MODERN PHYSICS

KAS-101T/KAS-201T
 Syllabus
Black body radiation
Wien’s law
Stefan’s law
Rayleigh-Jeans law
Planck’s law
Wave particle duality
Matter waves
Wave function characteristics and significance
Time dependent and time independent Schrödinger wave equations
Particle in one-dimensional rigid box
Compton Effect
Black Body
A black body is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident
electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of incidence.
The name "black body" is given because it absorbs radiation in all
frequencies, not because it only absorbs: a black body can
emit radiation of all frequencies.
 Black Body radiation
Although the blackbody is an idealization, because
no physical object absorbs 100% of incident
radiation, we can construct a close realization of a
blackbody in the form of a small hole in the wall of a
sealed enclosure known as a cavity radiator, as
shown in Figure. The inside walls of a cavity radiator
are rough and blackened so that any radiation that
enters through a tiny hole in the cavity wall becomes
trapped inside the cavity.
At thermodynamic equilibrium, the cavity walls absorb exactly as much
radiation as they emit. Furthermore, inside the cavity, the radiation entering
the hole is balanced by the radiation leaving it.
The emission spectrum of a blackbody can be obtained by analyzing
the light radiating from the hole. Electromagnetic waves emitted by a
blackbody are called blackbody radiation.
The intensity distribution among wavelengths of radiation emitted by cavities was
studied experimentally at the end of the nineteenth century. Generally, radiation
emitted by materials only approximately follows the blackbody radiation curve.
Two important laws summarize the experimental findings of blackbody radiation:
(1) Wien’s displacement law (2) Stefan’s law
Wien’s displacement law
Wien's displacement law states that the black-body radiation curve for different
temperatures will peak at different wavelengths that are inversely proportional to
the temperature.
λmaxT = 2.898×10−3
m⋅K
where λmax is the position of the maximum in the radiation
curve. In other words, λmax is the wavelength at which a
blackbody radiates most strongly at a given temperature T.
Stefan’s law
The second experimental relation is Stefan’s law, which concerns the
total power of blackbody radiation emitted across the entire spectrum
of wavelengths is proportional to the forth power of temperature.

P(T)=σAT4
where A is the surface area of a blackbody, T is its temperature (in
kelvin), and σ is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, σ = 5.670×10−8
W/(m2⋅K4). Stefan’s law enables us to estimate how much energy a
star is radiating by remotely measuring its temperature.
Classical explanation of black body radiation
(Rayleigh–Jeans law)
In a classical approach to the blackbody radiation problem, in which
radiation is treated as waves. The modes of electromagnetic waves
trapped in the cavity are in equilibrium and continually exchange their
energies with the cavity walls. There is no physical reason why a wave
should do otherwise: Any amount of energy can be exchanged, either by
being transferred from the wave to the material in the wall or by being
received by the wave from the material in the wall.

This classical picture is the basis of the model developed by Lord Rayleigh
and, independently, by Sir James Jeans. The result of this classical model
for blackbody radiation curves is known as the Rayleigh–Jeans law.
However, as shown in Figure,
the Rayleigh–Jeans law fails to
correctly reproduce experimental
results. In the limit of short
wavelengths, the Rayleigh–Jeans
law predicts infinite radiation
intensity, which is inconsistent
with the experimental results in
which radiation intensity has finite
values in the ultraviolet region of
the spectrum.
This divergence between the results of classical theory and
experiments, which came to be called the ultraviolet
catastrophe, shows how classical physics fails to explain the
mechanism of blackbody radiation.
Solved Example
Planck’s hypothesis
The blackbody radiation problem was solved in 1900 by Max Planck.
Planck used the same idea as the Rayleigh–Jeans model in the sense that
he treated the electromagnetic waves between the walls inside the cavity
classically and assumed that the radiation is in equilibrium with the cavity
walls. The innovative idea that Planck introduced in his model is the
assumption that the cavity radiation originates from atomic oscillations
inside the cavity walls and these oscillations can have only discrete values
of energy. Therefore, the radiation trapped inside the cavity walls can
exchange energy with the walls only in discrete amounts.
Planck’s hypothesis of discrete energy values, which he called quanta,
assumes that the oscillators inside the cavity walls have quantized
energies. This was a brand new idea that went beyond the classical
physics of the nineteenth century because, as you learned in a
previous chapter, in the classical picture, the energy of an oscillator
can take on any continuous value.
Planck assumed that the energy of an oscillator (En) can have only
discrete or quantized, values:

