Biology Useful 3 Grade 11 Reference Guide

BIOLOGY SHORT NOTE AND RELATED QUESTIONS ON :
ENZYME
CELL BIOLOGY
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
PREPARED BY:
1. AMSALU WAKGARI
2. MULATU ABERA
April, 2012
Adama, Oromia
Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-1

3. UNIT THREE
ENZYMES
At the end of the unit students will be able to:
 Define enzymes and explain the properties of enzymes.

 Appreciate the importance of enzymes in industries and local products.
 Explain how enzymes lower activation energy.
 Discuss the action of apoenzyme and coenzymes.
 Explain factors that affect enzyme activity.
 Explain allosteric regulation and feedback control mechanism of enzyme activity.
What is enzyme ?
 In 1877, German physiologist Wilhe kuhne first used the term enzyme, which comes
from Greek "leavened" or "in yeast".
 Eduard Buchner submitted his first paper on the study of yeast extracts in 1897.
 He found that sugar was fermented by yeast extracts even when there were no living yeast
cells in the mixture.
 He named the enzyme that brought about the fermentation of sucrose zymase.
Structure and properties of enzyme
 Enzymes are life’s great facilitators.

 They create the conditions needed for biochemical reactions to happen fast.
 The general name that chemists use for a chemical entity that increases the speed of a reaction is
a “catalyst.”
 Enzymes are biological catalysts as they catalyze the chemical reactions inside living things.
 A catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction with no effect on:
 The products formed

 The energy change
 The nature of the catalyst itself
 Course (equilibrium) of the reaction.
 Nearly all biological catalysts are enzymes. They are globular proteins with a specific tertiary
shape, part of which forms an active site.
 Enzymes are globular proteins with a complex 3-D structure. The shape and the chemical
environment inside the active site permits a chemical reaction to proceed more easily.

 The substrates of enzymes are the reactants that are activated by the enzymes. A
substrate molecule binds with the active site to form an enzyme–substrate complex.
This then forms the products.
 An enzyme's activity decreases markedly outside its optimal temperature and pH, and
many enzymes are (permanently) denatured when exposed to excessive heat, losing
their structure and catalytic properties
 Enzyme activity can be affected by: inhibitors molecules that decrease enzyme
activity, and activators molecules that increase activity.
Examples: therapeutic drugs and poisons are enzyme inhibitors
 Enzyme can be used over and over, because it is unaltered by the reaction.
 Enzyme are effective in small amount, of enzyme can affect a large amount of
substrate.
Functions of Enzyme
 Enzymes are known to catalyze more than 5,000 biochemical reaction types.
 Other biocatalysts are catalytic RNA molecules, called ribozymes.
Enzymes' specificity comes from their unique three-dimensional structures.
 Like all catalysts, enzymes increase the reaction rate by lowering its activation energy.
Example: orotidine 5'-phosphate decarboxylase, which allows a reaction millions of years
to occur in milliseconds.
 Some enzymes are used commercially, for example, in the synthesis of antibiotics.
 Some household products use enzymes to speed up chemical reactions:
 Example: In biological washing powders break down protein, starch or fat stains on
clothes, and enzymes in meat tenderizer break down proteins into smaller molecules,
making the meat easier to chew.
 In order for molecules to react, they must have sufficient energy.

 Activation energy (or Ea), is minimum energy needed to start off the reaction.
 The reactant must ‘climb an activation energy hill’ before anything happens.
 Under normal conditions, very few molecules have sufficient kinetic energy to ‘climb the
activation energy hill’, so the reaction proceeds slowly.
 More reactant molecules can meet this lower energy requirement and so the reaction proceeds
more quickly.

Answer the following multiple choice questions.
1. It is more useful for biochemists to know the specific activity of an enzyme than the activity of
the enzyme because:
A. High levels of activity indicate very busy enzymes
B. Enzyme activation is brought about only under specialized conditions
C. Biochemistry is a very specialized field
D. Specific activity tells us exactly which reaction is being catalyzed and results in more
positive identification of enzymes
For the following questions, match the letters with the appropriate description of the graph
of the energy flow of a chemical reaction shown below.
A. Energy path of an uncatalayzed reaction______________________

B. Energy released from this reaction__________________________
C. Activation energy of a catalyzed reaction_____________________
D. Activation energy of an uncatalayzed reaction____________________
E. Energy path of a catalyzed reaction __________________________
Enzyme Nomenclature and Classification
 Different enzymes are named in different ways. This includes:

 By adding ‘ase’ to part of the name of the substrate.
Example: Lipase (lipid hydrolyzing enzyme), Sucrase (sucrose hydrolyzing
enzyme).
 On the basis of the reaction that they catalyze.
Example: polymerase (aids in polymerization – joining similar units together),
dehydrogenase (removal of hydrogen atoms or ions).

 On the source from which they were first identified. E.g. papayin from papaya.
 According to their site of action. E.g. intestinal protease acts on proteins in the
intestine.
 Some enzymes end with ‘in’, indicating that they are basically proteins.
Example: pepsin, trypsin, etc.
Because of the varied ways in which enzymes had been named, biologists at the Enzyme
Commission decided to produce a systematic way of naming enzymes, based on the ways
in which the enzymes act.
The enzyme commissions (EC) numbers divide enzymes into six main groups according to
the type of reaction catalyzed
1. Oxidoreductases
 Catalyses redox reactions, in which hydrogen or oxygen atoms or electrons are
transferred between molecules.
Example: Dehydrogenases (hydride transfer), oxidizes (electron transfer to molecular
oxygen), oxygenase (oxygen transfer from molecular oxygen) and peroxides (electron transfer
to peroxide).
2. Transferees
 Catalyze the transfer of an atom or group of atoms (e.g. acyl-, alkyl- and glycosyl-),
between two molecules, but excluding such transfers as are classified in the other groups
(e.g. oxidoreductases and Hydrolases).
For example: aspartate aminotransferase, L-aspartate: 2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase.
3. Hydrolases
 Catalyses hydrolytic reactions, is commonly present within the field of enzyme
technology and digestive process. Example: esterases, glycosidase, lipases and proteases.
4. Isomerases
Catalyze molecular izomerization and includes the epimerases, racemases and intermolecular
transferases.
 Example: xylose isomerase, D-xylose ketol-isomerase; commonly called glucose
isomerase).
5. Lyases
 Catalyses elimination reactions in which a group of atoms is removed from the substrate.
Example: aldolases, decarboxylase, dehydratases and some pectinases.
Histidine ammonia-lyases, L-histidine ammonia-lyases; also called histidase).
6. Ligases or synthetase
 Catalyses formation of a covalent bond joining two molecules together, coupled with the
hydrolysis of a nucleoside triphosphate.
Example: glutathione synthase (g-L-glutamyl-L-cysteine: glycine ligase (ADP-forming);
also called glutathione synthetase).

International Union of Biochemistry (1984) classified Enzyme .This enzyme commission
assigned each enzyme name and four distinguishing number.
Example: • in Enzyme EC 3.4.11.1 is:

EC stands for Enzyme Commission
 The first number shows to which of the six main classes the enzyme belongs
 The second figure indicates a subclass
 The third figure gives a sub-subclass
 The fourth figure is the serial number of the enzyme in its sub subclass.
 A Hydrolase – all the enzymes in class 3 hydrolyse some kind of bond.
 A peptidase – all the enzymes in subclass 4 of class 3 are peptidases and hydrolyse
peptide bonds
 An amino-peptidase – all the enzymes in sub-subclass 11 of subclass 4 are amino-
peptidases; they hydrolyse peptide bonds at the amino end of a polypeptide chain
 Leucyl-amino-peptidase – this particular amino-peptidase is number 1 of this sub
subclass
Some industrial uses of enzyme technology
Sector Application area Benefits

 Supplies of natural rennet from
 Biochymosin to produce cheese.
calves livers are limited.
Dairy  Lactase to produce lactose-free
 Lactose-intolerant people suffer
milk
fewer cramps
 Many biological stains are removed
 Use of proteases, lipases and
efficiently at low temperatures
amylases in biological washing
(saving energy).
Detergents powders.
 Remove food particles at lower
 Use of proteases and amylases in
temperatures and require fewer.
dishwasher detergents
bleaching products to be added
 Proteases to remove hair and  Process is carried out much quicker
lipases to degrease animal hides. than by traditional methods.
 Use of cellulase to ‘bio-polish’  Produces a smoother and glossier
Textiles
cotton fabrics. finish.
 Use of cellulase to ‘bio-stone’  The enzyme gives the ‘stone-
denim washed’ effect much more easily
 Clarifies fruit juice
 Pectinase to process fruit juice.
Food  Sucrose paste in the chocolate is
 Inverase to produce liquid-
processing made liquid by injection of the
centre chocolates
enzyme

 Amylases used in starch
 Reduces the quantity of starch in the
conversion
paper and improves quality.
 Use of xylanase enzymes in pre
Pulp and  Produces a whiter paper.
bleaching the pulp.
paper  Stickies would otherwise clog the
 Use of esterases in control of
machinery and reduce the quality of
‘stickies’ (glues introduced
the paper
during paper recycling)
 Allows easy diagnosis of diabetes
 Glucose oxidase in clinistix
by testing urine.
strips, tests for glucose.
 Testing for high levels of these in
Medicine  Liver enzymes.
the blood confirms liver damage.
 Pulmozyme to treat cystic
 Reduces viscosity (stickiness) of
fibrosis
mucus
 Streptokinase to dissolve clots  Restores blood supply to area of
Pharma of heart-attack patients. heart muscle.
ceutical  Production of abacavir sulphate  Abacavir sulphate is an important
is controlled by enzymes anti-AIDS drug
Match the following enzyme under coloumn “A” with their application under
coloumn “B”.
A B
1. Biochemosin A. produce lactose-free milk

2. proteases, lipases and amylases B. biological washing powders
3. Cellulase C. ‘bio-stone’ denim
4. Pectinases D. to process fruit juice
5. Inverase E. to produce liquid-centre chocolates
6. Lactase F. Enzymes in pre bleaching the pulp.
7. Xylanase G. Use of in control of ‘stickies’
8. esterases
9. Glucose oxidize H. In clinistix strips, tests for glucose.
10. Pulmozyme I. to treat cystic fibrosis
11. Streptokinase J. to dissolve clots of heart-attack
patients
K. to produce cheese

THE TWO MODELS OF ENZYME ACTION
 Both of these models suggest that the enzyme catalyses the reaction by lowering the activation
energy. However, they differ in explaining how the substrate binds to the active site of the
enzyme.
A. THE LOCK-AND-KEY MODEL
 Proposed in 1894 by a German biochemist named Fischer.

 This model proposes that the shapes of the substrate molecules are complementary to that of
the active site, rather like the shape of a key is complementary to that of the lock it fits.
 Fit between the substrate and the active site of the enzyme is exact.
 Like a Key fits into a lock very precisely Enzyme-substrate complex formed.
 Products have a different shape from the substrate and Products are released from the active
site leaving it free for another substrate molecule.
 The complementary substrate molecule binds with the active site of the enzyme to form the
enzyme–substrate complex.
Reactant A + Reactant B + enzyme ➞ES complex ➞ EP complex➞Product AB + enzyme
 The complex causes the reactants to enter a transition state in which the activation energy of
the reaction is lowered.
 The reaction takes place and the products formed are released.
 The lock-and-key model of enzyme action suggests that the enzyme lowers the activation
energy by providing an alternative pathway for the reaction.
 This model sees the enzyme–substrate complex as the intermediate, which is part of a
pathway that requires less energy than the normal pathway. However, a weakness of this
model is that it does not explain how the intermediate reduces activation energy.
B. THE INDUCED-FIT MODEL
 Proposed in 1958 by Koshland. This model suggests that the active site and the substrate
aren’t naturally complementary in shape, but the binding of substrate molecules produces a
conformational change in the active site. This allows the substrate and active site to bind fully.
 The conformational change also puts the substrate molecules under tension, so they enter a
‘transition state’ and are able to react because of the lowered activation energy.

 In the transition state, bonds in the reactants are put under strain and break more easily and
rejoin with other bonds to form the products.
 Most biologists now prefer the induced-fit model over the lock and-key model:
 As it explains other properties of enzymes, such as enzyme inhibition,
 The rate of a chemical reaction is the rate at which reactants are converted into
products.
 In the case of an enzyme-controlled reaction, this is determined by how many molecules of
substrate bind with enzyme molecules to form enzyme–substrate complexes.
 The turnover rate of the enzyme, the number of molecules of reactants that form enzyme–
substrate complexes with each molecule of an enzyme, per second.
2. A molecule of an enzyme that has a high turnover number:

A. Can easily be denatured
B. Can easily be replaced with another enzyme
C. Converts substrate to product very rapidly
D. Needs a constant supply of cofactors
COFACTORS
 An active enzyme made from two molecules, neither of which has enzyme activity without
the other. The two parts are the apoenzyme and the cofactor.
 Apoenzyme – a protein that combines with a cofactor, to form an active enzyme.
 The protein (apoenzyme) is inactive on its own.
 Cofactor – a small non-protein particle essential for the activity of some enzymes.
 Holoenzyme - Where an active enzyme molecule comprises an apoenzyme and a cofactor, the
whole is sometimes referred to as the Holoenzyme.
 Cofactors include: coenzymes and mineral ions.
 Coenzymes are organic molecules and many are derived from vitamins.
 They bind with the enzyme to give catalytic activity
3. Most synthetic reactions in which carbon dioxide is used require the vitamin biotin. The biotin
becomes covalently bound to a lysine molecule that is part of an enzyme, and the biotin can
then attach to and carry the carbon dioxide molecule. Biotin is best referred to as an:
A. Coenzyme B. Enzyme inhibitor C. Organic acid D. Enzyme

Factors affecting the functions of enzymes
The turnover rate and, therefore, the activity of the enzyme are influenced by a number of external
factors
B. Temperature
 Usually, the reaction rate increases with temperature, but with enzyme reactions, a point is
reached when the reaction rate decreases with increasing temperature.
 When the temperature is raised, particles are given more kinetic energy.
 This has two main effects: ‘Free’ particles move around more quickly.
 This increases the probability that a substrate particle will collide with an enzyme
molecule.
 Particles within a molecule vibrate more energetically.
 This puts strain on the bonds that hold the atoms in place.
 Bonds begin to break and, in the case of an enzyme, the shape of the molecule, and the
active site in particular, begin to change. The enzyme begins to lose its tertiary
structure and denature.
 The activity of an enzyme at a given temperature is a balance between these two
effects.
 If the raised temperature results in little denaturation but a greatly increased

number of collisions, the activity of the enzyme will increase.
 If the higher temperature causes significant denaturation then, despite the
extra collisions, the activity of the enzyme will probably decrease.
 Above the optimum temperature, the enzyme denatures very quickly to the point at which
the shape of the active site has changed so much that an enzyme–substrate complex
cannot form. At this point the reaction rate is zero.

