Modernist architecture

Introduction

Modernist architecture, or modernism, is a style that emerged in the early-20th century in response to

large-scale changes in both technology and society. It is associated with the function of buildings,
approached from an analytical viewpoint, a rational use of materials, the elimination of ornament
and decoration, and openness to structural innovation.

Modernism developed across all artistic fields, not just architecture, as a means of accommodating and

responding to the new technologies of machines, automation and urban design. The industrial revolution
played a major role in the development of architecture that was driven by functional
priority. Materials such as concrete, glass and steel were industrially manufactured prevailed in this era.

Architects adopted ideologies bringing out the truth of the structure rather than covering them up with
ornamented façades.

Modernism encompasses many different variations, including Futurism, Constructivism, brutalism, De

Stijl, and Bauhaus.

History

There are many early sources for modernism’s ideology. The English artist and writer William Morris,
helped inspire the Arts and Crafts movement, by advocating that utility was as important as aesthetics,
and that well-made handcrafted products were preferable to production line, machine-made ones.

Another early source was the American architect Louis Sullivan, most famous for the phrase ‘Form
follows function’. In principle, this meant that buildings should be designed so that the
essential structure dictated the form, i.e. from the inside outwards.

The Viennese architect Adolf Loos believed that the decoration of functional objects was inefficient and

wasteful. His manifesto, ‘Ornament and Crime’ became a key modernist text, in which he argued that
avoiding ornament was ‘a sign of spiritual strength’.

Two European architects emerged who, above all others, would be most widely associated with the
new modernist style. One of these was Walter Gropius, the leader of the Bauhaus in Germany. Gropius
taught architects to reject historical orthodoxies and adopt the innovative new ideologies
of modern industry.
 The other was Le Corbusier, who took inspiration for his buildings and urban
designs from modern engineering developments such as passenger jets, cruise liners, automobiles, grain
silos, and so on. In his most famous book, ‘Towards a New Architecture’, he argued that ‘a house is a
machine for living in’.

The United States attracted many progressive modernists away from Europe during the 1930s,

and Modernism became synonymous with the rise of America as the world’s new super-power,
with highways, skyscrapers and vast urban landscapes.

Modernist architecture continued in various guises around the world, eventually being replaced as the
dominant style by Postmodernism in the 1970s and 80s.

Principles and characteristics

One of the overarching principles of modernism was that ‘form follows function’, meaning
that design should derive directly from purpose. Another was that building form should have a simplicity
and clarity, with the elimination of unnecessary detail.

There was also the concept of ‘Truth to materials’, which held that rather than concealing or altering the
natural appearance of a material, it ought to be visible and celebrated.

Some of the main characteristics of modernist buildings are as follows:

 Components positioned at 90-degrees to each other and an emphasis on horizontal and vertical

lines.
 The use of reinforced concrete and steel.
 Visual expression of the structure rather than hiding structural elements.
 Following the ‘machine aesthetic’ in the use of materials produced by industrial processes.
 Rectangular, cylindrical and cubic shapes
 Asymmetrical compositions.
 A lack of ornament or mouldings.
 Large windows set in horizontal bands.
 Open plan floors.
 White or cream facades.

International variations

Modernist architecture evolved in different forms in different countries.

American Modernism

Frank Lloyd Wright developed an approach to the design of houses pre-World War I, known as the

‘Prairie Style’, which lay the groundwork for the influx of European modernism during the 1920s and 30s,
most notably in Art Deco. The ‘International Style’, as it was referred to, flourished in the US post-World
War II, and was identified most famously by the design of high-rise corporate office buildings by the likes
of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (see the Seagram Building above).

The Chicago School of Architecture was established in the wake of this architectural migration by the likes

of Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius, as they educated young architects in much the same way as in
the Bauhaus.

Modernism developed further in the 1960s, as architects such as Louis Kahn and Eero Saarinen began to
react against the International Style, disenchanted by the sterile aestheticism of much post-war urban
design. Kahn introduced principles from the Beaux Arts style, while Robert Venturi encouraged the study
of the vernacular and commercial landscapes. Gradually, these developments gave rise
to Postmodernism as the most dominant style in the United States by the early-1980s, with many
countries around the world following their lead.
British Modernism

In Britain, classicism remained a strong influence well into the early-20th century, with an emphasis on
Tudor revivalism and the Arts and Crafts movement. Modern materials such
as steel and concrete were adopted by architects, but more-often-than-not they would be hidden
by traditional Portland stone.

In the 1920s, Art Deco began to emerge across Britain, most commonly in the design of the new cinemas
that were increasingly popular. Peter Behrens’ New Ways in Northampton was one of the
first modernist buildings in 1925, but this and others like it were seen as ‘exercises in modernity’ rather
than being a genuine template for a new kind of urban design.

With the arrival of several leading European architects in the inter-war period, Britain began to develop
more modernist architecture, such as the De La Warr Pavilion in Bexhill, and Highpoint I – among the
best in the world.

By the mid-1950s, modernism had evolved, inspired by the work of Le Corbusier, into what was termed
the New Brutalism, with its emphasis on rigid lines and harsh concrete forms. A landmark building of the
time was Denys Lasdun’s Royal National Theatre on London’s Southbank, while Brutalism became the
style-of-choice for the functional urban design of shopping centres, social housing, office buildings, multi-
storey car parks, and so on. The leading proponents were the Smithsons and James Stirling.

