1

Theorem: The Sum of the degree of all the vertices in a graph is twice the number of edges.

Proof: Let G = (V, E) be a graph.

Let the number of edges in graph G be “n”. Then consider the set of vertices and set of edges is given by

V  {v1 , v2 , v3 ,........}

E  {e1 , e2 , e3 ,........, en }
And

v1 ) + deg ( v2 ) + deg ( v3 ) +… … … … ….
To Show: deg ( = Twice the number of EDGES.

 deg (v )
vi V
i
i.e. = 2n

STEP 1: Let the number of edge be ZERO i.e. n=0.

Hence the graph having no edge is given by

v1

v1 }, E=  ] v1 , v2 , v3 ,... }, E=  ]
[Case 1: TRIVIAL Graph: V= { [Case 2: NULL GRAPH: V= {

v1 }, E= 
CASE 1: TRIVIAL GRAPH: V= {

In this case there is no edge in the Graph. Hence n=0.

 deg (v )
vi V
i
deg (v1 ) =0=2  0=2n
=

Hence the theorem is true for n=0.

v1 , v2 , v3 ,... }, E= 
CASE 2: NULL GRAPH: V= {

v1 , v2 , v3 ,... have ZERO degree.

In this case there is also no edge in the Graph but all the vertices

v1 ) = deg ( v2 ) = deg ( v3 ) =… … … … …. =ZERO

i.e. deg ( -------------------------------(1)
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 deg (v )
vi V
i
v1 ) + deg ( v2 ) + deg ( v3 ) +… … … … ….
= deg (

=0+0+0+… [BY (1)]

=0

=0

=2  0

=2n

Hence the theorem is true for n=0.

v1 , v2 }, E= { e1 }
STEP 2: Let the number of edge be ONE i.e. n=1.i.e V= {

Then the graph having one edge is given by

v1 e1 v2

v1 ) = deg ( v2 ) =1, then

It is clear that deg (

 deg (v )
vi V
i
v1 ) + deg ( v2 )
= deg (

= 1+1

=2

=2  1

=2n

Hence the theorem is true for n=1.

STEP 3: Assume that the theorem is true for a graph having (n-1) edges.

v1 , v2 , v3 ,... ,}, E= { e1 , e2 , e3 ,…., en 1 }

Here V= {


vi V ,1i  n 1
deg (vi )
=2(n-1)
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STEP 4: Now let G=(V, E) be a graph having n-edges.

v1 , v2 , v3 ,... ,}, E= { e1 , e2 , e3 ,…., en }

i.e. V= {

Let ‘e’ be any edge joining vertex ‘a’ to vertex ‘b’ in the graph G= (V, E)

Suppose the Graph G= (V, E) is given by b

a a

[Graph: G= (V, E)] [Graphs: G’= (V, E’)]

 
Now, if we delete/remove one edge joining vertex ‘a’ to vertex ‘b’, then we find a GRAPH G  (V , E )
where E  = E  {e} but vertices in G  will be same as in G .

Hence number of edges in G  will be (n-1). Hence by step 3, we have


vi V ,1 i  n 1,G 
deg (vi )
=2(n-1) ----------------------------------------------------- (2)

Now, if we join vertex ‘a’ to vertex ‘b’ then we find the graph G= (V, E) again. Hence

Degree of ‘a’ is increased by 1

Degree of ‘b’ is increased by 1. Hence to plot graph G from G  , one edge is added to G  , to be
G.


vi V ,1i  n 1,G
deg (vi ) 
vi V ,1 i  n 1,G 
deg (vi )
Hence = + 1+ 1

= 2(n-1)+ 1+ 1


vi V ,1i  n 1,G
deg (vi )
= 2n = Twice the number of EDGES

Since the theorem is true for a graph having n-edges.

Therefore we conclude that:

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“The Sum of the degree of all the vertices in a graph is twice the number of edges”. This completes
the proof.

Theorem: In any graph, the number of vertices of odd degree is always even.

Proof: Let G= (V, E) be a graph having n-edges.

V  {a1 , a2 , a3 ,..., b1 ,b 2 ,b3 ,...}

Consider

E ={ e1 , e2 , e3 ,…., en }

ai ' s are the vertices of G having even degree i.e

Where all
deg ( a1 ) = an even number
deg (a2 ) = an even number and so on. i.e. deg ( ai ) = an even number, for all i .
deg (b1 ) = an odd number
And
deg (b2 ) = an odd number and so on. i.e. deg (b j ) = an odd number, for all j.