• For most enzymes the optimum temperature is about 30-38°C
• Many are a lot lower, cold water fish will die at 30°C because their enzymes denature
• A few bacteria have enzymes that can withstand very high temperatures up to 100°C.
4. The optimum temperature of an enzyme is the temperature at which:

A. There is no denaturation.
B. The maximum number of enzyme–substrate complexes is formed.
C. There is the maximum number of collisions between enzyme and substrate
D. the particles have the most kinetic energy
B. The pH
 pH also affects the rate of enzyme-substrate complexes.

 As the pH is decreased or increased, the nature of the various acid and amine groups on
side chains is altered with resulting changes in the overall shape structure of the enzyme.
 The majority of enzymes in most mammals function most efficiently within the pH range
6.0 – 8.0, although the optimum pH of pepsin (an enzyme found in the stomach) is
between pH 1.0 and pH 3.0.
 Significant changes in pH can affect an enzyme molecule by:
 Breaking ionic bonds that hold the tertiary structure in place; this leads to
denaturation of the enzyme molecule.
 Altering the charge on some of the amino acids that form the active site; this
makes it more difficult for substrate molecules to bind.Most enzymes have an
optimum pH of around 7 (neutral). However, some prefer acidic or basic
conditions

5. Enzyme A digests proteins in the stomach (environment with a pH of 2). Enzyme B digests
proteins in the small intestine (environment with a pH of 8). Which of the following
is NOT true?
A. Enzyme A would be denatured in the small intestine.
B. Enzyme A works best in acidic conditions.
C. Enzyme A can also work in the small intestine.
D. Enzyme A helps in the hydrolysis of proteins.
6. Base your answer on the graph and on your knowledge of biology. The most likely result of
mixing both enzymes with their substrates in a single test tube is that:
A. Only gastric protease would be active if the pH of the mixture was basic.
B. Intestinal protease would be more active than gastric protease at pH 4.
C. Both enzymes would exhibit some activity at pH 5.
D. Gastric protease would be more active that intestinal protease at pH 6
7. Extreme pHs can inactivate enzymes because they:
A. Alter the charge on the amino acids in the active site
B. Alter the charge on the amino acids in the allosteric site.
C. Alter the charge on amino acids away from the active site and allosteric site
D. All of the above
8. The optimum temperature for the action of this enzyme is approximately
A. 15°C B. 22°C C. 37°C D. 50°C

9. Which statement best describes the enzyme represented in the graphs?
A. This enzyme works best at a temperature of 35°C and a pH of 8.

B. This enzyme works best at a temperature of 50°C and a pH of 12.
C. Temperature and pH have no effect on the action of this enzyme.
D. This enzyme works best at a temperature above 50°C and a pH above 12.
10. The graph shows the relative rates of action of four enzymes, A, B, C, and D. Which enzyme
shows the greatest change in its rate of action with the least change in pH?
A. Enzyme A B. Enzyme B C. Enzyme C D. Enzyme D

11. In the above graph on question 11. Which two enzymes would function in a region of the
human body having a neutral pH?
A. Enzymes A and B C. Enzymes B and C
B. B. Enzymes C and D D. Enzymes B and D
Base your answers to questions 10 and 11 below on the following passage and your
knowledge in Biology Laboratory class.
A student ground 1 g of fresh liver or potato in a mortar and pestle, placed the ground liver or
potato in a test tube, and added 1 cm3 of hydrogen peroxide. The gas that was generated was
collected A glowing splint burst into flames when placed in the gas. The student then repeated
the procedure, using 1g of boiled liver and 1g of liver or potato treated with a strong acid.
When hydrogen peroxide was added to each sample of liver or potato, no gas was generated
12. The gas that was generated was probably

A. Oxygen B. Nitrogen C. Carbon dioxide D. Hydrogen

13. If the substance in the liver that acted on the hydrogen peroxide was an enzyme, it could
A. Be recovered from the living tissue that had not been boiled or treated with acid
after the reaction ceased.
B. Not be recovered because it was consumed while engaging in its catalytic reaction
activities
C. Not be recovered because there is no enzyme in liver that catalyzes the breakdown of
peroxide
D. Not be recovered because grinding would break up the molecule
C. SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION
 The activity of an enzyme depends on the number of substrate molecules per second that
bind to form enzyme–substrate complexes (Turn over rate).
 A small number of substrate molecules mean few collisions and so only a few enzyme–
substrate complexes form.
 Increasing the concentration of the substrate means more collisions and more enzyme–
substrate complexes. So, the overall rate of reaction is increased.
 Eventually, because of the high substrate concentration, each enzyme molecule could be
working at maximum turnover – that is, each active site is binding with substrate molecules
all the time and there is no ‘spare capacity’ in the system.
 Increasing the substrate concentration beyond this point will have no effect on the activity of
the enzyme because all the active sites are occupied all the time.
14. The graph below shows the effect of substrate concentration on the action of enzyme X. This
enzyme is functioning at its optimal temperature, 36°C, and at its optimal pH, 5.5.

When the substrate concentration increases from 0.4% to 0.5%, the rate of the reaction
A. decreases C. remains the same
B. increases D. increases, then decreases
15. According to the induced-fit model of enzyme action, reacting molecules enter a transition
state in which:
A. Reacting molecules assume a complementary shape
B. Apoenzyme and cofactor assume a complementary shape
C. Bonds in the apoenzyme and coenzyme are put under tension
D. Bonds in reacting molecules are put under tension.
D. Enzyme concentration
 Assuming a constant large supply of substrate molecules, each enzyme molecule will work at
maximum turnover. Therefore, the reaction rate will be directly proportional to the number of
enzyme molecules – the concentration of the enzyme.
 Increasing the concentration will increase the reaction rate. However, increasing the
concentration of the enzyme will not increase the activity of the enzyme. Each enzyme
molecule will be working at maximum turnover, so the activity of the enzyme is likely to
remain constant.
E. Enzyme inhibitors
 Enzyme inhibitors are molecules that interact in certain ways with the enzyme to prevent it
from functioning in a normal manner.
 They can alter the catalytic action of the enzyme and consequently slow down, or even
stop catalysis. Poisons and drugs are examples of enzyme inhibitors.
1. Irreversible Inhibitors
 Form strong (permanent) covalent bonds with an enzyme. The structure of the enzyme is
modified to the degree that it ceases to work.
 These inhibitors may act at, near, or remote from the active site. Consequently, they may not
be displaced by the addition of excess substrate. S
 Since many enzymes contain sulfhydral (-SH), alcohol, or acid groups as part of their active
sites, any chemical which can react with them acts as an irreversible inhibitor.
 Heavy metals such as Ag+, Hg2+, Pb2+ have strong affinities for -SH groups.
 Nerve gases such as di isopropylfluorophosphate (DFP) inhibit the active site of acetylcholine
esterase by reacting with the hydroxyl group of serine to make an ester.
 Oxalic and citric acid inhibit blood clotting by forming complexes with calcium ions
necessary for the enzyme metal ion activator.

2. REVERSIBLE INHIBITORS
 Reversible inhibitors bind to enzymes only weakly (temporarly) and the bond that holds them
breaks easily releasing the inhibitor and allows the enzyme to become active again.
 There are two main kinds of reversible inhibitors:
• competitive inhibitors and • non-competitive inhibitors
A. Competitive inhibitors
 A competitive inhibitor could be any compound that closely resembles the chemical
structure and molecular geometry of the substrate.
 The inhibitor competes for the same active site with the substrate molecule. A competitive
inhibition is usually temporary and reversible.
 Therefore, the level of inhibition depends upon the relative concentrations of the substrate
and inhibitor.
Methanol poisoning occurs because methanol is oxidized to formaldehyde and formic acid
which attack the optic nerve causing blindness. Ethanol is given as an antidote for methanol
poisoning because ethanol competitively inhibits the oxidation of methanol. Ethanol is
oxidized in preference to methanol and consequently, the oxidation of methanol is slowed
down so that the toxic by-products do not have a chance to accumulate.
B. Non competitive Inhibitors:
Non-competitive (allosteric) inhibitors bind to a region away from the active site, producing a
conformational change in the enzyme that prevents the substrate from binding; the extent of the
inhibition is independent of the substrate concentration.
16. If the ratio of competitive inhibitor molecules to substrate molecules is 5:10, the enzyme
controlling the reaction will be:
A. 50% inhibited C. 100% activated
B. 25% inhibited D. In no way affected by the concentration of the substrate

17. Which of the following represents the correct interpretation of the graph
A. . X is with the competitive inhibitor, Y with the noncompetitive inhibitor and Z with no
inhibitor
B. X is with the non-competitive inhibitor, Y with the competitive inhibitor and Z with no
inhibitor.
C. X is with no inhibitor, Y with the competitive inhibitor and Z with the non-competitive
inhibitor
D. X is with no inhibitor, Y with the non-competitive inhibitor and Z with the competitive inhibitor.
Allosteric inhibition can control metabolic pathways.
The final product of a series of reactions inhibits the enzyme controlling the first reaction in the
series; this is also known as end-product inhibition.
 Non competitive inhibitors are usually reversible, but are not influenced by concentrations of
the substrate as is the case for a reversible competive inhibitor.
18. End-product inhibition or negative feedback control of a metabolic pathway occurs when:
A. The last product of the pathway inhibits the enzyme controlling the first reaction.
B. The last product of the pathway inhibits the enzyme controlling the last reaction.
C. The first product of the pathway inhibits the enzyme controlling the last reaction.
D. The last product of the pathway inhibits the enzyme controlling the 2nd reaction.
19. Melanin, the dark pigment in our hair and skin, is produced by a series of enzymatic reactions
that start with phenylalanine. The phenylalanine is converted to tyrosine, then to ι-DOPA, and
finally through a series of steps to melanin and other substances. If the conversion of
phenylalanine to tyrosine were blocked, the individual affected would probably:-
A. Have dark-colored hair C. Have light-colored hair
B. Produce pleasant body odors D. Be able to function in environments having low O2

Application of the Enzyme Inhibitors
 Enzyme inhibitors play important roles in pharmaceutical and biochemical industries.

 They can be widely used in metabolic control, as metabolic poisons and medicines.
 For example, many poisons work by inhibiting the action of enzymes involved in metabolic
processes, which defends a plant or animal against predators.
 In addition, some enzyme inhibitors can be used as drugs in the treatment of various
diseases.
 Some antimicrobial drugs are enzyme inhibitors that deactivate the enzymes that are
needed for the survival of pathogens.
Answer the following multiple choice questions. Don’t visit answer key before you try
each question on your own.
1. What is the function of enzymes within living systems?

A. structural elements C. catalysts
B. neurotransmitters D. hormones
2. In which of the following is the pairing between enzyme type and enzyme function incorrect?
A. nucleases - hydrolysis of sugar-phosphate ester bonds in nucleic acids
B. synthetase - formation of new bond between two substrates
C. kinase - transfer of amino groups between substrates
D. carboxylase - removal of carbon dioxide from substrate
3. Which of the following is always present in both conjugated enzymes and simple enzymes?
A. Protein B. A vitamin C. a cofactor D. a coenzyme
4. The protein portion of a conjugated enzyme is called a(n)
A. Apoenzyme. B. coenzyme. C. Holoenzyme. D. cofactor
5. Which of the following enzyme properties is explained by the lock-and-key model for enzyme
action?
A. high turnover rate C. susceptibility to denaturation
B. absolute specificity D. susceptibility to deactivation
6. An enzyme active site is the location in the enzyme where:
A. Protein side groups folded together to form a site for interactions with substrates
B. The catalyst interactions with the enzyme
C. Catalyst molecules are generated
D. The substrate creates the catalyst molecules
7. Which of the following statements concerning a competitive enzyme inhibitor is correct?
A. it competes with substrate for occupancy of the enzyme's active site
B. binds at the active site simultaneously with the substrate
C. breaks the enzyme down to its constituent amino acids
D. its effect can be overcome by increasing the temperature

8. Which of the following binds to an enzyme at a location other than the active site?
A. Substrate C. reversible competitive inhibitor
B. Irreversible inhibitor D. reversible noncompetitive inhibitor
9. The number of substrate molecules acted upon per minute by one molecule of enzyme is
called the:
A. Active site number. C. turnover number.
B. Enzyme activity number. D. optimum number.
10. The final product of a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions causes the enzyme that catalyzes
the first reaction of the series to be inhibited. This is an example of:
A. Positive regulator control. C. Substrate control.
B. Feedback control. D. Competitive control.
11. The major function for B vitamins within the human body is as
A. Antioxidants.
B. Components of coenzymes.
C. Regulators of cell differentiation.
D. Regulators of calcium ion and phosphate ion concentrations in blood.
12. In which of the following pairs of terms do the two terms have the same meaning?
A. Holoenzyme and conjugated enzyme C. coenzyme and simple enzyme
B. apoenzyme and cofactor D. no correct response
13. An enzyme active site is the location in an enzyme where substrate molecules
A. Is generated C. undergoing change.
B. Become catalysts D. no correct response.
14. Which of the following statements concerning enzyme active sites is incorrect?
A. They generally involve only a small portion of the enzyme.
B. Noncompetitive inhibitors can change active site shape.
C. The lock-and-key model of enzyme activity assumes that an active site has a fixed,
rigid geometrical conformation.
D. None of the above
15. Which of the following statements about a competitive inhibitor is correct?