En = nhf, where n = 1,2,3,… …………… (1)

In above Equation (1), f is the frequency of Planck’s oscillator. The
natural number n that enumerates these discrete energies is called a
quantum number. The physical constant h is called Planck’s constant.

h = 6.626×10−34 J⋅sec

Each discrete energy value corresponds to a quantum state of a

Planck oscillator. Quantum states are enumerated by quantum
numbers.
For example, when Planck’s oscillator is in its first n1 quantum state,
its energy is E1 = hf; when it is in the n = 2 quantum state, its energy
is E2 = 2hf; when it is in the n = 3 quantum state, E3 = 3hf; and so on.
Note that Equation (1) shows that there are infinitely many quantum
states, which can be represented as a sequence {hf, 2hf, 3hf,…, (n –
1)hf, nhf, (n + 1)hf,…}. Each two consecutive quantum states in this
sequence are separated by an energy jump, ΔE = hf.

An oscillator in the wall can receive energy from the radiation in the cavity
(absorption), or it can give away energy to the radiation in the cavity
(emission). The absorption process sends the oscillator to a higher
quantum state, and the emission process sends the oscillator to a lower
quantum state. Whichever way this exchange of energy goes, the smallest
amount of energy that can be exchanged is hf. There is no upper limit to
how much energy can be exchanged, but whatever is exchanged must be
an integer multiple of hf. If the energy packet does not have this exact
amount, it is neither absorbed nor emitted at the wall of the blackbody.
Planck’s hypothesis gives the following theoretical expression for the
power intensity of emitted radiation per unit wavelength:

…….. (3)

where c is the speed of light in vacuum and k is Boltzmann’s

constant, k = 1.380×10−23 J/K.
The theoretical formula expressed in
Equation (3) is called Planck’s blackbody
radiation law. This law is in agreement with
the experimental blackbody radiation curve
(shown in Figure). In addition, Wien’s
displacement law and Stefan’s law can both
be derived from Equation (3).
 Derivation of Wien’s law from Planck’s law
Planck’s law for black body radiation in terms of wavelength is given as

…….. (1)

For short So 1 can neglected in above

wavelength equation.

Therefore, ………… (2)

Here h, c and k are Planck’s constant, velocity of light and Boltzmann’s

constant respectively.
 Substituting, and

Where C1 and C2 are another constants. Thus equation (2) becomes

This is Wien’s law which agrees with experimental curve at short

wavelengths region.
 Derivation of Rayleigh–Jean’s law from Planck’s law
For long wavelengths

Neglecting terms containing higher powers of λ in denominator. Now

equation (1) becomes

This is Rayleigh-Jeans law which agree with experimental curves at

long wavelengths region.
Solved Example
 Wave particle duality
On the basis of Planck’s theory of thermal radiation, Einstein’s
explanation of photoelectric effect, emission and absorption of radiation
by substance, black body radiation etc, undoubtedly established that the
electromagnetic radiation consist of discrete individual packets of
energy (hυ) called photons which manifest particle character of
radiation. On the other hand, optical phenomena like interference,
diffraction and polarization revel and firmly confirm the wave character
of electromagnetic radiation.

Therefore, we conclude that the electromagnetic radiation has dual

character, in certain situation it exhibits wave properties and in other it
acts like a particle. The particle and wave properties can never be
observed simultaneously.
 de-Broglie Matter wave
• In 1924, Louis de-Broglie suggested that matter must exhibit wave like
properties in addition to particle nature.
• His theory was based on following facts:
(i) the entire universe consists of matter and energy only.
(ii) matter and energy can be transformed in to each other.
• According to de-Broglie hypothesis, a moving particle is surrounded by a
wave. The wavelength of that wave depends upon the mass of particle and
its velocity. The wave associated with the particle is known as matter wave or
de-Broglie wave.
• The wavelength of the matter wave is given by

