FUNDAMENTALS OF ICT

INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION;

ICT - Information Process Computers + Computer Technology Networks

Hardware - is tangible or physical parts of a computer e.g keyboards, mouses, screen, printer

Software - is intangible parts of a computer it refers to instructions that direct computer hardware on what
to do.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ELEMENTS OF COMPUTER HARDWARE

1. INPUT DEVICES - used to enter data into the computer system

2. OUTPUT DEVICES - used to display results of processing
3. ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU) - used to perform arithmetic and logical operations
4. CONTROL UNIT - used to control and coordinate all the elements of a computer system
5. MAIN MEMORY
-RAM is volatile i.e RAM comes to data only when power is on.

Random Read
Access Memory Only Memory
(RAM) 70% (ROM) 30%

-ROM cannot be altered. The contents of Rome are installed by the manufacturer (Firmware)
-It is non-volatile

Main memory is used to store;

-data awaiting processing
-instructions awaiting executions
-programs that are needed on the computer at all times e.g BIOS - Basic Input-Output System

6. BACKING STORAGE - is used to supplement the main memory.

QUESTION: Why do we need to supplement main memory with backing storage?

 Main memory is very expensive. Backing storage is cheap
 RAM part of main memory is volatile i.e can only be used to store data only when power is on.
Backing storage is non-volatile i.e can store data even when power is off
 ROM, part of main memory cannot be altered yet many files need updates. Backing storage are
used to store files when need frequent updates
 Main memory is limited in capacity. Backing storage are used for mass storage of data.
 Backing storage is used to transfer data from one location to another
  Storage is used for banking purposes i.e to keep a duplicate copy of another file for security and
recovery purposes.

COMPUTER

Hardware Software

C.P.U Peripheral

Input Devices Output Devices Backing Auxillary

Main Memory ALU Control Unit
MemoryMemo Storage
 SOFTWARE

Systems software Applications software

Operating Device Dtabase

Translators Management Bespoke Pre-written
system drivers Utilities
Systems software software

Horizontal Vertical
Market Market
Software Software
 THE FLOW OF DATA, INSTRUCTIONS AND COMMANDS IN COMPUTER SYSTEMS

CONTROL UNIT

ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC

UNIT (A.L.U)

INPUT DEVICES MAIN MEMORY OUTPUT DEVICES

BACKING STORAGE
KEY:

Data/instruction flow.

Command flow.

-Data flows from input devices into the main memory. the main memory stores data temporarily before
forwarding it to the arithmetic and logic unit.arithmetic and logic unit performs arithmetic and logical
operations on data and Returns the results of processing to the main memory. The results of processing
can then be sent to the output device. results of processing can also be sent to the backing storage to be
output of a later time.

-Instructions flows from backing storage to the main memory. The main memory stores the instructions
temporarily before forwarding them the control unit. the control unit interprets the instructions in
sequence and issue commands to the element of computer systems.

-command flow from main memory to the elements of computer system.

UNITS OF STORAGE
BIT – Binary Digit i.e 0 or 1

NIBBLE – Unit of storage equivalent to 4 bits.

BYTE – Unit of storage equivalent to 8 bits.
KILOBYTE (KB) – Unit of storage equivalent to 210 bytes
MEGABYTE (MB) – Unit of storage equivalent to 220 bytes
GIGABYTE (GB) – Unit of storage equivalent to 230 bytes
TERABYTE (TB) – Unit of storage equivalent to 240 bytes
PETABYTE (PB) – Unit of storage equivalent to 250 bytes
YOTTABYTE (YB) – Unit of storage equivalent to 260 bytes
EXABYTE (XB) – Unit of storage equivalent to 270 bytes

INPUT DEVICES

1. KEYBOARD - It is used for entering data into the computer.

a.) LAPTOP KEYBOARDS-it is a small version of the typical QWERTY keyboard. It has same case as
normal keyboard except for the fact that laptop keyboards condense the symbols into fewer buttons to
accommodate space. There are also extra keys e.g power buttons, volume buttons, play button, mute
button etc
b.) GAMING KEYBOARD
 Are similar to normal keyboard except they generally contain extra features such as illuminated
keys, multimedia keys, an additional screen, palm rest
 illuminated keyboards are useful for playing games during the night when it is too dark to see
keyboard normally
 The multimedia keys are useful for adjusting the volume
c.)ERGONOMIC COMPUTER KEYBOARD
-it is a computer keyboard designed with ergonomic consideration to minimise muscle strain and a lot of
related problems
It is designed for making typing easier and lessen the Strain that your hand may suffer.

d.) WIRELESS KEYBOARDS.

They do not need to be connected to the computer via a wire. This makes it very convenient for the user
to use the keyboard comfortably.
They need external power to function (batteries)

e.) INTERNET KEYBOARDS

They have special keys called hotkeys which perform functions related to internet typically hotkeys have
functions like backward, forward, email, email inbox, Google search etc
This makes browsing the Internet very convenient as the user does not have to go through the process of
clicking buttons by a mouse.

2. MOUSE -Used to move the cursor from one point to another, to make selection and clicking on the
object, to highlight and select a cell.

3. JOYSTICK - Used plain computer or video games

4. TOUCH SCREEN - An alternative to mouse or other screen related device. You can activate an object
by touching it with your finger. Can be used to activate menus and make a selection from the menu.

5. LIGHT PEN - Instead of using your finger you can use a special device with a light sensing mechanism
to touch the screen. Pointing with a light pen is more accurate because you can point at very small
objects. The light pen is connected to the computer by a cable.

6. OPTICAL CHARACTER READER (OCR) - Is used to read documents encoded in optical character
reader fonts. They recognise each character by the patterns of reflected light.
Uses of optical character reader
1. Public utility bills. The bill which is sent to a customer has returnable sleep on which it is printed
in optical character reader characters. Customer code and amount owing the sleep is returned with
payment and used for input.
2. Sales order form. This can be printed by the computer with standard data details of the order on
the forms and Returns it for the optical character reader processing.
3. Stocktaking sheet. the customer can print out stock sheet in optical character reader characters
and their stock checker enters the actual stock and quantities on the form in a careful handwriting.
the sheet can then be optically read into the computer for processing and amending stock file.

Advantages of optical character reader

 No typing or transcription hands transcription errors are minimised.
 Provide safest input as compared to the use of keyboard devices
 The contents of documents are both human and machine-readable hands reliable
Disadvantages of optical character readers
 Expensive method of input because of specialised techniques and machines
 Handling precautions are necessary e.g the document need to be unfolded for accurate reading.
 Document size and type may be limited for accurate reading.
 Special typing and paper quality are crucial.

Turnaround document - It is a machine-readable document which is issued out to the customer ASDA
output document with the customer returns to the point of origin to be used as an input document e.g
optical character reader utility bills, micro bank cheque.

7. OPTICAL MARK READER (OMR)

Reading of documents prepared in optical marks will be accomplished as follows. A mark in a particular
position on the document will trigger of a response it is the position of the Mark that is converted to a
value on the reader.
the method involves directing team beams of light onto the paper surface which are reflected into a light
detector unless beam is absorbed on a dark pencil mark i.e a mark is recognised on the reduction of
reflective lights.

A B C D
A B C D
A B C D
A B C D

Uses of optical Mark reader

 used in marking multiple choice questions, processing questionnaires, processing insurance
premium and search application. They can also be used in water and electricity metre reading.
Advantages of optical Mark readers
Same as those of Optical Character reader

Disadvantages of optical Mark reader

Same as those of optical character reader

8. MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER READER (MICR)

Documents are passed through a strong magnetic field causing the iron oxide in the ink encoded character
to become magnetized. Documents are then passed under a redhead and current flows at the strength of
the magnetized area. Characters are recognised by a magnetic pattern they exhibit.

Uses of magnetic ink character reader

 Mostly used in banks to read bank cheque.
Advantages of magnetic ink character reader
Same as optical character reader

Disadvantages of magnetic ink character reader

Same as optical character reader

SCANNER - input devices which enables a document to be entered into a computer system without other
operations such as a keying being done. it works rather like a photocopier but instead of producing a copy
on paper a copy is input to the computer system. this allows the document to be used in standard
processing systems such as word processor.

9. PUNCHED CARD READER (KIMBALL TAG)

The punched card incorporates data in terms of small punched holes. The holes alternate with space to
represent data in special coding system of binary notation.
Tag reader senses the whole on the card and converts them to go as computer input.

i.e Punched Card

Advantages
 Data is already coded and hence easy processing.
 No transcription error.
Disadvantages
 Difficult to handle because they are small.
 Store small volume of data.
Areas of use
 Shoe shops
 Garment or clothes shops
 10. BARCODE READER
Barcoding is the representation of code numbers on the data by bars or lines printed or embossed on
a data carrier

Barcodes are readable by a barcode reader. They are used in supermarkets bookshops and libraries. The
advantages to shoppers are more efficient check out services itemized receipt identifying each item and its
price few items out of stock and possibly lower prices as a result of more efficient management of the
supermarket. There are few transcription errors first data input and therefore fewer cashiers needed. It is
more friendly using a keyboard.

NOTE:
Price is not barcorded.

*BADGES(PLASTIC CARDS)
Badges are stiff plastic cards measuring 3 inches by 2 inches.
Data is stored on magnetic strip at the back of the card.

Magnetic strip

USES

Used as aim cards, credit cards, debit cards, telephone cards, used to access paking and resort clubs.

Disadvantages
The magnetic strip cannot store much information
They can be easily duplicated and not very secure
Interference by Magnetic Fields

Smart cards - Irene appearance like credit card but Incorporate a microprocessor chip rather than a
segment of magnetic strip the smartcard contains more data and performs processing functions which
cannot be done by ordinary card.

Benefits of smart card

Has a microprocessor or chip which takes credit for the Intelligence in smart card. it can be programmed
it offers greater capacity and therefore more information can be stored in a Smart Card compared with
magnetic strip
offer better security than magnetic strip

uses of smart card

can be used like plastic cards in financial sector such as credit cards and debit cards
Can be used in retail sector such a supermarket loyalty scheme
can be used the security PASS cards to resorts, car parks and secure environment
used in phones i. e SIM cards

factors affecting the choice of input medium

cost of data capture devices
speed of input device
volume of inputs
Appropriateness
Accuracy
Confidence - whether a given device has a good record of success

ways to minimise errors during data entry

use of data capture techniques i.e Yusuf machine-readable medium such as magnetic input character
readers optical character reader optical Mark reader and barcoding
Verification - this is manual checking of errors by different persons. it is done before input or during
inputs.
Validation - this is computerized way of checking errors. it is automated and isn't manual
Training data entry clerks - trained people makes few errors.
Making the system user friendly.
Use of control totals that is hash totals and batch totals.

question 1
State four pointing devices used in a computer system.
A. Mouse
B. Joystick
C. Touchscreen.
D. Light pen.

Question 2.
Explain two reasons for using auxiliary storage devices in computer system.
Auxiliary storage among peripheral equipment.
1. The trains lower access rates for Greater storage capacity and data stability.
2. They are used for mass storage of data.
3. They hold programs and data for future use and because it is non-volatile like Rob it is used to store in-
active programs.

Question 3.
Describe three components of the central processing unit of a computer.
1. Main memory is where data is stored for quick access by the computer‟s processor. we have
random access memory which is volatile and read-only memory is non-volatile.
2. Arithmetic and logic unit-used to perform arithmetic and logical operations.
3. Control unit-used to control and coordinate all the elements of a computer system.

Question 4.
Differentiate between hardware and software as used in computer systems.
1. hardware is the tangible parts of a computer such as a keyboard mouse screen and printer while
the software is the intangible parts of a computer. it refers to instructions that Direct computer
hardware on what to do.

Question 5.
name the functions of the following devices in information communication technology
Optical character reader-used to read documents and coded in the optical character reader phones. They
recognise each character by the patterns of reflected light.
Magnetic ink character reader. Documents are passed through a strong magnetic field causing the iron
oxide in the ink and coded character to become magnetized. Characters are recognised by magnetic
pattern the exhibit.
barcode reader-it is used to capture and read information contained in a barcode. Barcoding is
representation of code numbers on their data by bus or line printed. Used in supermarkets bookshops
and libraries.

Question 6.
using a well labelled diagram describe the flow of data instructions and commands in a computer system.
***
***
Question 7.
Distinguish between read-only memory and random access memory.
Read-only memory is non-volatile hands can store or hold data without power while random access
memory is volatile hands can store data only when power is on.