A. It must resemble the substrate in general shape.
B. Its effect can be diminished by increasing substrate concentration.
C. It and the normal substrate simultaneously occupy the active site.
D. A & B are correct answers

ANSWER KEY
1.C 9.C
2.D 10.B
3. A 11.B
4.A 12.A
5.B 13.C
6.A 14.D
7.A 15.D
8.D

UNIT 4
CELL BIOLOGY
 Tell the history of cell biology.

 Describe cell theory and investigate the size, structure and shape of cells.
 Explain the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
 Construct and show the arrangement of the phospholipids and proteins in Davson-
Daniel and fluid mosaic model.
 Explain the role of glycoprotein and other components in the cell membrane.
 Name the different parts of the cell and explain their functions.
 State and explain the mechanisms of substance transport across a cell membrane.
Cell theory
 It may seem obvious now that we, and other living things, are made up of cells.
 Prior to the 1600s, however, it wasn’t obvious at all, for the simple reason that no one had
ever seen a cell up close and personal.
 To distinguish individual cells in a piece of tissue or individual bacteria in a sample of liquid
required the development of relatively high-powered microscopes, instruments used for
magnifying objects otherwise too small to be seen.
 The first person to observe cells as microscopic structures was the British scientist Robert
Hooke. In fact, he was the person who gave cells their name.
 In his book Micrographia, he used the term cell to refer to the box-like structures he saw
when he looked at dead cork tissue through a simple microscope.
 He chose cell as the name because these boxes reminded him of the cells of a monastery, the
simple rooms in which monks slept.
 The cells that Hooke observed, however, were in dead tissue, and were in fact cell walls left
behind after the death of the real cells.
 The first person to observe living, moving cells was Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch
shopkeeper and crafter of lenses.
 In the 1670s, inspired by Hooke’s book, he began to build his own, more powerful
microscopes with these; he was able to observe living single-celled organisms—such as
bacteria—and sperm cells, which he collectively called animalcules.

A timeline for the development of the cell theory
Robert Hooke (1665)
 He makes drawings of cork and sees tiny structures that he calls ‘cells’. Also, Hooke saw only
dead cells.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1674)
 Sees living, moving unicellular organisms (protoctistans) in a drop of water.

 He is using a simple microscope with only one lens.
 However, van Leeuwenhoek is very skilled at grinding lenses and so his microscope can
achieve magnifications of 300×. He calls the moving organisms ‘animalcules’.
 He also sees bacteria (from his teeth), which he also calls ‘tiny animalcules’.
Rene Dutrochet (1824)
 The French biologist Dutrochet states the cell theory by recognizing that all organisms are
made of cells.
Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann(1839)
 Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann put forward the first clearly stated cell theory.
 the cell is the unit of structure, physiology and organization in living things
 the cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity, and a ‘building block’ in the formation
of organisms
 cells form by free-cell formation (spontaneous generation)
 Although we still accept the first two ideas, the final idea of spontaneous generation has
now been proved false.
Rudolf Virchow (1858)
 Rudolf Virchow, a German doctor who develops many surgical techniques and promotes
several fields of modern medicine, declares that: ‘Omnis cellula e cellula’, which means that a
cell can only arise from another cell like it.(cell come from preexisting cell)
With this Virchow completes the first accepted version of the cell theory:
 All organisms are made up of one or more cells

 All cells come from pre-existing cells
 The cell is the unit of structure, physiology and organization in living things
 The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in the
construction of organisms.

Modern cell theory
All known living things are made up of cells
 The cell is a structural and functional unit of all living thing

 All cells come from pre-existing cells by division (no spontaneous generation of cells).
 Cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell at cell division.
 All cells have basically the same chemical composition
 All energy flow (the metabolism and biochemistry of life) occurs within cells
1. The word ‘cell’ was first coined by Robert Hooke when he examined:
A. Living cells in cork tissue C. dead cells in skin
B. Dead cells in cork tissue D. living cells in skin
2. Anton van Leeuwenhoek saw what he called ‘animalcules’ and ‘tiny animalcules’. These were,
respectively:
A. Bacteria and viruses C. protoctistans and viruses
B. Bacteria and protoctistans D. protoctistans and bacteria
3. The first cell theory stated by Schleiden and Schwann was not completely accurate because it
held that:
A. All living things are made of cells C. the cell retains a dual existence
B. The cell is the basic unit of living things D. cells form by cell-free formation
4. Which of the following is incorrect pairing of biologists and their contribution in the
development of cell theories?
A. Robert hook- Coined the word cell
B. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek – Animalcules and tiny animalcules
C. Rudolf Virchow – Cell come from preexisting living cell
D. Rene Dutrochet- Cell is structural and functional unit of life
Cell size
 Most cells fall within a much narrower range of sizes than the unfertilized ostrich’s
egg cell and the smallest bacterium.
 The length of most animal and plant cells fall within a range of 10 μm to 100 μm.
 Most bacteria are about one-tenth of this length.
 The animal cell may be just ten times as long – but it is also ten times as wide and ten
times as deep. This makes it 1000 times bigger than the bacterium!
What units shall we measure cells in?
 It all depends on which cells, but first we should understand which units are available
and which ones would be convenient to use.
 Example: to size of RBC measure cells in metres, it would be approximately
0.000007m.

Counting all these zeros is very confusing, so we use other, smaller units to measure the
size of cells and molecules.
 There are three smaller units commonly used:
 Millimeters (mm) – 1/1000 of m
 micrometres (μm) – 1/1000 of a millimeter, and 1/1 000 000 m
 Nanometres (nm) – 1/1000 of a micrometer,
1/1 000 000 of a millimeter, and 1/1000 000 000 of a meter.
We can convert the units from one to another as shown below:
5. If an object having a size of 0.005millimeter is magnified by an eye piece of 10x and objective
lens of 10x. What is the magnified size of an object in micrometer?
A. 5 micrometer B. 50 micrometer C. 0.5 micrometer D. 500 micrometer
Calibrating the eyepiece graticule
A stage micrometer – this is really a microscope slide with a very precise scale etched onto it.
An eyepiece graticule – this is a piece of plastic with a less accurate scale than the graticule
that fits inside the eyepiece of the microscope.
When you put the micrometer onto the slide and look at it through the eyepiece containing the
graticule, you see something like the figure below.
The smallest divisions on the stage micrometer slide are 100 μm. So each large division on the
stage micrometer is 10 times that – 1 mm.
If we look at the two scales, we can see that the range 50–60 on the stage micrometer
corresponds with the range 35–72 on the graticule.
Ten divisions on the micrometer scale correspond to 37 divisions on the graticule scale and 1
micrometer division therefore corresponds to 3.7 graticule divisions. But we know that 1
micrometer division = 100 μm (or 0.1 mm).

So 1 division of the eyepiece graticule = 100 μm ÷ 3.7 = 27 μm (or 0.027 mm).
This is called calibrating the eyepiece graticule.
If we now put an object on an ordinary slide (having removed the stage micrometer) and view
it at the same magnification, we can calculate its size.
If it takes up 26 graticule divisions, then this length is: 26 × 27 = 702 μm (or 0.702 mm).
However, the graticule will need recalibrating if it is to be used at a different magnification.
6. 40 divisions on the scale of an eyepiece graticule correspond to 16 small divisions on the stage
micrometer. Each small division on the stage micrometer = 10 μm. 8 cells fit across 40 divisions
of the eyepiece graticule. The length of each cell is:
A. 10 μm B. 40 μm C. 30 μm D. 20 μm
As cells increase in size, the surface-area-to-volume ratio decreases; this affects their ability to
obtain the resources they need to carry out their metabolism.
7. The surface-area-to-volume ratio of a cell is important because it is a measure of:

A. How efficiently the cell releases energy in respiration
B. How efficient the cell is in conserving energy
C. How efficient the cell is in obtaining the oxygen it needs for respiration
D. How efficiently the cell uses the energy it releases in respiration
Types of cell
 There are two main types of cells: prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells; the table shows the
differences between them
Feature Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

Size 1–10 μm 10–100 μm
Nucleus No membrane-bound nucleus Nucleus surrounded by nuclear envelope
DNA In a continuous loop ,not associated Linear DNA associated with histone
with protein to form chromosomes proteins in chromosomes
Mitochondria Absent Present
Absent (but some prokaryotic cells
Present in some cells (some plant cells and
Chloroplasts contain a kind of chlorophyll and
some algal cells)
can photosynthesise)
Present, but smaller than Present, but larger than in prokaryotic
Ribosome
in eukaryotic cells (70S) cells (80S)
•Always present • Present in plant cells, algal cells and
fungal cells
Cell wall
Not made from cellulose (often made • Cellulose in plant cells, various
from peptidoglycan) materials in other cells

8. Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are:
A. prokaryotic cells are smaller but contain more organelles
B. prokaryotic cells are larger and contain more organelles
C. prokaryotic cells are larger and contain fewer organelles
D. prokaryotic cells are smaller and contain fewer organelles
9. The DNA in prokaryotic cells is:
A. Linear and bound with proteins C. circular and not bound with proteins
B. Linear and not bound with proteins D. circular and bound with proteins
10. The cell wall of prokaryotic cells is made from:
A. protein B. cellulose C. peptidoglycan D. another substance
11. It is thought that eukaryotic cells originated by several prokaryotic cells becoming associated.
This theory is the:
A. Endosymbiont theory C. both of the above
B. Membrane association theory D. neither of the above
Parts of the cell and their functions

Cell membrane /plasma membrane/
The membrane that surrounds and encloses a cell is sometimes called the cell surface membrane,
but most biologists now refer to it as the plasma membrane.
Cell membrane plays a crucial role in:
 To enclose organelles and other contents in cytoplasm.

 To protect the cell.
 To allow substances into and out of the cell.
 To have metabolic reactions on its surface.
 Cell signaling; various molecules in the membrane allow the cell to be recognized by
hormones and the immune system (in animals) and (in plants) growth regulator
substances, such as auxins.
 The plasma membrane clearly has a vital role in isolating the cell from its environment,
whilst allowing necessary exchanges with that environment.
Models of plasma membrane

A. The Davson–Danielli model / sandwich model of cell membrane/
In 1935, Davson and Danielli knew that both proteins and phospholipids were involved in the
structure of plasma membranes. Without any direct observational evidence to assist them Davson

and Danielli suggested a kind of ‘sandwich’ of protein and phospholipid. The protein was to form
the ‘bread’ of the sandwich with the phospholipid forming the ‘filling’.
In 1954 they proposed a revised model in which they included protein-lined pores.
B. The fluid mosaic model of cell membrane
 In 1972, Singer and Nicholson suggested that the arrangement of proteins and phospholipid
bilayer was not static, but was fluid and constantly changing.
 Our current idea of membrane structure still assumes this fluid-mosaic nature.
The key features of the model as we currently understand it are:
 The phospholipid bilayer as the basis for the membrane

 Integral proteins (also known as intrinsic proteins and transmembrane proteins) that
span the membrane.
 Some of these proteins play an important role in moving substances across the membrane.
There are two main types of these transport proteins:
 Channel proteins – these proteins have a channel through them along which a specific
ion can pass; there are different channel proteins for different ions.
 Carrier proteins – these proteins act in a more sophisticated way to move larger
molecules through the membrane by facilitated diffusion or active transport; the ones
involved in active transport are often referred to as pumps.
 Peripheral proteins (also known as extrinsic proteins) that span only one layer (or sometimes
less) of the membrane. They have a range of functions; some are enzymes, others anchor
integral proteins to the cytoskeleton.
 Glycoproteins and Glycolipid – protein and lipid molecules that have carbohydrate chains
attached to them and often serve as signals to other cells. They also act as receptor sites for
hormones and drugs. The carbohydrate component of each can be cell specific and so allow
identification of the cell by the immune system.
 Cholesterol – reduces the fluidity of the membrane.
12. In the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure, intrinsic proteins can be:
A. Glycoproteins C. Carrier proteins
B. Ion channel proteins D. All of the above
13. The fluid mosaic model suggests that
A. Cholesterol molecules in this bilayer reduce the fluidity of the membrane
B. The plasma membrane has protein molecules ‘studded’ in the bilayer
C. Some proteins are intrinsic, whilst others are extrinsic like peripheral proteins.
D. All of the above

14. Which of the following is not the function of membrane proteins?
A. Play catalytic role as enzyme. C. cell signaling and cell recognition
B. Transport materials. D. hormone secretion
Transport across cell membrane
 We can group the processes by which substances cross plasma membranes into two main
types:
 passive processes – these processes rely only on the kinetic energy of the particles
of the substances and on concentration gradients; they need no extra energy from
the cell’s metabolism
 Active processes – these require energy from the cell’s metabolism in the form of
ATP to drive the transport.
Passive processes Active processes

Process Brief description Process Brief description
Particles move from a low
Particles move from a
Simple Active concentration to a higher
high concentration to a
diffusion transport concentration using a carrier
low concentration.
protein (pump).
Particles move from a
Large particles are engulfed
high concentration to a
Facilitated by the plasma membrane
low concentration Endocytosis
diffusion invaginating and forming a
through an ion pore or
vesicle.
carrier protein.
Large particles are secreted by
Water molecules move
a vesicle in the cell merging
osmosis from a high water Exocytosis
with the plasma membrane to
potential to a lower one.
release the substance.
Passive process includes:
A. Simple diffusion
 To pass through the plasma membrane by simple diffusion particles must be:
 Small sized Lipid soluble Non-charged
 Small, hydrophobic or fat-soluble molecules, such as oxygen, cross the cell membrane quite
readily because of "fat dissolving fat" interaction.
 Small, uncharged, hydrophilic or water-soluble molecules, such as water and carbon dioxide,
would also be able to cross the cell membrane although there is no "fat dissolving fat
interaction.
 Large, hydrophilic molecules are usually impermeable to cell membrane.

