Chapter 4: LOGIC

General Mathematics
 Learning Objectives

1. to illustrate a proposition

2. to distinguish between a simple and compound proposition

3. to perform different types of operations on propositions

4. to symbolize a proposition

5. to determine the truth value of propositions

6. to illustrate different forms of conditional propositions

 Lesson 1:
Propositions
 A proposition or a statement is a
declarative sentence that is either true
or false but not both. If the proposition
is true, then its truth value is true and
if it is false then its truth value is false.
Illustration 1. Like any declarative sentence, a proposition
has a subject and a predicate.
 Illustration 1. Like any declarative sentence, a proposition has a
subject and a predicate.
+1
a. The domain of ( ) = is ℝ − {2} (read as “the set
−2
of all real numbers except 2”).

From previous lessons, we know that the function  has

ℝ − {2} as its domain. So, this declarative sentence is a
proposition that is true.
+1
Subject: domain of ( ) =
−2
Predicate: ℝ − {2}
𝒙
𝑥
𝒇
𝒙
𝑓
𝑥
𝑓
𝒙
𝑥

Illustration 1. Like any declarative sentence, a proposition

has a subject and a predicate.

b. Did you cheat in the exam?

Since it is an interrogative sentence, the sentence above is

not a proposition.

Illustration 1. Like any declarative sentence, a proposition

has a subject and a predicate.

c. This statement is false.

Although this sentence is declarative, it is not a proposition

because it is true and false at the same. The given is a
paradox which could neither be true, nor false, or is both
true and false.

Illustration 1. Like any declarative sentence, a proposition

has a subject and a predicate.

d. All birds can fly.

This is a proposition that is false. You know that there are

flightless birds such as ostriches, etc. that contradicts the given
proposition hence, the truth value is false.
Subject: birds
Predicate: creatures that can fly

 Lesson 2:
Simple and Compound
Propositions

 A proposition is simple if it contains only one idea. A

proposition is compound if it is composed of at least
two simple propositions joined together by logical
connectives.

Simple propositions are sometimes called atomic

propositions while compound propositions are
sometimes called complex propositions. You will refer
to the propositions comprising a compound proposition
as component propositions.

 Propositional variables are used to

represent arbitrary propositions. In
succeeding lessons, use upper case
roman letters as propositional variables.
For example, let be the proposition
“The Earth is flat.”
𝑷
 Now, look at the different types of compound
propositions. Let and be arbitrary propositions.
𝑷𝑸
 NEGATION

Just like what you might expect

from a negation, this logical
operator states the exact opposite
of a given statement.
 Illustration 2. Consider the simple proposition
: represents an irrational number.

The following statements are some ways ~ maybe

expressed.
a. ~ : does not represent an irrational number.
b. ~ : It is false that represents an irrational
number.
𝒆
𝑒
𝑒
𝑬
𝑬
𝑬
𝑬

 CONJUNCTION

Other words that can be used in

place of the connective and are but,
also, and moreover.
 Illustration 3. Consider propositions and  .

: The domain of the function  defined by

( )= is (0,  + ∞).

: The range of the function  defined by

( )= is ℝ .
𝑫
𝑓
𝑓
𝑓
𝑓
𝑹
𝑥
𝑥
𝑙
𝑙
𝑜
𝑜
𝑔
𝑔
𝑥
𝑥
𝑫
𝑹

 Illustration 3.
The following statements illustrate the different ways a
conjunction can be expressed in sentence form:
a. The domain and range of the function  defined by
( )= are (0,   + ∞) and ℝ, respectively.
b. The domain of the function  defined by
( )= is (0,   + ∞), while its range is ℝ.
Symbolic form: D ∧ R
𝑓
𝑓
𝑓
𝑓
𝑥
𝑥
𝑙
𝑙
𝑜
𝑜
𝑔
𝑔
𝑥
𝑥

 DISJUNCTION

Unless is another word used for the

disjunction of propositions.
 Illustration 4.
The following statements illustrate the different
ways a disjunction can be expressed in sentence
form:

a. a = 0 or b = 0.

b. a = 0 unless b = 0.

c. Either a = 0 or = 0.
Symbolic form: ∨
where : = and : =0
𝑨
𝑏
𝑨
𝑩
𝒃
𝒂
𝑩
𝟎
 CONDITIONAL PROPOSITION

Other words that can be used in place of the

connective “if…then” are “only if” and
“implies”.

