Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida

Functional Programming

Unit: 3

Problem Solving Using Advanced

Python

Course Details
(B Tech 2nd Sem /1st Year)

(Problem Solving using Advanced Python) Unit No: III

1
27-07-2021
 Contents

• Map
• Filter
• Reduce
• Comprehensions
• Immutability
• Closures and Decorators
• Generators
• Co-routines, iterators
• Declarative programming

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 Course Objective

After you have read and studied this module, you should be able
to:
• To learn the Object Oriented Concepts in Python.
• To learn the concept of map, filter and reduce functions.
• To impart the knowledge of declarative programming.
• To learn the concepts of closures ,decorators and generators.
• To explore the knowledge of comprehensions and co routines.

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 Course Outcome

Course At the end of course , the student will be able : Bloom’s

Outcome Knowledge
( CO) Level (KL)
CO1 Define classes and create instances in python. K1, K2
CO2 Implement concept of inheritance and polymorphism K3
using python.

CO3 Implement functional programming in python. K3

CO4 Create GUI based Python application. K2

CO5 Apply the concept of Python libraries to solve real K3,K6

world problems.

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 CO-PO and PSO Mapping
Mapping of Course Outcomes and Program Outcomes:
Programming in Advanced Python
CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 - 1 - 2 2
CO2 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 - 1 1 2 2
CO3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 - 2 1 2 3
CO4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 1 2 3
CO5 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 1 2 2

Average 3 3 3 3 2.6 2 1.6 0.4 1.6 0.8 2 2.2

Mapping of Course Outcomes and Program Specific Outcomes:

Programming in Advanced Python
CO.K PSO1 PSO2 PSO3 PSO4
CO1 2 3 2 2
CO2 2 3 2 2
CO3 2 3 3 3
CO4 3 3 3 3
CO5 3 3 3 3
Average 2.4 5 2.6 2.6

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 Prerequisite and Recap

• Operators
• Loop
• Method
• Variables
• Class , Objects
• Constructor
• Data Hiding
• Inheritance
• Polymorphism

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 Topic Objective

• After you have read and studied this topic, you should be able
to
– Understand the concept of object oriented systems

– Create closures and decorators in a program.

– Understand the concept of Declarative programming.

– Understand how comprehensions and co routines are done

– Understand immutability using python

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 Functional Programming(CO3)

• Functional Programming is a programming paradigm with

software primarily composed of functions processing data
throughout its execution.

• Python allows us to code in a functional, declarative style.

• It even has support for many common functional features like

Lambda Expressions and the map and filter functions.

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 Functional Programming Characteristics (CO3)

• Functional programming languages are designed on the concept of

mathematical functions that use conditional expressions and recursion to
perform computation.
• Functional programming supports higher-order functions and lazy
evaluation features.
• Functional programming languages don’t support flow Controls like loop
statements and conditional statements like If-Else and Switch Statements.
They directly use the functions and functional calls.
• Like OOP, functional programming languages support popular concepts
such as Abstraction, Encapsulation, Inheritance, and Polymorphism

27-07-2021 (Problem Solving using Advanced Python) Unit No: III 9

 Advantages of Functional Programming (CO3)

• Bugs-Free Code − Functional programming does not support state, so

there are no side-effect results and we can write error-free codes.

• Efficient Parallel Programming − Functional programming languages

have NO Mutable state, so there are no state-change issues. One can
program "Functions" to work parallel as "instructions". Such codes
support easy reusability and testability.

• Efficiency − Functional programs consist of independent units that can

run concurrently. As a result, such programs are more efficient.

• Supports Nested Functions − Functional programming supports Nested

Functions.

• Lazy Evaluation − Functional programming supports Lazy Functional

Constructs like Lazy Lists, Lazy Maps, etc.

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 Comparison between FP & OOPS(CO3)
Functional Programming OOP
Uses Immutable data. Uses Mutable data.
Follows Declarative Programming Follows Imperative Programming Model.
Model.
Focus is on: “What you are doing” Focus is on “How you are doing”

Supports Parallel Programming Not suitable for Parallel Programming

Its methods can produce serious side

Its functions have no-side effects
effects.
Flow Control is done using function Flow control is done using loops and
calls & function calls with recursion conditional statements.

