CONCEPTS OF HYDROLOGY

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Hydrology means the science of water. It is the science that deals with the occurrence,
circulation and distribution of water of the earth and earth’s atmosphere. As a branch of earth
science, it is concerned with the water in streams and lakes, rainfall and snow-fall, snow and ice
on the land and water occurring below the earth’s surface in the pores of the soil and rocks. In a
general sense, hydrology is a very broad subject of an inter-disciplinary nature drawing support
from allied sciences, such as meteorology, geology, statistics, chemistry, physics and fluid
mechanics.
Hydrology is basically an applied science. To further emphasise the degree of
applicability, the subject is sometimes classified as
1. Scientific hydrology—the study which is concerned chiefly with academic aspects.

2. Engineering or applied hydrology—a study concerned with engineering

applications.

In a general sense engineering hydrology deals with (i) estimation of water resources, the
study of processes such as precipitation, runoff, evapotranspiration and their interaction and (iii)
the study of problems such as floods and droughts, and strategies to combat them.
This book is an elementary treatment of engineering hydrology with descriptions that aid
in a qualitative appreciation and techniques which enable a quantitative evaluation of the
hydrologic processes that are of importance to a civil engineer.

1.2 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Water occurs on the earth in all its three states, viz. liquid, solid and gaseous, and in
various degrees of motion. Evaporation of water from water bodies such as oceans and
lakes, formation and movement of clouds, rain and snowfall, streamflow and groundwater
movement are some examples of the dynamic aspects of water. The various aspects of water
related to the earth can be explained in terms of a cycle known as the hydrologic cycle.
 Figure 1.1 is a schematic representation of the hydrologic cycle. A convenient starting
point to describe the cycle is in the oceans. Water in the oceans evaporate due to the heat
energy provided by solar radiation. The water vapour moves upwards and forms clouds.
While much of the clouds condense and fall back to the oceans as rain, a part of the clouds is
driven to the land areas by winds. There they condense and precipitate onto the land mass as
rain, snow, hail, sleet, etc. A part of the precipitation

Engineering Hydrology

Fig. 1.1The Hydrologic Cycle

may evaporate back to the atmosphere even while falling. Another part may be intercepted
by vegetation, structures and other such surface modifications from which it may be either
evaporated back to atmosphere or move down to the ground surface.
A portion of the water that reaches the ground enters the earth’s surface through
infiltration, enhance the moisture content of the soil and reach the groundwater body.
Vegetation sends a portion of the water from under the ground surface back to the
atmosphere through the process of transpiration. The precipitation reaching the ground
surface after meeting the needs of infiltration and evaporation moves down the natural slope
over the surface and through a network of gullies, streams and rivers to reach the ocean. The
groundwater may come to the surface through springs and other outlets after spending a
considerably longer time than the surface flow. The portion of the precipitation which by a
variety of paths above and below the surface of the earth reaches the stream channel is called
runoff. Once it enters a stream channel, runoff becomes stream flow.
The sequence of events as above is a simplistic picture of a very complex cycle that has
been taking place since the formation of the earth. It is seen that the hydrologic cycle is a
very vast and complicated cycle in which there are a large number of paths of varying time
scales. Further, it is a continuous recirculating cycle in the sense that there is neither a
beginning nor an end or a pause. Each path of the hydrologic cycle involves one or more of
the following aspects: (i) transportation of water, (ii) temporary storage and (iii) change of
state. For example, (a) the process of rainfall has the change of state and transportation and (b)
the groundwater path has storage and transportation aspects.

The main components of the hydrologic cycle can be broadly classified as transportation ( flow)
components and storage components as below:

Transportation Storage components

components

Precipitation Storage on the land surface

(Depression storage, Ponds, Lakes, Reservoirs, etc)

Evaporation Soil moisture storage

Transpiration Groundwater storage

Infiltration

Runoff
 Schematically the interdepen-
dency of the transportation compo-
nents can be represented as in
Fig. 1.2. The quantities of water
going through various individual
paths of the hydrological cycle in
a given system can be described by
the continuity principle known as
water budget equation or hydro-
logic equation.
It is important to note that the
total water resources of the earth
Fig. 1.2 Transportation Components of the
are constant and the sun is the
Hydrologic Cycle
source of energy for the hydrologic

cycle. A recognition of the various processes such as evaporation, precipitation and

groundwater flow helps one to study the science of hydrology in a systematic way. Also,
one realises that man can interfere with virtually any part of the hydrologic cycle, e.g.
through artificial rain, evaporation suppression, change of vegetal cover and land use,
extraction of groundwater, etc. Interference at one stage can cause serious repercussions
at some other stage of the cycle.