In P→Q, you say that P is a sufficient

condition for Q while Q is a necessary
condition for P. Also, you refer to P and Q as
the antecedent and the consequent of the
implications, respectively.

Illustration 5.
The following statements illustrate the different
ways an implication can be expressed in sentence
form:

a. If you study for the examination, then you will get

a passing grade.
b. You will get a passing grade only if you study for
the examination.

 Illustration 5.

Symbolic form: →
where : You study for the examination.

: You will get a passing grade.

𝑨
𝑨
𝑩
𝑩

 In an implication P→Q, it means that if P is

true, then you will find that Q is also true.
However, an implication is directional, meaning
if Q is true, it does not imply that P is also true.

Moreover, the truth value of one component

proposition does not generally affect the other.




 Converse, Inverse, and
Contrapositive
Consider the conditional proposition
→ . Its converse, inverse, and
contrapositive are defined, respectively,
as follows:

i. →
ii. ~ →~
iii. ~ →~
𝑸
𝑷
𝑸
𝑷
𝑸
𝑷
𝑃
𝑄
Illustration 6. Given the conditional proposition on Illustration
5, state its converse, inverse, and contrapositive in sentence
form.

“If you study for the examination, then you will get a passing
grade.”

Antecedent: You study for the examination.

Consequent: You will get a passing grade.

 Illustration 6.

Following the form of the converse, inverse, and

contrapositive, you will have the ff:

Converse: →
If you will get a passing grade, then you study for the
examination.
𝑩
𝑨

 Illustration 6.

Inverse: ~ → ~
If you don’t study for the examination, then you won’t get a
passing grade.

Contrapositive: ~ → ~
If you will not get a passing grade, then you did not study for
the examination.
𝑨
𝑩
𝑨
𝑩

 BICONDITIONAL PROPOSITION

If ↔ is true, you say that and

are logically equivalent.

That is, they will be true under exactly the

same circumstances.
𝑃
𝑃𝑄
𝑄

Illustration 7. The following examples illustrate the different

ways a biconditional can be expressed in sentence form:

a. A function is one-to-one if and only if it satisfies both the

horizontal and vertical line tests.
b. A function satisfies both the horizontal and vertical line
tests if and only if it is one-to-one.

 Illustration 7.

Symbolic form: →
where : A function is one-to-one.

G: It satisfies both the horizontal and vertical

line tests.
𝑭
𝑭
𝑮
 Some compound propositions contain more than one
connective. In such cases, parentheses or
punctuations are used to identify the priority of the
connectives.

When there are no parentheses or punctuations, the

standard priority list of the connectives is as follows:
~,    ∧ ,    ∨ ,   → ,  then ↔ .




Illustration 8. The following are examples of
propositions that contain more than one connective:
 Illustration 8. The following are examples of
propositions that contain more than one connective:

1.Two lines and are parallel if they are perpendicular to

the same line c.

Symbolic form: ∧ →
where : lines a and c are perpendicular
: lines b and c are perpendicular
: lines a and b are parallel
𝑵
𝑎𝑏𝑀
𝑴
𝑁
𝑃
𝑷
 Illustration 8. The following are examples of propositions
that contain more than one connective:

a b
2. = implies a = b, provided that c ≠ 0.
c c
Symbolic form: ~ → ( → )
where : = 0
: =

: =
𝑐
𝑐
𝑸
𝑐
𝑷
𝑎
𝑹
𝑃
𝑏
𝑄
𝑅
𝑎
𝑏

 In rewriting propositions, the meaning of the

propositions should be kept intact.

You can solve/write first the propositions before

arriving with the symbolic form.




 Illustration 8. The following are examples of
propositions that contain more than one connective:
3. Upon announcement of Public Storm Warning Signal No. 3,
classes in all levels should be suspended and children should stay
inside strong buildings.
Symbolic form: → ( ∧ )
where : There is a Public Storm Signal No. 3.
: Classes in all levels are suspended.
: Children should stay inside strong buildings
𝑃
𝑺
𝑪
𝑷
𝐶
𝑆

 Illustration 8. The following are examples of propositions

that contain more than one connective:
4. If Andy gets up and goes to school, then he is no longer
sick, but if he does not get up, then he is still sick.