Question 8.
With the aid of three examples explain the term turn around document.
Turn around document-is a machine readable document which is used out to the customer as the output
document which the customers returns to the point of origin to be used as an input document such as
optical character reader, utility bills magnetic ink character reader.
Question 9 state the input device appropriate in the following services.
1. Wholesale shop-mouse and keyboard
2. Cheque processing-magnetic ink character reader.
3. Water filling-optical character reader.
4. Shoe or textile manufacturing-punched card reader.
5. Voice recording.
6. Processing of questionnaires.
7. Capturing the passport size photos of students during registration process.

Question 10.
Identify the benefit of an automated teller machine to
 Bank-ATM offer the convenience of multiple locations. One can withdraw cash at any bank that
is part of the system to which your ATM card is linked.
 The customer.
-ATM card is protected by a pin keeping your money safe.
-they are faster than going to the bank no long lines.

Question 11.
how many floppy disks will be required to store information in a compact disk if the storage capacity of
floppy is 1.44 MB and that of compact disc 650 MB?
***
****

OUTPUT DEVICES
Printers are output devices that produce hard copy output. Printers can be categorised as follows
 1 a. Character printers which prints a character at a time.
 B. Line printers which prints a line at a time.
 C. Page printers which print a page at a time.
Printers can also be categorised as
 Low-speed printers which prints up to 300 lines per minute.
 High speed printers which print above 300 lines per minute

Printers can also be classified as

 Impact printers which prints by sticking inked ribbon onto paper-they can produce multiple
copies at once with the use of carbon paper. They are noisy.
 Non-impact printers. do not print by sticking inked ribbon onto paper. they cannot produce
multiple print copies at once they are not noisy

Dot matrix printers

dot matrix printers uses a printhead which moves to and fro across the page stopping momentarily in each
character position to strike a print ribbon against the stationery with an array of wires.
According to the number of wires in the printhead character-matrix maybe 7 * 5 or 7 * 7 or 9 * 7 or 9 * 9.
The more dots the better the print period it is a low speed printer.
It is a character printer. It is an impact printer. It produces noise when printing.
Can produce multiple copies with the use of carbon paper. It is cheap. It does features for graphs and
pictures.

Appears as

7 x 5 print wheel

Daisy wheel printers

Daisy wheel printers are exchangeable printwheel cold days will. To print each character the wheel is
rotated and the appropriate spoke is track against the inked ribbon. It is a low speed printer.
It has no features for graphs. It's an impact printer. It produces noise when printing.

Inkjet printers uline they print characters by spraying small drops of ink having high iron content.
Droplets of ink are electrically charged after leaving a nozzle period the drops are then guided to a proper
position on the paper by electrically charged deflection plates.
Inkjet printers produce high-quality print because the characters are formed by dozen of ink dots and
inkjets and other in an impact printers cannot produce multiple print copies of a document on a single
printing which is possible with impact printers.
they are non-impact printers. They are not noisy. They have features for graphs. They are cheap. They are
character printers.

Laser printers.
Used as a series of monitors to reflect the document being printed onto a photosensitive drum which
attracts some powdered ink to form the document image on the drum.
the paper on which print is to be made vs underneath the drum and document image is developed onto it
by the use of heat and pressure.
Most laser printers have buffers for storing data prior to printing.
Laser printers are;
  Non-impact printers
 Page printers
 A good print quality
 Have features for graphs
 Are expensive
 Not noisy
 High-speed printers
 print a page at a time.

Differences between hard copy and soft copy.

hard copy the output is on paper in soft copy the output is on screen
Hard copy is permanent while soft copy is temporary

Chain printers
They use rapidly-moving chain called a prayer chain. Each link of chain is a character font. Instead of a
chain some models of printers uses a metal and having raised rent characters on it
Magnetically controlledprint farmers strike the paper along with the inked ribbon against the proper
character on the chain as it passes. Speeds of up to 50 lines per second can be achieved.
Multiple copies can be produced using a carbon paper. They have no features for grabs. They are noisy.

Drum printers
a drum printer consist of a solid cylindrical drum that has raised characters invanz on its surface. There
are as many bands as our printing positions. Each band contains all the possible characters.
The drum rotates at a rapid speed for each possible print position that is opposite to each band of the drum
there is a print hammer located behind the paper. the hammer strike the paper along with inked ribbon.
Newsline's one revolution of the drum is required to print each Line. This means that all characters on the
line are not printed exactly at the same time but the time required to print the entire line.
They have no features for graphs. They are noisy. They can't produce multiple copy prints with the use of
carbon paper.

XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
MMMMMMMMMMMM
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
QQQQQQQQQQQQQQ

Factors to consider in the selection of a printer

 Cost
 Speed of a printer is determined by the amount of work to be printed
 Print quality
 Availability of printers or spare parts
 The need for colour
 Need for multiple print copies
 Environment - in some environment noise is not needed and therefore non-impact printers are
suitable
 Warranty

Question 6
Describe the flow of data instructions and commands in a computer system.
Data flows from input devices into the main memory. The main memory stores data temporarily before
forwarding it to the arithmetic and logic unit which performs arithmetic and logical operations on data
and Returns the results of processing to the main memory. The results of processing can then be sent to
output device. Results of processing can also be sent to the backing storage to be output at a later time.
Instructions flows from backing storage to the main memory period the main memory stores the
instructions temporarily before forwarding them to the control unit period control unit interprets the
instructions in sequence and issue commands the element of computer system.
Command flows from main memory to the elements of computer system.

Monitors or visual display unit or screen

Visual display unit produce soft copy output.
They are suitable for interactive processing where immediate display is required.
They are used for visual error checking. Using the quality of display of a visual display unit is determined
by the density of pixels referred to as dots used to represent a display on the screen.
Types of the computer screen
1. CATHODE RAY TUBE MONITORS-beer types of monitors that were used in many personal
computers in the past many years. They are bulky that is big in size and heavy. Quality of output
on the CRT monitors are not very high. Consumes a lot of power for electricity. A means a lot of
radiation.
2. LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY MONITORS-they have high resolution. Quality of the picture is
good. They are portable and saves a lot of space. They provide a wide viewing angle. Consumes
less power. Emits minimal radiation. More costly than CRT screens.
3. THIN-FILM TRANSISTORS MONITORS-TFT monitors is an upgrade of the LCD screen. They
are more sensitive than LCD monitors since they have a less reaction time. They have higher
resolution than the LCD. They are more costly than LCD and expensive. Consumes minimal
power or electricity. Emits a minimal amount of heat. Emits minimal radiation.
4. TOUCH SCREEN-touch screen computer monitors provide a new way of interacting with a
computer with touch-sensitive screen. this allows users to interact directly with the application on
the screen without the need for mouse or keyboard.
5. PLOTTERS-they are output devices that draw on transparencies using pens held on mechanical
arms they're capable of drawing and broken lines searches required in computer-aided diagram
cartography. Because they work on moving pens over the paper they are slow output devices and
unsuitable for normal office application. This justifies the use of laser printers for the production
of graphical representations for the management reports. They are expensive.
6. SPEAKERS-produce audio output

BACKING OR AUXILIARY STORAGE

FLOPPY DISKS
Have double sided floppy disks and single sided floppy disk. Single-sided discs store information on both
sides. We have single density base and double density discs. The disk is prepared for recording using a
formality program.
Formatting means creating concentric tracks the invincible and subdividing them into tracks. the tracks
and sector are given electronic levels to make it possible to access data in the discs.
Floppy disks have low storage capacity of 1.44MBs
1. They're slow and have a high access time.
2. They have low data transfer rate.
3. Rotates at 360 revolutions per minute.
 Concentric tracks

Sector

FIXED DISKS
I like other removable disks but they are not removed from the disk drive. Each surface is divided into
concentric trucks which are subdivided into sectors. The discs rotates at a very high speed of 3600
revolutions per minute.
They have high data transfer rate. They have large storage capacity of 640gb and more.
They have low access time.

Differences between floppy disks and fixed disks.

1. Floppy disks are fragile while fixed disks are rigid
2. Floppy disk have low storage capacity while fixed disks have large storage capacities
3. Floppy disks have higher access time wild fixed disks have low access time
4. Floppy disks have low data transfer rate while fixed disks have high data transfer rate
5. Floppy disks are more prone to data loss while fixed disks are less prone to data loss
6. Floppy disks rotate at 360 revolutions per minute while fixed disks rotate at 3600 evolutions per
minute

Access time = seek time + rotational delay + data transfer rate

ACCESS TIME
It is the time interval between the moment the command is given to transfer data from the disk to the main
memory and the moment that transfer is complete. It is made of three components.
 Seek time - this is the time it takes the access mechanism to position itself at the appropriate.
 Rotational delay-is the time taken for the sector to come around and position itself under the read-
write head.
 Data transfer rate - is the total time taken to read the content of the septic into main memory.

MAGNETIC TAPE(REEL TO REEL TAPE)

The many different types of tapes. Typical real of half an inch and 3600 feet are Common. it has a plastic
base covered on one side with magnetizable material.
Data is recorded on one side.
The tapes are usable and can be overwritten.
Data is recorded on tape in blocks.
A block is a group of several records which are red at once. We have interblock gaps between blocks.
Nothing is stored in the interblock gaps period.
The interblock gap is used to allow for acceleration and deceleration of the tape. Uline vacuum chamber
or column are used to absorb the fall of sudden start or stop of the tape.
Storage capacity of the tape depends on
 Recording or packing density
 Size or capacity of block
 Length of tape.

TAPE CARTRIDGES-they are designed to overcome the border of loading and unloading tapes.
Cartridges just pops in a slot which is simpler then threaded tape onto reel.
It gives better protection against dust or dirt compared to reel-to-reel tape.
There is no interblock gap in tape cartridge.
They don't use vacuum Chambers.
Tape cartridges are used to backup data.
they are also used for distributing data or software for archival storage.

OPTICAL DISKS
1. COMPACT DISCS ONLY MEMORY CD-ROM. -CD-ROM is also known as write once read
many times. It's an optical Media ends not magnetic. Data is recorded on the CD-ROM using a
laser beam of high-intensity. Data is real from CD-ROM using low intensity laser beam. They
have large storage capacity of 650 MB. can be used for distributing software on a single disc
where normally many floppy disks would be needed. It's suitable for storing documents which
don't require frequent changes. It's cheap.
2. COMPACT DISC RECORDABLE CDR-CDR Drive has read write capability. They have large
storage capacity of 650m bills. Standard CDR Discs can be written to only once. you can keep
adding that until the disk is full but you cannot remove any data or use a full disc.
3. COMPACT DISC REWRITABLE CD-RW-cd-rw and like CDR have data burnt into them and
also arrest so that the disc can be reused. They have same storage capacity as CDR. Cd-rw are
more expensive than CDR.
4. DIGITAL VERSATILE DISC DVD-DVD-R similar to CD-ROM in that they look identical.
They can be used to store computer application software multimedia program and full-length
movies. Any application software that needs 627 CD ROMs for installation could be replaced by
a single dvd. This is because CD-ROM typically stop 650 MB of data whereas a DVD stores up
to 4.7 GB. DVDs are also used to store movies where they produce much better quality pictures
and sound compared to normal videotapes. A film stored on a DVD can even be made to offer the
viewer choice of several languages in which it can be played back.
5. DIGITAL VERSATILE DISC READ-ONLY MEMORY DVD ROM this allows data to be
recorded only ones. they behave like CD-ROM except that they have large storage capacity and
better data quality.
6. DVD-R DIGITAL VERSATILE DISC RECORDABLE -this is a DVD but behaves like CDR
except that has a large storage capacity and better data quality.
7. DIGITAL VERSATILE DISC REWRITABLE DVD RW-behaves like cd-rw except that it has a
large storage capacity and better data quality.
8. HIGH-DENSITY DIGITAL VERSATILE DISCS HD DVD-can hold around 15 GB of data.
Ahluwalia HD DVD can hold twice that 30gb. it's a random access storage device. They are used
to store high quality high-definition videos.
9. DVD RAM DISC-other type of rewritable DVD. They often come in a floppy disc style case to
protect the disc. DVD RAM disc have similar capacity to a no more DVD holding 4.7 GB of
data. Dvd-rom are used in many camcorders and video recording cameras. The discs are of much
 higher quality than normal dvd-rw and can reliably store data for up to 30 years. They are very
suitable for backup and archiving.
10. BLU-RAY DISCS-there recent replacement for DVDs. It can hold 25 to 50 GB of data. A dual-
layer Blu-ray disk can hold twice that. they are used in the same way as DVD rooms but they can
hold more data. They are used to store very high quality and high definition video.

