#403

Fluid Mechanics
Lab Manual

2012
Lab Manual Fluid Mechanics 2012 1

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Contents
1. Determination of discharge coefficient of a venturimeter
2. Determination of discharge coefficient of an orificemeter
3. Determination of contraction coefficient and velocity coefficient for an orifice fitted in a tank
4. Bounday Layer thickness over a flat plate
5. Visual estimation of Reynolds number.
6. Measurement of head loss due to friction in a flow system
7. Confirmation of discharge coefficient of V and rectangular notch
8. Measurement of head losses in three different types of pipes

Lab Manual Fluid Mechanics 2012 2

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1. Determination of discharge coefficient of a venturimeter
You Need to Ask the Lab Attendant for : a stop watch.

Theory
Venturimeter. It is a device for measuring rate of flow in a pipeline. Its theoretical analysis is based on (i) Bernoulli's equation (ii)
Continuity equation. It is composed of the following two features:
1. A converging entrance cone of angle of about 20°.
2.Throat-a cylindrical portion of short length and 3.Diffuser-a
diverging cone of angle 5° to 7°.
The accelerated flow is achieved in the converging cone, the highest
velocity head being at the throat. In the converging cone pressure
energy is converted into kinetic energy. At the throat the
I

streamlines are parallel to each other and Cc=1. Whereas in the

diverging cone the kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy
and thus to reduce the vel the pressure as nearly as possible to its
original value at the inlet. About 85% of the drop between the inlet
and throat is recovered in the diffuser. The fluid flowing diverging
boundaries has a tendency to separate from boundaries thereby
resulting dissipation due to formation of eddies etc. Energy
dissipation has been found to proportional to the angle of divergence; however, small angles of divergence require lengths of diffusers.
Cone angles of 5° to 7° have been found to give good results values of energy loss.
For a venturimeter to give good results the flow entering it should be free from large scale turbulence. The factors to be borne in mind are;
(i) A venturimeter ought to be preceded by a straight length of around 50 diameters but not less than 30 times the pipe diameter.
(ii) The ratio of throat to inlet diameters may range between 0.75 and 0.25 commonly used rates adopted is 0.5.

Theoretical Analysis
Compared to the orifice plate there are less energy in a venturimeter due to contraction and expansion. The point of pressure measurements are defined, o
transition and the other is at the throat. The method of analysis venturimeter is analogous to that for orifice plate, the only difference being that C, ventu
as already explained above Refer to equation mentioned below substituting C c= I and taking ideal conditions.
Q = a√2gH/√1- (a/A) 2
Where a, and A are the areas of the throat and of the pipe respectively.
Due to viscous losses, H observed is greater than that for ideal condition considering the viscous losses equation becomes
Q = Cd a√2gH/√1- (a/A) 2
In which Cd called coefficient of discharge for venturimeter and it depends upon 1. Reynold Number. 2. Inside roughness 3. Ratio of a / A.
Usually value of Cd varies between 0.91 and 0.99ariation of Cd with Re for different venturi sizes i.e. DId values are given in Fig Calibration of a ve
establishing a relationship between Q and H.

Experimental Set Up
1. Water main connected to the U/s end of the venturimeter.
2. Horizontal venturimeter with piezometer is connected between two pet-cocks at the mouth and throat by means of flexible tubes.
3. Air vent valve with the help of which the water levels in the limbs may be brought to the desired part of tbe scale regardless of the
pressure in the mains.
4. Outlet value is fitted at the d/s end of venturimeter for discharge regulation.
5. Discharge measuring tank fitted with a piezometer tube.

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Procedure
1. Record the inlet pipe diameter (d1) throat diameter (d 2) and the densit of flowing fluid.

2. Open the regulating valve and under steady state condition note the readings h1 and h2 in the two limbs of the piezometers.

3. Measure the flow rate with the help of flow meter and stop watch.
4. Vary the flow rate through the system with the regulating valve and take different readings.

Observations
Inlet pipe diameter d1= ...............; Area of cross section A1 at entry =………;
Throat diameter d2= .................................. ; Area of cross section A2 at throat= ……….;
Temperature of flowing fluid = ..... ; Kinematic viscosity of flowing fluid ν= ;
Area of cross section of measuring tank= ;
Density of flowing fluid ρf= ............................................ ;

Graphical Exercise
Plot the following curves.
1. Q v/s H.
2. Q v/s - √h1-h2
3. Cd v/s Re and compare with standard curves .
4. Qth v/s Q actual

Results
Mean value of coefficient of discharge Cd =………

Precautions
1. It is to be ensured that there are no air bubbles in-the manometer.
2. Each reading be taken only when the steady state conditions is established.
3. Preferably flow rate for each reading be recorded over the same time period which being sufficiently large.
4. In case there is fluctuation in the liquid column in the manometer both the tubings be closed instantaneously and then the readings be
recorded. An average of three such readings be used.

