Chapter 2

Application of Distribution
Transformers
1. Introduction
In general, distribution transformers are used to reduce primary-system
voltages (2.4 to 34.5 kV) to utilization voltages (120 to 600 V).
Other voltages are also available, for example, 2400 × 7200, which is used on a
2400-V system that is to be changed later to 7200 V.
To reduce installation costs to a minimum, small distribution transformers are
made for pole mounting in overhead distribution.
To reduce size and weight, preferred oriented steel is commonly used in their
construction.
Transformers 100 kVA and below are attached directly to the pole, transformers
larger than 100 up to 500 kVA are hung on crossbeams or support lugs.
If three or more transformers larger than 100 kVA are used, they are installed
on a platform supported by two poles.
In underground distribution, transformers are installed in Street vaults, in
manholes direct-buried, on pads at ground level, or within buildings. Transformer
type may depend upon soil content, lot location, public acceptance, or cost.

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 2

2. Symbols
The three primary symbols used are: The dash (—) used to separate
voltages of different windings, the slant (/) used to separate voltages of
the same winding, and the cross (× ×) used to indicate a series-multiple
connection.
Secondary symbols used are the letter Y, which indicates that the
winding is connected or may be connected wye, and Gnd Y, which
indicates that the winding has one end grounded to the tank or brought
out through a reduced insulation bushing.
Windings that are delta-connected or may be connected delta are
designated by the voltage of the winding only.
Table 2.1 gives standard transformer capacity and voltage ratings
according to ANSI Standard C57.12.20-1964 for single-phase
distribution transformers.
In Table 2.1 further information is given by the order in which the
voltages are written for low-voltage windings.
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 3
2. Symbols
To designate a winding with a mid-tap which will provide half the full-
winding KVA rating at half the full-winding voltage, the full-winding
voltage is written first, followed by a slant, and then the mid-tap voltage.

Example: 240/120 is used for a three-wire connection to designate a

120-V mid-tap voltage with a 240-V full-winding voltage.

A winding which is appropriate for series, multiple, and three-wire

connections will have the designation of multiple voltage rating
followed by a slash and the series voltage rating,

Example: the notation 120/240 means that the winding is

appropriate either for 120-V multiple connection, for 240-V series
connection, and for 240/120 three-wire connection.
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 4
2. Symbols

×), a winding is
When two voltages are separated by a cross (×

indicated which is appropriate for both multiple and series connection

but not for three-wire connection.

The notation 120 × 240 is used to differentiate a winding that can be

used for 120 V multiple connection and for 240 V series connection, but

not for a three-wire connection.

Examples of all symbols used are given in Table 2.2.

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2. Symbols

TABLE 2.1. Standard

Transformer KVA
and Voltages

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2. Symbols

TABLE 2.2. Designation of Voltage Ratings for Single - phase

and Three-Phase Distribution Transformers

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3. Types Of distribution transformers
Heat is a limiting factor in transformer loading. Removing the coil

heat is an important task.

In liquid-filled types, the transformer coils are immersed in a

smooth-surfaced, oil-filled tank. Oil absorbs the coil heat and transfers

it to the tank surface which, in turn, delivers it to the surrounding air.

For transformers 25 kVA and larger, the size of smooth tank surface

required to dissipate the heat becomes larger than that required to

enclose coils.

Therefore the transformer tank may be corrugated to add surface, or

external tubes may be welded to the tank.

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 8
3. Types Of distribution transformers
To further increase the heat-disposal capacity, air may be blown over
the tube surface. Such designs are known as forced-air-cooled, with
respect to self-cooled types.

Presently, however, all distribution transformers are built to be self-

cooled. Therefore the distribution transformers can be classified as:

(1) dry-type
(2) liquid-filled-type

The dry-type distribution transformers are air-cooled and air-

insulated.

The liquid-filled-type distribution transformers can further be

classified as (1) oil-filled and (2) inerteen-filled.