 Any molecules carrying strong electrical charges (i.e. ions) are always impermeable to cell
membrane, unless transported by special mechanisms.
 When particles diffuse across a plasma membrane, there must be a concentration difference
between the two sides of the membrane (a concentration gradient) to drive the process.
 As diffusion proceeds, the high concentration will decrease and the low concentration will
increase until the two concentrations are the same.
 At this point there will be no further net diffusion.
This means that although particles will still move across the membrane, they will move
equally in both directions, so there will be no overall effect.
The rate at which diffusion across a membrane takes place is influenced by:
 The concentration gradient – a bigger difference in concentration results in faster

diffusion than a smaller gradient
 The thickness of the membrane – a shorter distance results in faster diffusion
 The surface area of the membrane – clearly if there is more membrane where
diffusion can take place, diffusion will happen faster
 Temperature. Diffusion occurs faster at higher temperatures because the particles
have more kinetic energy and so move faster.
B. Facilitated diffusion
 Facilitated diffusion is essentially the same process as diffusion but it allows large,
hydrophilic molecules to cross the cell membrane.
 Note in both cases that the particles are moving from a high concentration to a low
concentration (as with simple diffusion).
 However, also note that whilst the ions can simply move straight through the ion pore of a
channel protein, but the carrier protein must undergo a conformational change (change in
shape) to move particles through the membrane.
 The rate of facilitated diffusion depends largely on the number of protein carriers available;
when all proteins carriers are bound "saturation" occurs and the diffusion rate stabilizes.
C. Osmosis
 Osmosis is the movement of water from a system with a high (less negative) water potential to
one with a lower (more negative) water potential, across a partially permeable membrane.

 Water moves across a partially permeable membrane. It is the diffusion of water.
The symbol for water potential is the Greek letter Ψ (psi). Water potential is measured in units
of pressure: Pa, kPa or MPa.
 Pure, liquid water has a higher water potential than any other system. Ψ (pure water) = 0 Pa
 All other systems (cells, solutions and suspensions) have a water potential that is lower than
that of water which is negative value.
 The rate at which osmosis proceeds is influenced by the same factors as simple diffusion
 surface area of the membrane
 difference in water potential
 distance the molecules must travel
 When comparing the water potential of a solution to that of a cell, we could describe it as:
 Isotonic – having the same water potential as the cell.
 Hypertonic – having a lower (more negative) water potential than the cell.
 Hypotonic – having a higher (less negative) water potential than the cell.
Animal cells
 In the hypertonic solution, the cells lose water by osmosis and shrink.
 In the hypotonic solution, the cells gain water by osmosis and swell.
 The pressure will eventually burst the weak plasma membrane: this is called haemolysis.
 There is no change in the isotonic solution.
Plant cells
 In the hypertonic solution,
 The cytoplasm of the cells loses water by osmosis and shrinks. Because of this, there is
no pressure from the cytoplasm on the cell wall.
 The cell is said to be flaccid. If the cytoplasm shrinks too much, it loses contact with
the cell wall and we say the cell has been plasmolysed.
 In the hypotonic solution,
The cells gain water by osmosis and swell. However, because of the cell wall, the cell
cannot become much larger. Plant cells in this condition are turgid.
 Isotonic solution; There is no change as same amount enter and leave the cell.
 Turgidity is important in supporting young, non-woody plant stems. If the plant is
kept well watered, the cells will remain turgid.
 The turgid cells will press against each other and this pressure will keep the plant
upright. If the plant is not watered, the cells will be plasmolysed and become flaccid.
 They will no longer press against each other and the support will be lost. The plant
will wilt.

15. During diffusion, substances move from an area of ____ concentration to an area of______
Concentration.
A. Higher, lower B. Lower, higher C. higher, equal D. lower, equal
16. A channel protein does which of the following?
A. Carries ions or molecules across the membrane.
B. Forms tiny holes in the membrane.
C. Changes shape as it transports molecules.
D. All of the above
17. The sodium-potassium pump
A. Uses energy to move sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell.
B. Uses energy to move potassium ions out of the cell and sodium ions into the cell.
C. Moves sodium out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell without using energy.
D. Moves potassium out of the cell and sodium ions into the cell without using energy.
18. Osmosis
A. Is the diffusion of water.
B. Is the diffusion of water and other small molecules.
C. Is the diffusion of water and small ions.
D. Is the diffusion of small molecules and ions.
19. Endocytosis and exocytosis
A. Is both a type of vesicle transport.
B. Move very large molecules either in or out of the cell.
C. Is both a form of active transport.
D. all of the above
20. Intravenous saline injection is often given as a treatment for severe dehydration. The
concentration of saline (0.9%NaCl) in these injections is the same as that present in human cells.
What would happen if pure water was introduced into the body instead of saline?
A. The cell would gain water and swell
B. The cell would lose water and shrivel
C. The cell would become impermeable to Sodium ion.
D. The cell would become impermeable to Chloride ion.
21. Which of the following does not use energy in the form of ATP
A. Active transport B. Endocytosis C. Facilitated diffusion D. Phagocytosis
22. If red blood cells are immersed in a hypotonic solution, they will:
A. Take in water by osmosis, swell and become turgid .
B. Lose water by osmosis and shrink
C. Lose water by osmosis and become flaccid
D. Take in water by osmosis, swell and burst
23. Suppose three potato cylinders are kept for sometimes in 15%, 8% and 4% sucrose solutions
respectively and the 4th cylinder is kept in distilled water, which one of the cylinders will be
more flaccid?
A. The cylinder in 4 %solution C. The cylinder in 15%solution
B. The cylinder in distilled water D. The cylinder in 8%solution

24. Which of the following will happen if a plant cell is kept in a solution that is stronger than its
protoplasm?
A. The cell will become turgid C. The cell will swell and brust
B. The central vacuole will expand D. The protoplasm will get plasmolysed
25. Identify the incorrect statement about the process of simple diffusion?
A. The process happens spontaneously.
B. The greater the difference in concentration the faster the diffusion.
C. The diffusion of one molecule is independent of the diffusion of the other molecule.
D. It is assisted by carrier and channel proteins toward concentration gradients.
3. Active processes
A. Active transport
 Substances move against a concentration gradient – from a low concentration to a higher one.
It can only happen if metabolic energy is used to drive the process.
In living organisms, this energy is released from the ATP produced in respiration.
The proteins used to actively transport substances across plasma membranes are called pumps.
26. A sodium potassium pump within a cell membrane requires energy to move sodium and
potassium ions into or out of a cell. The movement of glucose into or out of a cell does not
require energy. Which statement best describes the movement of these materials across a cell
membrane?
A. Sodium and potassium ions move by active transport, and glucose moves by osmosis.
B. Sodium and potassium ions move by active transport, and glucose moves by
facilitated diffusion.
C. Sodium and potassium ions move by facilitated diffusion, and glucose moves by osmosis.
D. Sodium and potassium ions move by facilitated diffusion, and glucose moves by active
transport.
27. In order for nerve cells and muscle cells to function properly, they require a high concentration
of potassium ions inside the cells and a high concentration of sodium ions outside the cells. To
maintain this condition, cells utilize sodium potassium pumps embedded within their cellular
membranes to move the ions against their concentration gradients. Since sodium potassium
pumps require an input of energy to operate, they are an example of...
A. Passive transport. B. filtration. C. facilitated diffusion. D. active transport.

B. Endocytosis
 In this process, large particles are engulfed by a cell. There are several ways in which it can
happen, but, essentially, part of the plasma membrane surrounds the particles to form a vesicle
which is then processed by the cell and require ATP.
There are three types of endocytosis.
a. Phagocytosis (cell eating)
Involves the creation of pseudopodia to enclose large particles or even whole organisms
outside the cell. Once enclosed by the pseudopodia, they form an internal vesicle which is then
moved further inside the cell.
b. Pinocytosis (cell drinking)
It involves the ingestion of smaller particles and does not require the formation of large
pseudopodia to engulf the particles.
c. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
The membrane infolds to form vesicles only in regions where particles have bound to specific
receptors. The binding stimulates the infolding.
C. Exocytosis
 In this process, substances are moved from the inside to the outside of the cell. It is the
reverse of endocytosis.
 It is the process by which enzymes and hormones are secreted. Again, ATP is used to alter
the configuration of the membrane.
Cell organelles
 Animal cells contain a nucleus, mitochondria, Lysosome, ribosome, ER (rough and smooth)
as well as Golgi apparatus, all enclosed within a plasma membrane.
 Plant cells contain all the same organelles but also contain chloroplasts, a cellulose cell wall
and a permanent vacuole.
 The organelles of cells have specific functions:
 Nucleus contains DNA which controls the metabolism of the cell.

 Mitochondria carry out aerobic respiration to release energy from organic molecules
and store it in the ATP molecule.
 Ribosome synthesizes proteins from amino acids.
 Golgi body modifies proteins and distributes them to the appropriate part of the cell
 Lysosome contains hydrolytic enzymes that digest worn out or damaged organelles as
well as engulfed bacteria.
 Chloroplasts in plant cells carry out the reactions of photosynthesis.
 Cell wall supports and protects the contents of the cell; it is freely permeable to all molecules.
 Vacuole in plant cells contains a solution of mineral ions and sugars; it is important in
maintaining the turgor of the cell.
28. In many eukaryotic cells, DNA stored in the nucleus is transcribed into messenger RNA. The
mRNA is then transported into the cytoplasm where ribosomes assist in their translation into
proteins. Finally, these proteins are packaged and sorted in the Golgi apparatus for use in other
parts of the cell or in preparation for secretion into other cells. Which of the following statements
is supported by this description?
A. Various organelles interact with each other to carry out life processes.
B. Organelles within a cell act independently of each other at all times.
C. Some organelles are more important than other organelles within a cell.
D. Only up to three organelles may interact with each other at any given moment in time.
29. Which of the following statements concerning mitochondria and chloroplasts is correct?
A. Only mitochondria are surrounded by two membranes.
B. The inner membrane of chloroplasts is folded into cristae.
C. Both organelles have a fluid interior.
D. Mitochondria contain stacks of membranes called thylakoid.
30. The functions of the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi body are related because:
A. Proteins synthesized by the rough endoplasmic reticulum are modified by the Golgi
body
B. Proteins synthesized by the Golgi body are modified by the rough endoplasmic reticulum
C. Lipids synthesized by the Golgi body are modified by the rough endoplasmic reticulum
D. Lipids synthesized by the rough endoplasmic reticulum are modified by the Golgi body
31. Which of the following is not part of the structure of mitochondria?
A. double membrane surrounding the organelle
B. A fluid matrix inside the organelle
C. Stacks of membranes know as thylakoid

32. In which of the following organelles is a cell’s ATP produced?
A. Mitochondrion B. Golgi apparatus C. endoplasmic reticulum D. Lysosome
33. Proteins are made on the
A. Mitochondria. B. Nucleus C. Ribosomes. D. plasma membrane.
34. The packaging and distribution center of the cell is the
A. Nucleus. B. central vacuole. C. Golgi apparatus. D. nuclear envelope.
35. The double membrane surrounding the nucleus is called the
A. Nucleolus. B. nucleolus. C. nuclear wall. D. nuclear envelope.
36. All of the following are found in both plant and animal cells, except
A. A cell wall. C. mitochondria.
B. A plasma membrane. D. the endoplasmic reticulum.
37. How are chloroplasts like mitochondria?
A. They can both use energy from sunlight. C. They both contain DNA.
B. They look alike. D. They are both found in animal cells.
38. The organelles associated with photosynthesis are the
A. Mitochondria. B. Golgi apparatus. C. Chloroplasts. D. Vacuoles.
39. Plant cells have a large membrane-bound space in which water, waste products, and nutrients
are stored. This place is known as a _____
A. Mitochondrion. B. Golgi apparatus. C. Chloroplast D. Central vacuole.
40. Plant cells
A. Do not contain mitochondria.
B. Have a large central vacuole instead of a Golgi apparatus.
C. Have a cell wall instead of a plasma membrane.
D. Have chloroplasts and cell wall.
41. Which of the following groups are believed to be the first photosynthetic organisms to evolve on
earth?
A. Green plants B. Green algae C. Blue Green Algae D. lichens
42. Which of the following is NOT true about cells:
A. All cells have a plasma membrane
B. Animal cells are on average smaller than plant cells
C. All living things are composed of cells
D. Plant cells usually have a cell wall just inside the plasma membrane.
43. The cell’s plasma membrane is best described as:
A. A lipid bilayer with imbedded proteins
B. A carbohydrate bilayer with imbedded lipids
C. A protein bilayer with imbedded proteins
D. A protein monolayer with an imbedded lipid bilayer
44. Which of the following is NOT true of proteins:
A. They can act as hormones
B. Their activity is altered by temperature changes
C. They store genetic information and pass it from generation to generation.
D. Their activity is altered by pH changes