It uses "Recursion" concept to iterate It uses "Loop" concept to iterate Collection

Collection Data. Data. For example: For-each loop in Java

Execution order of statements is not Execution order of statements is very

so important. important.
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 Anonymous or Lambda Function

A function without a name is called as Anonymous Function. It

is also known as Lambda Function.
Anonymous Function are not defined using def keyword rather
they are defined using lambda keyword.
Syntax:-
lambda argument_list : expression
Ex:-
lambda x : print(x)
lambda x, y : x + y

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Unit No: III
 Creating a Lambda Function

Syntax:-
lambda argument_list : expression
Ex:- : represents beginning of the function
Argument List Expression

lambda x, y : x + y

lambda keyword represents an

anonymous Function is being created

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 Calling Lambda Function

sum = lambda x : x + 1
sum(5)

add = lambda x, y : x + y
add(5, 2)

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 Anonymous Function or Lambdas
• Lambda Function doesn’t have any Name
Ex:- lambda x : print(x)

• Lambda function returns a function

Ex:- show = lambda x : print(x)

• Lambda function can take zero or any number of argument but

contains only one expression
Ex:- lambda x, y : x + y

• In lambda Function there is no need to write return statement

• It can only contain expressions and can’t include statements in its
body
• You can use all the type of Actual Arguments

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 Function- Map()(CO2)

• Lambda functions are mainly used in combination with the

functions filter(), map() and reduce().

• The lambda feature was added to Python due to the demand

from Lisp programmers.

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 Function- Map()(CO2)

• The advantage of the lambda operator can be seen when it is

used in combination with the map() function.
map() is a function with two arguments:
r = map(func, Seq)
• The first argument func is the name of a function and the
second a sequence (e.g. a list) seq.
• map() applies the function func to all the elements of the
sequence seq.
• It returns a new list with the elements changed by func.

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 Function- Map() Program(CO2)

OUTPUT
25,49,484,9409,2916,3844,5929,529,5329,3721

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 Function- reduce()(CO2)

• The reduce() function in Python takes in a function and

a list as an argument.

• The function is called with a lambda function and an

iterable and a new reduced result is returned.

• This performs a repetitive operation over the pairs of

the iterable. The reduce() function belongs to
the functools module.

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 Function- reduce() Program(CO2)

OUTPUT
193

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 Function- filter() (CO2)

• The filter() function in Python takes in a function and

a list as arguments.

• This offers an elegant way to filter out all the elements

of a sequence “sequence”, for which the function
returns True.

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 Function- filter() Program(CO2)

OUTPUT
5,7,97,77,23,73,61

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 Comprehension

• Python provides compact syntax for deriving one list from

another. These expressions are called list comprehensions.

• List comprehensions are one of the most powerful tools in

Python. Python’s list comprehension is an example of the
language’s support for functional programming concepts.

• The Python list comprehensions are a very easy way to apply a

function or filter to a list of items. List comprehensions can be
very useful if used correctly but very unreadable if you're not
careful

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 Comprehension

Syntax
The general syntax of list comprehensions is −
[expr for element in iterable if condition]

Above is equivalent to −
for element in iterable:
if condition:
expr

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 List Comprehension vs For Loop

#USING FOR LOOP

Output
evens = [] [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
for i in range(10):
if i % 2 == 0:
evens. append(i)
print(evens)

A better and faster way to write the above code is through list
comprehension.
Output
>>> [i for i in range(10) if i % 2 ==0] [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

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 List comprehensions vs lambda function

List comprehensions are clearer than the map built-in

function for simple cases. the map requires creating a
lambda function for the computation, which is visually
noisy.
>>> lst = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
>>> list(map(lambda x: x**2, lst))

Output
[1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]

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 List comprehensions with conditional expression
Example:

when you only want to compute the squares of the numbers

that are divisible by 2.
−>>> lst=[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
>>> even_squares = [x**2 for x in lst if x % 2 == 0]
>>> print(even_squares)