New town developments, such as Milton Keynes in 1967, began to adopt the most neo-
vernacular Postmodernist styles, inspired by those taking shape in America.

Dutch Modernism

Dutch architects played a leading role in the development of modernist architecture. The

rationalist architecture of Berlage in the early-20th century, gave way to several groups that
embraced modernism, with leading figures such as Michel de Klerk and Nieuwe Boouwen.

De Stijl (The Style) developed at this time and was characterised by its use of strong geometric lines, bold
primary colours, and the articulation of distinct functional elements. Whilst relatively little architecture was
actually produced, the influence of buildings such as the Rietveld Schröder House (1924) can be seen in
the work of architects such as Mies van der Rohe.
Germanic Modernism

The Deutscher Werkbund (German Work Federation) was an association of architects, designers and

industrialists founded in Munich in 1907. It attempted to integrate traditional crafts with the techniques of
mass production to produce high quality machine-made objects. This is thought to represent the
beginning of industrial design.

Modernism in Germany was synonymous with the Bauhaus, founded by Walter Gropius in 1919. This
became the most influential art and architecture school in the world. It was shut down with the rise
to power of the Nazis, and a mass migration of its members around the world, particularly to the United
States.

In the post-war reconstruction period, significant landmarks were restored and reconstructed, often in a
simplified manner. A more functional, modernist style was adopted in cities, rather than reconstructed
according to historical appearances.

Italian Modernism

In the early-20th century, Italian architects were searching for a unique modernist language and identity,

constrained by the fascist government of the time. The Futurist style emerged, using long horizontal lines
and streamlined forms that inspired visions of speed, dynamism and urgency.

Nordic Modernism

Nordic modernism emerged gradually from the ideas of Nordic Classicism, culminating in the Stockholm
Exhibition of 1930, where a more purist modernism was proposed as a design for modern societies.
For the Nordic countries, the influence of modernism went beyond aesthetics, into
the regulation of buildings and town planning, as well as social movements that resulted in the welfare
state and public building programmes for new hospitals and schools.

The dominant architectural style was Functionalism, based on the principle that a building’s design should

be based solely on its purpose.

Danish Functionalists focused on functionality at the expense of aesthetics, producing buildings with

straight angles, flat roofs and Brutalist-inspired minimalist and concrete forms.

Brazilian Modernism

In the late-1930s, Brazil became closely identified with modernist architecture by the high profiles of
two architects, Lucio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer.

Modernist architecture became synonymous with the construction of the new capital, Brasilia, between

1956 and 1961. Niemeyer’s government buildings became iconic modernist structures (see the top
image). However, such works came to a halt after the military coup in 1964, with
many modernist architects, including Niemeyer, migrating to Europe and America.

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Modern Architecture

Modern Architecture

Modern architecture is a term applied to an overarching movement, with various

definitions and scopes.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Describe the characteristics of modern architecture

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 In a broad sense, early modern architecture began at the turn of the 20th century with
efforts to reconcile the principles underlying architectural design with rapid technological
advancement and the modernization of society.
 Modernism eventually generated reactions, most notably postmodernism which sought
to preserve pre-modern elements, while neomodernism emerged as a reaction to
postmodernism.
 Some believe modern architecture developed as a result of social and political
revolutions. Others see modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and
engineering developments.

Key Terms

 ornament: An element of decoration.

 eclecticism: Any form of art that borrows from multiple other styles.
 modernism: Any of several styles of art, architecture, literature, philosophy, etc., that
flourished in the 20th century; characterized by formal purity, medium specificity, art for
art’s sake, experimentation, abstraction, a rejection of realism, and a revolutionary or
reactionary tendency.
Modern architecture is a term applied to an overarching movement, with various
definitions and scopes. In a broad sense, early modern architecture began at the turn of
the 20th century with efforts to reconcile the principles underlying architectural design
with rapid technological advancement and the modernization of society. It would take
the form of numerous movements, schools of design, and architectural styles, some in
tension with one another, and often equally defying such classification.
Chicago Modernism: Contrasts in modern architecture, as shown by adjacent high-rises in Chicago, Illinois.
IBM Plaza (right), by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, is a later example of the clean rectilinear lines and glass of
the international style, whereas Marina City (left), by his student Bertrand Goldberg, reflects a more sculptural
mid-century modern aesthetic.
The concept of modernism would be a central theme in these efforts. Gaining popularity
after World War II, architectural modernism was adopted by many influential architects
and architectural educators and continues as a dominant architectural style for
institutional and corporate buildings into the 21 st century. Modernism eventually
generated reactions, most notably postmodernism which sought to preserve premodern
elements, while neomodernism emerged as a reaction to postmodernism.

Notable architects important to the history and development of the modernist movement
include Frank Lloyd Wright, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier,
Oscar Niemeyer, and Alvar Aalto.

Early Modernism

The Crystal Palace, 1851, was one of the first buildings to have vast amounts of glass
supported by structural metal, foreshadowing trends in modernist architecture.

There are multiple lenses through which the evolution of modern architecture may be
viewed. Some historians see it as a social matter, closely tied to the project of modernity
and thus the Enlightenment. Modern architecture developed, in their opinion, as a result
of social and political revolutions. Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by
technological and engineering developments. Still other historians regard Modernism as
a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of
Victorian and Edwardian architecture.