: Andy gets up.

: Andy goes to school.
: Andy is sick.
 

Symbolic form: (( ∧ ) → (~ )) ∧ ( ∼ → )
𝑪
𝑩
𝑨
𝐴
𝐵
𝐶
𝐴
𝐶
Illustration 8. The following are examples of
propositions that contain more than one connective:
5. The suspect was found guilty and will be imprisoned even if he is
innocent, but if the verdict is reversed by the Supreme Court,
then he will be released.

 
Do not be confused by the first use of “if” here. Even “if” may be used as a
conjunction. Define the component propositions as follows: 
 Illustration 8. The following are examples of propositions
that contain more than one connective:

: The suspect was found guilty.

: He will be imprisoned
: He is innocent
: The verdict is reversed by the Supreme Court.
 

Symbolic form: ∧ ∧ ∧( →~ )
𝑴
𝑳
𝑯
𝐺
𝐻
𝐿
𝑀
𝐻
𝑮
 LESSON 3:
TRUTH VALUE OF
COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS


 In this lesson, we shall look at the truth value
of the compound propositions in Lesson 2.

A truth table displays the relationship between

all possible truth values of the component
propositions and the compound propositions
formed by the former.




 For example, Table 1 gives the truth value of ~ with respect to the truth
value of . For brevity of notation, we will use T for true and F for False.

T F
F T
Table 1. Truth Table for the operator “not” (Negation)

In summary, the negation of P has a different truth value as P.

𝑃
𝑃












 T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Table 2. Truth Table for the operator “and” (Conjunction)

Table 2 gives the truth value of a conjunction depending on the truth value of its
component propositions. To summarize the table, the conjunction of two propositions is
true if both component propositions are true and false if at least one of them is false.






 To know how many possible combinations of their truth values
(or rows) are there, use the formula , where is the number
of propositions. For Table 1, since we only have proposition
to negate, 2 = 21 = . Hence, we have one True and one False.
2
For Tables 2 – 5, we have propositions and ,2 = 2 = . In
this case, we have two Ts and two Fs for proposition and one
True, one False, one True, one False for proposition  to
identify all possible truth values of our propositions.
𝟐
𝑛𝑃
𝑃𝑄
𝑃
𝑄
𝟐
𝟒
𝑛
𝑛
𝒏
 T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Table 3. Truth Table for the operator “or” (Disjunction)

A disjunction is true if at least one of the component propositions is

true and is only false if both component propositions are false.






 T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Table 4. Truth Table for the operator “if…then” (Conditional)

Table 4 shows that the conditional proposition → is

false only if is false but is true.
𝑃
𝑄𝑃
𝑄




 T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Table 5. Truth Table for the operator “if and only if”
(Biconditional)

Lastly, the truth value of ↔ is true whenever the two

component propositions have the same truth value.
𝑃
𝑄




Example 1: Construct a truth table for the following:

a. P ∧ ∼ P

b.( ∼ P ∨ Q) ↔ (P → Q)

c. P ∧ ∼ Q → R
 Example 1: Construct a truth table for the following:

Solutions:
a. P ∧ ∼ P

With just one proposition, you know that its truth table will have,
21 = 2, two rows, one for each truth value of . So,

T
F
𝑃
 Example 1: Construct a truth table for the following:

Solutions:
a. P ∧ ∼ P

Before solving for the conjunction, find the truth value of ~ from
next, using Table 1, we have:

T F
F T
𝑃
𝑃
Example 1: Construct a truth table for the following:

Solutions:
a. P ∧ ∼ P

Then, using Table 2 to find the truth vale of a conjunction:

T F F
F T F
 Example 1: Construct a truth table for the following:

Solutions:

T F F
F T F

∧ ∼  is an example of a contradiction. Contradiction

is a compound proposition that is false for all possible
truth values of its component propositions.
𝑃
𝑃
Example 1: Construct a truth table for the following:

Solutions:
b. ( ∼ P ∨ Q) ↔ (P → Q)

Since there are two component propositions, there are 4 possible

combinations of their truth values. Follow the technique used in
Columns 1 – 2 below to write all possible combinations so you will not
miss anything.
T T
T F
F T
F F
Example 1: Construct a truth table for the following:

Solutions:
b. ( ∼ P ∨ Q) ↔ (P → Q)

Notice that the remaining columns, Columns 3 – 6, below are labeled

from left to right according to the order of the connectives and
parentheses used.