Output :
[4, 16, 36, 64, 100]

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 List comprehensions with conditional expression

# a list of even numbers between 1 and 100

>>> evens = [i for i in range(1,100) if not i % 2]

> >>print(evens)

Output:
[2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24,
26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46,
48, 50, 52, 54, 56, 58, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68,
70, 72, 74, 76, 78, 80, 82, 84, 86, 88, 90,
92, 94, 96, 98]

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 Nested IF with List Comprehension

>>> num_list = [y for y in range(100) if y % 2 == 0 if y % 5

== 0]
>>> print(num_list)

Output:
[0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90]

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 if...else With List Comprehension

>>> obj = ["Even" if i%2==0 else "Odd" for i in range(10)]

>>> print(obj)

Output:
['Even', 'Odd', 'Even', 'Odd', 'Even', 'Odd', 'Even',
'Odd', 'Even', 'Odd']

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 Python for-loop to list comprehension?
• List comprehensions offer a concise way to create lists based on
existing lists.
• When using list comprehensions, lists can be built by leveraging
any iterable, including strings and tuples.
• List comprehensions consist of an iterable containing an expression
followed by a for the clause. This can be followed by additional for
or if clauses.
• Let’s look at an example that creates a list based on a string:
>>> hello_letters = [letter for letter in 'hello’]
>>> print(hello_letters)

Output:
['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o’]

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 Python for-loop to list comprehension?
(cont.)
String hello is iterable and the letter is assigned a new value
every time this loop iterates. This list comprehension is
equivalent to:

>>> hello_letters = []
>>> for letter in 'hello':
>>> hello_letters.append(letter)

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 Nested Loops in List Comprehension
We need to compute the transpose of a matrix that requires nested for
loop. Let’s see how it is done using normal for loop first.
Transpose of Matrix using Nested Loops
transposed = []
matrix = [[1, 2, 3, 4], [4, 5, 6, 8]]
for i in range(len(matrix[0])):
transposed_row = []
for row in matrix:
transposed_row.append(row[i])
transposed.append(transposed_row)
print(transposed)
Output:
[[1, 4], [2, 5], [3, 6], [4, 8]]

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 Nested Loops in List Comprehension

• We can also perform nested iteration inside a list

comprehension. In this section, we will find transpose of a
matrix using nested loop inside list comprehension.’
• Transpose of a Matrix using List Comprehension
>>> matrix = [[1, 2], [3,4], [5,6], [7,8]]
>>> transpose = [[row[i] for row in matrix] for i in range(2)]
>>> print (transpose)

Output:
[[1, 3, 5, 7], [2, 4, 6, 8]]

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 Python Dictionary Comprehension
• We need the key: value pairs to create a dictionary. To get
these key-value pairs using dictionary comprehension the
general statement of dictionary comprehension is as follows:
{key: value for ___ in iterable}

Let's see how to generate numbers as keys and their squares as

values within the range of 10. Our result should look like
{0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25, 6: 36, 7: 49, 8: 64, 9: 81}.
For this result the below code is as follows:-

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Unit No: III
 Python Dictionary Comprehension
# creating the dictionary
>>> squares = {i: i ** 2 for i in range(10)}
Output
>>> print(squares) {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25, 6: 36, 7: 49,
8: 64, 9: 81}

Let's see how to create a dictionary from [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] and [a, b, c, d, e].
# keys
>>> keys = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e’]
# values values = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
# creating a dict from the above lists
>>> dictionary = {key: value for (key, value) in zip(keys, values)}
>>> print(dictionary)
Output:
{0: 'a', 1: 'b', 2: 'c', 3: 'd', 4: 'e'}

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 IMMUTABILITY
• Every variable in python holds an instance of an object. There are two
types of objects in python i.e. Mutable and Immutable objects.
Whenever an object is instantiated, it is assigned a unique object id. The
type of the object is defined at the runtime and it can’t be changed
afterwards. However, it’s state can be changed if it is a mutable object.