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 9

3. Types Of distribution transformers
The distribution transformers employed in overhead distribution
systems can be categorized as:

1. The conventional transformers:

They have no integral lightning, fault, or overload protective devices
provided as a part of the transformer.

2. The completely self- protecting (CSP) transformers:

They are, as the name implies, self-protecting from lightning or line
surges, overloads, and short circuits.
Lightning arresters mounted directly on the transformer tank, as
shown in Figure. 2.1, provide the primary winding against the lightning
and line surges.
The overload protection is provided by circuit breakers inside the
transformer tank.
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 10
3. Types Of distribution transformers
2. The completely sell- protecting (CSP) transformers:
The transformer is protected against an internal fault by internal
protective links located between the primary winding and the
primary bushings.
Single-phase CSP transformers (oil-immersed, pole- mounted,
65°°C, 60 Hz, 10—500 kVA) are available for a range of primary
voltages from 2400 to 34 400 V. The secondary voltages are 120/240
or 240/480/277 V.

3. The Completely self-protecting for secondary banking (CSPB)

distribution transformers
They are designed for banked secondary service. They are built
similar to the CSP transformers, but they are provided with two sets of
circuit breakers. The second set is used to sectionalize the secondary
when it is needed.

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 11

3. Types Of distribution transformers

(a) single-phase completely self- (b) three phase completely

protecting (or conventional) self-protecting

Figure 2.1 Overhead pole-mounted distribution transformers

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3. Types Of distribution transformers
The distribution transformers employed in underground distribution
systems can be categorized as:

1. Subway transformers
2. Low-cost residential transformers
3. Network transformers

Figure 2.2a shows a typical secondary-unit

substation with the high voltage and low
voltage on opposite ends and full-length
flanges for close coupling to high-voltage and
low-voltage switch- gear. These units are
normally made in sizes from 75 to 2500 kVA,
Figure 2.2 .a
three-phase, to 35-kV class. Various types of
transformers
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 13
3. Types Of distribution transformers
A typical single-phase pole-type transformer for a

normal utility application is shown in Figure 2.2b.

These are made from 10 to 500 kVA for delta and wye

systems (one-bushing or two-bushing high voltage).

Figure 2.2 .b
Various types of
transformers

Figure 2.2c shows a typical single-phase

pad-mounted (minipad) utility-type
transformer. Figure 2.2 .c
Various types of
transformers
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 14
3. Types Of distribution transformers

A typical three-phase pad-mounted

(stan-pad) transformer used by utilities

as well as industrial and commercial

applications is shown in Figure 2.2d.

They are made from 45 to 2500 kVA

normally, but have been made to 5000

kVA on special applications. They are

Figure 2.2 .d
Various types of
also designed for underground service. transformers

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3. Types Of distribution transformers

Figure 2.3a shows a typical three-phase

subsurface-vault-type transformer used in
utility applications in vaults below grade
where there is no room to place the
transformer elsewhere.

These units are made for 75 to 2500 kVA

and are made of a heavier gauge steel,
Figure 2.3a
special heavy corrugated radiators for Various types of
transformers
cooling, and a special coal-tar type of
paint.

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 16

3. Types Of distribution transformers
A typical mobile transformer is shown
in Figure 2.3b. These units are made for
emergency applications and to allow
utilities to reduce inventory.

They are made typically for 500 to

2500 kVA. They can be used on
underground service as well as overhead
service.

Normally they can have two or three

primary voltages and two or three
secondary voltages, so they may be used Figure 2.3b
Various types of
on any system the utility may have. transformers

For an emergency outage this unit is simply driven to the site, hooked
up, and the power to the site is restored.
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 17
3. Types Of distribution transformers
Figure 2.3c shows a typical power
transformer.

This class of unit is manufactured

from 3700 kVA to 30 MVA up to
about 138-kV class.