Frank Gehry

Frank Owen Gehry (born Frank Owen Goldberg; 28 February 1929) is a Canadian-born
American architect residing in Los Angeles. Gehry’s best-known works are world-
renowned and include the titanium-clad Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain; Walt
Disney Concert Hall in downtown Los Angeles; Louis Vuitton Foundation in Paris,
France; MIT Ray and Maria Stata Center in Cambridge, Massachusetts; The Vontz
Center for Molecular Studies on the University of Cincinnati campus; Experience Music
Project in Seattle; New World Center in Miami Beach; Weisman Art Museum in
Minneapolis; Dancing House in Prague; the Vitra Design Museum and the museum
MARTa Herford in Germany; the Art Gallery of Ontario in Toronto; the Cinémathèque
française in Paris; and 8 Spruce Street in New York City.
Frank Gehry, Bilbao Guggenheim, 1997: The Bilbao Guggenheim exemplifies Gehry’s interest in structural
experimentation and grand spaces.

Much of Gehry’s work reflects a spirit of experimentation coupled with a respect for the
demands of professional practice. With his earliest educational influences rooted in
modernism, Gehry’s work has sought to escape modernist stylistic tropes while still
remaining interested in some of its underlying transformative agendas. Continually
working between given circumstances and unanticipated materializations, Gehry’s style
works to disrupt expectations.

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (March 27, 1886 – August 17, 1969) was a German-
American architect. Along with Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, and Frank Lloyd Wright,
he is widely regarded as one of the pioneers of modern architecture.

Mies, like many of his post-World War I contemporaries, sought to establish a new
architectural style that could represent modern times just as classical and gothic did for
their eras. He created an influential 20th-century architectural style with extreme clarity
and simplicity. His mature buildings made use of modern materials such as industrial
steel and plate glass to define interior spaces. He strove toward architecture with a
minimal framework of structural order balanced against the implied freedom of
unobstructed free-flowing open space. He called his buildings “skin and bones”
architecture. He sought an objective approach that would guide the creative process of
architectural design, but he was always concerned with expressing the spirit of the
modern era. He is often associated with his quotation of the aphorisms “less is more”
and “God is in the details”.
Frank Lloyd Wright

Frank Lloyd Wright (born Frank Lincoln Wright, June 8, 1867 – April 9, 1959) was an
American architect, interior designer, writer, and educator, who designed more than
1,000 structures, 532 of which were completed. Wright believed in designing structures
that were in harmony with humanity and its environment, a philosophy he called organic
architecture. This philosophy was best exemplified by Fallingwater (1935), which has
been called “the best all-time work of American architecture”. Wright was a leader of the
Prairie School movement of architecture and developed the concept of the Usonian
home, his unique vision for urban planning in the United States. His creative period
spanned more than 70 years.
Frank Lloyd Wright, Fallingwater, 1936-39: Fallingwater stands as one of Wright’s greatest masterpieces,
both for its dynamism and for its integration with the striking natural surroundings. It serves as a perfect
example of his “organic” philosophy, whereby structures were designed in harmony with humanity and its
environment.

Wright’s work includes original and innovative examples of many building types,
including offices, churches, schools, skyscrapers, hotels, and museums. Wright also
designed many of the interior elements of his buildings, such as the furniture and
stained glass. Wright wrote 20 books and many articles and was a popular lecturer in
the United States and in Europe. His colorful personal life often made headlines, most
notably for the 1914 fire and murders at his Taliesin studio. Already well known during
his lifetime, Wright was recognized in 1991 by the American Institute of Architects as
“the greatest American architect of all time”.

In the United States

Wright’s Larkin Building (1904) in Buffalo, New York, Unity Temple (1905) in Oak Park,
Illinois, and the Robie House (1910) in Chicago, Illinois were some of the first examples
of modern architecture in the United States. Frank Lloyd Wright was a major influence
on European architects, including both Walter Gropius (founder of the Bauhaus) and
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, as well as on the whole of organic architecture.
 What Is Modern Architecture?
Written by 

Lauren Thomann

 Scott Van Dyke / Getty Images

The dawn of modern architecture came at a time when hand-

labored craftsmanship was being replaced with machine-made
industrialization. Modern architects worked to reinvent ways of
building that focused more on how humans lived versus what they
found beautiful. This architecture is not sentimental, like revivalist
styles. Instead, it is innovative, experimental, and minimal. 

What Is Modern Architecture?

Modern architecture is a style of building that emphasizes function

and a streamlined form over ornamentation. This design aesthetic is
a departure from more elaborate and decorated homes like a Queen
Anne, Victorian, or Gothic Revival styles. Modern architecture
usually involves sharp, clean lines.

There are several styles of modern architecture in the United States

alone. From 1930 through 1970, there are categories
like Expressionist, Constructivist, and Mid-Century Modern, to name
a few. 

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History

The modern movement was not short-lived, and it encompasses

several sub-styles that span nearly 60 years. In this way, it can be
difficult to pinpoint an exact starting point. To some, the style
 includes more transitional architecture like the Art Deco and Arts
and Crafts movements. To others, those earlier styles served as
inspiration for more "pure," mid-century modern architects.

The birth of modern design came with the thought that form should
follow function. This idea started with architect Louis Sullivan who
designed buildings for the 1893 Chicago World Fair. That mantra
became the foundation for modern architects.