Flash disks (USB universal serial bus)

a storage module of flash memory chips.
It has no mechanical platters or Access arms but the term disk is used because the data are accessed as
they were on the hard disk.
It's non volatile disk. It's a rewritable memory-chip. It's portable hands can be carried in a pocket. They
are solid state technology since data is accessed faster.

Buffers
Dr storage devices associated with input devices and output devices. They are used to balance the speed
of faster processor with those of slow peripheral devices. Nu-line they allow simultaneous operation of
devices and therefore increases the efficiency of computer systems.

Virtual memory
It is not a storage device but a concept or technique that allows the main memory of a computer to run
programs which are bigger than the capacity of main memory. This is accomplished by segment in a large
program into smaller equal programs and loading each program into memory one segment at a time.

VIRTUAL-not physical or existing as such but made by software to appear to do so.

Primary storage

Cache memory-it is a high-speed memory capable of keeping Up with the processor. It acts like a buffer
between a processor and the slow main memory. As the process is not delayed by memory access the
overall speed of processing is increased. Segments of programs and data are transferred from main
memory into the cache memory in operating system.

Random access memory RAM-it holds the programs and data being processed. It will also store
immediate results of processing awaiting transfer to the output devices.
It's volatile

Read-only memory ROM-all contents of ROM are permanently set during manufacture. Once instructions
are put there by the manufacturers they cannot be altered period the user can only read from the memory
but cannot change the content. It's used to store vital data and program which needs to be held within the
main memory at all times.

Programmable read-only memory PROM-this is a type of ROM that can be programmed by the user.
programmable read-only memory can be programmed on the user but the contents of the memory is held
permanently once the programmable read-only memory has been programmed.

Erasable programmable read-only memory EPROM-this may be programmed by the user that cannot be
erased and reprogrammed. There erasable programmable read-only memory is removed from the
computer in order to be a rest. Special devices called erasable programmable read-only memory addresses
are used to raise the memory.
Electrically alterable read-only memory-these memories can be read erased and rewritten without
removing them from the computer period however there racing entry writing process is very slow
compared with the reading which limits their use.

Differences between primary storage and secondary storage

1. Primary storage are costly while secondary storage is cheap.
2. Memory storage have low storage capacity five secondary storage of large storage capacity.
3. Primary storage have faster access while secondary storage have slow access
4. Primary storage are inside cpv while secondary storage are outside cpv.
5. primary storage are used to store programs awaiting execution and data awaiting processing.
While secondary storage are used to store programs not currently being executed and data not
currently being processed.

Characteristics of storage media

MUTABILITY-ability to make changes to a storage device such as flash disk
ADDRESSABILITY-is the way in which a computer identifies memory location
VOLATILITY-ability of memory to store data only when power is on
CAPACITY-is the amount of information a storage device can hold.

COMPUTER FILE CONCEPT

FILE

RECORD RECORD

FIELD FIELD FIELD FIELD

CHARACTER CHARACTER

CHARACTER CHARACTER

A file consists of a number of related records.

A record is made up of a number of related Fields. Uline afield is an item of data within a record. It's
made up of a group of characters.
A character is the smallest element in a file. We have alphabetic characters numeric characters and special
characters.
Key field is a field that is used to uniquely identify a record of student number.
Sort key is a field used to arrange records in a given sequence.
Static Fields are Fields whose contents do not change frequently such as account number or address.
dynamic Fields are Fields whose contents change frequently such as account balance and data.

Types of data
1. Integers and whole numbers.
 2. Floating point numbers.
3. Alphanumeric.
4. Date or time.
5. Text.
6. Currency.
7. Memo.
8. Boolean.

Types of file extension

FILE EXTENSION APPLICATION

DOC Word

XIS Excel

MDB Access

PPT Powerpoint

TXT or RTF Text or Rich Text Format

PDF Adobe Portable document

GPG Picture

GIF Picture

BMP Picture

WMV Windows Media Video

WMA Windows Media Audio

ZIP Compressed file

EXE Executable file

WAV Audio

MP3 Audio

MPEG Video

AVI Video

HTML Web page

JMP Temporary

Fixed length records or variable length records.

a.) Fixed-length records
In a fixed length records all records in a file of the same size, they have same number of fields and
related Fields are of same size.

Advantages
Programs that handle fixed-length records are easier to code

Disadvantages
There is a lot of wastage of storage space

b.) Variable length record.

In a variable length records different records in a file of different size and they have different number of
Fields.
Related fields in a file are not of same size.

Advantages.
Max maximum use of storage space and snowy stages.

Disadvantages.
Programs that handle variable length records are difficult to write.

File characteristics.
1. Volatility-is the frequency with which records are added to the file or deleted from it. If the
frequency is high the file is said to be volatile. A file that is not altered is static. If the frequency
is low the frequency is said to be semi static.
2. Size-this refers to the amount of data stored in a file. It may be expressed in terms of the number
of characters or number of records.
3. Growth-it is the rate at which records are added to a file. Suppose file has turned records and file
BS4 records. If 4 records are added to file a while 3 records are added to file be then :-

NUMBER OF RECORDS ADDED

GROWTH = X 100%
TOTAL NO. OF RECORDS

Note
Baby is growing at a faster rate although few records are added to it.
4. Hit rate-this is the rate of processing of master file in terms of active records. Heat rate is a measure of
the activity of a father. Suppose fillet has 20 records and 5B has 10 records if during the processing
run 15 records in the file are processed and 8 records in file be processed. We say:-

********

HIt rate of file A = 15/20 X 100% = 75% 3:4

HIt rate of file B = 8/10 X 100% = 80% 4:5

File B is more active than file A.

Definition
File update - is general process of adding new information to a file or deleting unwanted information from
a file to make a file current or timely.

File maintenance-is a special type of updating which involves changing only non transaction Fields or
static Fields. It may involve changing name marital status address and many more.

File processing activities

 File update
 File maintenance
 File referencing. This is when a particular record is referred to ascertain what is contained within.
 File searching-this is to look for a record using a particular key known as primary key.
 File sorting-is arranging to records in a particular key field sequence
 File merging-this is when two or more different files of similar records and in the same sequence
are joined together to become one file.

Method of file organisation.

STUDENT NO STUDENT COURSE

478 Kimondo Ouma Accountancy

138 Antonio Kipkoech Marketing

159 Kimeu Mwendwa Sales

139 Akinyi Chebet Computer

a.)Serial organisation.

Storage in tape Storage in disc

R1 R2 R3 R4

In serial organisation records are recorded in the sequence in which they are presented and can only be
processed in this order.
-This Method of file organisation is suitable for temporary files for example transaction files. files which
are seriously organised can be stored in tapes and discs.

b.) Sequencial Organization

STUDENT NO STUDENT COURSE

478 Kimondo Ouma Accountancy

138 Antonio Kipkoech Marketing

159 Kimeu Mwendwa Sales

139 Akinyi Chebet Computer

Storage in tape storage in disk

***** ****

In sequential organisation records are recorded in a certain key field sequence. The sequence Colby
alphabetic or numeric sequential files are most suitable for master files.
Sequential files can be stored In tapes and discs

c.) Random organisation

Records are placed on Discs at random. There is no relationship between records. records are normally
located discs and therefore easy to locate a specific record. direct access files are stored on different
access storage media such as disks and not tapes.

d.) Indexed sequential organisation.

In this organisation records are held in given sequence butter addressable by means of an index.
Unindexed sequential file is a data file organised in such a manner that it can be used for either direct
access purposes or for form of sequential processing will the heat rate is high.

Relationship between interest method of file organisation and type of storage media.

Hit Rate Method of file organisation Type of storage media

High Sequential Any storage media such as tapes for discs

Low Random Direct access storage media i.e Disks and not tapes

High and Low Indexed sequential Direct access storage media i.e Disks and not tapes.

Advantages of random organisation over sequential organisation

The selected records can be accessed quickly and easily from direct access files.
Records can be accessed in any chosen
Records do not have to be put into any particular order before the file is created.
Can access a specific data directly without having to read other records.

Advantages of sequential or random organisation

Files can be stored on most Media such as tapes and discs.
programs that handle sequential files are easier to code compared to those that handles direct files.

Factors affecting the method of file organisation.

1. Number of records to be accessed-singly accessed records or a few at a time call for direct access.
Many records to be accessed at a time call for a sequential access.
 2. Size of files-if the size of a file is small sequential access is acceptable when the file is very large
direct access methods are preferrable.
3. Type of storage-if magnetic tape Media is used then only serial and sequential organisation can
be used.
4. Purpose of the file-what type of application is being considered? Will the file be used online?
5. File activity how often is the fire likely to be accessed for updating? How many records on the
file will have to be accessed in one process?
6. File volatility iPhone how often will records be added or deleted from the file and this frequency
likely to change over time?

Types of files
1. Master files it is a file used as a reference for particular computer application. it is the file which
holds data that is a relatively permanent nature. The used as reference it may be updated when
necessary.
2. Transaction or movement file-this is a file of temporary data which is been prepared in order to
carry out a processing operation with a data in the master file. Usually the transaction file is used
to update master files.
3. Backup file iPhone it's a copy of another file used to hold data for recovery and security purposes.
4. Work father it's a file created during an intermediate storage in processing.
5. Scratch file-is a file no longer needed which may be overwritten.

Definition
Line sequential organisation-line sequential files are like sequential files except the record can contain
only text as data.

Entity-it's an item about which information is stored. In a payroll system an employee is an entity.

Importance of managing computer files

 To enable you access your file easily.
 To save your clients time such as when they enquire on phone.
 when files are well-managed you minimise chances of being stressed by work.
 When you organise your work well you look professional.
 To minimise confusion.

Conventional file approach

Production Department Account Department Human Resourse Department

Emp No. 478 Emp No. 478 Emp No. 478

Name Kamene Name Kamene Name Kamene

Salary 40,000 Salary 40,000 Salary 40,000

Marital status: Single Marital status: Single Marital status: Single

Job Group: K Job Group: K Job Group: K

In a business system there are many functional parts such as production marketing sales purchases
accounting and more.
Each of these functions requires a program to handle it.
If each function has its own files then we refer to this as traditional file approach or functional file
approach for file oriented approach or conventional file approach.

Limitations or weaknesses of conventional file approach

1. Data redundancy-data concerning one record May be stored more than once in each of these
individual files. This is called data redundancy or duplication.
2. because of data redundancy there is wastage of storage space.
3. Lack of data integrity even if data concerning one record is stored in more than one file then
during updating the record may be updated in one of these files and not necessarily in all the rest.
This creates inconsistency in data.
4. Inability to share data.-since data about an organisation is stored as functional files which are not
interrelated it becomes very hard to access or share data. We say the files are islands of
information.
5. It is not easy to maintain conventional files because of data redundancy. There is duplication of
efforts.
6. Conventional files are unable to respond other reports.
7. Lack of data independence-changes of data structure in files orphan requires changing many
computer application programs which may be expensive and time-consuming.

DATABASE APPROACH
A database is a collection of related records stored with minimum redundancy that many users can share
simultaneously.

Product Dept.

Emp NO: 478

Accounts Dept. Human resource Dept.
Name: Kameme
Salary: 40000
Marital status Single
Job group: K

Advantages of database approach

1. There's controlled redundancy. data about record with story ID anyone's but can be accessed from
different sections.
2. Data-sharing is encouraged. since the data in the database is centrally stored as an organisational
asset or resource it can be shared among specified users other resource.
3. Data integrity is improved. by controlling data redundancy opportunities for inconsistencies are
minimised since updating a database with consequently result in an update of affected records.
 4. There is data independence. Data structure can be modified without affecting the applications
programs using it.
5. Because data is centrally stored the system is able to respond to ad-hoc reports.
6. Because data redundancy is controlled memory space is saved.
7. It is easier to maintain records in database systems as compared to conventional file approach.

Disadvantages of database approach.

1. Designing and developing a database is very complex.
2. Organisation conflict. a shared database requires a consensus on data definition and ownership as
well as responsibilities for accurate Data maintenance.
3. Challenges in system security and recovery. it is very necessary to have adequate backup for the
system since damages to data files can be catastrophic and therefore necessary security and
recovery procedures must be planned for.
4. Need for new specialised personnel such as database administrators periods
5. Interference of shared data during concurrent access.
6. It is more costly to setup compared to conventional file approach.

Advantages of conventional file approach.

