are similar enough to produce fertile offspring together. Closely related species are
grouped together in a genus.

“Taxonomic hierarchy is the process of arranging various organisms into successive

levels of the biological classification either in a decreasing or an increasing order
- from kingdom to species and vice versa.” In this system of classification, kingdom is
always ranked the highest.

FUNGI

Fungus (fungi – plural)

is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such
as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. 
4 Divisions
1. Chytridiomycota 
2. Zygomycota 
3. Ascomycota 
4. Basidiomycota 

Characteristics of Fungi
1. Fungi are eukaryotic organisms means they have true nucleus which are enclosed in
membranes.
2. They are non-vascular organisms.
3. Fungi have cell walls 
4. There is no embryonic stage for fungi.
5. They reproduce by means of spores.

Importance Of Fungi
Together with bacteria, fungi are responsible for breaking down organic matter and
releasing carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus into the soil and the
atmosphere. Fungi are essential to many household and industrial processes, notably the
making of bread, wine, beer, and certain cheeses.

Plants and Animals Comparison / Contrast (Processes)

Reproduction Process

Plants
- Reproduction of plants takes place asexually like by budding, vegetative methods,
spores, wind, or through insects.

Animals
- Some lower animals like algae reproduce asexually while higher animals reproduce
sexually.

Development Process

Dedifferentiation
- the transformation of cells from a given differentiated state to a less differentiated or
stem cell-like state.
Callus
- In botany, soft tissue that forms over a wounded or cut plant surface, leading to healing.
Nutrition Process

Plants
- Autotrophic nutrition is a process in which the organism produces their food from the
simple inorganic materials such as water, carbon dioxide and mineral salts in the
presence of sunlight. All the green plants have an autotrophic mode of nutrition.

Animals
- Heterotrophic nutrition is a type of nutrition in which organisms depend upon other
organisms for food to survive.

Plants
- plants use carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. Stomata and Guard Cells.
The gases move into and out of the plants through specialized openings located along
the lower surface of the leaf.

Animals
- in animals, gas exchange follows the same general pattern as in plants. Oxygen and
carbon dioxide move by diffusion across moist membranes. In simple animals,
the exchange occurs directly with the environment. But with complex animals, such as
mammals, the exchange occurs between the environment and the blood.

Transport/Circulation Process

Plants
- This is done by the vascular tissue called the phloem. Thus, xylem and
phloem transport substances in plants. In most animals the blood that circulates in the
body distributes food and oxygen to different cells of the body.

Animals
- In an open circulatory system, blood vessels transport all fluids into a cavity. When
the animal moves, the blood inside the cavity moves freely around the body in all
directions. The blood bathes the organs directly, thus supplying oxygen and removing
waste from the organs.

Regulation of Body Fluids Process

Plants
- Stomatal pores in plants regulate the amount of water and solutes within them by
opening and closing their guard cells using osmotic pressure. In order for plants
to produce energy and maintain cellular function, their cells undergo the highly intricate
process of photosynthesis. Critical in this process is the stoma

Animals
- Kidneys play a very large role in animals’ osmoregulation by regulating the amount of
water reabsorbed from glomerular filtrate in kidney tubules, which is controlled by
hormones such as antidiuretic hormone (ADH), aldosterone, and angiotensin II.

Chemical/Nervous Control

Animals
- The nervous system is the part of an animal's body that coordinates its behavior and
transmits signals between different body areas. In vertebrates it consists of two main
parts, called the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous
system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord.

Plants
- Control and coordination in plants are maintained by some chemical substances called
phytohormones or plant hormones. Auxin is one of the phytohormones which
help plants to grow.

Immune System

Plants
- Many plant-associated microbes are pathogens that impair plant growth and
reproduction. Plants respond to infection using a two-branched innate immune system.
The first branch recognizes and responds to molecules common to many classes of
microbes, including non-pathogens.

Animals
- Animals with backbones, called vertebrates, have these types of general protective
mechanisms, but they also have a more advanced protective system called the immune
system. It protects vertebrates against pathogens, or infectious agents, such as viruses,
bacteria, fungi, and other parasites.
Sensory and Motor Mechanism Process

Plants
- In plants, every cell is able to defend itself, unlike animals which have a separate
immune system, so reactions like thickening of the waxy surface, thickening of cell walls,
the self-destruction of the cells surrounding an infected one to quarantine the area are
normal reactions when there is a threat.

Animals
- This one is much simpler since we humans operate in the same way. We have our
sight, smell, hearing, sense of taste, and touch. Everything is processed in the brain for
the necessary reaction takes place. So all complex animals just like us, have a central
nervous system.