Other popular pioneers of modern architecture include Frank Lloyd

Wright, Staatliches Bauhaus, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, and Le
Corbusier. 

The modern design aesthetic was in full swing in the 1930s and
became known as International Modernism or International Style.
This design aesthetic came after an architecture exhibit by Philip
Johnson in 1932.

In general, the most well-known examples of modern architecture

end around the mid 20th century, but the design style still
influences buildings well into the late 20th century. 

Characteristics

Since there are so many styles of modern architecture, there are

several defining characteristics. These are some of the more
common, broad key features that can be seen across many different
forms. 

 Clean, minimal lines. These lines lack additional

ornamentation and are generally consistent, smooth texture. 
 Broad roof overhangs. Several modern homes emphasize
low, horizontal structures with large roof overhangs.
 Walls of glass and large windows. You will find a very
generous use of glass, which allows a significant amount of natural
light into the interior. 
  Open and well-defined floorplans. Since modern
architecture focuses on form over function, architects sought to
include large, spacious floorplans with dining and living spaces that
flowed into one another. 
 Modern and traditional building materials. Some common
materials in modern homes include steel, concrete block, iron, and
glass. More conventional building materials like wood, brick, and
stone were used in more straightforward ways to show off their
natural beauty. 
 A relationship to the outside environment. A lot of
thought when into building sites and how buildings would relate to
the natural landscape surrounding it. 
 Asymmetrical designs. Modern architects played around
with large, smooth shapes and asymmetrical compositions that were
cleanly planed and lacked any additional decoration.

Interesting Facts

The most common theme is the elimination of ornaments. 

Earlier styles of modern architecture still had some use of

ornamentation. For instance, Frank Lloyd Wright would incorporate
art glass windows so that no additional artwork was needed. Beyond
that, modern architecture is mostly analytical and not showy. 

Modern architecture is different than contemporary architecture. 

To some people, modern and contemporary architecture are the

same thing. However, modern architecture was inspired by an art
movement known as modernism and lasted until around 1960.
Contemporary architecture incorporates architecture past the 1960s
and leading up to today. In short, contemporary architecture is
reflective of styles in this current moment, which happen to be very
diverse. 

Eventually, modern homes seemed too cold for everyday living. 

Modern homes were revolutionary in that they embraced the

concept of free-flowing space. The ideology also rejected clutter and
excess belongings. However, as the design period went on, many
architects challenged this strict notion of space and lack of stuff as
cold and impersonal. This evolution brought on more contemporary
designs that worked to incorporate ornamentation and color. In
contemporary homes, you can have an open concept floor plan but
also have an element of privacy. 

In summary, modern architecture began in the early 1900s and

ended around the 1960s when more contemporary designs took
over. The basic principles of modern architecture include form
following function, clean lines, and a lack of ornamentation.
Eventually, modern principles became too cold for everyday living
due to an excess of space and the stark nature of the building
materials.

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MODERN HOME     HISTORY     GUIDELINES     EDUCATION     MODERN
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WHAT IS MODERN ARCHITECTURE?

Modernism in architecture is characterized by its emphasis on form over ornament;
appreciation of materials and structure instead of idyllic revival constructions; and the
adroit, methodical use of space.

Several different styles of modern architecture in the United States developed between 1930 and
1970 such as the International, Expressionist, Brutalist, New Formalist, and Googie movements.
The roots of modern architecture can be traced to the 1893 Chicago World’s Fair, which was
composed entirely of cutting-edge buildings and cemented the United States’ role as a world
leader in art, architecture, and technology. The head architect was Daniel Burnham, who
recruited the most prominent American architects, including Louis Sullivan’s firm Adler and
Sullivan, to design the temporary buildings for the Fair. Louis Sullivan is most well-known for
his aesthetic philosophy “form follows function,” which became the rallying cry for the modern
movement. Sullivan’s rejection of ornamentation and clarity of structural function embodied the
value of democracy, the importance of nature, the autonomy of the individual, and the earnest
expression of function without extravagance. One of the many young architects inspired by the
1893 Chicago World’s Fair was Frank Lloyd Wright, the leading force in shaping modern
American architecture in the 20th century. At the Fair, Wright encountered Japanese architecture
in its traditional form at the Japanese government’s official pavilion. The building featured a
half-scale reproduction of a Japanese temple. The open plan, horizontality, broad roofs, carefully
wrought craftsmanship, and non-structural walls used in the temple would inform Wright’s
design aesthetic for the rest of his career.
AMERICAN MODERNISM: FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT. THE KAUFMANN HOUSE
KNOWN AS FALLINGWATER, MILL RUN, PA, 1939. PHOTO BY WALTER BIBIKOW.
GETTY IMAGES.

EUROPEAN MODERNISM: WALTER GROPIUS. EXTERIOR OF THE BAUHAUS,

DESSAU, SAXONY-ANHALT, GERMANY, 1925-1926. PHOTO BY GILI MERIN. ARCH
DAILY.