Where m is the mass of particle, v is the velocity of the particle and h is

the Planck Constant.
 Expression for de-Broglie wavelength
Energy of photon is given by
E = hν = hc/λ ……. (1)
where c is the speed of light and λ is its wavelength.
According to Einstein energy mass relation
E = mc2 ……. (2)
From equations (1) and (2), we get

mc2 = hc/λ or λ = hc/mc2 = h/mc ……… (3)

If we consider the case of a material particle of mass m and

moving with a velocity v, then the wavelength associated

with this particle is given by

λ = h/mv = h/p …….. (4)

Different Expressions of de-Broglie wavelength
(a) In terms of energy
Kinetic energy (E) = ½ (mv2) = ½ (m2v2/m)

p = (2mE)1/2 or E = p2/2m

therefore de-Broglie wavelength

(b) In terms of voltage
• When a charged particle carrying a charge e is accelerated by
a potential difference V volts, then its K. E. is given by
E = eV
• Hence the de-Broglie wavelength associated with this particle
is given by
 (c) In terms of temperature
When a material particle is in thermal equilibrium at a
temperature T, then
E = 3/2 kT
Where k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38x10-23 J/K

So the de-Broglie wavelength of a material particle at

temperature T is given by
(d) When velocity of particle is comparable with
speed of light
If the velocity of particle is comparable with speed of light, then
the mass of the particle is given by

Where mo is the rest mass of the particle. So the de-Broglie

wavelength of a material Particle

or
(e) de-Broglie wavelength of electron
In case of charged particle (electron), de-Broglie
wavelength

Where, h = 6.625x10-34 Js
e = 1.6x10-19 C
mo = 9.1x10-31 kg
Solved Example
 Properties of Matter waves
• Lighter is the particle greater is the wavelength associated with it.
• Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength.
• When v = 0 then λ = ∞, wave becomes indeterminate and if v = ∞
then λ = 0.
• Matter waves are charge independent.
• The wave and particle aspects of moving bodies can never appear
together in the same experiment.
• The wave nature of matter introduces an uncertainty in the
location of the position of the particle.
 Difference between e.m. waves and matter waves

S. No. Matter waves e. m. waves

1 The matter waves are associated Only by accelerated charged
with moving particles (charged or particles
uncharged)
2 Travel with different velocities Travel with same velocity
3 Depends on particle velocity Constant in a medium
4 Can not travel in vacuum Can travel in vacuum
5 They are not emitted from the Emitted from charged particles
particle
Applications of de-Beoglie concept
• The wave properties of electrons are used in
electron microscope.
• Neutron diffraction used for investigation of
the structure of materials.
• This concept is basis of Quantum mechanics.
• It leads to uncertainty principle.
Schrodinger Wave Equations : Introduction
Schrodinger proposed that the wave function describing the matter
waves associated with a particle satisfies a partial differential
equation with space and time as independent variables and gave a
prescription for writing down the equation for any particular system of
particle. Schrodinger got this wave equation, for describing atomic
processes by pure thought without any regard to the experimental
development of the time.
According to de-Broglie concept of matter wave, every moving
particle is associated with a wave. Schrodinger introduced a
mathematical function represented by Ψ, which is a variable quantity
associated with moving particle, is called wave function.
 Schrodinger Wave Equations
Time Independent Schrodinger Equation
In many cases the force acting upon a particle or potential energy does
not depends upon time but vary with the position of particle. The
differential equation describing this situation is termed as time
independent Schrodinger equation.
According to classical wave optics the differential equation of a wave
motion is given by

where c is the velocity of light and φ is a function of space co-ordinates

x, y, z and time t.
According to de-Broglie concept of matter wave, every moving particle
of matter is associated with a wave. Schrodinger introduced a
mathematical function represented by Ψ, which is a variable quantity
associated with moving particle, is called wave function.
In analogy with optics, the differential equation of a wave motion of
particle can be written as

………….. (1)

where v is the velocity of the moving particle.

Wave function can be written separately for space and time function as

………… (2)
………… (3)
Differentiating equation (3) partially twice with respect to x.