1. Less complex than electronic systems iPhone which can make it easier for untrained people to
access and manipulate data.
2. No need for new specialised personnel.
3. It is cheap to setup compared to database approach.
4. No challenges in system security and recovery.

TYPES OF DATABASES

A. Relational database.
STUDENT

STUDENT NO STUDENT NAME COURSE

149 Wakwitu Akinyi Accountancy

138 Koech Kiprono Marketing

139 Rudisha Mwendwa Computer

148 Valentine Shiku Human Resource

COURSE
COURSE CODE COURSE LECTURER IN CHARGE

COM 120 Computer LEC 450

HR 350 Human Resource LEC 375

MKT 115 Marketing LEC 390

ACC 422 Accountancy LEC 380

LECTURER
LECURER CODE NAME OF LECTURER TELEPHONE

LEC 375 DR.MUUGI 0763110271

LEC 380 PROF INOORO 0733710017

LEC 390 DR WEKESA 0711317801

LEC 450 PROF KIMENYI 0779281201

Question 1
Identify the name of lecturer who teaches Valentine Shiku
Dr Muugi

Question 2
Identify the telephone number of the lecturer in charge of marketing
0711317801

Relational database is a database structure where data is structured in a two-dimensional tables consisting
of rows and columns.
A row presents a record and a column represents an attribute of a record.
A relational database is of a 1:1 relationship.
Which separates the type of record has a separate table.
There is a unique key field in ascending sequence.
The link between various tables maintained by repeated Fields. This means that redundancy is necessary
as the repeated Fields are the only links between tables.

B. HIERARCHICAL DATABASE

Customer No.100

Invoice no.1012 Invoice no.1020

Invoice line Invoice line Invoice line Invoice line

no. 1035 no. 2241 no. 2200 no. 2250
This represents a one-to-many relationship between data.
In the hierarchical database data elements are arranged in a tree-like formation.
The role is an entity and have one owning entity.
The owning entity is called current.
The owned entity is called the child.
Apparent with no owner is called a root.
There is only one root in a tree structure YouTube

C. NETWORK DATABASE

Sales Rep Customer

Invoice Store

Invoice line Contact

This represents many-to-many relationships between data. It allows a data element to be associated with
more than one element period.the hierarchial database has some limitations is not all relationships can be
expressed easily anahita q framework. It is obvious that we are not only interested in the relationship
between customers and invoices but we are also interested in the relationship between sales
representatives and invoices.
That's why we want to know all the invoices that a particular cells present active has produced so that we
can issue commission statements.
In hierarchial database a child could have only one parent but in the network database my child can have
two parents such as invoice that has two parents and sales rep as well as customer.

DATA BANK
it is a collection of a database usually for several users available to several organisations. Databank is is is
therefore a collection of databases.
Databases organisational while the databank is multi-organizational.

DATA DICTIONARY
this is an index of data held in the database. It describes the data in the database. Data dictionary provides
information about the data in the database.

The usefulness of data dictionary

1. Solve conflict among its users as to the meaning and use of data.
2. Assist the system analysis team to organise information about the data elements in the system.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

it is a software for creating maintaining and controlling the use of a database. It allows users to define
maintain manipulate and cannot access to data stored within a database.

Database management system components.

 1. Data description language. This is a component that defines all that items or types specifications
all records and relationship among records.
2. Data manipulation language. This is a component that is used to store update retrieve or delete
records from a database.
3. Data control language. do the component used to control access to the database by granting user
rights to individual users and revoking as well when necessary.
4. A user right is a privilege given to a user to perform data manipulation operations.

Functions of a database management system

1. Data Management Systems allocate storage of data. It maintains in this is so that any required
data can be retrieved.
2. Database management system maintains data in the database by
-adding new records
-deleting dead records
-amending records or making changes.
-adding new data to existing records.
3. the database management system provides interface with user programs. The application programs may
be written in a number of different programming languages. However programs need not be familiar with
the structure of a database because the data is retrieved by the database management system.
4. database management system provides facilities for different types of file processing. It can
 Process a complete file seriously or sequentially.
 Process required records randomly.
 Retrieve individual records.
5. database management system provide security for data in the database. The main aspects of this are
 Protecting data against unauthorised access.
 Safeguarding data against corruption.
 providing recovery and restart facilities after a hardware or software failure.
6. Database management systems keep statistics of the use made of the data in the database. This allows
redundant data tube removed.

Role of database administrator.

1. Design and develop a database.
2. Ensuring the database documentation is kept up-to-date and that the database is used in a
standardized manner.
3. Monitoring the performance of a database.
4. Monitoring the control and security aspects of the operations of database.
5. Educated decisions within the database Herobrine solving conflicts arise as a result data sharing.
6. Ensuring data integrity in the database.
7. Ensuring privacy of data in the database.

Record locking

USER 1 USER 2

RECORD A
When Two users in the database try to express the same record at the same time the system gives access
to only one person to another person access.
The Denying of access to the record as a result of concurrent access is called Record locking.

Dead Lock
Locks are commonly used to control concurrent access but they can also be problematic. for example a
client may hold a lock and necessarily long causing other clients to wait too long.
A further problem called Deadlock can occur when two clients are each waiting for the others lock and
cannot finish the transaction and release their unlock until they get the other.
The Database management system mastertemp to manage Deadlock for example by aborting one of the
two Deadlocked transactions.

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

First generation computers(1940-1956)

 Used vacuum tubes for circuiting.
 They were very big in size( size of a room).
 Consumed a lot of power or electricity.
 Output was displayed on printed out.
 Input was based on punched cards and paper tapes.
 Programming was in machine language.
 Generated amount of heat.
 Very slow in processing( could only solve one problem at a time)
 Were very costly.
 Less reliable since they broke down often because of overheating.
 Used magnetic for memory that is memory cylinder coated with magnetic iron oxide on which
data and program can be stored.
 Emits a lot of radiation.

Second generation computers 1956 to 1963.

 Used transistors.
 Core memory was developed
 faster than 1st generation computers.
 Programming was in machine language and assembly language.
 Magnetic tapes and disks were used.
 Smaller in size compared to first-generation languages.
 Generated less heat than first-generation languages.
 Consumes less power than first-generation computers.
 Had large memories than first-generation computers.

Third generation computers 1963 to 1971.

 Used small scale integrated circuit and medium scale integrated circuit periodic
 Consume less power and electricity.
 High-level language was used.
 Generated less heat compared to second-generation computers.
 Have higher processing power than second generation computers.
  Cheaper than second-generation computers.
 More reliable since they don't break frequently.
 Used keyboard for input and monitor screen for output.

Fourth generation computers 19712 present.

 Used large-scale integrated circuits and very large-scale integrated circuits.
 Used raid technology for storage i.e storing data in different places or multiple hard disks.
 Used in virtual reality and multimedia simulation.
 Computer started to be used in data communication.
 Used memories with faster access speed and large storage capacity.
 Consumed minimal power.
 Generated minimal amount of heat.
 First in processing compared to third-generation computers.

Fifth generation computers.

 Small in size.
 Used in parallel processing or use of several processes.
 Cheap.
 More reliable since they don't break frequently.
 Used superconductors
 Used in speech recognition intelligent robots artificial intelligence.
 Very fast in processing.
 Generates minimal amount of heat.
 Consumes minimal power.
 Very large storage capacity.

1st 2nd 3rd 4th Generaton 5th

Generation Geneneration Generation Computers Generation
Computers computers Computers Computers

Computer Vacuum tubes Transistors Small scale Large scale LSI Parallel
used for circuity SSI and MSI processing

Size Big in size Smaller in size Smaller in size Smaller in size Very small

Amount of A lot of heat Less heat than Less heat than Less heat than Less heat than
heat 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
generated

Processiing Very slow Faster High High Very fast

speed

Amount of A lot of power Less power than Less power Minimal power Very minimal
power 1st than 2nd power
consumed
Cost Very costly Cheap Cheaper than Cheap Cheap
2nd

Size of storage Huge in size Smaller Small in size Large in size Large storage
capacity

Reliability Less reliable Less reliable More reliable More reliable More reliable

Storage media Magnetic Large memories Keyboard RAID Super

used memory Technologies conductors.

Analogue computer- heater computing device that works on a continuous range of values. the results
given by the analogue computer will only be approx since they deal with quantities that vary
continuously. it generally deals with physical variables such as voltage pressure temperature and speed.

Digital computer-operates on digital data such as numbers. it uses binary number system in which there
are only two digits 0 and 1 . each digit is a bit. digital computers can give more accurate and fast results.
digital computers are well-suited for solving complex problems In Engineering and Technology hands
digital computers have an increasing used in the field of design research and data processing.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS

HYBRID COMPUTERS - it combines the desirable features of analogue and digital computer. it's
normally used for automatic operations of complicated physical processes and machines for example in
hospital analogue devices might measure the patient's temperature blood pressure and other vital signs.
This measurements which are in analogue might then be converted into numbers and supplied to the
Digital component in the system.

SPECIAL PURPOSE COMPUTERS-It's built for special operations.

GENERAL PURPOSE COMPUTERS- it's used for only type of applications. they can store different
programs and do the job as per the instructions specified on those programs. most of the computers that
use today are general purpose computers.

SUPERCOMPUTERS- they are very expensive. they are very fast in processing. they are the most
powerful computers we have in the world. they are used to wear very high speed of processing is
required. they are very large and can process billions of instructions per second. they are used in
applications which require intensive numerical computations such as stock analysis weather-forecasting
scientific simulations fluid dynamics calculations nuclear energy research analysis of geological data
such as petrochemical prospecting.

MAINFRAME COMPUTERS-the process data at a very high speed of hundred of million in instruction
per second. they are expensive but not as supercomputers. they are used in banking airline and railway for
their applications. they support hundreds of terminals. have large storage capacity.
MINI-COMPUTERS- they are loyal to mainframes in terms of Speed and storage capacity. they're also
less expensive than mainframe. summer features of mainframe will not be available in mini computer
hence their performance will be less than those supported by mainframe.

MICRO COMPUTERS-The Invention of microprocessors give birth to microcomputers. they are cheaper
than many computers. they support only one user at a time. they are referred to as a personal computer.
they are slower than many computers. they are intended for individual users and their application
requirements. they are user-friendly.

DESKTOP COMPUTERS-They are micro computers with support one user at a time. they are also called
personal computers. they are normally placed on a desk when being used. that's why they are called
desktop computers. they are cheap. they are user-friendly.

LAPTOP COMPUTERS -They are portable computers. They are lightweight computers with a thin
screen. they can operate on a charged battery and therefore are very popular with the Travelers. the
screen Folds on the keyboard when not in use period consumes minimal power period can be placed on
lapse.

PERSONAL DIGITAL ASSISTANTS-They are handheld computers. they are pen best and also battery
powered they are small and can be carried anywhere. They use a pen-like stylus and accept handwritten
input directly on the screen.
They are not as powerful as a desktop or laptop. they are used for scheduling appointments storing
addresses and playing games. they have a touchscreen which we use with a finger.

PALMTOP COMPUTERS-They are portable computers that can be placed on your palm.

Reasons that make microcomputers suitable for personal computing work.