To Show: The number of vertices of odd degree is always even.

i.e. j = an even number.

Ve and Vo such that Ve  Vo = V and Ve  Vo  

Hence writing V as two disjoint sets

Ve =Set of vertices of G having even degree and Vo = Set of vertices of G having odd degree.
Where
ai  Ve and all b j  Vo .
Hence all

Hence by the theorem which states, “The sum of degree of all the vertices in a graph is twice the
number of edges”.

 deg ( a1 )  deg (a2 )  deg ( a3 )  ....  deg (b1 )  deg (b2 )  deg (b3 )  ... = Twice the number of
edges.
 deg (a )  deg (b )
i j
 ai Ve
+
b j Vo
= 2( n )
 deg (b ) j
 2k + b j Vo = 2n
ai ’s are even and hence it will be some multiple of 2.)
(Since degree of all

 deg (b ) j
= 2(n  k )
b j Vo

 deg (b )
b j Vo
j
= an even number
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deg (b j )
Since value of each is odd. The above result is valid only for even number of values.

“Hence, in a graph, the number of odd degree vertices is even”. This completes the proof.

n(n  1)
Theorem: The maximum possible numbers of edges in a simple graph with n-vertices are 2 .

Proof: Let G = (V, E) be a graph having n-vertices. And

v1 , v2 , v3 ,...vn 1 , vn }
Let the set of vertices be V= {

v1 :
STEP 1: Number of Edges incident on/with

v1 can be joined by v2 , v3 ,...vn 1 & vn to form the following edges- (v1 , v2 ) , (v1 , v3 ) , (v1 , v4 ) ,
The vertex
(v1 , v5 ) , … …., (v1 , vn 1 ) & (v1 , vn ) .

v1

v2 v3 v4 v5 …. …. …. vn 1 vn

(n-1) vertices

(v1 , v2 ) , (v1 , v3 ) , (v1 , v4 ) , (v1 , v5 ) , … …., (v1 , vn 1 ) , (v1 , vn )

(n-1) -edges

v1 can be joined by remaining (n-1) vertices to form maximum possible number of edges which is
Hence
(n-1).

v2 except edge ( (v2 , v1 ) :

STEP 2: Number of Edges incident on/with

v2 can be joined by remaining (n-2) - vertices as (v2 , v3 ) , (v2 , v4 ) , (v2 , v5 ) ,

Similar to step 1, vertex
(v2 , v6 ) , … …., (v2 , vn 1 ) , (v2 , vn ) . Here note that edge (v2 , v1 ) is same as edge (v1 , v2 ) which has been
counted in step 1; hence no need to count it again.

(v2 , v3 ) , (v2 , v4 ) , (v2 , v5 ) , (v2 , v6 ) , … …., (v2 , vn 1 ) , (v2 , vn )

(n-2)-edges
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v2 except edge (v2 , v1 ) .

Hence it is clear that there are (n-2) edges incident on/with

vn 1 except edges (vn 1 , vn  2 ), (vn 1 , vn 3 )..., (vn 1 , v1 ) :

STEP 3: Number of Edges incident on/with

vn can be joined only one vertex

Similarly as proceeding as above steps at last we find that the vertex
vn 1 . Hence at last there can be only one edge namely (vn1 , vn ) .

STEP 4: Total number of maximum possible edges:

Hence from the above steps,

The total number of maximum possible edges = (n  1)  (n  2)  (n  3)  ...  3  2  1

= 1  2  3  ...  (n  3)  ( n  2)  ( n  1)

(n  1)
[2(1)  ( n  1  1)(1)]
= 2

N
th
SN  [2( A)  ( N  1) D ]
[Note: Here we are using the formula for summation of A.P up to N terms : 2 ]

n(n  1)
The total number of maximum possible edges = 2 edges

n(n  1)
Hence, “the maximum possible numbers of edges in a simple graph with n-vertices are 2 ”. This
proves the theorem.

NOTE:

Walk Open Walk Closed Walk Cycle/Circuit

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No edge repeated A walk in which A walk in which initial A closed walk in which
initial and final and final vertices are all the vertices are
vertices are not same. distinct except initial and
same. final vertex.

Path: It is an open walk in which no vertex appears more than once.