45. All cells have the following:
A. Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, DNA & ribosome.
B. DNA, ribosome, and cell wall.
C. Plasma membrane, nucleus, and DNA.
D. plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus
46. Controlling what enters and leaves the cell in an important function of the
A. Nucleus. C. plasma membrane.
B. Vesicle. D. Golgi apparatus.
47. Cytoskeleton elements are responsible for giving cells their shape and provide a basis for cell
movement, migration, and cell divisions in eukaryotic cells are
A. Microtubules (composed of tubulin) C. intermediate filaments
B. Actin filaments (made up of actin); D. All of the above
48. Eukaryotic cells have extensive intracellular membranes, termed the endomembrane system,
which divide the cell into structurally and functionally distinct compartments, or organelles.
These include the inner cell membrane, nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi
apparatus, and Lysosome. Name a cellular component whose membrane is not part of the
endomembrane system.
A. Mitochondria and chloroplasts C. Chloroplast and chlorophyll
B. Mitochondria and nucleus D. all of the above
49. Name the organelle that contains high levels of Hydrolases and is responsible for digestion of
proteins, sugars, nucleic acids and lipids.
A. Ribosome B. mitochondria C. Lysosome D. Golgi body
50. What common cell types are regulated by ion channels and are commonly referred to as
excitable cells?
A. Neurons B. muscle cells C. sensory receptor cells D. All of the above
Cell fractionation
 The technique is based on the fact that the masses of organelles vary and depend on their size.
 The large nucleus requires a relatively low centrifuge speed to make it settle out and much
smaller ribosome’s require a much higher speed. The technique is carried out as follows
1. The cell sample is stored in a suspension that is:

Buffered – the neutral pH to prevents damage to the structure of proteins and enzymes.
Isotonic – this prevents osmotic water gain or loss by the organelles; gaining too much
water could rupture the organelles
Cool – this reduces the overall activity of enzymes released later in the procedure.
2. The cells are homogenized in a blender and filtered to remove debris.
3. The homogenized sample is placed in an ultracentrifuge and spun at low speed. The nuclei
settle out, forming a pellet.

4. The supernatant (the suspension containing the remaining organelles) is spun at a higher speed
– chloroplasts settle out (if plant tissue is used).
5. The supernatant is spun at a higher speed still – mitochondria settle out.
The process is repeated at ever higher speeds until all the organelles have been separated.
Answer the following multiple choice questions. Doesn’t visit answer keys before you
try it on your own?
1. The principle behind separating cell organelles by ultracentrifugation is that:

A. The various organelles have different masses
B. The various organelles have different volumes
C. The various organelles have different Shapes
D. The various organelles have different widths
2. Which of the following statements is false?
A. Prokaryotic cells are smaller than eukaryotic cells
B. Eukaryotic organisms can be multicellular
C. Prokaryotic lack a nucleus
D. Plant cells are not eukaryotic
3. Which of the following clues would tell you whether a cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic?
A. The presence or absence of a rigid cell wall
B. Whether or not the cell has membrane bounded organelles
C. The presence or absence of ribosome
D. Whether or not the cell contains DNA
4. The electron microscope has been particularly useful in studying bacteria, because
A. Electrons can penetrate tough bacterial cell walls.
B. Bacteria are so small.
C. Bacteria move so quickly they are hard to photograph.
D. Few organelles present, bacteria distinguished by differences in individual
molecules.
5. A cell has mitochondria, ribosome, smooth and rough ER, and other parts. Based on this
information, it could not be
A. A cell from a pine tree. C. A grasshopper cell.
B. A bacterium. D. Actually, it could be any of the above.
6. Which of the following is NOT an example of a eukaryotic cell?
A. Red blood cell B. Bacteria C. Cheek epithelial cell D. Onion root cell
7. The organelle found in both animal and plant cells that is clear but contains dissolved
nutrients and ions is the:
A. Vacuole B. cytoplasm C. rough ER D. Golgi apparatus
8. Which organelles are responsible for digesting cell waste and foreign bacteria?
A. Golgi apparatus B. cytoskeleton C. nucleus D. Lysosome
9. Which two structures are NOT present in animal cells?
A. A vacuole and a nucleus
B. A cell wall and chloroplasts
C. A Golgi apparatus and mitochondria
D. An endoplasmic reticulum and cytoplasm.

10. A researcher made an interesting observation about a protein made by the rough ER and
eventually used to build a cell's plasma membrane. The protein in the membrane was
actually slightly different from the protein made in the ER. The protein was probably
changed in the:
A. Golgi apparatus. B. smooth ER. C. mitochondrion. D. nucleus.
11. Which of these organelles modifies cell products and then packages them for distribution?
A. The nucleus C. The cell membrane
B. The mitochondrion D.The Golgi apparatus
12. Which of the following correctly matches an organelle with its function?
A. mitochondrion -photosynthesis
B. Nucleus -creation of energy (ATP) from sugars.
C. Lysosome - movement
D. central vacuole - storage
13. After you add a chemical to cells growing in a test tube, proteins accumulate in the cell’s
rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The chemical added prevents movement of proteins
from the ER to which organelle?
A. Golgi apparatus B. Lysosome C. Mitochondria D. Ribosome
14. Which organelle(s) is/are involved in the process of producing and exporting of proteins?
A. Ribosome C. Endoplasmic reticulum
B. Golgi apparatus D. All of the above
15. Which of the following statements is true about mitochondria?
A. They are the site of energy (ATP) production in plant cells.
B. They are the site of energy (ATP) production in animal cells.
C. They provide photosynthesis in plants
D. They are the site of energy (ATP) production in both animal and plant cells
16. To enter or leave a cell, substances must pass through
A. A microtubule. B. the Golgi apparatus. C. a ribosome. D. the cell membrane.
Answer Key
1.A 7. A 13.A
2. D 8. D 14.B
3.B 9.B 15.D
4.B 10. A 16.D
5.B 11.D
6.B 12.D

UNIT FIVE
ENERGY TRANSFRORMATION

 Describe the structure of ATP and its role in cellular metabolism.
 Explain how ATP is adapted to its role as an energy transfer molecule within a cell.
 Describe in detail each stage of aerobic respiration.
 Explain the processes of alcoholic fermentation and lactate production.
 Appreciate the importance of lactate production during running and other sports.
How energy is transformed?
First law of thermodynamics states as energy neither created nor destroyed, but transform
(converted) from one form to another. Where, respiration and photosynthesis are two key processes
to transform energy between cell and their enviroment.
Respiration
What is respiration?
Is the metabolic process by which all living cell breakdown (combust) organic molecules into
smaller molecules to releases energy stored in form of ATP.Living cells respire all the time to
produce ATP without exceptions.
What is the ATP molecule like?

 ATP stands for Adenosine Tri-phosphate. It a nucleic acid (polymer) made from smaller
monomer called Nucleotides. All nucleotide contains:
Nitrogenous bases (Adenine)
Pentose sugar (Ribose)
Phosphate group (PO4-)
 ATP is considered as an energy currency and storing molecule for the cell that is based on
its nucleotides.
 Is described as phosphorylated nucleotides by adding one or two phosphate group the
molecule.
 Is also an adenine nucleotide with two extra phosphates added on it.

The figure below indicates ADP and ATP interconversion
Hint:
 Adding the extra phosphates (third) requires energy, as energy is stored in the ATP
molecule and when the bonds that hold third phosphate are broken energy is released again.
How ATP adapted as an energy transferring molecule in the cell?
 The energy from sunlight or glucose cannot directly used to drive available cellular process
rather used to produce ATP. We say that it is coupled processes as the process takes place
simultaneously at the same time.
ATP is adapted to its role because of the following:-

 It releases energy in small amount that matches biological process of the cell.
 It releases energy only in single step only, Hydrolysis.
 It able to move around the cell easily, but not escape from the cell.
The following major process requires energy from ATP
 Synthesis of macromolecules E.g Protein, polysaccharides
 Active transport across plasma membrane

 Muscle contraction
 Conduction of nerve impulses
 Initial step of respiration, Glycolysis
How ATP is produced in the cell?
Almost all ATP produced in the cell is the same way.i.e.
 Involving ADP and Pi joining to form ATP that requires input of energy.
 It involves enzyme ATP synthase (in chloroplast and mitochondrial membrane)
ADP+Pi ATP + H2O
How ATP synthase work?
1. When rotor spin by hydrogen ion passing through it.

2. Energy of spinning activate catalytic knob that converts ADP and Pi to ATP.
Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
This figure indicates how ATP synthase works
How ATP produced in respiration?

Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic pathway
 Usually takes place in higher animals
 Occur in mitochondria and involves oxygen
 Involves Glycolysis, Kreb cycle and Electron transport chain.
 Generate more ATP per oxidation of single glucose molecule
 End with water and carbodioxide

Anaerobic pathway
Usually takes place in microorganisms.
Occur in cytoplasma and no oxygen requirement.
Only involves Glycolysis
Generate two ATP oxidation of glucose molecule
Ends with different end products E.g. alcohol, CO2 and lactic acid.
How is ATP produced in aerobic respiration?
Compare and contrast substrate and oxidative level phosphorylation
A. Substrate level phosphorylation (SLP)

Is catalyzed by enzyme, but not ATP synthase.
It produces small amount of ATP produced by aerobic respiration (10%).
It can takes place in cytoplasma and mitochondrial matrix
Example
Phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) is a substrate that able to transfer attached phosphate
group directly to ADP, Phosphorylation.
E.g. ATP produced in glycolysis and Kreb cycle

B. Oxidative phosphorylation (OLP)
 Is an oxygen dependent production of ATP, phosphorylation.
 It produces about 90% of ATP produced by aerobic respiration.
 The process is catalyzed by enzyme that is based on proton spinning through rotor
spin of ATP synthase.
 Occur in mitochondrial inner membrane
E.g. Electron transport chain and chemiosmosis

How are hydrogen ions transferred from glucose to ATP synthase?
Glucose ATP synthase
Two molecules are important in this transfer process
 NAD (nicotine Adenine Dinucleotide)

 FAD (Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide)
 They are coenzymes and capable of accepting hydrogen ions and get reduced. That is
written as NADH (red.NAD) and FADH2 (red.FAD.)
 They can release their hydrogen ion and oxidized where hydrogen ion used in rotor spin of
ATP synthase.
Redox (coupled) reaction; is state when both oxidation and reduction reaction happen
together simultaneously. This means when one compound loss an electron another
compound accepts.
.
 A compound is get oxidized when it loses hydrogen, loss electron, gain oxygen and
increases in oxidation number and reduced when compound gain hydrogen, gain electron,
loss oxygen and decreases in oxidation number
Answer the following questions accordingly and refer relative sources where
necessary. Don’t key given before you tried it on your own.
1. Which one of the following equation bestly represents when cell prefer to obtain energy
from ATP to synthesis protein from amino acid molecules?
A. Glucose +heat Pyruvate + 2ATP + CO2 C. ADP +Pi ATP + H2O + heat
B. Glucose Lactic acid +2ATP +CO2 D. ATP +H2O ADP +Pi + heat

What are the stages of aerobic respiration of glucose?
List and explain each step of aerobic respiration.
There are four stages in the aerobic respiration of glucose. This are:
Glycolysis
Link reaction
Krebs cycle
Electron transport and Chemiosmosis
Glycolysis (means glucose splitting)
 It is the first stage of cellular respiration.

 It takes place in cytoplasma (Cytosol) of a cell.
 It is a process of anaerobicaly breakdown of carbon six glucose molecules into two
carbon three molecules.
Glucose (C6) 2 pyruvate (2C3)
Glycolysis has two phases with ten steps.
a. ATP utilized stage and glucose converted to 2G3P.

b. ATP production phase and 2G3P converted to pyruvate.
Glucose doesn’t enter into mitochondrial membrane because of:-
 It is medium sized and not lipid soluble.
 There is no carrier protein to transport glucose across membrane.
 But pyruvate and coenzyme can enter mitochondrial membrane.
The following reactions take place in glycolysis?
 There is ten steps in glycolysis that are catalyzed by different enzyme
 In phosphorylation process, glucose converted to another carbon six sugar (Fructose,
1-6, biphosphate).
 Fructose, 1-6, biphosphate split into two carbon three sugar glycerdehyde –phosphate
(G3P)
 Each G3P converted to pyruvate
 Two ATP molecules used up to make glucose more active.

End product of glycolysis per glucose molecule
Four total ATP molecule by SLP {two ATP used to activate glucose and two net
ATP gain}.
Two pyruvate molecule
Two reduced NAD molecule
Then pyruvate and coenzyme enter into mitochondrial membrane
Main stages of Glycolysis
Summary of overall reaction of Glycolysis:-

C6H1206 + 2ATP + 4ADP + 2Pi +2NAD ➞ 2C3H603 + 2ADP + 4ATP +2NAD red. + 2H+ +2H20
Link reaction
 Is act as a transition or link step between glycolysis and kreb cycle.

 It takes place in fluid matrix of mitochondria and involves aerobic process.
 Then pyruvate reacts with coenzyme A (CoA) to form carbon two molecule acetyl-coA
(acetyl CoA). Hint. CoA is derived from Vit.B panthonic acid which is needed for
respiration.

Two main reactions takes place in link reaction are:-
 Dehydrogenation -hydrogen is lost from a molecule and red.NAD formed.