1. They are portable-they are small in size making them convenient to move with from one point to
another.
2. Cost -micro computers are cheap compared to mainframe and mini computers making them
affordable.
3. User-friendly-microcomputers use simple operating systems making them easy to use or operate.
4. Reprogrammable-they can handle any task as long as a suitable program is provided.
5. Environmental conditions-are not needed for example no need for air conditioning.
6. Consumes less power.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES.
a.)Machine code language (1st generation language IGL)
Coding is done binary notation.
A program written in machine code is not need transaction.
Programs written in machine code executes very fast.
What is machine oriented or dependent set data program written in machine code cannot run on different
machines of different configuration. In your line programs need hardware knowledge.
It's very tedious code in machine code language.
It is error-prone hence there are too many errors.
It is not easy to modify a program written in machine code language.

b.) Assembly language-second generation language 2GL

Coding is done mnemonics or abbreviation.
assemblers are used to translate a program written in assembly language into machine code. Nalang
programs written in assembly language are slow down those written in machine code language.
It is machine oriented or dependent. Online programs require hardware knowledge to code in assembly
language.
It is easier to code in assembly language than in machine code language. In line translation mapping is 1:1
search that owner instruction in assembly language is translated into an equivalent one instruction in
machine code.
It is less error-prone compared with machine code.
It is easier to modify compared to machine code.
Easier to tresierras than in machine code.

c.) High-level language - 3rd generation languages.

coding is done in human-like or people-based language.
It is easier to code in high-level language than in second generation languages.
It is less error-prone compared to assembly language.
Programmers productivity is increased since you take a short time to code in high-level language than in
assembly language.
compilers and interpreters are used to translate programs written in high-level language to machine code.
Translation mapping he is 1:many since one instruction in high-level language when translated produced
many machine code instructions.
They are machine independent since a program written in high-level language can run on any machine
periodic line the programmer does not need hardware knowledge.
High-level language is problem-oriented since each language in high-level language was developed to
solve problems in given application area such as
 BASIC- beginners all purpose symbolic instruction code was designed for training beginners
aspiring to be computer programmers.
 COBOL- commonly business-oriented language was designed to be used in business or
commercial applications.
 FORTRAN- formula translation designed for solving complex mathematical problems in
engineering and science.
 PASCAL- was designed to be used in scientific applications.
 ADA- was designed for commercial and military operations

d.) Fourth-generation languages crewline they are also referred to as very high-level programming
languages.
there are none procedural languages since the programmer or user is allowed to specify what the
computer is supposed to do without specifying how it's supposed to be done.
programs written in fourth-generation language are shorter than equivalent programs written in third
generation language.
they are easier to use than 3rd generation languages periodni line they allow young professionals to
develop computer application programs although very little training may be necessary.
They are easier to modify than high-level languages programmers productivity is increased since text a
shorter time to code in fourth generation language than third generation language.
There's lower than third generation languages.
They include:
 Qbe -query by example
 QQL - quick query language
 Ap - application factory

e.) Fifth-generation languages.

They are also referredto as natural language that allow users and programmers to interact with the
computer by using human language patterns.
They are still in a state of development while those developed are not popular in commercial application.
This languages may not handle very complex logical operations.
Their main application areas are on expert systems.
They include:
 PROLOG-programming in Logic.
 LISP-list programming.

TRANSLATORS.
They're also described as language processes and are used to convert source Code to the equivalent object
code.

source Code is a program written in other programming language other than the machine code and cannot
be understood on the computer directly.
object code is the already translated program which is in its executable form.
Translators can be categorised as:
1. Interpreters-translates high-level language into machine code. Translation is done statement by
statement. object program is not saved after the machine translation since translation takes place
everytime program is running period execution of the statement is done on the sport period
translates one instruction in high-level language to many machine code instructions. They are
slow.
2. Compilers-translates high-level language to machine code. Translation is done once for the whole
program. object program is served since compilation takes place once for a particular program.
Translates one instruction in high-level language to many machine code instructions. They are
faster in Translation. Not effective in statement by statement error correction.
3. Assemblers-translate assembly language to machine code. Translate one instruction in assembly
language 21 machine code instruction. Object program is saved.

Factors affecting the choice of programming language.

1. Purpose of the language such as commercial or scientific.
2. Availability of translator.
3. Language portability a portable language allows a program to run on any machine.
4. Users experience -programmers prefer to use and language with which they are familiar.
5. Ease of learning.
6. Performance efficiency.
7. Ease of error-checking and correction.
8. Ease of modification

OPERATING SYSTEM.
An operating system is a set of programs that takes over the operation of a computer to the extent being
able to allow a number of programs to be run on the computer without human intervention

Functions of an operating system

1. loading of programs and subroutines into main memory when required.
 2. Interrupt handling such as interrupt caused by power failure hardware malfunction operator
pressing an interrupt key.
3. provision of error correction Returns. The operating system should be able to handle errors that
occur as part of normal operating activity.
4. allocation of devices. Several jobs may request for some output Media. If more than one output
device is available for that medium then some programs will be allocated one device and the
other programs another device. If subsequently the queue device is longer than for another then
relocations are made.
5. Input-output controller. this consists of programs for controlling the input data from various
devices and output data to various devices.
6. operating system try to optimise the use of hardware by allocating priority.
7. Scheduling of programs and subroutines.
8. Passing control from one job to another under scheduling scheme.
9. File security and management. This involves:
a. Preventing illegal access or amendments to user files or systems files.
b. Dumping the contents of files from time to time in case of future loss.
c. Keeping track of file description and location.
10. furnishing a complete record of all that happens during processing.
11. Memory-management.
12. communication with the operator. The user interface is the part of the operating system that
allows you to communicate with the computer.

Factors to consider when acquiring an operating system.

1. Suitability and robustness.-they are operating systems Which won't work unless you reboot them
twice a day. you don't want to use the operating system of this kind no matter how good the
operating system people who have used operating system can tell you about it stability.
2. Memory management-you want an operating system which has good memory management.
Some operating systems are known as memory hog period the same code can use twice as much
as one.
3. Memory leaks-some operating system suffer from memory leaks. A leak is when some process
request A chunk of memory for temporary storage but then does not subsequently released it. The
chunk of memory is not then available for any purpose until the process that requested it dies.
4. Memory sharing iPhone we want an operating system with good memory sharing capability.
5. Cost and support-you can purchase what is within your means and also working. You can check
if there is after-sales support.
6. discontinued product Ivan don't go for discontinued products. Check the background of the
software company before making your choice.

Types of operating systems.

1. Batch operating system-it's one in which jobs are bundled together with instructions necessary to
allow them to be processed together.
2. Multiprogramming operating system iPhone allows several programs to be resident in the main
memory but being executed at apparently the same time.
3. Multi user operating system period-allows for multiple users to use the same computer at the
same time.
4. Time sharing operating system-this allow processes time to be shared equally among all the users.
5. Multi-processing operating system-is capable of supporting and utilising more than one computer
processor at the same time.
6. Network operating system iPhone is a software that controls access of multiple users to network
resources such as files and provide for certain administrative functions including security.
Resource management by operating.
 Memory.
 Processor time.
 Files
 Output input devices.
 Data.
 Backing storage.

Examples of operating system.

 Ms-dos-microsoft disk operating system.
 Macintosh operating system.
 Windows 3.X for DOS.
 Windows OS Windows 98 Windows 2000 Windows Vista windows and Windows NT
 Unix in a paragraph

Operating system used by portable devices

 Windows 7.
 Symbian operating system.
 Android operating system.
 Bada operating system.
 iPhone operating system.
 Meego operating system.
 Palm Operating system.
 Windows mobile.
 Blackberry operating system.

Human computer interface

The interaction between the end users and the computer is set to take place at the human-computer
interface. the purpose of human-computer interface is to enable communication between the end users
and the computer.

Types of human computer interface

A. Command driven interface -in this interface commands are used period commands enables the
user to instruct the computer on what to do. however they require the user to already have a knowledge of
what commands are available what they do and the rules governing how they should be typed. command
driven interface is suitable for experienced users but not for beginners. commands tends to be most
popular in situations where the inducer continuously works with the same program and can gain mastery
of commands.

B. Menu-driven interface-the menu-driven interface provides the user with a number of options and
a simple means of selecting between them. The user is presented with a choice and doesn't need to
remember any commands. interface is suitable for beginners and infrequent users. all our user has to do is
to make a choice period in the above example the user should type 1 or 2 or 3. If you type „I‟ this causes
the main menu to be replaced with the print menu.
C. Graphical user interface-it is a human computer interface best upon graphical displays. they are
icons that are displayed on a screen. they enable the user to click on them and perform a specific
task.Graphical user interface is easy-to-use. and like Command driven interface graphical user interface
doesn't require the user to have the knowledge of commands that are available. user is not required to
memorize commands. user is not required to know the format of commands.

D. Windows icons miles pull-down menus (WIMP) - a window is a rectangular area on a display
screen on which text or graphical images may be displayed. several windows may be displayed on the
screen at the same time. most workstations and some personal computers used software that handle all
screen display by means of Windows. windows are displayed on the screen in a manner assembling
rectangular piece of paper on a desktop.

a. Mice-are used to move the cursor from one point to another and selecting objects.
b. Icons-are graphical images that represent operation such as an image of a printer to represent
printing operations.
c. Pull-down menus-these are special Windows associated with the text headings displayed at the
top of the screen.
d. Pop-up windows-seducer Windows which appear after the user makes a selection such as a Lefty
save from the pull-down menu can cause a pop-up window to appear.****
e. voice user interface-accept input and provide output by generating voice prompts.

Utilities( service programs)

They are system programs which provide a useful service to the user of the computer by providing
facilities for performing common tasks.

Types of Utilities.
1. Peripheral transfer programs-they are used for such things as making a copy of a file from one
storage device onto another such as printing a copy of a fired or reading a file from input device
onto a disc.
2. Editor's-used at a terminal and provide a series of commands which the user can use to look at a
program or better and make any alterations. if for example a source program needed correction
because it had failed to compile properly an editor may be used to make necessary changes to the
program.
3. Sort utilities-they are used to rearrange file records into a specified sequence such as an unsorted
transaction file may be converted into assorted file by utility before the file is processed.
4. System status Utilities-these programs are able to provide information about the current state of
use of files memory and peripherals EG it may be possible to use such a utility to show how
many files are waiting in a queue to be output onto a line printer.
5. File maintenance utilities iPhone they may be used to perform tasks such as organising files YG
every so often it may be necessary to reorganize and indexed sequential file on disk because of
changes which have occurred to the file as a result of a number of Records being inserted or
deleted.
6. Debuggers FM they are used as an aid to removing bugs or errors from programs. they provide
ways of examining and changing data values.
7. Dumb utilities hyphened dump means copy the contents of main memory into an output device.
damping sometimes refers to the copying of data from storage devices like disks. This software is
useful when errors have occurred during the running of a program.
8. Backup Utilities - are programs used to make a duplicate copy of information on your desk for
security purposes.
 9. Data Recovery utility -used to restore data that has been physically damaged or corrupted. data
can be damaged by viruses bad software hardware failure and power fluctuations that occur while
data is being written or recorded.
10. Virus protection utility python antivirus software is a utility program that scans hard disks
desquites flash disks and detect viruses. this utilities destroy viruses on the spot . others notify of
possible viral behaviours.
11. Data compression Utilities-they remove redundant elements tabs and unnecessary data from
computer storage so that less storage space is used.
12. Merge Utilities-combine several documents into one document.
13. Formality utility-prepare the disk for recording by creating concentric trucks and subdividing
them into sectors and allocating them electronic labels.

Application software packages

(Prewritten or off-the-shelf)
they cover wide application including word processing database graphics and minimum.

Advantages of application software packages.

 The application packages are ready for use and fully tested before being released to the market
This saves on programming time because no time will be required to design code and test it.
 Documentation is of high quality and therefore helps users overcome some problems that may
arise during its operation.
 Since there are many developers all competing for the same market it will tend to improve the
quality of their products and providing prospective users with a wide range of choice.
 They are cheap since the cost of development is spread over several prospective buyers at its
release. this will reduce the cost per unit copy.
 most of them have an online health facility that makes them easy to use hands user-friendly.
 They are less error-prone because they are thoroughly tested.

Disadvantages of application software packages.

 Since they are designed to meet the needs of several users they may not exactly made specific or
unique users needs.
 Are you sure is not free to change them to fit his or her application needs due to copyright
implications.
 In the process of making them more general the software becomes bulky or more complex hence
require a large memory space and disk space for both initial installation and subsequent
execution.
 They become obsolete within a short period of time.
 The limit job opportunities for programmers.

Factors affecting the choice of application software package

1. Suitability to application area-The user should know to what extent or close the package meets
the application needs.
2. Licence agreement conditions and if they include supplier or vendor support.
3. Software reliability which can be assessed from users currently using the software.
4. Portability on various hardware configuration range.
5. Compatibility with existing software application.
6. Operating system requirement i.e on which operating system is the package run efficiently and
effectively.
7. Overall cost such as installation cost cost price and user training cost.
8. Documentation and other training aids.
Bespoke (custom written or tailor-made) software
A bespoke software is a software developed on request by the users.

Advantages of bespoke software.

 Organisation owns the software and may be able to sell it to other potential users to generate
revenue.
 Company may be able to do things with it software that competitors cannot do with there's period
in other words it's a source of competitive advantage.
 The software will be able to meet specific users needs.
 Software is not bulky and therefore doesn't occupy a lot of storage space.
 Can modify the software to accommodate changes in the organisation.

Disadvantages of bespoke software

 Software may not work at all.
 There may belong delays before the software is ready.
 The software is costly because the cost of development is made by one organisation.
 Documentation may not be up to standard.
 Chances of error is high.

Integrated software packages.

This contains the features of several application programs such as word processing spreadsheet database
graphics and many more in One software packages.