The hydrological cycle has important influences in a variety of fields including

agriculture, forestry, geography, economics, sociology and political scene. Engineering
applications of the knowledge of the hydrologic cycle, and hence of the subjects of
hydrology, are found in the design and operation of projects dealing with water sup-ply,
irrigation and drainage, water power, flood control, navigation, coastal works, salinity
control and recreational uses of water.

1.3 SURFACE WATER HYDROLOGY

What is Surface Water Hydrology?

 The study of moving water found in rivers, open channels, lakes, and runoff across
the open land surface
 Important for transportation, irrigation, water supply, hydropower, etc.

Surface water hydrology includes the study of surface water movement and the
distribution of surface water in space and time. Of particular interest is the variability in
water quantity and flow within a year and between years. This variability in water supply is
largely influenced by climate. Together with geographical characteristics such as
topography, soils, and land use, hydrologic variability affects the development and character
of surface water systems such as lakes and rivers.

1.4 GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY

Ground Water
 Groundwater is water located beneath the earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in the
fractures of rock formations.
 The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely
saturated with water is called the water table.
Groundwater, water that occurs below the surface of Earth, where it occupies all or part of
the void spaces in soils or geologic strata. It is also called subsurface water to distinguish it from
surface water, which is found in large bodies like the oceans or lakes or which flows overland in
streams. Both surface and subsurface water are related through the hydrologic cycle (the
continuous circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system).
Surface water and groundwater
Surface water and groundwater are both important sources for community water
supply needs. Groundwater is a common source for single homes and small towns,
and rivers and lakes are the usual sources for large cities. Although approximately 98 percent of
liquid fresh water exists as groundwater, much of it occurs very deep. This makes pumping very
expensive, preventing the full development and use of all groundwater resources.
Surface water sources
The total land area that contributes surface runoff to a river or lake is called a
watershed, drainage basin, or catchment area. The volume of water available for municipal
supply depends mostly on the amount of rainfall. It also depends on the size of the watershed, the
slope of the ground, the type of soil and vegetation, and the type of land use.
The flow rate or discharge of a river varies with time. Higher flow rates typically occur in the
spring, and lower flow rates occur in the winter, though this is often not the case in areas
with monsoon systems. When the average discharge of a river is not enough for a dependable
supply of water, a conservation reservoir may be built. The flow of water is blocked by a dam,
allowing an artificial lake to be formed. Conservation reservoirs store water from wet weather
periods for use during times of drought and low streamflow. A water intake structure is built
within the reservoir, with inlet ports and valves at several depths. Since the quality of water in a
reservoir varies seasonally with depth, a multilevel intake allows water of best quality to be
withdrawn. Sometimes it is advisable, for economic reasons, to provide a multipurpose reservoir.
A multipurpose reservoir is designed to satisfy a combination of community water needs. In
addition to drinking water, the reservoir may also provide flood control, hydroelectric power, and
recreation.
Groundwater sources

The value of an aquifer as a source of groundwater is a function of the porosity of the

geologic stratum, or layer, of which it is formed. Water is withdrawn from an aquifer by
pumping it out of a well or infiltration gallery. An infiltration gallery typically includes several
horizontal perforated pipes radiating outward from the bottom of a large-diameter vertical
shaft. Wells are constructed in several ways, depending on the depth and nature of the aquifer.
Wells used for public water supplies, usually more than 30 metres (100 feet) deep and from 10 to
30 cm (4 to 12 inches) in diameter, must penetrate large aquifers that can provide dependable
yields of good-quality water. They are drilled using impact or rotary techniques and are usually
lined with a metal pipe or casing to prevent contamination. The annular space around the outside
of the upper portion of the casing is filled with cement grout, and a special sanitary seal is
installed at the top to provide further protection. At the bottom of the casing, a slotted screen is
attached to strain silt and sand out of the groundwater. A submersible pump driven by an electric
motor can be used to raise the water to the surface. Sometimes a deep well may penetrate a
confined artesian aquifer, in which case natural hydrostatic pressure can raise the water to the
surface.