The picture shows removable

radiators to allow for a smaller size
during shipment, and fans for
increased capacity when required,
including an automatic on-load tap
Figure 2.3c
changer which changes as the Various types of transformers
voltage varies.
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 18
3. Types Of distribution transformers
Table 2.3 presents electrical characteristics of typical single-phase
distribution transformers.
Table 2.4 gives electrical characteristics of typical three-phase pad-
mounted transformers. (For more accurate values, consult the
individual manufacturer's catalogs)
To find the resistance (R') and reactance (X') of a transformer of equal
size and voltage, which has a different impedance value (Z') than the one
shown in tables, multiply the tabulated percent values of R and X by the
ratio of the new impedance value to the tabulated impedance value, that
is, Z‘/Z.
Therefore, the resistance and the reactance of the new transformer
can be found from

and

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3. Types Of distribution transformers
Table 2.3 Electrical characteristics of typical single-phase distribution transformers*

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3. Types Of distribution transformers

Table 2.3 (Continued)

Electrical characteristics of typical single-phase distribution transformers*

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3. Types Of distribution transformers
TABLE 2.4
Electrical Characteristics of Typical Three-Phase Pad-Mounted
Transformers

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3. Types Of distribution transformers

TABLE 2.4 (Continued)

Electrical Characteristics of Typical Three-Phase Pad-Mounted
Transformers

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3. Regulation
To calculate the transformer regulation for a KVA load of power factor
θ , at rated voltage, any one of the following formulas can be used:
cosθ

or

or

where θ is the power factor angle of the load, VR is the percent resistance
voltage = (copper loss/output)× ×100, SL is the apparent load power, ST is
the rated apparent power of the transformer, Iop is the operating
current, Ira is the rated current, Vx is the percent leakage reactance
voltage (VZ2 − VR2)1/2, and Vz is the percent impedance voltage.
Note that the percent regulation at unity power factor is:

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 24

4. Transformer Efficiency
The efficiency of a transformer can be calculated from

The total losses include the losses in, the electric circuit, magnetic
circuit, and dielectric circuit. Stigant and Franklin state that a
transformer has its highest efficiency at a load at which the iron loss and
copper loss are equal.

Therefore the load at which the efficiency is highest can be found from

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 25

4. Transformer Efficiency
Figure 2.4 and Figure 2.5 show
the nomograms for quick
determination of the efficiency of a
transformer. (For more accurate
values, consult the individual
manufacturer's catalogs)

To obtain the efficiency at a given

load, lay a straight edge across the
iron and copper loss values and
read the efficiency at the point
where the straight edge cuts the
required load ordinate.
Figure 2.4 Transformer efficiency
chart applicable only to the unity
power factor condition.

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4. Transformer Efficiency
To obtain the efficiency at a
given load, lay a straight edge
across the iron and copper
loss values and read the
efficiency at the point where
the straight edge cuts the
required load ordinate.

Figure 2.5 Transformer efficiency

chart applicable only to the unity
power factor condition.

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4. Transformer Efficiency
With the cost of electric
energy presently 5 to 6
cents/kWh and projected
to double within the next
10 to 15 years, as shown in
Figure 2.6, the cost
efficiency of transformers
now shifts to align itself
with energy efficiency.

Figure 2.6 Cost of electric energy

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4. Transformer Efficiency
In general, the distribution transformer costs can be classified as:
the cost of investment
the cost of lost energy due to the losses in the transformer,
the cost of demand lost (i.e., the cost of lost capacity) due to the losses
in the transformer.

Figure 2.7 shows the

annual cost per unit load
vs. load level.

Figure 2.7 annual cost per unit load vs. load level.
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4. Transformer Efficiency
Of course, the cost of investment is the largest cost component, and
it includes the cost of the transformer itself and the costs of material
and labor involved in the transformer installation.

Figure 2.7 shows the annual cost per unit load versus load level. At
low-load levels, the relatively high costs result basically from the
investment cost, whereas at high-load levels, they are due to the cost
of additional loss of life of the transformer, the cost of lost energy, and
the cost of demand loss in addition to the investment cost. Figure 2.7
indicates an operating range close to the bottom of the curve.

Usually, it is economical to install a transformer at approximately

80% of its nameplate rating and to replace it later, at approximately
180%, by one with a larger capacity.