Advantages of integrated software packages.

 They are cheaper than separate packages.
 They consume less storage space than separate packages because they are less bulky.
 Different modules of the same integrated packages are compatible since you can call data or
document from a database and use it in spreadsheet.
 Commands are similar throughout so it's easier to get used to them several different packages.
 Easier to install than separate packages.
 Easier to update compared to where they are separate.

Disadvantages of integrated packages

.
 Integrated software packages are less powerful than the corresponding single-purpose programs
such as word processing or spreadsheet
 It is costly for person who wants to use only one module of the integrated package settle the
secretary who made need only word processing.
 In case of failure at severe level the whole suit is tampered with and work cannot proceed
normally.
 Integrated software packages are less powerful than the corresponding single-purpose programs
such as word processing and spreadsheet.

Definition
Copyright is the exclusive legal right that prohibits copying of intellectual property without the
permission of the copyright holder. copyright law protects books articles pamphlets music drawings
arts movies and computer software.
Software privacy -is unauthorised copying of copyrighted software.
Plagiarism is the appropriation of another writers text finding an integration and presenting it as one's
own.
Close source software-is a software released or distributed without the corresponding Source Code users
are prohibited from making changes to it.
Open Source software.-is a computer software that is available in Source Code and uses are permitted to
study change improve and sometimes even to distribute the software.

Factors to consider in the selection of open Source software

1. Does the software have a good reputation for performance and reliability.
2. Ongoing effort.- is there clear evidence of ongoing effort to develop the open-source software
you are considering? has there been recent work to feed bags and meet users needs? active
projects usually have regularly updated web pages and Busy email lists. they usually encourage
the participation of those who use the software in the further development.
3. Standards and interoperability-choose software that implements open standards. interoperability
with other software is an important way of settling more from your investment. Good software
does not unnecessarily reinvent the wheel or force you to learn new languages or complex Data
format.
4. Support community iPhone does the project have an active support community ready to answer
your questions? if you post a message and receive a prompt and helpful reply this may be a sign
that there is an active community of users out there ready to help.
5. Good practice-suggests that if you wish to avail yourself of such support you should also be
willing to provide support for other members of the community when you are able.
6. Commercial support- consider contracting a third-party commercial support that provide
technical support to an open system.
7. Version-when was the last version of the software released. virtually no software is completely
bug-free so always go for a later version.
8. Documentation-always consider the software with the documentation such as development
documentation which highlight history of bug fixes feature changes.
9. Skills-do you and your colleagues have the appropriate skills to deploy and maintain the
software? or will you employ a third-party contractor or will you implement a training plan to
match your skills to the task.
10. Licence conditions for your contribution of God to ongoing development of the software or the
incorporation of the cord into other packages.
11. Software compatibility with the existing software.

Features of word processing.

 Word wrap-automatic arrangement of text in lines specified length without the necessity of
touching the return key.
 Justification-automatic alignment of text to both the left and right margin.
 insertion-the entry of new words within previously typed material without raising the existing
materials.
 Deletion- Erasure of text from the screen or of whole document from the storage device.
 search and replace-moving directly to specified words or parts of words with the document and
replacing them with different word or word pads.
 Page numbering-automatic sequential numbering of pages.
 Spelling checker-automatic spelling Checker and correction.
 Thesaurus- provide synonyms.
 WYSIWYG-What-you-see-is-what-you-get. it is a feature that allows you to see how document
will look like after printing.

Features of a spreadsheet
A spreadsheet is a computer program In which figures are arranged in a grid of rows and columns.
  formula-if a value on a spreadsheet is changed formula makes sure that the change is updated
throughout the rest of the spreadsheet.
 Goal seeker-this looks at the Endpoint and works backward e.g “ I want to make 100000 shillings
profit this month. how many times do I need to sell?” the goal seek too will give you that answer.
 Graphs and charts-graphs and charts let you present the data in a visual or pictorial form. humans
find it easier to spot trends and analyse data in a graph rather than in a table of numbers.
 Regression analysis I was using mathematical tools in the spreadsheet to look for trends. this can
help you see relationships between things such as a hot day you will sell more ice creams or when
it is wet umbrella sales Will Rise.
 This can be used to help predict future profits best of the profits you have made.
 Cell formatting - numbers strings currencies dates and times.
 Cell margin-rows and columns.
 Operation like deleting and inserting columns or rows.
 Rename or delete the active file features.
 What-if analysis.

Graphs supported by spreadsheet.

 pie chart
 column chart
 Bar chart.
 Scatter chart.
 Area chart

Uses of electronic spreadsheet

 Budgetary planning.
 Financial forecasting.
 Financial sensitivity analysis.
 Cash flow projections.
 Construction pie charts and bar graphs.

Features of database package.

 Tables- basic information stored in a database program gets entered onto a table. tables provide
an organised way to input information.
 templates-most database software have templates available for frequently used for months. users
can modify these templates to personalize them to their own specific purposes.
 Forms-database software include the option of creating user-friendly forms to make the task of
entering data easier to the operators eye.
 Reports-database programs include report creation functions. users can insert functions into
reports to help in analysis of data.
 Data functions iPhone database software provide users with features to organise their information
is simply and specifically.

Key features of accounting software package.

1. Clock speed -in a computer clock speed refers to the number of pulses per second generated by an
oscillator that sets the tempo for the processor clock speed is measured in Hertz such as
3GHz. the higher the clock speed the faster the computer.
2. Database- is the data path on the computer's motherboard that interconnect the microprocessor
with attachment to the motherboard in expansion slot. the bigger the database the faster the data
transmission.
 3. RAM size-moral means the computer can use bigger more powerful programs and those
programs can access big data files. also make the computer to run faster. large RAM can keep
more of the active programs and data in-memory rather than storage.
4. Type of processor in a computer might have a single processor double processor or quad-core
processor which determines how many instructions can be completed at one time and more is
faster.
5. Register size-the size of the register is sometimes called what size which indicates the amount of
data with which the computer can work at any given time period the bigger the word size the
more quickly the computer can process a set of data 32-bit processor or 64-bit processor are some
terminologies which refer to the size of the Register in the processor.
6. Cache memory-it is similar to RAM except that is extremely fast compared to normal memory.
cache speed up processing by storing frequently used data or instructions in its high-speed
memory.
7. Passing maths operations to the maths core processor-a math coprocessor is a chip that is
specially designed to handle complicated mathematical operations new rcb vs have maths core
processors built in math core processor support for extreme number of calculations involved in
generating computer graphics and video imaging.

Data communication
Communication is the process of transferring messages from one point to another.

Elements of communication process.

1. A sender or source which creates the message to be transmitted.
2. A medium which carries the message.
3. Receivers or sink which receive the message.

Data transmission mode

A. Simplex -if transmission is simplex communication takes place only in One Direction. devices
connected to search a circuit is either send or receive only.
B. Half duplex-half duplex system can transmit data in both directions but only One Direction at a
time.
C. Full duplex-full duplex system allows simultaneous transmission of data in both directions.

Transmission Media
Wire pairs or twisted wires-made of copper. a pair of wires are twisted together to reduce interference by
adjacent wires. it's cheap. has low immunity to noise. has low data transmission rate period can only be
used over a short distance. they are thinly insulated.
A. Coaxial cable-made of copper. thickly insulated. has high immunity to noise. more costly than
twisted wires. have higher data transmission rate compared to twisted wires. can be used over a long
distance.
B. Optical fibres-made of fibres. very thin to the size of human hair. transmit data in form of light
waves. Transmit data at a very high speed. fibre optics transmission are not affected by electromagnetic
interference. have immunity to noise. they are expensive. can be used to communicate either analogue or
digital signals. Converters are needed at source to convert electrical signals to light waves and another
converter is needed that sync to convert light waves back to electrical signals.
C. Microwave communication-messages are transmitted through the atmosphere in the form of
waves called microwaves. microwave Towers and relay stations are used to transmit signals from one
point to another. Repeater stations are used to strengthen the signals over a long-distance. microwaves
moves in a straight line. this means the sending station and receiving station must be in the line-of-sight.
microbes can be locked by mountains and other structures and that's why relay stations are positioned on
buildings or Hills. it's easier to install than cables. have higher data transmission rate compared to coaxial
cables.
D. Communication satellite-microwaves are transmitted from transmitting station on earth to the
satellite in space high frequency of 6GHz. the satellite amplifies the weak incoming signal and retransmit
it back to Earth. any station within the radius of the satellite can receive the broadcast signal . satellite
communication signals cannot be blocked by structures because they are being broadcasted from above.
retransmision frequency is different from the transmission frequency to avoid the interference of the
powerful transmission signals with weak incoming signals. transmission and reception can be between
any two randomly chosen places. it's very suitable method of communication over a long distance. it's
costly to place satellite in its orbit. sensitive message may need to be encrypted to protect confidentiality.

Factors to consider in the choice of transmission Media

 Cost
 Transmission rate
 Distance
 Interference what is place of electromagnetic interference
 Durability
 High quality transmission of signals since they have low error rate
 Land topography
 Ease of installation

Communication devices

Modulator-demodulator (modem)

Computer generated data is digital whereas the telephone line used for communication are usually meant
for carrying analogue signals. when digital data are transmitted over an analogue facility suggest
telephone line than digital signals must be converted to analogue signals.
This is called modulation. modem is used to convert digital signals to analogue signals at the source and
reconvert analogue signals back to digital signals at the sink (demodulation). when data is sent in digital
modem is not used.

Advantages of digital transmission over analogue transmission.

 Lower costs
 No modem required
 Higher transmission speed is possible
 Lower error rate.

Multiplexer

Multiplexer takes several data communication Lines or signals and convert them into one data
communication line or signal at the sending location.
in the above diagram the multiplexer takes the signal from for terminals and convert them into one large
signal which can be transmitted over the communication line.
Are they receiving location a multiplexer takes the one large signal and breaks it into the original four
signals.
The purpose of multiplexing is to serve the telecommunication cost by using few lines during
transmission.

Concentrators
A concentrator is an intelligent multiplexer. it can store and forward information at maximum lightspeed
eliminating idle time. they have the ability to reduce the number of signals such as hand signals from
different devices coming into the concentrator will leave as 10 turn signals are concentrated to form a few
number of signals.

Front-end processor FEP

Front-end processor is a separate processor designed specifically to handle the network processing tasks.
it is usually installed in the same location with the Host computer.
The primary purpose of front-end processor is to offload communication processing task from the Host
computer so that the Host computer can be dedicated for application of data processing jobs. it acts like
a secretary or reception is to the main computer.

Hub - Used in wired network to connect cables to a number of devices together. the Hub allows each
device to talk to one another.

Bridge - to the device that connects to local area networks with the same transmission protocol.

Gateway-is a communication device used to connect two networks whose communication protocols are
different.

Router-is a device that determine the most efficient route between networks. it may determine the
alternative route in case of congestion on a particular line.

Brouter- it is a bridging router. it is a device which combines the features of a bridge and router. it is
capable of routing packets of data across network and working as a bridge.

Switch-is a multi-port bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency. it can perform error
checking.

Synchronous and asynchronous transmission.

Synchronous transmission Asynchronous transmission

 Data is transmitted as a block of characters at a  Data is transmitted as a character

time. at a time.
 Each block is framed with the header and trailer.  Each character is formed with a
 Individual characters are not framed with a start start bit and stop bit.
bit and stop bit.  The system doesn't require buffer
 The system requires buffer storage at both storage at the sending and
sending and receiving locations for assembling receiving station.
blocks of characters periods  It's cheap to implement.
 The synchronising clock is needed to enable the  It is slow.
sending device to operate at the same speed as  The transmission line is idle during
the receiving device. the time interval between
 It's costly to implement. transmitting characters.
 It's first in transmission.  It is convenient only for short
 It eliminates idle time between characters. distance.
 Makes maximum utilisation of transmission line.
  it is convenient for both long and short distance.

Serial transmission and parallel transmission

Serial transmission Parallel transmission

11101101 → 1→
0→
1→
1→
0→

 A character is transmitted a bit at a  A characters transmitted several beat

time. simultaneously.
 Only one channel of communication is  It is very fast.
needed.  It requires several channels.
 It is slow.  It is costly to implement.
 It is cheap to implement.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
A network is a connection of two or more computers for the purpose of communication sharing resources.
a network topology refers to the way in which the endpoints or station is over network linked together.

Star topology.

In startup ology a host computer is attached to a local computer through multiple communication
channels. the local computers are not linked directly to each other but communicate through the Host
computer.