………… (4)

Similarly, differentiating equation (3) partially twice with respect to y, and similarly
with respect to z, we get

………… (5)

....………. (6)
 Differentiating equation (3) partially twice with respect to t, we get

………………. (7)

Substituting these values in equation (1), we get

………………. (8)

∇ 2𝜓 + (ω2/v2)𝜓 = 0 ………………. (9)

Where
we know that

(Where 𝜆=h/p)

where E and V are total and potential energies of particle. Substituting

this value of p2 in equation (6), we get,

Where ħ = h/2π
 Substituting this value of ω2/v2 in equation (9), we get,

∇2 Ψ +2m(E-V)Ψ / ħ2 = ………………. (10)

0
Equation (10) is Schrodinger's time independent wave
equation for a particle wave. For free particle, V = 0,
therefore Schrodinger wave equation will be expressed as
………………. (11)
∇2 Ψ +2mEΨ /ħ2 = 0
Schrodinger Time-dependent wave equation
Wave function can be written separately for space and time function as
Ψ(x,y,z,t) = Ψo(x,y,z) . f(t) ....... (1)
Ψ(x,y,z,t) = Ψo (x,y,z) . e-iωt
OR
........ (2)
Ψ = Ψo.e-iωt

Differentiating equation (2) with respect to time t, we have

 ……….. (3)

Substituting the value of EΨ in Schrodinger time independent wave equation, we get

This equation is known as Schrodinger's time dependent wave equation.

 Physical Significance of Wave Function
• The variable quantity which characterizes de-Broglie wave is called a wave
function Ψ.
• The wave function represents the variation in matter waves.
• It connects the particle wave nature and its associated wave nature.
• Particle density is proportional to the Ψ2.
• Ψ Ψ* = Ι Ψ2 Ι, gives the probability of finding the particle in the state Ψ.
• The probability of finding a particle in volume dv = dx.dy.dz is given by Ι Ψ2 Ι
dx.dy.dz.
• For total probability of finding the particle somewhere will be unity.
∫∫∫ Ι Ψ2 Ι dx.dy.dz = 1
If Ψ satisfying above equation is said to be Normalized.
 Nature of Wave Function
• It must be finite every where.
• It must be single valued.
• It must be continuous.
• It must be normalizable.
 Eigen values and wave functions
(eigen functions)
Schrodinger equations can be solved only for
certain values of energy E. Therefore the
values of En for which Schrodinger equation
can be solved are called eigen values and the
corresponding wave functions Ψ are called
eigen functions.
Applications of Schrodinger's equation
(a) Particle in box

Let us consider the case of a particle

of mass m moving along x-axis
between the two rigid walls A and B at
x = 0 and x = L. The particle is free to
move between the walls (i.e. V = 0).
The walls are infinitely high. The
potential energy V of the particle is
infinite outside the walls.
thus the potential function is defined in the following way:
V (x) = ∞ for x < 0 and x > L
And V (x) = 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ L
The Schrodinger wave equation for the particle is given by

As V =0 between the walls, hence

Let then from equation (2)

………….. (3)

the general solution of equation (3) is given as

…….. (4)

where A and B are constants.

The values of these constants can be obtained by applying the
boundary conditions. The particle cannot penetrate the walls hence

Applying first boundary condition in equn (4), we get

0 = A sin 0 + B cos 0
i.e. B = 0
Now eq (4) becomes
……… (5)

applying the second boundary condition in

eq (5), we get
…………. (6)
 A ≠ 0, so that,

Therefore kL = nπ or k = nπ/L ........(6)

Now the wave function becomes

..……(7)

From Eq. (6), k2 = n2π2/L2

we have already used k2 as

Therefore,

Or ……. (8)

where n = 1,2,3.....
 Normalization of wave function
The constant A can be obtained by applying this normalization condition

now from equation (7), we get

A2 = 2/L or

The above equation gives the wave functions of

the particle enclosed in infinitely deep potential
well.
The normalized wave functions Ψ1Ψ2 and Ψ3 together with the
probability densities ΙΨ1Ι2, ΙΨ2Ι2 and ΙΨ3Ι2 are plotted as