• To summarize the difference, mutable objects can change their state or

contents and immutable objects can’t change their state or content.

• In python, the string data types are immutable. Which means a string
value cannot be updated. We can verify this by trying to update a part of
the string which will led us to an error.

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 IMMUTABILITY
Example:
# Can not reassign
>>> t= “Mumbai"
>>> print type(t)
>>> t[0] = “P”.
When we run the above program, we get the following output −
t[0] = "M" TypeError: 'str' object does not support item
assignment

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 IMMUTABILITY
• We can further verify this by checking the memory location
address of the position of the letters of the string.
>>> x = 'banana' for idx in range (0,5):
>>> print x[idx], "=", id(x[idx])

When we run the above program we get to see that N and N also
point to the same location

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 CLOSURE

• A closure is a nested function which has access to a free variable

from an enclosing function that has finished its execution. Three
characteristics of a Python closure are:
– it is a nested function
– it has access to a free variable in outer scope
– it is returned from the enclosing functio

• A free variable is a variable that is not bound in the local scope

• Python closures help avoiding the usage of global values and
provide some form of data hiding.

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 CLOSURE
When we define a function inside of another, the inner function
is said to be nested inside the outer one. Let’s take an
example.

def outerfunc(x):
def innerfunc():
print(x)
innerfunc()
outerfunc(7)
OUTPUT
7

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 CLOSURE
Innerfunc() could read the variable ‘x’, which is nonlocal to it. And if
it must modify ‘x’, we declare that it’s nonlocal to innerfunc()
Let’s define a closure:-

def outerfunc(x):
def innerfunc():
print(x)
return innerfunc #Return the object instead of
calling the function
OUTPUT
myfunc=outerfunc(7) 7

myfunc()
27-07-2021 (Problem Solving using Advanced Python) Unit No: III 42
 CLOSURE
• The point to note here is that instead of calling innerfunc() here, we
returned it (the object).
• Once we’ve defined outerfunc(), we call it with the argument 7 and
store it in variable myfunc()
• when we call myfunc next, how does it remember that ‘x’ is 7?
• A Python3 closure is when some data gets attached to the code.
• So, this value is remembered even when the variable goes out of
scope, or the function is removed from the namespace.

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 CLOSURE
• Python closure is used when a nested function references a
value in its enclosing scope.

• These three conditions must be met:

1. We must have a nested function.
2. This nested function must refer to a variable nonlocal
to it(a variable in the scope enclosing it).
3. The enclosing scope must return this function.

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 Benefits of Python Closure
While it seems like a very simple concept, a closure in python3 helps
us in the following ways:
 With Python closure, we don’t need to use global values. This is
because they let us refer to nonlocal variables. A closure then
provides some form of data hiding.
 When we have only a few Python methods (usually, only one), we
may use a Python3 closure instead of implementing a class for that.
This makes it easier on the programmer.
 A closure, lets us implement a Python decorator.
 A closure lets us invoke Python function outside its scope.

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 Decorators(CO3)
• A decorator is a design pattern in Python that allows a user
to add new functionality to an existing object without
modifying its structure.
• Decorators are usually called before the definition of a
function.
def uppercase_decorator(function):
def wrapper():
func = function()
make_uppercase=func.upper()
return make_uppercase
return wrapper
Note: Our decorator function takes a function as an argument,
therefore, define a function and pass it to our decorator.
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Unit No: III
 Call of Decorators(CO3)

def say_hi():
return 'hello there'
decorate = uppercase_decorator(say_hi)

decorate()
Output:
‘HELLO THERE’

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Unit No: III
 Call of Decorators(CO3)

# call of decoratots
@uppercase_decorator
def say_hi():
return 'hello there‘

say_hi() Output:
‘HELLO THERE’