Advantages of star topology.

1. it has minimal line cost because few communication lines are used.
2. Transmission delay between two nodes or computers do not increased by adding new nodes to the
network because 20 may be connected via two lines only.
3. If any of the local computer failed the remaining position of the network is not affected.
4. It is easy to add new devices since you just connect to the hub.
5. Ease of administration or centralised management.

Disadvantages of star topology.

1. The system critically depends on the Host computer period if the Host computer fails then turn
network fails.
2. It is costly to install since the Host computer is expensive.

Ring topology

There is no host computer or controlling computer. the node receives data from one of the adjacent
nodes.
The only decision a node has to take is whether the data is for its use or not.
If it is addressed to it it utilizes it otherwise it merely passes it on the next node. so that circulates around
the ring from the interface to the interface only one computer transmits a message at a time. this is done
by talking passing.

Advantages of ring topology.

1. the network works well where there is no central side computer system.
2. It is not dependent on a single host computer.
3. No signal degeneration because each workstation is responsible for boosting the signal.
4. Each node sends data when it receives a token. this helps to eliminate collision.
5. No need for network service to control connectivity between workstations.
6. All nodes have equal opportunities to transmit data.

Disadvantages of ring topology.

1. Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes in the network and addition
of new nodes in the network increases the communication delay.
2. It needs a repeater at each point of attachment.
3. A simple fault in the interface halts the entire network.

Completely connected network

Each computer has a direct dedicated link with all other computers on the network.
The control is distributed with each computer deciding its communication priorities.

Advantages of completely connected network

 It is very reliable because any Line breakdown will affect only communication between the
connected computers.
 Each node of the network need not have individuals routing capability.
 Communication is very fast.

Disadvantages of completely connected network

 it's expensive in view of line cost.

Bus topology

Single transmission medium is shared by all nodes.

All computers are attached at the same line.
When a particular computer wants to send a message to another computer the destination address is
attached to the message and computer checks whether the line is free. as soon as the line becomes free it
broadcasts the message on the line. as the message travels on the line each computer checks whether it‟s
address computer which sends an acknowledgement to the source computer and frees the line.

Advantages of bus topology

 It reduces the physical Lines.
 Failure of a computer in the network does not affect the network functioning for other computers.
 Addition of new computers to the network is easy.

Disadvantages of bus topology

 Each computer connected to the line must have good communication and decision-making
capability.
 If the communication line fails the entire system breaks down.
  Network performance decreases as the number of messages increases hand signal degeneration
Because workstation don't boast the signals.
 Difficult to troubleshoot because falls are usually a break in the main cable and this is difficult to
isolate on a large network.
 It is possible for messages to collide.

Tree or hierarchical of network

A single large computer controls all computer activity. however each or one of the computers connected
to the main computer in the first level of the star has a star network of devices connected to it.

Hybrid networks

The exact shape of a network depends on the need and overall organisational structure of the company
involved. The hybrid may have components of star ring and completely connected network.

Factors that determine the type of topology

 Reliability of the entire network.
 Expandability of the system.
 Cost involved.
 Availability of communication line.
 Delays involved in routing information from node to another.
 Signal degeneration.

Definitions
Stand-alone computers-it's a computer that is not connected to any other computer.
Workstation-it is an intelligent terminal. it is a computer connected to a network that has the ability to do
processing on its own.
Dumb terminal-it is the terminal connected to a network but has no processing ability. it relies on the
Host computer for processing.

Wide area network and local area network

Local area network (LAN)

It is a communication system capable of interconnecting a large number of computer terminals and other
peripheral devices within a limited geographical area.

Wide area network (WAN)

It is a system with interconnects different sites and computer installations and other user terminals and
may enable local access networks to communicate with each other.

Differences between local area network and wide area network

1. In local area network transmission medium belong to the user organisation while in wide area
network transmission medium used are normally public system such as telephone lines,
microwaves and satellite links.
2. All devices connected in a local area network belong to the user organisation while all devices
connected in a wide area network belong to different organisations.
 3. The cost of transmission in a local area network is negligible since the transmission medium is
owned by the user of the organisation. the cost of transmission in a wide area network is costly
because the transmission medium belong to another organisation.
4. There are few data transmission errors in local area network because the distance covered by data
is negligible while there are more transmission errors in wide area network because of long
distance covered.

Advantages of local area network LAN

 files can be stored on a central computer allowing data to be shared throughout an organization.
 Files can be backed up more easily when they are on a central file server then when they are
scattered across a number of independent computers.
 Network also allow security to be established and sharing that the network users may only have
access to certain files and applications.
 Resources can be centrally managed. airline network versions of software often allow for the
speed installation on workstations from the file server.
 Expensive devices such as laser printers can be shared.
 Users can access the files from any workstation.
 Easier to upgrade the software from the server than from every computer.
 Easier to communicate with each other and transfer data between workstations.

Disadvantages of local area network LAN

 if server develops a fault then users may not be able to run the application program.
 A fault on the network can cause users to lose data.
 It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers novices and industrial espionage.
 Decisions on resource planning time to become centralised.
 Networks that have grown with little thought can be inefficient. in the long term such that when
the traffic increases on a network the performance degrades.
 Costly to set up.
 Need for skilled Manpower.

Metropolitan area network MAN

It is a computer network that usually spans a city. A MAN usually interconnects a number of LAN using
high-capacity backbone technology such as fibre-optic links.

Advantages of networking
Advantages of networking.
1. encourage sharing and Resources such as data software and expensive devices.
2. Facilitates communication.
3. Provision of local facilities without the loss of Central control.
4. Even distribution of work and processing laws.
5. Sharing risks and mutual support.
6. Encourage paperless office.
7. Minimise movements.
8. Easy to backup data.
9. Assist collaboration i.e ability to work on one task the several people simultaneously.

disadvantages of networking.
1. Expensive to install.
2. Encourages people to be dependent on computers.
3. If one station fails other stations are affected.
 4. There is a need for highly skilled personnel because managing a large network is
complicated.
5. Security challenges such as viruses hacking and many more.

International network( internet)

Internet is the largest implementation of information superhighway linking a vast web of
electronic network businesses universities government agencies and individuals.

The benefit of the internet

 Hasten access-to-information. the internet provides instant access to a wealth of
information resources that might have taken days or months to locate.
 It enhances communication and collaboration e.g
o Email is;
 Cheap
 Instantaneous
 Location-independent
 Can broadcast a message predefined of people
 Can store message electronically.
 Secure since it's password protected
 Can forward messages to interested parties
 It accelerates the distribution of new knowledge and the pace of scientific Discovery.
 It facilitates electronic Commerce.
 It facilitates e-learning.
 Provides a forum for exchanging opinions and information.
 You can download documents and software.
 Provides for Entertainment Music movies and other cultural events.
 Used for advertisement.

Challenges of internet
1. Security challenges such as viruses and hacking.
a. Jamming - it is to tie up computer hosting our website so that legitimate visitors
cannot access the website.
b. Sniffing - it is a form of eavesdropping. it involves placing a software to intercept
communication between a computer hosting a website and a terminal.
c. Spoofing-setting out counterfeit websites to collect confidential information from
unsuspecting visitors.
d. Spamming-this is sending of unsolicited mass mail for marketing purposes.
2. Network congestion.
3. Information overload-and enquiry often leads to more responses than the recipient can
handle.
4. Employees can spend a lot of time on the internet doing non job-related activities thus
reduction in productivity.
5. the quality of much of the information on the internet leaves much to be desired.
6. Cost is a major issue of the minimum hardware requirements can be obtained cheaply.
7. Can lead to Moral decay in society.

Impact of the internet on business.

 1. Communication- a business ability to communicate with its employees' customers and
Associates have changed. email and instant messaging have changed the face of
business communication.
2. telecommunication-many businesses are now offering the option for the employees to
work from home using office equipment provided by the company. this service and
organisation overhead costs by using less office space.
3. marketing-with the advent of internet marketing business must stay abreast of the
names of the customers' surveys questionnaires feedback forms and comments on a
website can be used to monitor a business customer needs.
4. advertising-able to reach potential customers globally and cheaply.
5. Collaboration-working with other businesses and professionals is simplified to the use of
the internet. it is easy for people all over the world to work on the same project
simultaneously.
6. Research-business use the internet to research new product ideas new methods of
creating products and pricing information.

Impact of internet on society

I. The Internet creates new ways for Citizens to communicate 3 get and share information
of a social nature.
II. The Internet has changed the education sector. these days the teacher is not the know-
it-all. these days the teacher says let us see what we can learn.
III. Telemedicine allows medicine specialist in one city to diagnose a patient in another city
or country.
IV. The way people conduct business has changed with the use of Internet. business have
websites that allow people to conduct business online such as books software music movies are
bought directly without a storage Warehouse.

Impact of internet on individuals

I. You can now work from home - teleworking.
II. you can join a virtual community such as social contacts all over the world with you could
not do so easily without the internet.
III. The Internet has changed the way of communicating such as chatting rather than calling.
IV. Emails have replaced a traditional letter and no need for buying stamps and envelopes.
V. Online gaming-you can play with people from all over the world and share knowledge.
VI. You can learn from the comfort of your house.

Intranet and Extranet

Intranet-is an internal private network based on internet and web technology. it allows only the
members of the organisation to access the information.

How organisations use intranet

1. To distribute important corporate information. companies are making all sorts of
documentation product Inventories Policy manuals and training materials available.
2. In addition to documents, the intranet delivers video and audio materials to employees.
3. Some companies are even using the internet for Virtual conferencing.
4. Intranet can also provide some of the group collaboration and support functions such as
to allow several people to work on a task at the same time.
Extranet- it is an internal private network best on the internet and web technology that allows
access to members of the organisation and some few selected outsiders with customers and
suppliers.

Wireless web

This is a web-based application enabling you to access digital information from the internet
using wireless mobile computing devices such as cellphones personal digital assistants laptops
and many more.

Advantages.
1. User is not tied to the office or office hours since you can make a decision anywhere
anytime because you have access to information.
2. there is timely decision-making. assault person can be able to complete a sales
transaction without having to go back to the office because he can be able to access the
office data when in the field and access the available stock.
3. Whenever a user is connected to the internet through a wireless device the transmission
technology can be traced to determine that person's location. Example; drivers could
use this capability to obtain local weather data and local traffic information along with
alternative route suggestion and description of a nearby restaurant.

Challenges.
1. mobile computing devices have insufficient bandwidth does slowing down internet
access.
2. It relies on battery power. a battery with low battery life is insufficient.
3. transmission of data is interfered with by weather and terrain.
4. Mobile devices for certain potential health hazards.
5. Screens of mobile devices are too tiny and may cause eye strain.
6. Keyboards are too tiny and may strain the fingers.

Network firewall
it is a hardware or software or a combination of the two that prevents unauthorised internet
users from gaining access to private networks while permitting authorised communication.

Advantages of hardware firewalls.

1. Speed - hardware firewalls are tailored for faster response times and hence handle
more traffic.
2. security-firewall with its own operating system is less prone to attack that enhance
security control.
3. No interference-a device that is separate from other network component can be
managed better and does not slow down other applications. the device can be moved
shutdown reconfigured with minimal interference to the network.

Disadvantages of a hardware firewall.

  Cost - a dedicated hardware firewall costs more than a software firewall.
 Difficult to upgrade.
 takes up physical space and involves wiring.

Advantages of software firewalls.

 Cheaper.
 Ideal for personal or homeless
 Easy-to-configure or reconfigure
 Levels of access can be set

Disadvantages of software firewalls.

 Takes up system resources such as memory
 sometimes it's difficult to remove or uninstall a firewall completely
 not suitable where response times are Critical since they are slow

teleworking or telecommuting
This refers to situations whereby an employee can work from my location that is away from the
normal place of work and is linked to the main office through telecommunication links.

Advantages of teleworking to an individual

 Can work for many organisations
 Minimise travelling cost
 Minimise the risks associated with travelling
 Saves travelling time
 flexible since it can combine domestic and office work
 No supervision

disadvantages of teleworking to an individual

 Few benefits for individuals especially freelancers
 It may not be easy to get sufficient space at home
 Interruption from family members friends or visitors
 Lack of teamwork

Advantages of teleworking to an organisation.

 saves in space and therefore rental costs
 Saves on travelling allowances given to employees
 No need to pay home workers when on holiday sick or on leave especially if they are
freelancers.
 Production at an overhead cost such as minimum support staff.

disadvantages of teleworking to an organisation

 not easy to coordinate many home workers in different locations
 May be costly to implement
 Company secrets can easily leak out
 Company resources can be misused such as computer used to do work of competitors

Protocol
It is an agreed-upon format for transmitting data between two devices. the protocol determines
1. the type of error checking to be used.
2. Data compression method if any.
3. How the sender device will indicate that it was finish sending the message.
4. How the receiving devices indicates it was received message or acknowledgement.