Wave function Probability density

Solved Example
Solved Example
 Compton Effect
A. H. Compton observed that “when a monochromatic beam of high
frequency (lower wavelength) radiation (e.g., X-rays and γ-ray) is
scattered by a substance, the scattered radiation contains two type of
wavelengths one having same wavelength as that of incident
radiation while the other having the wavelength greater (or lower
frequency) than that of incident radiations. This effect is known as
Compton Effect.
Quantum Explanation: The explanation was given by
Compton which was based on quantum theory of light.
According to quantum theory when photon of
energy hν strikes with the substance some of the energy of
photon is transferred to the electrons, therefore the energy
(or frequency) of photon reduces and wavelength
increases.
Various assumptions were made for explaining the effect these
were:
(i) Compton Effect is the result of interaction of an individual
particle and free electron of target.
(ii) The collision is relativistic and elastic.
(iii) The laws of conservation of energy and momentum hold
good.
The Compton’s experimental setup are shown in Figure.
Monochromatic X-rays with wavelength λ are incident on a sample of
graphite and scattered with wavelength λ′. A detector placed behind
the target can measure the intensity of radiation scattered in any
direction with respect to the direction of the incident X-ray beam..
This scattering
angle, ϕ, is the
angle between the
direction of the
scattered beam
and the direction of
the incident beam.
Recoil electron
makes an angle θ
with the direction
of incident photon
The energy of the system before collision =
The energy of the system after collision =
According to the principle of conservation of energy

………… (1)
According to the principle of conservation of linear momentum along and
perpendicular to the direction of incident photon (i.e., along x and y axis), we
have

……… (2)

……… (3)
 Squaring (2) and (3) and then adding, we get

or
………… (4)

Squaring equation (1), we get

………… (5)

Subtracting (4) from (5), we get

………… (6)
According to the theory of relativity

Multiplying both sides by c2, we get

………… (7)

Using equation (7), equation (6) becomes

 ………… (8)

To find the relation in term of wavelength, let us substitute and

we thus have
 Compton shift ………… (9)

From above equations (8) and (9) following conclusions can be drawn
• The wavelength of the scattered photon λʹ is greater than the wavelength of
incident photon λ.
•∆ λ is independent of the incident wavelength.
•∆ λ have the same value for all substance containing free electron
•∆ λ only depend on the scattering angle φ.
1. When φ = 0; cos φ =
1 ∆ λ = λ’ – λ = 0
λ’ = λ, the scattered wavelength is same as the incident wavelength in the direction of
incidence.
2. When φ = 90˚ ;
cos φ =0

Where λc is called the Compton wavelength of the electron.

3. when φ = 180˚; cos 180˚ = ̶ 1
Why Compton Effect is not observed in visible spectrum

The maximum change in wavelength is 0.04952 Ao or roughly 0.05

Ao. This small change can not be observed for wavelength longer
than few angstrom units.
For example:
For X-ray, the incident radiation is about 1Ao , is 0.05 Ao
therefore the percentage of incident radiation is about 5%
(detectable).
For Visible radiation, the incident
radiation is about 5000 Ao, is 0.05
Ao, therefore the percentage of incident
radiation is about 0.001% (undetectable).
Solved Example
Solved Example
 Important Questions
1. Explain wave-particle duality. What are matter waves? Define de-Broglie
concept.
2. Derive Schrodinger’s time independent and time dependent equation. What is
the physical significance of wave function Ψ? What conditions must it fulfill?
3. A particle is in motion between x = 0 and x = a with zero potential energy. At
points for which x < 0 and x >a, the potential energy is infinite. Solving
Schrodinger’s equation, obtain energy eigen values and normalized wave
function for the particle. Also plot first three allowed wave wave functions.
4. What is a black body and explain black body radiation spectrum. Also
describe Wein’s Law & Rayleigh Jean’s law.
5. What are the basic concepts of Planck’s Quantum theory?
Derive Planck’s radiation law of black body radiation. How does it
explain Wein’s Law & Rayleigh Jean’s law?
6. Explain how Bohr’s postulates about quantization of angular
momentum followed directly from the idea of matter wave and
de-Broglie relation.
 References
1- Engineering Physics by Dr. S. K. Gupta (Krishna Prakashan Media Pvt Ltd).
2- Engineering Physics by Dr. S. L. Gupta (Shubham Publication).
3- https://www.wikipedia.org/
4- https://www.slideshare.net/
5- concept of modern physics by Arthur Beiser, McGraw-Hill publication.