 Decarboxylation - a carbon atom is lost in form carbon dioxide.
End product of this reaction
2CO2, 2acetyl CoA, and 2NADH
KREB CYCLE (Citric acid cycle) / Tricarboxylic acid

 It is takes place in fluid matrix of mitochondria and aerobic process.
 In all glycolysis, link reaction and kreb cycle hydrogen atom transferred to NAD and
FAD molecules.
What happens in the Krebs cycle?
 Two-carbon group acetyl-coA reacts with the four-carbon compound oxaloacetate to
form a six-carbon compound called citrate.
 Citrate decarboxylated to form a five-carbon compound (Isocitrate) and CO2.
 Five-carbon compound further decarboxylated to form a four-carbon compound and
CO2, ATP molecule by SLP.
 Four-carbon compound regenerate the original four-carbon compound (oxaloacetate)
and begin reacting with another molecule of acetyl CoA.

 What is end product of kreb cycle after regeneration?
End of Kreb cycle as regeneration is:
 Six reduced NAD
 Four carbodioxide
 Two ATP molecules produced by SLP
 Two reduced FAD
A summary of the overall reaction of the Krebs cycle is:-
CH3CO.CoA + 3NAD + FAD + C4H2O52- ➞ 2CO2 + 3NADH+ FADH+ CoA + C4H2O5
Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and Chemiosmosis
Define and Explain how these two reactions takes place?

 Together makes up oxidative level phosphorylation (OLP).
 It is an aerobic process involving ATP synthase enzyme.
 It takes place in mitochondrial inner membrane, Cristae.
The following events take place on Cristae:
 Hydrogen atoms carried by red.NAD and red.FAD are released and split into protons
and electrons.
 The electrons pass along electron carriers from one carrier to next that form, ETC.
 They loss energy as they pass from one carrier to next. Where energy lost is used to
empower the pump (makes the process more energetic) from mitochondrial matrix into
the inter-membrane space.
Three molecules that act as electron carriers in the ETC are:
 Red. NAD dehydrogenase (also a proton pump)
 Ubiquinone (also a proton pump), and
 Cytochrome (proteins that contain iron).
Where reduced NAD is dehydrogenated by the NAD dehydrogenase complex, reduced FAD
is dehydrogenated by Ubiquinone.
At the end of ETC, electrons combine with protons and with oxygen to form molecules of
water.
4e- +4H+ + O2 2H2O, oxygen is termed as the terminal electron acceptor of the chain.

Because of the action of the proton pumps,
Protons accumulate in the inter-membrane space creating a higher concentration
there than in the matrix.
This proton gradient results in protons diffusing through the ATP synthase.
This makes rotor ‘spin’ of synthase and produce ATP from ADP and Pi,
phosphorylation
Chemiosmosis is diffusing of hydrogen ions through the ATP synthase
The oxidation of one red. NAD molecule results in six protons passing through ATP
synthase and so leads to the synthesis of 3ATP molecules.
1red. NAD pump six proton three ATP
The oxidation of on e of red. FAD molecule results in four protons passing through
ATP synthase and leads to the synthesis 2ATP molecules.
1red. FAD pump four proton two ATP
A summary of overall reaction of ETC is:

6 reduced NAD (from Krebs’ cycle) + 2 reduced NAD (from glycolysis) + 2 reduced
FAD (from Krebs’ cycle) + 30 ADP + 30 Pi – 2ATP (used in proton pumps) ➞ 36 ATP
+ 8 NAD + 2FAD
 The actual yield is about 36 molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose.

The production of ATP during the aerobic respiration of glucose
The summary equation for aerobic respiration is:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 ➞ 6H2O + 6CO2 + energy released
2. During which stage of aerobic respiration carbon dioxide is produced?
A. Link reaction and Krebs cycle

B. Citric acid cycle and glycolysis
C. Link reaction and electron transport chain
D. Glycolysis and electron transport system
3. The oxidation of glucose molecule into two molecules of pyruvate, ATP, NADH is known
as________________ and takes place in_____________:
A. Glycolysis and mitochondria C. link reaction and cytoplasm
B. Glycolysis and cytoplasm D. Link reaction and mitochondria
4. Which of the following is not true concerning Adenosine tri phosphate?
A. It is formed in the same amount during aerobic & an aerobic pathway
B. It releases energy in a single step of hydrolysis reaction
C. Used to couples energy releasing and energy requiring reaction
D. It is said to be nucleotide with two extra phosphate group
5. What is role of oxygen in the aerobic respiration?
A. It combines with CO2 to form citrate
B. Act as terminal electron acceptor in the electron transport chain
C. It combines with acetyl coenzyme A to form oxalo acetate
D. It combines with ADP in the formation of ATP

6. Which of the following is true about the site where kreb cycle?
A. It occur in the matrix of mitochondria
B. It takes place in inner membrane of mitochondria
C. It occur in the intermembrane space of mitochondria
D. It occur in the Cytosol of cytoplasm
Respirometer
What is Respirometer?
 Is a device used to measure the rate of respiration in living organism by measuring the rate of
CO2 and O2 exchange per minute. As, an organism respire they take oxygen from air and give
up carbodioxide.
 Have different forms, but all works on principle that predicts the volume of oxygen used is
equal to volume of carbodioxide produced.
Basic Respirometer over leaves:-
 For every volume of oxygen an organism uses, the same molecule of carbodioxide
produced that is absorbed by KOH. So, over a time volume inside Respirometer
reduced. Equationaly indicated as:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ➞ 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36ATP
V [6O2] used up = V [6CO2] produced
What happens in the anaerobic pathway?
If there is no oxygen:-
The final reaction of oxidative phosphorylation, where electrons and protons react with
oxygen to form water stops.
Link reaction, kreb cycle and electron transport chain comes to a halt.
No protons are pumped (chemiosmosis).
The action of ATP synthase also stops. There is a further ‘knock-on’ effect (stop).
 However, glycolysis can continue.
 As red.NAD formed during glycolysis is regenerate anaerobicaly by converting the
pyruvate into another product in a reduction form.
 Reduced NAD supplies the hydrogen for both reduction and oxidized itself.

Different organisms produce different fermentation end products.
Anaerobic fermentation named differently on basis of their product.
Example.
Yeast cells
 Produce ethanol (ethyl alcohol) by fermenting glucose.
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 2ATP

Glucose Ethanol (alcohol)
 termed as alcoholic fermentation
Animal cells
 Produce lactate (lactic acid) when ferment glucose.
C6H12O6 C2H6O3 + 2ATP

Glucose Lactic acid
 is termed as Lactic fermentation
Lactate fermentation during exercise
During exercise energy demand increases.

Where fermentation of glucose supply extra energy to meet this demand.
Oxygen debt
After exercise lactic acid accumulated in the muscle that may be toxic to the cell,
which can result muscle fatigue /cramp.
Is extra oxygen needed after exercise finished to break accumulated lactate that is
transported to the liver and converted into pyruvate.

Cori cycle
The advantage of this cycle in liver is:-
To prevent lactic accumulation in muscle

To regenerate glucose as energy source for muscle in low oxygen level.
Commonly both alcoholic and lactic fermentation
Uses glucose as starting substrate.
Produces two ATP and two red.NAD per cycle.
The fermentation of glucose in animal cells and yeast
Briefly compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
Yield 36ATP slowly from oxidation of Yields two net ATP oxidation
glucose molecule E.g. Long race run glucose molecule E.g. Short race
slowly and respire aerobically and sprint run quickly and respire
anaerobicaly
Produce sufficient energy to sustain cell Produces insufficient energy
metabolism
No lactate accumulation after exercises Accumulates lactate after exercise
as sufficient oxygen as no oxygen leads to cramp
(tiredness)
List the advantage of anaerobic fermentation product in different industries.
What substances can be used as energy sources?
 Not only glucose as respiratory substrate but also protein and lipid can enter into
aerobic pathway by hydrolyzing into their building blocks to releases energy.
 The degraded products enter kreb cycle where they converge.
Give your correct answer for the following multiple choice questions. Refer relative
sources where necessary.
1. Which of the following reactions represents cellular respiration?

A. 6 CO2 + 6H2O C6 H12 O6 +6 O 2
B. CO2 + RUBP 2G3P
C. O2+ RUBP 1G3P+ phosphoglycolate
D. C6 H12O6 + 6O2 C6 H12 O6 +6 O 2
2. During which of the following pairs of respiration stage carbon dioxide is produced as an end
product?
A. Electron transport chain and Krebs cycle
B. kreb cycle and Link reaction
C. Link reaction and chemiosmosis
D. Glycolysis and Link reaction
3. Among the following identify one that bestly explains respiration?
A. Reductive ,catabolic and exergonic
B. Reductive ,endergonic and anabolic
C. Oxidative, exergonic and catabolic
D. Oxidative ,exergonic and catabolic
4. Which phosphate group bond of ATP is broken when energy it contains needed for cellular
process?
A. The second bond B. C-C bond C. The first bond D. The third bond

5. As electron passes down the electron transport chain of the mitochondria:-
A. They produce reduced NAD to the next process
B. Carbon dioxide is produced & FAD+ is reduced
C. They lose energy as they pass from one electron carrier to next.
D. They gain energy as they pass from one electron carrier to the next.
6. In which of the following pair’s cellular respiration does substrate level phosphorylation
occur?
A. Glycolysis and Chemiosmosis
B. Electron transport chain and Chemiosmosis
C. Krebs cycle and Glycolysis
D. Krebs cycle and Chemiosmosis
7. What does the fermentation of glucose by yeast normally yields:-
A. 2CO2, 2ATP & lactic acid C. 2CO2, 2ATP & ethyl alcohol
B. 2CO2, 36ATP& ethanol D. 2ATP and lactate
8. Which one of the following is NOT component of nucleotide during phosphorylation process?
A. Phosphate group C. Nitrogenous bases
B. Pentose sugar unit D. Amino acid sequence
9. How many ATP molecules is produced per complete oxidation of single glucose molecule
during cellular respiration?
A. 4ATP B.24ATP C.30ATP D. 36ATP
10. Starting with two molecules of acetyl CoA and oxaloacetate, kreb cycle after regeneration ends
with:
A. 1ATP , 2CO2 ,1FADH2and 3NADH
B. 2pyruvate, 2ATP and 2CO2
C. 10NADH,34ATP and 2FADH2
D. 2ATP, 4CO2 ,2FADH2 and 6 FADH2
11. During kreb cycle, to which one of the following coenzyme does most of energy released from
glucose molecule is transferred?
A. NAD B.NADP C.FAD D.AMP
12. What is role of oxygen in the aerobic respiration? It:-
A. Combines with CoA to form acetyl CoA
B. Used as final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain.
C. Combines with pyruvate to form acetyl CoA
D. Transfer proton from one carrier to next
13. During which one of the following processes of cellular respiration is most of ATP produced?
A. Glycolysis B. Kreb cycle C.Link reaction D.Chemiosmosis
14. What chemiosmosis represent during aerobic respiration pathway?
A. Passing of electron from one carrier to next
B. Splitting of glucose anaerobicaly
C. Diffusing of proton down concentration gradient
D. Regeneration of coenzymes under glycolysis
15. Among the following cellular process one releases carbon dioxide to the surrounding
atmosphere:
A. Assimilation B.Photosynthesis C.Respiration D. Feeding

16. Which one of the following is NOT true about oxidative level phosphorylation?
A. It comprises ETC and chemiosmosis
B. It is catalyzed by ATP synthases enzyme
C. It depends on proton passing through rotor spin of ATP synthases
D. It produces ATP by substrate level phosphorylation
17. When athletes take part in short distance race, how does the cell generate energy needed? By:
A. Aerobic respiration in muscle cell
B. anaerobic respiration in muscle cell
C. alcoholic fermentation in cytoplasma
D. aerobic respiration in inner membrane
18. When the muscle cells are in short supply of oxygen, which of the following compounds would
be accumulate in them?
A. Ethanol B. Acetic acid C. Pyruvic acid D. Lactic acid
19. One of the following molecule acts as a final/terminal electron acceptor of a respiration?
A. NADP B. FADH2 C. Water D. Oxygen
20. The first molecule produced when Acetyl COA combines with oxaloacetate in fluid matrix of
mitochondria?
A. Citrate B. Malate C. Isocitrate D .Succinate
21. Starting with two molecules of pyruvate and two coenymeA, link reaction results which of the
following end products?
A. 2Acetyl COA , 2CO2 and 2NADH
B. 2Acetyl COA, 2ATP and 2CO2
C. 2Acetyl COA, 2ATP and 2NADH
D. 2Acetyl COA, 2CO2 and 2FADH2
22. From the oxidation of 10NAD and 10FADH2 molecule, how many proton pumped through ATP
synthase and how many ATP synthesized in rotor spin respectively?
A. 54H+ and 27ATP C. 60H+ and 30 ATP
B. 100H+ and 50 ATP D. 70 H+ and 35 ATP

5. 2. Photosynthesis
At the end of this section students should be able to:

 Draw, label and describe a chloroplast.
 Describe light-dependent and -independent stages of photosynthesis
 Explain how the structure of a photosystem is related to its role.
 Describe the factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis
 Distinguish between C3 and C4 plants and give at least two examples for each.
 Appreciate the importance of C4 plants in Ethiopia cereals.
 Explain the CAM photosynthetic pathway and its benefits to desert plants.
How do plants harness light energy in photosynthesis?
What is photosynthesis?
Defination: Derived from photo- light synthesis – manufacture
 Is a process that nourishes almost all life in the biosphere by providing organic compound
to eat and oxygen to breath.
 Is process of transducing light energy into chemical energy of organic molecules.
 Is process of converting inorganic molecules (water and carbodioxide) into range of
organic molecule.
 Is process by which green plants, chlorophyll pigment, that absorbs light energy to
transform into chemical energy stored in glucose.
6CO2 +6H2O C6H12O6 +6O2 +Energy
List and explain phase of photosynthesis
Light dependent stage Light Independent stage
 Based on light energy for  Based on product of light

phosphorylation and photolysis of energy ,not need light
water.
 Takes place in thylakoid( grana)  Takes place in fluid stroma of
membrane of chloroplast chloroplast

How structure of chloroplast suited to its function?
Is adapted for photosynthesis due to:-
Presence of chlorophyll and photosensitive pigment arranged in photosystem that linked

with ETC.
Each photosystem and ETC is fixed in thylakoid membrane.
Is disc-shaped with large surface area volume ratio to absorb more light.
Has fluid –filled stroma that contains enzymes.
Structure of Chloroplast
Label each structure of chloroplast indicated below.
Photosystem
Is a biochemical mechanism by which chlorophyll absorbs light energy.
Sensitive to different light wavelength PsI (700λ) and PsII (680 λ) and linked to different
ETC.
Is a site where light reaction begun.
What is the structure of a photosystem?
A photosystem is complex proteins (pigment emended) in thylakoid membrane.