T T
T F
F T
F F
Example 1: Construct a truth table for the following:

Solutions:
b. ( ∼ P ∨ Q) ↔ (P → Q)

We can now complete the table (from columns 3 to 6) by using the truth
tables for different operators (Tables 1 – 5).

T T F
T F F
F T T
F F T
Example 1: Construct a truth table for the following:

Solutions:
b. ( ∼ P ∨ Q) ↔ (P → Q)

We can now complete the table (from columns 3 to 6) by using the truth
tables for different operators (Tables 1 – 5).

T T F T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T
Example 1: Construct a truth table for the following:

Solutions:
b. ( ∼ P ∨ Q) ↔ (P → Q)

We can now complete the table (from columns 3 to 6) by using the truth
tables for different operators (Tables 1 – 5).

T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
Example 1: Construct a truth table for the following:

Solutions:
b. ( ∼ P ∨ Q) ↔ (P → Q)

We can now complete the table (from columns 3 to 6) by using the truth
tables for different operators (Tables 1 – 5).

T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T
Example 1: Construct a truth table for the following:

Solutions:

T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T

Hence, ( ∼ ∨ ) ↔ ( → ) is an example of a
tautology. A tautology is a compound proposition that is
true for all possible truth values of its component
propositions.
𝑃
𝑄
𝑃
𝑄
Example 1: Construct a truth table for the following:

Solutions:
c. P ∧ ∼ Q → R

Since there are three component propositions, we need 2^n=2^3=8

rows. Follow the techniques used from previous examples for all the
possible combinations and for the remaining columns, label according
to the order of operators.
Example 1: Construct a truth table for the following:

Solutions:
c. P ∧ ∼ Q → R

Completing the table, will give us:

 Example 1: Construct a truth table for the following:

∧∼ →  is an example of a contingency. A

contingency is a compound proposition that is neither a
tautology nor a contradiction.
𝑃
𝑄
𝑅
 Example 2: Find the truth value of ∨ → given that
, ,   and are assigned the following truth values: ,  , 
and , respectively.
𝑃
𝑃
𝑅𝑇
𝐹
𝑄
𝐹
𝑄
𝑅
 Example 2: Find the truth value of ∨ → given
that , ,   and are assigned the following truth
values: ,   ,  and , respectively.

Solution:
Since truth values are already given, just substitute to
find the truth value of ∨ → .
𝑃
𝑃
𝑅𝑇
𝐹
𝑄
𝐹
𝑄
𝑅
𝑃
𝑄
𝑅
 Example 2: Find the truth value of ∨ → given
that , ,   and are assigned the following truth
values: ,   ,  and , respectively.

Solution:

Therefore, the truth value of ∨ →  based on the

given is FALSE.
𝑃
𝑃
𝑅𝑇
𝐹
𝑄
𝐹
𝑄
𝑅
𝑃
𝑄
𝑅
Example 3: The Philippines has long been freed from
its colonizers; however, if its residents continue to
possess a colonial mentality, then the freedom was not
really attained.

a. Translate this proposition to symbolic form using

A, B, and C as propositional variables,
respectively.

b. Identify the truth value of the statement when A is

True, B is True, and C is False.
 Example 3:
Solution (A):

∧( → )
where

A: The Philippines has long been freed from its colonizers.

B: Its residents continue to possess a colonial mentality.

C: Freedom was not really attained.

𝑨
𝑩
𝑪
 Example 3:
Solution (B):
→ ∧( → )
F

Therefore, the truth value of the statement is FALSE.

𝑨
𝑩
𝑩
𝑪
𝑪
 QUIZ #4
June 28/29