Transmission control protocol

It is a protocol developed for the internet to get data from one network device to another.
It uses retransmission strategy to ensure that data will not be lost in transit.

File transfer protocol.

It is a standard network protocol used to transfer files from one computer to another over a
transmission control protocol based network such as the internet. It is a protocol for exchanging
files over the internet.

Hypertext transfer protocol

There are underlying protocols used by the world wide Web http define suave messages are
formatted and transmitted and what actions web service and browsers should take to respond to
various commands.

Internet protocol uline it is the method by which data is sent from one computer to another on
the network. Each computer on the internet has at least one IP address that uniquely identifies it
from all other computers in the internet.

Definitions
HTML-hypertext markup language. it is the predominant.
Www- World Wide Web well with one that may contain text image audio and other media to
navigate between them via hyperlink
Browser-it is a software application used to locate retrieve and also display content on the world
wide Web.
website-is a collection of series of web pages hosted on a computer that is connected to the
internet such as Amazon. Newlin homepage it is the opening front page of a website. This page
usually has some sort of table of contents and it often describes the purpose of the side.
Web server-refers to a hardware or the software that help to deliver web content that can be
accessed through the internet period the most common use of web server is to host websites.
URL uniform resource locator-it is a uniform resource identifier that specifies where an identified
resource is available and the mechanism for retrieving it searches HTTP www.google.com

Electronic Commerce e-commerce

It is the selling and buying of goods and services over the internet.

Features of e-commerce.
No cash payments-the payments are goods or services in in electronic service availability.
Advertising or marketing-global research of customers.
Improved sales-sells can be generated anywhere anytime without any human intervention.
E-commerce otometz inventory-management. Reports get generated instantly when required.
Communication improvement-first efficient reliable communication with customers and Partners
Models of e-commerce.
Business-to-consumer e-commerce-this is the electronic retailing of products and services
directly to individual consumers or shoppers such as selling of books software music to
individual customers.
Business-to-business e-commerce-this involves sales of goods and services among businesses
such as selling of tools or grinding wheels and metalworking fluids to small machine in
businesses.
Consumer to consumer e-commerce this involves consumers selling directly to consumers such
as eBay.
Government to e-commerce-this is a form of e-commerce that involves transaction between
citizens and government the transaction may involve filling it runs renewal licence application of
passport etc

Benefits of e-commerce to an organisation.

It reduces the act of creating processing distributing sorting retrieving paper-based information
censored cards down purchasing administrative costs to as much as 80%.
It reduces time between paying a service product and receipt of service product such as paying
of software by electronic fund transfer and downloading at the same time.
It reduces telecommunication costs transmission over internet is cheaper.
how small business to compete against large companies effectively by creating websites.
Allows organisations to reach customers outside the immediate environment.
It facilitates global trade.
It allows companies to penetrate global market.

Benefits of e-commerce to individuals.

It permits customers with wide variety of choice such that they can select from many vendors or
suppliers.
He provides customers with less expensive products and services.
It allows quick delivery of product and services.
Saves customers from risks associated with travelling.
Can shop anytime 24/7
Can shop at the comfort of your house.
What's the cost associated with travelling.

Limitations of e-commerce.
Lack of universally accepted standards for quality security and reliability
Insufficient bandwidth-congestion of network
Still evolving software development
Difficulties integrating e-commerce software with legacy systems
Extra cost of web-based service
Access to internet is expensive
Legal issues not standardized
Difficulties in measuring e-commerce benefits
Perception that e-commerce is expensive and insecure
Language barrier
Power failure since it cannot work without power and therefore the necessity for an alternative
power supply
Methods of electronic payment (e-payment)
 Digital credit card-its payment system extended the functionality of credit card so that
they can be used for shopping online.
 Digital wallet-this software stores credit card and owner identification information
 Smartcard-is a plastic card that uses a microprocessor chip to store digital information
and can be used for electronic payments in place of cash
 Accumulated balance digital payment system-it enables users to make micropayments
and purchase on the web accumulative a debit balance on their credit card
 Stored value payment system-it enables customers to make instant online payment
based on the value stored in a digital account.
 Electronic funds transfer-this is used to transfer money electronically from one bank
account to another. Funds transfer can be done using ATMs or computer.
 Mobile money transfer.

Information system security

How to protect against data loss

 Lightning
o Install lightning arresters
 Hardware failure
o Regular servicing of equipment
o Follow manufacturer's instructions on the use of the hardware
 Humidity
o Install humidifiers
 Operator error
o Verification-manual counter checking for errors. It is done by two different people
 Validation
o Software controlled wan of checking for errors.
 Training staff on data entry skills
 Use data capture techniques e.g OMR, OCR, barcoding
 Software errors
o Thorough testing a system
o Independent testing by people not involved in the development of the system
o Using qualified or experienced progrmmers
 Fraud
o Suggregation of duties
o Employ staff of high integrity
o Regular auditing
o Thorough testing of system before acceptance.
o Audit trails (transactions)
 Hacking-unauthorized access to computer system
o Encryption-scrambling message so that it doesn‟t make sense to unauthorized users
o Use of passwords secret that allows authorized personel to access the system
o Use of firewalls
o Key and lock policy
 o Digital signature-A code is attached to the message being transmitted to enable the
recipient authenticate the sender
o Biometric controls. It is the use of human biological and behavioural characteristics to
recognize users of a system e.g
 Face recognition
 Fingerprint recognition
 Hand geometry
 Voice recognition
 Retina scanning
 Signature recognition
 Theft
o Install burgler proof doors and windows
o Employ security personel
o Install alarm system
o Install surveillance system
o Employ people of high integrity
o Lock and key policy
 Exposure of magnetic media to magnetic fields
o Don‟t store magnetic media near magnetic fields; Magnetic fields; Magnets,
Speakers, Cell phone
 Fire
o Install smoke detectors
o Install fire fighting equipment
o Train staff on fire fighting techniques
o Store sensitive data in fire proof safes
o Don‟t store flammable or inflammable liquids in the room
o Don‟t smoke in the room
o Electrical hiring should be done by qualified personel

Computer viruses

A virus is a program that can;

o Self-replicate
o Load and run automatically without user‟s request
o Destroy data and other programmes

How viruses are spread

o Through exchange of storage media

o Through network when downloading
o Through software privacy

Symptoms or manifestation of viruses

 o Unusual sounds beeps may play randomly
o Email message may not be sent or received properly
o Email attachment may disappear
o Size of files may increase or decrease
o Display of pop-up adverts and strange messages upon start up
o Disk space may become overloaded
o Performance degradation
o Computer rebooting in the midst of processing

How to minimize computer viruses

o Install antivirus software

o Regular/frequent upgrading of antivirus software
o Scan disk before use
o Scan email attachments before opening
o Avoid exchange of disks
o Train staff on what to do incase of computer viruses
o Avoid using pirated software
o Purchase software from reputable software houses
o Don‟t allow employees or staff to install their own software in the organization‟s computer
o In a networked computer, you can disable disk drives

Guidelines for managing passwords

A password is a secret code that authorized users use to access a system

o Keep passwords secret

o Change password frequently
o Don‟t use a very short password i.e minimum of 6 characters
o Don‟t use predictable password e.g date
o Mix numbers and letters, uppercase and lowercase
o Use a password that you can memorize
o Don‟t write a password down
o Don‟t use one password for many accounts

Recovery procedures

o Back up
o Use of hardcopy output
o Use of source document
o Twin processing – This is running two systems in parallel. If one system fails, you can recover
from the other.
o Mirroring – Storing data in multiple disks
o Seek help from disaster recovery companies
o Use of cloud computing – storing data in remote servers hosted over the internet
 o Use of grandfather, fathers son technique i.e retaining three generations of masterfiles with their
respective transaction files. If a file is costly, you can go back to the previous generation and
recreate lost file.

Types of information systems.

Users;

Executive support system (ESS)

Executives (senior managers)
Strategic
Level
Decision support system (DSS)

Middle level managers Management (Tactical)

Management Informational System (MIS)
level
Knowledge workers
Knowledge work system (KWS)
Data workers
Knowledge level
Office systems

Operational Transaction
staff processing
Operational level
system (TPS)

Open system is the entire infrastructure that collects process store and transmit retrieve and display
information

Types of decisions
1. structured decisions-are programmable decisions that follow laid down rules and procedures.
They can be specified in advance e.g. stock control procedures selection of a product from
discount
2. Unstructured decisions-are non-programmable decisions that do not follow lay down procedures.
They are non-routine. They cannot be specified in advance. They rely on human judgement such
as acquisition model launching new products.
3. Semi-structured decisions-Falls somewhere between the two categories described. it is likely to
involve an element of human judgement and to have characteristics of standard procedures with
semi programmed elements such as selecting a new supplier, allocation of budget

Transaction processing system

a) It is the most basic information system as an organisation cannot do without it
b) Serves operational level management
c) Performs and record one daily routine transaction to conduct
d) Helps to make structured decisions
 e) It's this universal provider of information since output from the TPS becomes input to another
information system
f) Source of data is internal
g) Information produced is largely quantitative
h) Produce highly detailed reports

Examples of transaction processing system

 Stock control system
 Payroll system
 Billing system
 Electronic point of safe system
 ATM

Qualities of operational information

a) It's derived almost entirely from internal source
b) It's highly detailed
c) Related to immediate terms
d) It's task-specific
e) It's prepared constantly or frequently
f) Is largely quantitative

Management information system (MIS)

a) Serves management-level
b) Provides managers with reports
c) Source of data in internal
d) Management information system serves the function of planning controlling and decision making
at all management level nu-line they depend on underlying TPS for their data
e) MIS summarised report on the company basic operations
f) MIS service managers interested in weekly monthly and yearly results and not day-to-day
activities
g) MIS provide answers to written questions that have been specified in advance and have a
predefined procedure for answering them

Examples of TPS
o Market research
o Staff performance
o Budgeting

Sample report produced on management information system

Product code Product Sales Region Actual sales Planned Actual vs

description sales Planned
North East 4,066,700 4,800,000 0.85
Carpet South 3,788,112 3,750,000 1.01
14469 Middle East 4,869,001 4,600,000 1.06
cleaner
West 4,003,440 4,400,000 0.91
TOTAL 16,727,253 17,550,000 0.95
Decision support system DSS
a) They offer users flexibility adaptability and the quick response
b) They allow users to initiate and control the input and output
c) They operate with little or no assistance from professional programmers
d) They provide support from decisions and problems with solutions cannot be specified in advance
e) The use sophisticated data analysis and modelling tools
f) Source of data is both internal and external
g) They serve management level

Tactical information
a) Is primarily generated from internal sources
b) Is summarised
c) Is relevant to the short and medium terms
d) Describes or analyses activities in departments
e) Is based on quantitative measure

Executive support system ESS

a) Source of data is both internal and external
b) The help to make unstructured decisions
c) They serve strategic level management
d) The produce highly summarised information
e) They have drill down facilities
f) They are very user friendly
g) Most data is presented in graphics
h) they have facility for environmental scanning that helps an organization detect strategic threats
and opportunities
i) They are universal recipient of information

Strategic information
a) Derived from both internal and external sources
b) Is highly summarized
c) Relevant long-term
d) Deals with the whole organization nu-line both qualitative and quantitative
e) Uncertain given the future cannot be accurately predicted

Knowledge work system KWS and office automation system OAS

a) Knowledge work system KWS and office systems serves the information needs of the knowledge
level of the organization. KWS 8 knowledge workers warehouse office systems primarily a data
workers
b) knowledge workers are people who hold formal university degrees and who are orphan members
of a recognized professional such as engineers doctors lawyers and scientists. Their jobs consist
primarily of creating new information and knowledge. KWS promote the creation of new
knowledge and ensure that new knowledge and technical expertise are properly integrated into
business
c) Data workers-typically have less formal advanced educational degrees and tend to process rather
than create information. They consist primarily of secretaries book-keepers filing clerks managers
whose jobs are primarily to use manipulate or disseminate information
d) Office systems are information technology application designed to increase data workers.
Productivity by communicating activities of the typically office.

ESS

MIS DSS

KWS
TPS