Young European architects were enraptured by Wright’s bold abstract forms stripped of
ornament. In addition to the bevy of young American architects influenced by Wright and
practicing in the Prairie Style, European Modernists Walter Gropius and Mies van der Rohe, who
would become major fixtures of the Bauhaus, began to incorporate some of Wright’s more
abstract forms into their own work. Staatliches Bauhaus, known simply as the Bauhaus, was the
epicenter of the modern movement in Europe. The Bauhaus was a German school of
architecture, sculpture, painting, design, and craft, led by Walter Gropius, in operation from 1919
to 1933 that brought the modern movement to international prominence. Bauhaus leaders Walter
Gropius, Marcel Breuer, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe left Germany in the late 1930s to escape
growing Nazi aggression against its European neighbors. Gropius and Breuer began teaching at
the Harvard University School of Design, where Gropius was chair, and Mies van der Rohe
became a professor at Chicago’s Armour Institute, now the Illinois Institute of Technology. Prior
to the arrival of other European modernists dispersed by escalating tensions in Nazi Germany,
Rudolph Schindler and Richard Neutra came to the United States and began working with Frank
Lloyd Wright. Schindler and Neutra became well known on the West Coast for their expert blend
of European rationalism with Wrightian organicism. These expats greatly influenced generations
of American architects, popularizing the European modernist aesthetic throughout the United
States. Architects such as Philip Johnson, Paul Rudolph, IM Pei, Edward Durell Stone, were
educated with modernist ideals which evolved into regional iterations of modern architecture.
Architecture firms such as the New York-based Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, created iconic
modern office buildings and high rises all over the country.
INTERNATIONAL STYLE: GORDON BUNSHAFT, SKIDMORE, OWINGS & MERRILL,
LEVER HOUSE, MANHATTAN, NEW YORK, 1952. PHOTO BY EZRA STOLLER. ©
ESTO.

EXPRESSIONIST: JØRN UTZON, SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE, SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA,

DESIGNED 1957, COMPLETED 1973. PHOTO BY HEMIS. ALAMY.
BRUTALIST: MARCEL BREUER, WHITNEY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ART,
MANHATTAN, NEW YORK, 1966. ART FORUM.

NEW FORMALIST: EDWARD DURRELL STONE, UNITED STATES EMBASSY, NEW

DELHI, INDIA, 1959-1960. EDWARD DURRELL STONE ARCHIVES.
 GOOGIE: EERO SAARINEN, TWA FLIGHT CENTER, QUEENS, NEW YORK, 1962.
ACROTERION.

HOW DO I SPOT A MODERN

BUILDING?
It’s easy! First, look for the big 3 modern characteristics:

 Clean lines lacking ornament

 Emphasis on low, horizontal massing with horizontal planes and broad roof overhangs
 Generous use of glass to allow natural light into open, flowing floorplans

Got it? Here are a few more common features of modern architecture:

 Emphasis on well-defined, rectangular forms

 Use of modern materials and systems like steel columns, exposed concrete block, stained
concrete floors, column-free spaces, and radiant heating systems
 Innovative use of traditional materials like wood, brick, and stone in simplified ways that
showcase their natural features and are installed in large smooth planes
 A thoughtful relationship between the site and the building where interior space is planned to best
compliment the surrounding natural environment
IS THERE MODERN ARCHITECTURE
IN LOUISIANA?
YES! While Louisiana is well-known for its French, Spanish, and Acadian architecture,
Louisiana is also home to many beautiful modern buildings.

Modernism first began to take hold in Shreveport, Louisiana with the construction of 3 Samuel
Wiener International Style homes in the early 1930s. By the 1950s, Shreveport was home to
dozens more Wiener buildings, a Richard Neutra home, and Edward F. Neild skyscrapers.
Modernism began to become popular in New Orleans in the 1950s. The greatest practitioners of
modernism in New Orleans were Curtis & Davis, who designed the Superdome, and Albert
Ledner, who designed many houses in the area. New Orleans was a little slow to catch on to
modernism, but its popularity soared as architects developed conscientious methods to blend
modern architecture with historic streetscapes. Scale, local materials, and the natural
environment were important factors in the design of modern buildings in New Orleans. Over in
Baton Rouge, architect John Desmond designed buildings like the Student Union at Louisiana
State University and in his hometown of Hammond he designed dozens of homes, churches,
schools, and other civic buildings. Desmond incorporated local historic design elements into his
New Formalist modern designs in Hammond. Louisiana modern architecture is distinct because
of its keen relationship to the Louisiana historic built environment and natural surroundings.
SHREVEPORT: SAMUEL WIENER. THE SAMUEL WIENER HOUSE, SHREVEPORT,
LA, 1937. LOUISIANA NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES DATABASE.

NEW ORLEANS: CURTIS & DAVIS. LOUISIANA SUPERDOME, NEW ORLEANS, LA,

1967-1975. PHOTO BY FRANCK – BERTACCI CIRCA 1975. THE HISTORIC NEW
ORLEANS COLLECTION. 

NEW ORLEANS: ALBERT LEDNER. THE SUNKEL HOUSE KNOWN AS THE

ASHTRAY HOUSE, NEW ORLEANS, LA, 1961. CURBED.   
HAMMOND: JOHN DESMOND. ST. ALBERT CATHOLIC STUDENT CENTER AT
SOUTHEASTERN LOUISIANA UNIVERSITY, HAMMOND, LA, 1962. PHOTO BY ANNA
MARCUM.

WHAT IS SPECIAL ABOUT

HAMMOND MODERNISM?
Beginning in the late 1950s, John Desmond designed over 100 modern buildings in his
hometown of Hammond, Louisiana.