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Unit No: III
 Applying Multiple Decorators to a Single
Function(CO3)
def split_string(function):
def wrapper():
func = function()
splitted_string = func.split()
return splitted_string
return wrapper Output:
[‘HELLO ‘,’THERE’]
@split_string
@uppercase_decorator
def say_hi():
return 'hello there'
say_hi()
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Unit No: III
 Accepting Arguments in Decorator
Functions(CO3)
def decorator_with_arguments(function):
def wrapper_accepting_arguments (arg1, arg2):
print("My arguments are: {0}, {1}".format(arg1,arg2))
function(arg1, arg2)
return wrapper_accepting_arguments
@decorator_with_arguments
def cities(city_one, city_two):
print("Cities I love are {0} and {1}".format(city_one,
city_two)) Output:
# call of Decorators My arguments are: Nairobi,
cities("Nairobi", "Accra") Accra Cities I love are
Nairobi and Accra
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Unit No: III
 Generator Functions
• A Python generator is a kind of an iterable, like a Python list or a python
tuple. It generates for us a sequence of values that we can iterate on.
• You can use it to iterate on a for-loop in python, but you can’t index it.
Let’s take a look at how to create one with python generator example.

• To create a python generator, we use the yield statement, inside a

function, instead of the return statement.
>>> def counter():
i=1
while(i<=10):
yield i
i+=1

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07-2021
 Generator Functions
• With this, we define a Python generator called counter() and assign
1 to the local variable i. As long as i is less than or equal to 5, the
loop will execute.
• Inside the loop, we yield the value of i, and then increment it.

• Then, we iterate on this generator using the for-loop.

>>> for i in counter():
print(i)
Output:
1
2
3
4
5

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 Working of Python Generator

• To understand how this code works, we’ll start with the for-loop.
For each item in the Python generator (each item that it yields), it
prints it, here.
• We begin with i=1. So, the first item that it yields is 1. The for-loop
prints this because of our print statement. Then, we increment I to
2.
• And the process follows until i is incremented to 11. Then, the
while loop’s condition becomes False.
• However, if you forget the statement to increment I, it results in an
infinite generator. This is because a Python generator needs to hold
only one value at a time.
• So, there are no memory restrictions.
(Problem Solving using Advanced Python) Unit No: III 53
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 Working of Python Generator
def even(x):
while x%2==0:
yield 'Even’
for i in even(2):
print(i)
since 2 is even, 2%2 is always 0. Hence, the
Output: condition for while is always true.
Even
Even
Even
Even
Even
EvenEvenTraceback (most recent call last):File “<pyshell#24>”, line 2, in
<module>print(i)
KeyboardInterrupt (Problem Solving using Advanced Python) Unit No: III 54
07-2021
 Working of Python Generator
Generator may contain more than one Python yield statement. This is comparable to
how a Python generator function may contain more than one return statement.
def my_gen(x):
while(x>0):
if x%2==0:
yield 'Even’
else:
yield 'Odd’
x-=1
for i in my_gen(7):
Output: Odd
print(i) Even
Odd
Even
Even
Odd

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07-2021
 Yielding into a Python List
• This one’s a no-brainer. If you apply the list() function to the call to
the Python generator, it will return a list of the yielded values, in the
order in which they are yielded.
• Here, we take an example that creates a list of squares of numbers,
on the condition that the squares are even.
def even_squares(x):
for i in range(x):
if i**2%2==0:
yield i**2
Output:
[0, 4, 16, 36, 64]
print(list(even_squares(10)))

(Problem Solving using Advanced Python) Unit No: III 56

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 Python List vs Generator in Python

• A list holds a number of values at once. But a Python

generator holds only one value at a time, the value to yield.

• This is why it needs much less space compared to a list.

With a generator, we also don’t need to wait until all the
values are rendered.

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07-2021
 Introduction to Sub routine...

Function which is also known

as subroutine, procedure, subprocess etc."

A function is a sequence of instructions packed as a unit to

perform a certain task.
When the logic of a complex function is divided into several
self-contained steps that are themselves functions, then these
functions are called helper functions or subroutines.

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 Introduction to Sub routine...

Subroutines in Python are called by main function which is responsible for

coordination the use of these subroutines. Subroutines have single entry point.

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07-2021
 Co routines ...

"Coroutines are generalization of subroutines." They are used for

cooperative multitasking where a process voluntarily yield (give
away) control periodically or when idle in order to enable multiple
applications to be run simultaneously.