It consists a number of pigment molecules clustered around one chlorophyll molecule
called Reaction centre molecule (positioned next to ETC).
This cluster of pigment molecules is called an Antenna complex.
Antenna complex is an array of protein and chlorophyll light harvesting molecule in
thylakoid membrane.
Energy absorbed by other molecules in the photosystem is transferred to the reaction
centre molecule, where the light-dependent reactions begin.
Different pigment in the antenna complex can absorb different wavelengths of light,
making the whole system more efficient.
The pigments in the antenna complex include chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and
Carotenoids.
Where chlorophyll a is always reaction centre molecule.

Structure of photosystem
Absorption spectrum to indicate which pigments absorbs what wavelength of light.
Is measured by spectrophotometer.
Action spectrum shows maximum peak at which photosynthetic electiveness at each
wavelength.
Absorptive spectrum of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and Carotenoids.
Why plants appear green?
 Because they absorbs blue and red light wavelength, but reflects green light
wavelength.
 There are two photosystem in light dependent reaction which have enormous pigments
(200-300) associated with proteins and enzyme

Differentiate both types of photosystem
Photosystem I(PsI) PhotosytemII(PsII)
Located at outer surface of thylakoid Located at inner surface of thylakoid
membrane membrane
Has 700 λ absorptive wavelength Has 680 λ absorptive wavelength
Involved both cyclical and non-cyclical Only involved in non-cyclical
phosphorylation phosphorylation
Not associated with photolysis of water Associated with photolysis of water
What happens in the light-dependent reactions?

 Light-dependent reactions use energy from light (photon) to drive
synthesis of two molecules that drive the light independent reactions.
These reactions are:-
1. photolysis of water (light dependent spiliting of water
2H2O → O2 + 4H+ + 4e–
2. Phosphorylation reaction to synthesis ATP that provides the energy for the later
reactions, and
3. Produces reduced NADP which is similarly used to transporting hydrogen ions as NAD
in respiration. It provides the hydrogen ions for later reduction reaction.
Z-scheme representation of light dependent reactions.
Photosystem I and photosystem II

The following major reactions take place inside PsI and PsII respectively

1. Electrons in photosystem II are excited by the energy in photons and become more
energetic as extra energy.
 They escape from the chlorophyll and pass to primary electron acceptor.
2. Energy from sunlight split water molecule in chloroplast, photolysis.
2H2O → O2 + 4H+ + 4e–,
 Where electrons replace those lost from the chlorophyll molecule.
3. Primary electron acceptor passes electrons to the next first ETC1 (plastoquinone or ‘Pq’),
Cytochrome and to last carrier plastocyanin (Pc) respectively.
 Electrons lose energy as they are pass from one carrier to the next, this empower the
pump from outer stroma to inner thylakoid membrane.
4. In the cytochrome complex of ETC there is a proton pump between stroma and inner
thylakoid.
 This creates protons accumulation inside the thylakoid, which drives the chemiosmotic
synthesis of ATP.
5. Electrons in photosystem I excited as absorbs photons and escape from
chlorophyll molecule. They are replaced by the electrons that have passed down ETC from
photosystem II.
6. Electrons then pass along a second ETC2 involving ferredoxin (Fd) and NADP
reductases.
 Finally, electron reacts with protons and NADP in the stroma of the chloroplast to form
reduced NADP.
Photosynthetic unit-
 Is an arrangement of pigment molecule, electron carrier molecules and ATP synthase
capable of carrying out all reactions in the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis.
 Arrangement of all molecules to carryout light dependent reaction of photosynthesis.
How photosynthetic unit arranged in thylakoid membrane

Phosphorylation
There are two types phosphorylation in light dependent reaction.
These are cyclical and Non-cyclical phosphorylation.
Both process produces ATP because of:-
There is an accumulation of protons in the interior of a thylakoid membrane.
This creates a concentration gradient between the thylakoid and the stroma of the
chloroplast
Protons move through ATP synthase causing the rotor to spin for phosphorylation.
Non-cyclical phosphorylation
 Said non-cyclical as electron travel in non-cyclical manner.

 Involves one way of electron flow from water to NADP.
 First electron donor is water and final electron acceptor is NADP
 It end with net product of ATP,NADP and Oxygen
 Involves both PsII and PsI
Cyclical phosphorylation E.g. Bacteria
Said cyclical as electron travel cyclical manner( Back-back)

Is simple and rare process of phosphorylation.
Involves only PsI
Initial donor and final electron acceptor is chlorophyll molecule.
The net product is only ATP molecules.
Structure of cyclical phosphorylation

Plants rarely synthesis ATP by cyclical phosphorylation when:-
 No oxygen and reduced NADP availability.

 Sugar cannot synthesize as lack of carbodioxide.
Brief summary of the light-dependent reactions

Light energy is used to excite electrons. This cause:-
 Protons transfer to inside of the thylakoid membrane as they pass along ETC
that leads to ATP synthesis.
 React with hydrogen ions and NADP at the end of the second ETC to form
reduced NADP.
 Generally, ATP and reduced NADP are used to drive the synthesis of
carbohydrates in the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis
1. All of the following are describes why chloroplast is suited to its function “Except”
A. The chlorophyll & other photosensitive pigment molecules are arranged in
photosystem.
B. The molecules of photosystem & the ETC are fixed in the membrane of thylakoid.
C. It’s composed of stroma provides fluid medium for the reaction of dark reaction.
D. The inner membrane is folded to speed up reaction of light dependent stage.
2. Which of the following is true regarding cyclic photophosphorylation?
A. Only photosystem II is involved in the process.
B. It produces oxygen & reduced NADP.
C. The flow of electron is from PSI to PSI.
D. Is the most common type of photophosphorylation
3. Which of the following is NOT true about photosystem II?
A. It contains the reaction center chlorophyll a
B. It absorbs maximum light at 680nm wave length
C. It absorbs maximum light at 700nm wave length
D. It contain reaction center molecule and antenna complex

Briefly compare and contrast photosynthesis and Respiration
Respiration Photosynthesis
Is catabolic process Is anabolic process
Uses sugar as raw material and produces CO2 Uses CO2 and H20 to produce sugar
and H2O
Is an oxidative process Is reductive process to produce sugar.
All organism respire to releases energy Only photoautrophic organism

Requires NAD and FAD as proton transfer Requires NADP as proton transfer
Takes place in mitochondria Takes place in chloroplast
How is carbohydrate synthesized in the light-independent reactions?
 Light-independent reactions uses product of light dependent reaction, ATP and NADP, to
reduce carbon dioxide. .
 It doesnt require light but based on product of light dependent reaction.
 It takes place in the stroma of the chloroplasts.
 Is called Calvin cycle after the work of Melvin Calvin on unicellular algae, chlorella
(refer).
 Is also referred to carbon fixation and reduction reaction.
 Is a complex cycle catalyzed by different enzyme.
This reaction involves three consequentive steps.
Stages of Calvin cycle
a. Carbon fixation stage
 Is a beginning stage of Calvin cycle when carbon dioxide react with pre-existing
five carbon molecule ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) in stroma of chloroplast.
 Form an immediate carbon six molecule Phosphoglyceric acid (PGA)
 Is catalyzed by Rubisco enzyme (RuBP carboxylase/oxygenase).
b. Reduction carbon dioxide
 Is when carbon dioxide reduced to produce two carbon three molecule glycerdehyde-
3-phosphte (G3P).

 This stage uses energy from ATP and proton from reduced NADP of light reaction.
 Some G3P goes to synthesis glucose and other organic molecules, where else goes to
regenerate RuBP.
c. Regeneration of RuBP from G3P
 Two G3P molecules needed to produce one glucose molecule.
 Regenerate original RuBP
The action of Rubisco
 Calvin cycle needs six turns to produce two G3P (TP, Triose phosphate) which is enough
to make one glucose molecule.
 One turn of Calvin cycle needs 3ATP and 2 NADP to produce one glucose molecule.
Find how many NADP and ATP is needed to produce on glucose molecule?
4. How many ATP and reduced NADP molecules used up during reduction of carbon
dioxide respectively?
A. 6 ATP and NDP C. 18ATP and 12NADP
B. C24ATP and 12NADP D. 3ATP and 2NADP
The light independent reaction

Illustration of how the light-dependent and light independent
reactions are related.
What factors affect the rate of photosynthesis?

The rate of Photosynthesis is dependent on a many environmental factors. This includes:-
1. Light intensity
 It limits the rate of light dependent reaction directly by affecting number of electrons in
reaction center molecule, Photo-excitations.
Explain how the effect of light on the following seasons where:
 On cold bright day (Arctic) – High light and low temperature.
 On warm cloudy day (summer) –Low light and high temperature
 On warm sunny day (summer)-Both light and temperature high
The rate of photosynthesis is limited by factor that is present in a limiting quantity (short
supply), which is known as the principle of limiting factors.
The effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis?

Based on the graph above:

a. Very low light intensities
Respiration is still occurring and is taking in oxygen faster than photosynthesis is
producing it.
b. medium light intensities
Photosynthesis is producing more oxygen than respiration uses, the rate of photosynthesis
increases light intensity.
c. very high light intensities
The rate of photosynthesis is level out with light intensity; eventhoutgh other factor is
probably limiting the rate.
2. Carbon dioxide concentration.
 It limits light independent reaction of photosynthesis by influencing initial reaction with
RuBP.
 At low concentration of carbon dioxide little photosynthesis takes place, although
respiration still uses oxygen. As [CO2] an increase so does rate of photosynthesis, until
saturation of Rubisco.
3. Temperature
 It limits the rate of both light dependent (ATP synthase) and independent (Rubisco)
reaction of photosynthesis, as both reaction catalyzed by enzyme.
 But there is optimum temperature for photosynthesis enzyme which varies with
geographical location.
Example:
 Enzymes of plants that live at arctic have lower optimum temperature than plants living
in tropics.
 As temperature exceeds optimum, enzyme denatures and rate of photosynthesis decreases
rapidly.

How all factors interact to influence the rate of photosynthesis?
Increasing the light intensity increase:-
 The rate at which electron exited from reaction center, photo –excitation
 The rate at which ATP and reduced NADP are produced in the light-dependent
reactions.
 Increase the rate at which the Calvin cycle can take place.
However, the rate at which the Calvin cycle can ‘turn’ could be limited by:
 Low temperature (limiting the rate of Rubisco enzyme)
 Low carbon dioxide concentration, this limits the rate at which ATP AND NADP
reused in light dependent reaction and the whole process limited, even though light
intensity increases.
Effect of several factors on rate of photosynthesis
The region indicated on the graphs above where light is non-limiting (horizontal
lines), but other factors that are limits are:
 A-Both temperature and carbon dioxide; increasing either
produces an increase in the rate of photosynthesis to level
 B-Temperature or carbon dioxide concentration (the factor that hasn’t been increased
from A); increasing the temperature increases the rate to level C.

4. Wavelength of the light
 Rate of photosynthesis is faster in ‘red’ and ‘blue’ wavelengths than else, because these
wavelengths are absorbed more efficiently than others. Leaves appear green as they
reflects green wavelengths.
5. Amount of chlorophyll
 Rate of photosynthesis increases with chlorophyll concentration.
Explain the role of principle of limiting factor in commercial plant grower?
5. The graph given below shows the effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis at
different amount of light intensity and at different concentration of carbon dioxide.
Question number and depend on this graph.
Line ‘A’ could indicate:

A. High light intensity and low carbon dioxide concentration
B. High light intensity and high carbon dioxide concentration
C. Low light intensity and high carbon dioxide concentration
D. Low light intensity and low carbon dioxide concentration
Are there any other ways of photosynthesis?

C3 photosynthesis and photorespiration
 This type of photosynthesis takes place in plants growing in temperate environments,
like Europe.
 They are vast majority of land plants (85%). E.g. Tomatoes, Potatoes, Spinach,
Cassava, Rice, Barley .etc.
 Said C3 because the first compound formed in LI reaction of Calvin cycle contains
carbon three atoms (2G3P).
RuBP + CO2 (Rubisco) Rubisco 2G3P

Leaves of C3 plants have the following major adaptation for photosynthesis:
 Have broad leaves to capture more light
 Palisade cell has chloroplast at upper surface of leaves to absorb more light.
 Their stomata are mainly at lower surface.
 To minimize water loss (has waxy cuticle)
 They open their stomata mainly at day time, to allow entry of
CO2 and close if water loss is great on hot day.
 Spongy mesophyll has air space.
That allows easy diffusion of CO2 and O2 between palisade and stomata.
Bundle sheath cell lacks chloroplast and CO2 fixed ones
Photorespiration (C2 photosynthesis)
 It involves oxidation of carbon.
 Is catalyzed by Rubisco/oxygenase (oxygenation) instead of carboxylase.
 In hot tropical conditions ,C3 plants do not yields enough carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis ,this is because their stomata closed to prevent water loss that prevent entry
of carbon dioxide . As a result, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the leaves falls.
 Rubisco behave in unusual way that RuBP binds with oxygen instead of carbon dioxide.
 Then RuBP is oxidized to one molecule of GP (not two) and one molecule of
phosphoglycolate.
Ribulose biphosphate + oxygen Rubisco 1GP + 1phosphoglycolate
 Where 1GP formed in photorespiration re-enter the Calvin cycle and phosphoglycolate
converted into GP for use in the Calvin cycle. These reactions (involves chloroplast,
peroxisomes and a mitochondrion) catalyzed by complex net work of enzymes.
 In addition, carbon dioxide is produced in the process.