Tree: A tree is a connected graph having no circuits.

Theorem: A Graph is a tree if and only if (iff) there is one and only one path between every pair of
vertices.

Proof: Here we have to show that

A Graph is a tree  There is one and only one path between every pair of vertices.

THE CONDITION IS NECESSARY (  OR ONLY IF PART):

Let T= (V,E) be a tree. Then

To Show:  one and only one path between every pair of vertices in T.

Since T is a Tree  (i) T is connected.

(ii) T has no circuits.

Consider the contrary, if possible, that there are two or more than two paths between the two vertices
‘a’ and ‘b’. Illustrative example is given by-

PATH 1

PATH 2

a b

PATH 3

[Tree T, if possible]

Since “The union of two paths having same vertices is a circuit”.

But Since T is a Tree; hence it should not have any circuit. But here we are concluding that T has a circuit.
This is a contradiction because actually T has no circuit.
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Therefore “  one and only one path between every pair of vertices in tree T”.

THE CONDITION IS SUFFICIENT (  OR IF PART):

Let G= (V, E) be a graph having one and only one path between every pair of vertices.

To Show: Graph G is a tree.

i.e (i) Graph G is Connected.

(ii) Graph G has no circuit.

Since there is one and only one path between every pair of vertices.

 Graph G is connected. [(i) has been proved.]-------------(1)

Now consider the contrary, if possible, Graph G has a circuit.

 There is atleast one pair of vertices say ‘a’ and ‘b’ such that  two distinct paths
between vertex ‘a’ and vertex ‘b’. This is a contradiction to our assumption that
between every pair of vertices, G has one and only one path.

 Graph G has no circuit. [(ii) has been proved.]------------(2)

Hence from (1) and (2) it is clear that “Graph G is a Tree”.

Hence finally, a graph is a tree  There is one and only one path between every pair of vertices.

This proves the theorem.

Theorem: A tree having n-vertices has exactly (n-1) edges.

Proof: Suppose T= (V, E) be a tree having n-vertices.

We prove it by the method of MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION on number of vertices.

STEP 1: IF n=1 i.e. tree T has one vertex

This tree is given by

[TRIVIAL TREE]
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It is clear that there is no edge for a tree having one vertex.

 Number of edges in T having one vertex = 0
 Number of edges in T having one vertex = 0-0
 Number of edges in T having one vertex = (n-1)

Hence the theorem is true for a tree having one vertex i.e. for n=1.

STEP 2: IF n=2 i.e. tree T has two vertices

This tree is given by

Clearly this tree has only one edge.

 Number of edges in T having two vertices = 1

 Number of edges in T having two vertices = 2-1
 Number of edges in T having two vertices = (n-1)

Hence the theorem is true for a tree having two vertices i.e. for n=2.

STEP 3: Suppose the theorem is true for all the trees having vertices less than n.

Consider an illustrative example:

ek vj vj

vi vi

T1 ] T2 Tree]
[Tree T having n vertices] [Individual Tree [Individual

n1 vertices] n2 vertices]
[Having [Having

ek ]
[Disconnected graph: T-
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Since T is a tree, then there is one and only one path between every pair of vertices. If we
ek = ( vi , v j ) then the graph T- ek will be is a disconnected graph but
delete/remove one edge
T T n n
individually both 1 and 2 are the trees having 1 vertices and 2 vertices respectively.

n1 and n2 both are less than n i.e. n1 < n and n2 < n . And n1 + n2 = n . (NOTE)
Here

T1 having n1 vertices n1 -1)

Hence number of edges in Tree = (

T2 having n2 vertices = n2 -1)

Number of edges in Tree (

vi to v j then we find tree T and one edge ek = ( vi , v j ) is increased.

Now if we join

Hence

e
No. of edges in tree T having n -vertices = (No. of edges in disconnected graph T- k ) + 1

T T
No. of edges in tree T having n -vertices= (No. of edges in Tree 1 ) + (no. of edges in Tree 1 ) + 1

n1 -1) + ( n2 -1) + 1
Number of edges in tree T having n -vertices =(

n1 + n2 -1)
Number of edges in tree T having n -vertices =(

n1 + n2 = n ]
Number of edges in tree T having n -vertices = ( n -1) edges [Since

Hence, number of edges in a tree T having n -vertices is exactly ( n -1) edges. This proves the theorem.
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REMEMBER ALWAYS

SUBGRAPH: “Let G = (V, E) be a graph, then a graph G  (V , E ) is called a subgraph of G if

' ' '

(i) V '  V , E '  E and

E '   (a, b) : a  V ' , b  V ' and (a, b)  E
(ii) ”.