However, presently, increasing costs of capital, plant and equipment,

and energy tend to reduce these percentages.
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 30
5. Terminal Or Lead Markings
The terminals or leads of a transformer are the points to which

external electric circuits are connected.

According to NEMA and ASA standards, the higher-voltage winding is

identified by HV or H, and the lower-voltage winding is identified by LV

or x.

Transformers with more than two windings have the windings

identified as H, x, y, and z, in order of decreasing voltage. The terminal H1

is located on the right-hand side when facing the high-voltage side of the

transformer.

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5. Terminal Or Lead Markings
On single-phase transformers the leads are numbered so that when H1

is connected to x1, the voltage between the highest-numbered H lead and

the highest-numbered x lead is less than the voltage of the high-voltage

winding.

On three-phase transformers, the terminal H1 is on the right-hand side

when facing the high-voltage winding, with the H2 and H3 terminals in

numerical sequence from right to left.

The terminal x1 is on the left-hand side when facing the low-voltage

winding, with the x2 and x3 terminals in numerical sequence from left to

right.
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6. Transformer Polarity

Transformer-winding terminals are marked to show polarity, to

indicate the high from the low-voltage side. Primary and secondary are
not identified as such because which is which depends on input and
output connections.

Transformer polarity is an indication of the direction of current

flowing through the high-voltage leads with respect to the direction of
current flow through the low-voltage leads at any given instant.

In other words, the transformer polarity simply refers to the relative

direction of induced voltages between the high-voltage leads and the
low-voltage terminals.

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 33

6. Transformer Polarity
The polarity of a single-phase
distribution transformer may be
additive or subtractive.

With standard markings, the

voltage from H1 to H2 is always in
the same direction or in phase with
the voltage from X1 to X2.

Figure 2.8 Additive and subtractive polarity connections

(a) subtractive polarity and (b) additive polarity

In a transformer where H1 and X1 terminals are adjacent, as shown in

Figure 2.8a, the transformer is said to have subtractive polarity.

On the other hand, when terminals H1 and X1 are diagonally opposite,

as shown in Figure 2.8b, the transformer is said to have additive polarity.
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 34
6. Transformer Polarity
Transformer polarity can be determined by performing a simple test in

which two adjacent terminals of the high and low-voltage windings are

connected together and a moderate voltage is applied to the high-voltage

winding, as shown in Figure 2.9, and then the voltage between the high

and low-voltage winding terminals that are not connected together are

measured.

The polarity is subtractive if the voltage read is less than the voltage

applied to the high-voltage winding, as shown in Figure 2.9a.

The polarity is additive if the voltage read is greater than the applied

voltage, as shown in Figure 2.9b.

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6. Transformer Polarity

Figure 2.9 Polarity test

(a) subtractive polarity
(b) additive polarity
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7. Distribution Transformer Loading Guides
The rated kilovoltamperes of a given transformer is the output which
can be obtained continuously at rated voltage and frequency without
exceeding the specified temperature rise.

Temperature rise is used for rating purposes rather than actual

temperature, since the ambient temperature may vary considerably
under operating conditions.

The life of insulation commonly used in transformers depends

upon.the temperature the insulation reaches and the length of time that
this temperature is sustained.

Therefore, before the overload capabilities of the transformer can be

determined, the ambient temperature, preload conditions, and the
duration of peak loads must be known.
Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 37
7. Distribution Transformer Loading Guides
Based on Appendix C57.91 entitled The Guide for Loading Mineral
Oil—Immersed Overhead-Type Distribution Transformers with 55°C
and 65°C Average Winding Rise, which is an appendix to the ANSI
Overhead Distribution Standard C57.12, twenty transformer insulation-
life curves were developed.

°C
These curves indicate a minimum life expectancy of 20 years at 95°
°C hot-spot temperatures, for 55°
and 110° °C and 65°
°C rise
transformers.

Previous transformer loading guides were based on the so-called

°C insulation-life rule.
8°

Dr. Sadek DHBAIBI 38