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 Python program for demonstrating
# coroutine execution
def print name(prefix):
print("Searching prefix:{}".format(prefix))
while True:
name = (yield)
if prefix in name:
print(name)

# calling coroutine, nothing will happen

corou = print_name("Dear")

# This will start execution of coroutine and

# Prints first line "Searchig prefix..."
# and advance execution to the first yield expression
(Problem Solving using Advanced Python) Unit No: III 61
07-2021
 Python program for demonstrating #
coroutine execution ...
corou.__next__()

# sending inputs
corou.send(“XYZ")
corou.send("Dear XYZ")

Output:
Searching prefix:Dear Dear XYZ

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07-2021
 Closing a Coroutine
def print_name(prefix):
corou = print_name("Dear")
print("Searching
prefix:{}".format(prefix)) corou.__next__()
try : corou.send("Atul")
while True: corou.send("Dear Atul")
name = (yield) corou.close()
if prefix in name:
print(name)
except GeneratorExit:
print("Closing coroutine!!")

OUTPUT
Searching prefix:Dear Dear XYZ Closing coroutine!!

(Problem Solving using Advanced Python)

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Unit No: III
 Iterator

 An iterator is an object that contains a countable number of

values.
 An iterator is an object that can be iterated upon, meaning
that you can traverse through all the values.
 Technically, in Python, an iterator is an object which
implements the iterator protocol, which consist of
the methods __iter__() and __next__().

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 Iterator vs Iterable

• Lists, tuples, dictionaries, and sets are all iterable objects. They
are iterable containers which you can get an iterator from.
• All these objects have a iter() method which is used to get an
iterator:
Example:
Return an iterator from a tuple, and print each value:
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")myit = iter(mytuple)
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit)) OUTPUT
Apple
Banana
cherry

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 Iterator vs Iterable

“Even strings are iterable objects, and can return an iterator”

Strings are also iterable objects, containing a sequence of characters:

mystr = "banana"
myit = iter(mystr)
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))

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 Looping Through an Iterator

We can also use a for loop to iterate through an iterable object:

Example:
Iterate the values of a tuple:
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
for x in mytuple:
print(x)

Output:
apple
banana
cherry

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 Create an Iterator

• To create an object/class as an iterator you have to implement the

methods __iter__() and __next__() to your object.

• All classes have a function called __init__(), which allows to do

some initializing when the object is being created.

• The __iter__() method acts similar, and can do operations

(initializing etc.), but must always return the iterator object itself.

• The __next__() method also allows to do operations, and must

return the next item in the sequence.

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 Example

Create an iterator that returns numbers, starting with 1, and each

sequence will
increase by one (returning 1,2,3,4,5 etc.):

class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self

def __next__(self):
x = self.a
self.a += 1
return x.
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 Example
myclass = MyNumbers()
myiter = iter(myclass)
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter)) Output:-
1
2
3
4
5

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 Stop Iteration
• The example above would continue forever if you had enough
next() statements, or if it was used in a for loop.
• To prevent the iteration to go on forever, we can use
the StopIteration statement.
• In the __next__() method, we can add a terminating condition to
raise an error if the iteration is done a specified number of times:

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 StopIteration
class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self

def __next__(self):
if self.a <= 20:
x = self.a
self.a += 1
return x
else:
raise StopIteration
Output: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
myclass = MyNumbers() 15 16 17 18 19 20
myiter = iter(myclass)
for x in myiter:
print(x)
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 Declarative Programming Language
Declarative Programming Languages focus on :
 describing what should be computed - and avoid mentioning how that
computation should be performed. This means avoiding expressions of
control flow: loops and conditional statements are removed and replaced
with higher level constructs that describe the logic of what needs to be
computed.
 The usual example of a declarative programming language is SQL. It lets
you define what data you want computed - and translates that efficiently
onto the database schema.
 Python isn't a pure Declarative Language - but the same flexibility that
contributes to its sluggish speed can be be leveraged to create Domain
Specific API's that use the same principles.

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