John Desmond (1922-2008) was born in Denver, Colorado and raised in Hammond, Louisiana.
Desmond graduated from Hammond High School in 1937 and Tulane University with a degree
in architecture in 1941. He earned a Master of Architecture from the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology where he studied under W.W. Wurster and Alvar Aalto. Desmond worked at
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill in New York City and with A. Hays Town in Baton Rouge before
starting his own practice in Hammond, Louisiana in 1953. In the early 1970s, John Desmond
closed the Hammond practice and began operating John Desmond & Associates exclusively out
of Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Desmond retired from architectural practice in 2002. John Desmond
was awarded numerous professional honors throughout his career, most significantly the
American Institute of Architects Fellowship for Significant Contribution to Design and the
Louisiana American Institute of Architects Gold Award Lifetime Achievement Award.
JOHN DESMOND RECEIVING AN AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS AWARD
FOR HIS DESIGN OF THE NEW STATE LIBRARY BUILDING IN BATON ROUGE, LA.
PHOTO CIRCA 1958. LOUISIANA HISTORICAL PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE STATE
LIBRARY.
JOHN DESMOND. THE DESMOND RESIDENCE, HAMMOND, LA, CIRCA 1960S.
PHOTO BY FRANK LOTZ MILLER. JOHN DESMOND PAPERS, MSS. 4792, LOUISIANA
AND LOWER MISSISSIPPI VALLEY COLLECTIONS, LSU LIBRARIES, BATON ROUGE,
LOUISIANA.

John Desmond’s modern buildings in Hammond differ from the pure modernism of the
International Style in that they incorporate the decorative elements and design concepts with
historical precedent. Architectural historians refer to this style of modernism as New Formalism
since many architects incorporate the rational, streamlined principles of classical architecture.
John Desmond adapted New Formalism to southern Louisiana by incorporating features and
materials popular in regional architecture. Desmond’s early career Hammond buildings can be
described as Acadian Modernism – New Formalist structures that conspicuously incorporate
Acadian architectural features and materials such as pitched roofs, galleries, pavilions, large
overhangs, timber framing with brick, and wooden columns. John Desmond expertly fuses
Acadian design elements with the clean lines and broad forms of modernism in his residential
and commercial architecture.
Desmond’s Acadian Modernism developed as he practiced in Hammond. One of Desmond’s first
public commissions in Hammond, Miller Memorial Library, perfectly aligns with the
International Style of architecture. The roof is flat and the building possesses strictly rectangular
features. The form of Miller Memorial library would be well suited to a number of locations in
the United States. However, John Desmond’s interest in the natural landscape and history of
Southern Louisiana is evident in the siting of the library near a gorgeous oak tree abundant with
Spanish moss and his effort to coordinate the color palate of the building with naturally
occurring colors. Miller Memorial Library was constructed thanks to a generous donation of land
and funds by Mrs. Carrie Norton Miller. The building functioned as such until 1995 and, while
no longer a library, is still owned by the city of Hammond and open to the public.

INTERNATIONAL STYLE: JOHN DESMOND. ILLUSTRATION OF MILLER

MEMORIAL LIBRARY, HAMMOND, LA, 1956-57. DEDICATION FLYER, 1957.
LOUISIANA NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES DATABASE.
INTERNATIONAL STYLE: JOHN DESMOND. MILLER MEMORIAL LIBRARY,
HAMMOND, LA, 1956-57. PHOTO BY FRANK LOTZ MILLER CIRCA 1958.  LOUISIANA
NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES DATABASE.

First Christian Church is one the first building of John Desmond’s in Hammond that displays a
distinct Acadian iteration of modernism. First Christian Church displays two of the most
important features of Acadian Modernism – low slung, pitched roofs, and traditional brick and
wood materials. Since the Frist Christian Church complex is a collection of buildings, it also
hints at pavilion-like features. Hammond offers the special opportunity to see how John
Desmond’s style evolved over time.
ACADIAN MODERNISM: JOHN DESMOND. FIRST CHRISTIAN CHURCH,
HAMMOND, LA, 1960. PHOTO BY FRANK LOTZ MILLER CIRCA 1960.  LOUISIANA
NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES DATABASE.
ACADIAN MODERNISM: JOHN DESMOND. FIRST CHRISTIAN CHURCH,
HAMMOND, LA, 1960. PHOTO BY FRANK LOTZ MILLER CIRCA 1960.  LOUISIANA
NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES DATABASE.

Two of John Desmond’s Hammond buildings, Miller Memorial Library and First Christian
Church, are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It is remarkable for any city to
have such a great density of one architect’s work. In southern Louisiana, it is unique to have so
many residential and commercial works of high modernism in one place. Louisiana is well
known for its many iterations of French Creole architecture. Modern architecture of the quality
and concentration of John Desmond’s work in Hammond is truly unparalleled in the American
South.

REFERENCES
What is modern architecture?

“Modern Architecture: Explore Icons of the Recent Past,” Saving Places: The Website of the
National Trust for Historic Preservation, (Washington, D.C.: The National Trust for Historic
Preservation, 2018),   https://savingplaces.org/modern-architecture#.WmgQIPjwZ-U.