1.5 APPLICATIONS IN ENGINEERING

Hydrology finds its greatest application in the design and operation of water resources
engineering projects such as irrigation, water supply, flood control, water power, and navigation.
In all these projects hydrological investigations for the proper assessment of the following
factors are necessary:
1. The capacity of storage structures such as reservoirs.
2. The magnitude of flood flows to enable safe disposal of the excess flow.
3. The minimum flow and quantity of flow available at various seasons.
4. The interaction of the flood wave and hydraulics structures, such as levels,
reservoirs, barrages, and bridges.
Others include:
 Estimating and calculation of water resources
 Control of natural disasters Flood and drought control
 Study of water process, such as, precipitation, evaporation and run off.
 Study water problems, such as, floods and seepage, ground water.
The hydrological study of a project should necessarily precede structural and other detailed
design studies. It involves the collection of relevant data and analysis of the data by applying the
principles and theories of hydrology to seek solutions to practical problems.
Many important projects in the past have failed due to improper assessment of the
hydrological factors. Some typical failures of hydraulic structures are (1) overtopping and
consequent failure of an earthen dam due to an inadequate spillway capacity (2) failure of
bridges and culverts due to excess flood flow and (3) inability of a large reservoir to fill up with
water due to overestimation of the stream flow. Such failure, often called hydrologic failures
underscore the uncertainty aspect inherent in hydrological studies.
Various phases of hydrological cycle, such as rainfall, runoff, evaporation, and
transpiration are all non – uniformly distributed both in time and space. Further, practically all
hydrologic phenomena are complex and at the present level of knowledge, they can best be
interpreted with the aid of probability concepts. Hydrological events are treated as random
process and the historical data relating to the event are analyzed by statistical methods to obtain
information on probabilities of occurrence of various events.

1.6 SOURCES OF DATA

Depending upon the problem at hand, a hydrologist would require data relating to the
various relevant phases of the hydrological cycle playing on the problem catchment. The data
normally required in the studies are:
 Weather records – temperature, humidity, and wind velocity
 Precipitation data
 Evaporation and evapotranspiration data
 Infiltration characteristics of the study area
 Soils of the area
 Land use and land cover
 Groundwater characteristics
 Physical and geological characteristics of the area
 Water quality data
In Philippines, hydrological data are collected by the following:
 National Water Resources Board (NWRB)
 Department Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)
 Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH)
 Department of Health (DOH)
 Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG)
 Local Government Units (LGU)
 Local Waterworks Utilities Administration Water Districts (LWUA)
 Metropolitan Water Works and Sewerage (MWSS)
 Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Seismological Administration(PAGASA)
 National Irrigation Administration (NIA)
 National Power Corporation (NPC)

1.7 COMMON UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

 Stream and river flows are usually recorded as cubic meters per second (m3/sec), cubic
feet per second (cfs), or second-feet (sec-ft); groundwater flows and water supply flows are
commonly measured in gallons per minute, hour, or day (gpm, gph, gpd), or millions of gallons
per day (mgd); flows used in agriculture or related to water storage' are often expressed as acre-
feet (acre-ft), acre-feet per unit time, inches (in.) or centimeters (cm) depth per unit time, or acre-
inches per hour (acre-in./hr).
Volumes are often given as gallons, cubic feet, cubic meters, acre-feet, second foot-days,
and inches or centimeters. An acre-foot is equivalent to a volume of water 1 ft deep over 1 acre
of land (43,560 ft3). A second-foot-day (cfs-day, sfd) is the accumulated volume produced by a
flow of 1 cfs in a24-hr period. A second-foot-hour (cfs-hr) is the accumulated volume produced
by a flow of 1 cfs in t hr. Inches or centimeters of depth relate to a volume equivalent to that
many inches or centimeters of water over the area of concern. In hydrologic mass balances, it is
sometimes useful to note that 1 cfs-day : 2 acre-feet with sufficient accuracy for most
calculations.
Rainfall depths are usually recorded in inches or centimeters whereas rainfall rates are
given in inches or centimeters per hour. Evaporation, transpiration, and infiltration rates are
usually given as inches or centimeters depth per unit time.