The reactions of photorespiration
Photorespiration reduces efficiency of photosynthesis by 25% than C3 plants .Because:
 Carbon is oxidized, which is the reverse of photosynthesis (reduction of carbon to

carbohydrate).
 Ribulose biphosphate must be resynthesised and the phosphoglycolate removed.
 It also cost ATP and NADPH in the resynthesis of RuBP.
6. Which of the following statement is not true concerning C3 plants?

A. The first compound formed in the dark reaction contains three carbon atoms.
B. The stomata are mainly on the lower surface to minimize water loss.
C. The cell of bundle sheath contains many chloroplasts
D. The palisade cells are nearest the upper surface of the leaf
7. Which of the following processes mainly reduce efficiency of photosynthesis?
A. Photophosphorylation C. Chemiosmosis
B. Fixation of CO2 D. photorespiration
C4 photosynthesis
 This pathway gets round the problem of photorespiration that reduces efficiency of
photosynthesis.
 Takes place in plants that grow in tropical and sub tropical enviroment like Ethiopia.
Examples of C4 plants include; maize, crabgrass, sorghum and sugarcane.
 Named C4, because the first compound formed in the light independent reactions of
photosynthesis contain carbon four (oxaloacetate), not GP that of C3 plants.

 The light-dependent reactions are the same as in the C3 plants, but differ in how glucose is
synthesized in the light-independent reactions.
 The structure of the leaf of C4 is essentially similar to that of a C3 plant, but differ in that:
Cells of the bundle sheath contain chloroplasts that C3 plants lacks.
No thylakoid means that the light-dependent reactions cannot occur here and
oxygen is not produced in these chloroplasts.
This helps to prevent photorespiration and allows Calvin cycle to take place.
 The light-dependent reactions in C4 pathway take place in the mesophyll cells, which have
chloroplasts with thylakoid.
The following reactions take place:
1. CO2 reacts with a C3 compound called PEP (Phosphoenol pyruvate) to form the C4
compound oxaloacetate in mesophyll cell.
 Catalyzed by the enzyme PEP carboxylase (Pepco).
PEP + CO2 PEP carboxylase Oxaloacetate
2. Oxaloacetate is converted into another C4 compound (malate in bundle sheath cell.
Oxaloacetate Malate
3. In the bundle sheath cell, malate is converted to pyruvate with the release of a molecule of
CO2 that starts Calvin cycle by binding with RuBP.
CO2
Malate Pyruvate
4. The pyruvate is back converted to PEP that enters Calvin cycle to synthesis sugar; this
reaction requires ATP.
 C4 cycle uses two more molecules of ATP to deliver a molecule of CO2 to Rubisco
than does the C3 cycle.
 This is not a problem in tropic, as the high light intensity that generates much ATP
from the light dependent reactions.
 C4 photosynthesis is most efficient under the following conditions:

 Low carbon dioxide concentration
 High light intensity
 High temperature.
 Plants grow in Ethiopia are C4plants and well adapted to hot and bright days. So,
produce high yield when compared to C3 plants.
 Why C4 plants experience low carbon dioxide concentration?

 This is not due to composition air in tropics is different from other regions.
 But, C4 plants (grass, maize ...etc) grow very close together and compete for
CO2 in the air reduces

This graph shows efficiency of C3 and C4 photosynthesis at different [CO2]
8. Which of the following statement is NOT true about C4 plants such as maize?
A. Light dependent reactions occur in mesophyll cell.
B. The bundle sheath cell contains chloroplast.
C. Chloroplast of bundle sheath cell lack thylakoid.
D. They harvest CO2 at night time.
Comparison of C3 and C4 plants
Features C3 Plants C4Plants
Bundle Lack chloroplasts Have chloroplasts with no

sheath cells
thylakoid
Enzyme used to fix Rubisco Pepco (PEP carboxylase)
CO2
Optimum temperature 15–25 oC 30–40 oC
700 ppm
400 ppm
optimum CO2
concentration
Mesophyll cells Mesophyll cells
Fixation of CO2
Calvin cycle Mesophyll cells Bundle sheath cells

Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM photosynthesis)
 This carbon fixation pathway experienced in s plants adapted to desert conditions.
Example: Succulent, xerophytes cacti.Agaphe...etc

 In this area their stomata closed during day time when temperature is high to
reduce rate of evapotranspiration. So, if they don’t open their stomata how they can
obtain CO2 needed for photosynthesis? They have temporal adaptation.
 By opening stomata at night for carbon fixation the mesophyll cells.
 They experiences the same set of reactions with C4 plants, but differ in carrying
reactions at times (seasonal isolation).
1. At night plants opens their stomata to allow carbon fixation that reacts with PEP in
mesophyll cell forming oxaloacetate and malate as C4plants.
CO2
PEP Pepco Oxaloacetate Malate
2. Malate stored in vacuole overnight.
3. During day, light dependent reaction generates ATP and NADP, so that Calvin cycle
continues.
4. Malate released from vacuole and breakdown into glycerate, releasing CO2 for Calvin
cycle to produce sugar.
CO2 +RuBP
Malate Glycerate
9. Which of the following is characteristic of Crassulacean Acid metabolism (CAM)
plants?
A. Both stage of photosynthesis carried out them out at temporal isolation.
B. They are mostly adapted in temperate area than C3 plants.
C. They have no secondary fixation of carbon dioxide.
D. They are more efficient than C-4 plants in the condition of low CO2 concentration
Compares the C4 pathway and the CAM pathway.

What is the evolutionary advantage of CAM plants in desert enviroment?
Answer the following multiple choice questions. Don’t visit key before you try it on your
own. Refer relative sources and contact your teacher where necessary.
1. From the following identify the wrong statement about PsII and PsI?
A. Each photosystem linked with different ETC
B. PsI linked with ‘fd’ to transfer exited electron to NADP
C. PsII involved in both cyclical and non-cyclical phosphorylation
D. Each photosystem have reaction center and antenna complex
2. Which one of the following pairs of plants is NOT photosynthesis by C4 and CAM pathway
respectively?
A. Sugar cane and pineapple C. Maize and Cacti
B. Sorghum and Cacti D. cacti and sorghoum
3. All of the following are generally true about photorespiration EXCEPT one?
A. It involves RuBP binding with oxygen
B. It lower photosynthetic efficiency
C. It is reductive process that consume ATP and NADP
D. It is a condition in low [oxygen] and common in C3 plants
4. Which one of the following pairs of photosynthetic pigment has maximum absorptive spectrum at
which rate of photosynthesis is effective than else?
A. Violet and Blue B. Blue and Red C. Green and Red D. Yellow and Red
5. Which one of the following is NOT generally true about Non-cyclical phosphorylation?
A. Chlorophyll molecule is initial and final donor and acceptor of a chain
B. It involves one way electron flow from water to NADP
C. It involves both PSII and PSI
D. It ends up with generation of ATP, NADP and O2

6. Which one of the following pairs of factors directly influences light dependent and light
independent reaction respectively and indirectly influences each other viseversaly?
A. Light intensity and Carbon dioxide concentration
B. Temperature and chlorophyll molecule
C. Carbon dioxide concentration and light intensity
D. Temperature and light intensity
7. Which one of the following pigment in a photosystem is referred as a reaction center where light
dependent reaction starts?
A. Xanthophylls B. Chlorophyll b C. Chlorophyll a D. Carotenoids
8. Which one of the following is NOT true about CAM pathway?
A. Is adapted to desert (arid) condition with high temperature and low moisture
B. They open and close their stomata at different circadian rhythm.
C. They have needle leaved and long rooted plant with thick bark
D. They has no role in sugar production
9. Among the following reaction in C3,C4 and CAM Pathway , one similarly takes place in mesophyll
cell:
A. Fixation of carbon dioxide C. Generation of ATP and NADP
B. Calvin cycle D. Sugar production
10. In light dependent stage of photosynthesis light is essential for:
A. Fixation of carbodioxide from the atmosphere
B. Synthesis of ATP and proton carrying coenzyme
C. Regeneration to ribulose biphosphate
D. Combination of carbodioxide and water
11. Which one of the following reactions commonly occurs in both Cyclical and Non-cyclical
phosphorylation of photosynthesis in thylakoid membrane of chloroplast?
A. Production of reduced NADP C. Generation of O2 and water photolysis
B. Generation of ATP D. Involvement of both PsII and PsI
12. In what way chloroplast in bundle sheath cell of C4 plants adapted for the pathway?
A. Absence of Calvin cycle C. Absence of thylakoid membrane
B. Presence of thylakoid membrane D. Dependence on high oxygen concentration
13. Which one of the following organelles involved in photorespiration to convert phosphoglycolate into
glycolate to be re-used in Calvin cycle respectively?
A. Chloroplast, Mitochondria and Perixosome
B. Ribosome, Nucleus and Mitochondria
C. Chloroplast, Perixosome and Mitochondria
D. Nucleus, Ribosome and Golgi body
14. What is the main advantage that a photosystem containing molecules of different types light sensitive
pigments have?
A. To increase amount/number of photosystem.
B. To absorb light of the different wave length
C. To increase amount of ATP in cell
D. To Increase number of chlorophyll molecule in the cell

15. Which of the following is true regarding cyclic photophosphorylation?
A. Only photosystem II involved C. It produces oxygen & red. NADP
B. The flow of electron is from PSI to PSI D. There is ATP production
16. Under what conditions do C4 plants have more photosynthetic efficiency than C3 plants?
A. Low temperature C. low light intensity
B. Low CO2 concentration D. high CO2 concentration
17. Which of the following reaction represents photo respiration?
A. 6 CO2 + 6H2O → C6 H12 O6 +6 O 2
B. CO2 + RUBP → 2G3P
C. O2+ RUBP → 1G3P+ phosphoglycolate
D. CO2 + phosphoenolpyruvate → Oxaloacetic acid
18. Which one of the following molecules initially combines with CO2 in stroma of chloroplast?
A. Glycerate phosphate C. Phosphoenol pyruvate
B. Oxalo acetate D. Ribulose biphosphate
19. Which of the following plants carryout light dependent and primary CO2fixation in separate time?
A. C-3 plants B. C-4 plants C. CAM plants D. Both CAM and C4 plants
20. Which of the following is the correct sequence of the reaction in Calvin cycle of photosynthesis?
A. Regeneration of RuBP, reduction reaction and CO2 fixation.
B. Regeneration of RuBP, CO2fixation and reduction reaction.
C. CO2fixation, regeneration of RuBP and reduction reaction.
D. CO2fixation, reduction reaction and regeneration of RuBP

Answer Key
5.1.Respiration 5.2. Photosynthesis
1. C 11. B 1. D 11.B 21. A
2. D 12.C 2. B 12.B 22. B
3. C 13. C 3. C 13.D
4. B 14. B 4.D 14.C
5. A 15. D 5.C 15.D
6. A 16. B 6.C 16.B
7. C 17.C 7.C 17.C
8. D 18.D 8.D 18.D
9. A 19.B 9.D 19.D
10. B 20.D 10.D 20.A

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BIOLOGY SHORT NOTE AND RELATED QUESTIONS ON :

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-1

 Define enzymes and explain the properties of enzymes.

 Enzymes are life’s great facilitators.

 The products formed

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-2

 Some household products use enzymes to speed up chemical reactions:

 In order for molecules to react, they must have sufficient energy.

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-3

A. Energy path of an uncatalayzed reaction______________________

Enzyme Nomenclature and Classification

 Different enzymes are named in different ways. This includes:

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-4

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-5

Example: • in Enzyme EC 3.4.11.1 is:

Sector Application area Benefits

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-6

1. Biochemosin A. produce lactose-free milk

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-7

A. THE LOCK-AND-KEY MODEL

 Proposed in 1894 by a German biochemist named Fischer.

Reactant A + Reactant B + enzyme ➞ES complex ➞ EP complex➞Product AB + enzyme

B. THE INDUCED-FIT MODEL

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-8

2. A molecule of an enzyme that has a high turnover number:

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-9

 Particles within a molecule vibrate more energetically.

 If the raised temperature results in little denaturation but a greatly increased

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-10

4. The optimum temperature of an enzyme is the temperature at which:

 pH also affects the rate of enzyme-substrate complexes.

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-11

A. 15°C B. 22°C C. 37°C D. 50°C

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-12

A. This enzyme works best at a temperature of 35°C and a pH of 8.

A. Enzyme A B. Enzyme B C. Enzyme C D. Enzyme D

12. The gas that was generated was probably

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-13

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-14

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-15

B. Non competitive Inhibitors:

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-16

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-17

 Enzyme inhibitors play important roles in pharmaceutical and biochemical industries.

1. What is the function of enzymes within living systems?

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-18

15. Which of the following statements about a competitive inhibitor is correct?

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-19

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-20

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

 Tell the history of cell biology.

Biology short Note For Grade 11/ 2012. P-21

Robert Hooke (1665)

Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1674)

 Sees living, moving unicellular organisms (protoctistans) in a drop of water.

Rene Dutrochet (1824)

Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann(1839)

Rudolf Virchow (1858)