In other words, “A graph H is said to be subgraph of a graph G if-

 All the vertices of H are in G.

 All the edges of H are in G.
 Each edge of H has the same end vertices in H as in G.
The followings are the Subgraphs of G:
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Graph G

Subgraphs of G

Properties of a Subgraph:

1. Every graph is a subgraph of itself.

2. A single vertex of a graph is a subgraph of G.
3. A single edge with end vertices of a graph G is a subgraph of G.
4. A subgraph of a subgraph of G is a subgraph of G.

Remember Always

GRAPH ISOMORPHISM:
G G
Two graphs 1 and 2 are called isomorphic if their graph theoretic properties are same i.e. two
graphs are called isomorphic (to each other) if there is a one to one correspondence between their
vertices and between their edges such that their incidence relationship is preserved. And it is written
G1  G2 .
as,

Thus, “Two graphs are said to be isomorphic to each other if

o They have same number of edges
o They have same number of vertices
o They have equal number of vertices with a given degree.”

Consider the following example of isomorphic graphs-

1 A B a

3 C D c b
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4 d

G1 ]  G2 ] G3 ]
[Graph [Graph [Graph

Working for vertices:

f : V (G1 )  V (G2 ) as
Define a function

f (1)  A, f (2)  B, f (3)  D, f (4)  C

G2 , there exists a vertex in G1  f is onto function.

For each vertex which belongs to

G1 , there is unique vertex in G2  f is one-one function.

For each vertex in

G1 and G2 for vertices.

Hence there is one-one correspondence between

Working for edges:

We can define a function

 : E (G1 )  E (G2 ) such that

 [(1,2)]=(A,B)=( f (1) , f (2) ),  [(2,3)]=(B,D)= ( f (2) , f (3) ),  (3,4) =(D,C) =( f (3) , f (4) )

G1 and  [(1,3)  ( f (1) , f (3) ) =(A,D)  E (G2 )

But here (1,3) 

G1 and  [(1,4)]  ( f (1) , f (4) ) =(A,C)  E (G2 )

Similarly (1, 4) 

G1 and  [(2,4)]  ( f (2) , f (4) ) =(B,C)  E (G2 )

Similarly (2, 4) 

G1 and G2 for edges.

Hence there is one-one correspondence between

Hence function f preserves adjacency as well as non-adjacency of the vertices.

 G1  G2 . But G2 is not isomorphic to G3 .

Note: If two graphs are isomorphic to each other, then the following will hold:

1. Both the graphs have same number of vertices.

2. Both the graphs have same number of edges.
3. Degree sequences of the graphs are same.
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ROOTED TREE:

A rooted tree is a tree in which a special ("labeled") node is singled out. This node is called the "root" or
(less commonly) "eve" of the tree.

“A ROOTED TREE IS A TREE WITH A DISTINGUISHED VERTEX FROM THE OTHER VERTICES. THIS
DISTINGUISHED VERTEX IS CALLED ROOT OR EVE OF THE TREE.”

BINARY TREE:

“A binary tree is a tree data structure in which each node has at most two child nodes, usually
distinguished as "left" and "right". Nodes with children are parent nodes, and child nodes may contain
references to their parents”.

“A binary tree is defined as a tree in which there is exactly one vertex of degree two and each of the
remaining vertices is of degree one or three”.

Consider an example as:

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Properties of a binary tree:

1. The number of vertices in a binary tree is always odd.

2. Let p be the number of pendant vertices in a binary tree T having n-vertices. Then n-p-1 is the
number of vertices of degree three.

SPANNING TREE: A spanning tree T of a connected, undirected graph G is a tree composed of all the
vertices and some (or perhaps all) of the edges of G.

“Let G= (V, E) be a connected graph. A spanning tree of a graph G is a subgraph T=(V,E’) which is a tree,
where E  E ”. In other words, a tree to be spanning tree of a graph we have the following
'

requirements-

1. T has the same vertices as does G.

2. T is a tree.
3. T is subgraph of G. [Spanning Trees of G]
[Graph G]