Mark Gelernter,  A History of American Architecture: Buildings and their Cultural and
Technological Context,  (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001)

Alexandra Griffith Winton, “The Bauhaus, 1919–1933,” Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History,

(New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–,August 2007; last revised October 2016),
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bauh/hd_bauh.htm.

Bauhaus Dessau, “Bauhaus Buildings in Dessau: Masters’ Houses by Walter Gropius (1925-
1926)” (2017), http://www.bauhaus-dessau.de/en/architecture/bauhaus-buildings-in-
dessau/masters-houses.html.

Anna Marcum, Modern Prospective Easement Survey for Historic New England (Boston:

Historic New England, 2017).

Is there modern architecture in Louisiana?

http://www.knowlouisiana.org/louisiana-architecture

http://www.nola.com/homegarden/index.ssf/2016/11/new_orleans_modernism.html

https://www.realtor.com/news/unique-homes/stylish-shreveport-neutra/

https://www.crt.state.la.us/downloads/HP/JulyNationalRegisterNominations/LA_CaddoParish_S
hreveportCommercialHistoricDistrictUpdate_ReviewCommittee.pdf

http://20x49.shreveport-bossier.org/2013/09/18/if-i-said-you-had-a-beautiful-wiener-house-
would-you-hold-it-against-me/
http://www.knowlouisiana.org/entry/john-jacob-desmond/

How do I spot a modern building?

http://www.a2modern.org/2011/04/characteristics-of-modern-architecture/

https://www.dwell.com/article/defining-an-architectural-canon-from-the-ground-up-cf6770c2

http://www.ourmidland.com/realestate/article/Midland-documenting-its-Mid-Century-Modern-
11655789.php

What is special about Hammond modernism?

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Desmond

J. Michael Desmond. “John Jacob Desmond.” In KnowLA Encyclopedia of Louisiana, edited by

David Johnson. Louisiana Endowment for the Humanities, 2010--. Article published on January
6, 2011. http://www.knowlouisiana.org/entry/john-jacob-desmond.

“Preliminary Inventory: January 2004; Revised 2008, 2012.” John Desmond Papers, Mss. 4792,
Louisiana and Lower Mississippi Valley Collections, LSU Libraries, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, p.
4.

http://houseplansandmore.com/resource_center/french-creole-architecture.aspx.

 
10 Major Variations of Modernist
Architecture
By  Nadia Fauzia

9/3/2020

Modernist architecture is an architecture style that flourished across the globe since the early
20th century until the 1980s. The main principles of modern architecture are functionalism,
minimalism, rejection of sophisticated decoration, and the use of glass, steel, and reinforced
concrete. Over the years of its popularity, many variations developed from the style. Here are the
ten major variations of modernist architecture.
Expressionism
Expressionist architecture emerged in the early 20th century along with the expressionist visual
and performing arts that had already dominated Germany. It is one of three dominant styles of
modern architecture along with International Style and Constructivist architecture.

It's quite hard to describe this variation of modernist architecture. Most of the time, it is defined
by what it is not. One thing for sure, Expressionist architecture is usually not symmetrical.
Expressionists tried to avoid traditional box shapes and refused to base their designs on historical
styles. They leaned more toward abstraction, resulting in somewhat surreal designs.
Expressionist buildings were meant to evoke extreme emotions, making them tend to stand out
from the structures around. To achieve this, Expressionist architects often used unusual forms
and incorporated unconventional building techniques using brick, steel, and glass.
Centennial Hall in Wroclaw, Poland, by Max Berg (1911-3), early landmark of Expressionist architecture |
Source: wikimedia.org

Art Deco
Art Deco, is an art movement that first appeared in France just prior to World War I.
This style of visual arts, architecture, and design influenced the designs of nearly
everything, ranging from everyday objects like radios and vacuum cleaners to
buildings, trains, and ocean liners. In architecture, Art Deco represented luxury and
exuberance, combining modern styles and refined craftsmanship and rich materials.
Art Deco came in the presence of bold geometric forms a la Cubism and Vienna
Secession, with bright, extravagant colours a la Fauvism and Ballet Russes, exotic
materials, and exquisite craftsmanship. However, the art movement did last long. It
ended when World War II was about to start and replaced with more functional and
unadorned styles of modern architecture and International style.
The crown of General Electric Building, also known as 570 Lexington Avenue (1931) by Cross &
Cross firm, New York City | Source: reddit.com

Constructivism
Constructivism in architecture refers to a branch of modern architecture that
flourished in former USSR in 1920s and emerged from constructivist art. Aimed to
reflect modern urban space and industrial society while obviating decorative
stylisation in favour of the industrial assemblage of materials, Constructivism carried
a strong sense of austere abstraction. Straight lines and forms like cylinders,
rectangles, cubes, and squares were combined with non-objective elements. The
principles of Constructivism were borrowed from Suprematism, Neo Plasticism and
Bauhaus. Just like Art Deco, the architectural movement didn't last very long. It fell
out of favour circa 1932, but the influences of it are undoubtedly still felt today.
Zuyev Workes' Club (1927-9) by Ilya Golosov, a prominent work of Constructivist architecture |
Source: divisare.com

International Style
The third major branch of modern architecture was developed in the 1920s and 1930s.
The name "International Style" itself was coined in an exhibition in at the Museum of
Modern Art in 1932. The museum's two curators, namely Henry-Russell Hitchcock
and Philip Johnson defined the style that was based on contemporary European
architecture. In the event, they introduced the radically modern architecture design to
the American audience.

Hitchcock and Johnson formulated the three essential design tenets of the
International Style: volume over mass, regularity in the facade, and rejection of all
ornament. The emphasis on volume means International Style preferred thin, flat
planes, typically alternating with areas of glass, to create the building's form, as
opposed to a solid mass. International Style is also characterised by the use of
lightweight, mass-produced industrial materials.
Barcelona Pavillion (1928-9) by Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe and Lilly Reich | Source: ignant.com
De Stijl In 1917, Dutch artists and architects founded De Stijl, an art movement
that encouraged pure abstraction and universality by reducing everything to its
essential, both in form and colour, which is the very spirit of modernist
architecture. Correspondingly, De Stijl movement is said to be a reaction against
the "Modern Baroque" introduced by the Amsterdam School movement, which is
the Dutch version of expressionist architecture. To an extent, De Stijl also carried
the spirit of minimalism by simplifying visual compositions down to vertical and
horizontal lines and using only primary colours.
Rietveld Schröder House in Utrecht by Gerrit Rietveld (1924), the only building realised completely
according to De Stijl principles | Source: holland.com
Bauhaus
Bauhaus was originally a German art school founded in 1919 by architect Walter
Gropius. The main objective was to create a Gesamtkunstwerk or "comprehensive
artwork", in which painting, sculpture, and architecture were brought together to form
a single work of art. This unity of art style became so influential in architecture,
interior design, industrial design, graphic design, and typography. Many Bauhaus
alumni would later introduce the spirit of the movement through their projects around
the world. Some examples of Bauhaus design are Marcel Breuer's Wassily Chairs and
The White City in Tel Aviv that consists of over 4000 buildings designed in Bauhaus
style by German Jewish architects who emigrated after the rise of Nazi.
Bauhaus-style building in The White City | Source: grandeflanerie.com

Mid-century Modern
Mid-century Modern is a design style that includes interior, architecture, graphic and
product design that was popular in the USA from around 1945 to 1969. In
architecture, mid-century modern was brought from Europe by some of the key
figures of Bauhaus movement who fled to USA post World War II such as Marcel
Breuer, Walter Gropius, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. The style's main features are
clean, simple lines, emphasis on function, contemporary aesthetic, and absence of
decorative embellishments. In 1983, Cara Greenberg, through her book Mid-Century
Modern: Furniture in the 1950s, reaffirmed the mid-century modern term after it was
already employed as a style descriptor as early as the mid-1950s.
MIller House by Richard Neutra (1937) | Source: archdaily.com
Brutalism
Brutalism as an architectural style emerged in the 1950s out of the eartly 20th-century
modernist movement. It was first found in Great Britain, highly influenced by the
post-war spirit. Characterised mostly by its monolithic appearance, Brutalist buildings
are usually massive with rigid geometric shapes and large-scale use of poured
concrete—always left exposed. Brutalism was perhaps the branch of modern
architecture that truly held minimalism so high it rejected any kind of ornamentation.
Brutalist architecture used generally monochrome colour palette, keeping the 'blocky'
appearance as simple as could be. As it was so extreme, the movement began to
subside in the 1970s after it gained criticism for being so cold, unwelcoming and
soulless to the point it appeared inhumane.
Boston City Hall by various architects (1968) | Source: dezeen.com

Fascist ArchitectureAlthough not as well-known, Fascist architecture is also a

branch of modernist architecture which emerged in Western Europe in the early
20th century. It was greatly influenced by the Italian Rationalist architecture,
which, in a sense, was the Italian version of International Style. In Nazi Germany,
Fascist architecture was highly valued by Hitler for its signature spaciousness. He
utilised it to unify Germany for "mass experiences", in which citizens could gather
and participate in community events and listen to his and his fellow Nazi party
leaders' speeches.

Fascist architecture took some design cues from Ancient Rome. Fascist buildings
were generally astronomical in size with sharp non-rounded edges and very
symmetrical. The buildings were purposely built to convey a sense of intimidation
through their sheer size. However, they were also very plain, with almost no
embellishment, and lacked complexity in design. The main focus, other than to
make a strong impression, was for the structure to last the entirety of the fascist
era; therefore limestone and other durable stones were mostly used as its primary
material.
New Reich Chancellery by Albert Speer (1938) | Source: artsandculture.google.com

Googie Architecture
Googie architecture is a variation of futurist architecture originated in Southern
California around the same time Streamline Moderne was introduced to the USA in
the 1930s. It took its inspiration from car culture, jets, the Space Age, and the Atomic
Age and was popular among coffee houses, motels, and gas stations. The
characteristics of Googie are curvaceous, geometric shapes with upswept roofs and
bold use of glass, steel, and neon. Googie often includes symbolic of motion from
Space Age design, like boomerangs, diagrammatic atoms and parabolas, and flying
saucers. Nowadays, many Googie buildings have been destroyed, but some examples
have been preserved, such as the oldest McDonald's stand in Downey, California.
Oldest McDonald's restaurant | Source: businessinsider.com 
https://indonesiadesign.com/story/major-modernist-architecture-style?
fbclid=IwAR1W2bZnnHB5ClMZztJTNS9iapMQ9-g0eGlz4ij1OCRi4fdIoxg9x_wyIPA