Experimental Discussion (show next time)

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 2. Determination of discharge coefficient of an orificemeter
You Need: A stop watch, a hot-wire anemometer to measure air velocity

Theory
Orifice meter is a flow measuring device. It is used extensively to measure flow through pipes. In its simplest form it consists of merely
one hole-circular in shape in a plate both thin ,and flat; which being clamped between the flanges at a joint in the pipe line so that its
plane is perpendicular to the axis of the pipe. Concentricity of eccentricity of an orifice depends upon ',ts usage. For measurement of
single phase homogeneous flows concentric orifice meter are used whereas for sediment laden flows, segmental or eccentric orifices are
used.

Pressure tappings for being connected to a differential gauge are made in the pipe wall on both sides of the plate; one pipe diameter
upstream and half pipe diameter downstream of e orifice plate is generally used. The flow undergoes a change in its cross sectional area
as it crosses the plate resulting a pressure difference across the meter which is utilised to determine the flow. Fluid pressure at the tap on
upperside of the orifice plate is unaffected by the introduction of the plate and the pressure of fluid at the second tap which is at vena
contracta of the plate, is affected by the introduction of plate.

Figure illustrates the flow pattern at and near the orifice plate. Boundary
stream lines denfining the flow assumes the shape as shown. The fluid
flow approaching the orifice gets accelerated; whereas the radially
inward component of fluid acceleration results in the reduction of the jet
flow area coming out of the orifice causing the formation of vena
contracta which located within a distance equal to the pipe diameter.

Theoretical analysis of flow through the orifice plate utilizes the

fundamental relationship of fluid flow, namely the energy and continuity
equations. Refer to figure considering the pipe axis horizontal and
turbulent flow which being irrotational at vena contracta; the Bernoulli's
equation between sections; 1 and 2 in combination with the continuity
equation: Figure 1: Orificemeter
Q=Cd a 2gH
Cd=coefficient of discharge = Cc/ (1 - Cc(d/D))
Cc=coefficient of contraction
Coefficient of contraction is defined as the ratio of jet area at vena contracta to the area of the opening. a=area of orifice, H=P1-P 2/
and Cd= f(d/D, Re ). Johaansen has studied the variation of Cd with Re for orifices with various d/D values of his results are presented in
Figure 2.
In figure 1 let section 3 represents the section where the flow regains uniform velocity thereof the flow area becomes equal to the pipe
area. The energy loss may be expressed as hL = C L V12/2g

Loss coefficients for orificemeter in turbulent flow

Diameter Ratio (d/D) Loss Coefficient CL
0.2 1670
0.4 86
0.6 11
1. 0.8 1.3
In case the velocity is not known the head loss can be obtained approximately by following relationship
H L/h = 2 – (d/D)2 , where h=Differential head across the orifice plate in terms of the fluid.

H h

Lab Manual Fluid Mechanics 2012 5

Q Q

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 Figure 2. Relationship between head and flowrate

Experimental Set up
The experimental set up is shown in Figure 1. A long horizontal pipeline in which a thin plate having a concentric sharp edged oifice is
fitted. Two pressure tps provided on upside and downside of the orifice plate are connected to an inclined differential manometer by
means of tubes. Flow is controlled by the switch on the motor.

Procedure
1. Record internal diameter of the pipleline D and the orifice diameter d
2.Turn on the motor so that air flows through the pipeline and the orifice
3.Open the pressure taps and note the manometer reading as air velocity (the manometer displays readings directly as air velocity
4.Ascertain the air velocity at the centre of pipline by a hot-wire anemometer
5.Repeat steps 3 to 4 for at least four different orifices.

Observations
Diameter of pipe line D= ........... Area of cross-section of pipe line al = ...........
Diameter of orifice in orifice plate d= ..... Area of cross-section of orifice a2= ...

1 2 3 4 5

Orifice diameter
Air Velocity
Th eoretical discharge
Qth = 2gh ((a1-a2/a12 – a22))
Coefficient of discharge =
Qactual/Qth
Reynolds number
Re = Qd/A

Sample Calculations for Readins No ( )

Lab Manual Fluid Mechanics 2012 6

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 Precautions
1. It is to be ensured that there are no air bubbles in-the manometer.
2. Each reading be taken only when the steady state conditions is established.
3. Preferably flow rate for each reading be recorded over the same time period which being sufficiently large.
4. In case there is fluctuation in the liquid column in the manometer both the tubings be closed instantaneously and then the readings
be recorded. An average of three such readings be used.

Experimental Discussion
1. Whether Cd for orifice meter is greater than or less than Cd for venturimeter and why?
2. Can the same calibration be used if the orifice meter is inclined.
3. Comment and discuss the usefulness of this experiment based on tbe prepared.
4. Compare the value of Cd obtained with the corresponding expected value for orificemeter.
5. What flow conditions favour installation of an orifice plate for measurement of rates through a pipe hne.
6. For accurate measurer1cnt of discharges with an orifice plate the orifice plate s be preceded and followed by what straight lengths
of pipe.

Lab Manual Fluid Mechanics 2012 7

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3.Determination of contraction & velocity coefficient for an orifice fitted in a tank
Equipment : Stop-watch

Theory
A mouth piece is a pipe, the length of which varies between 2 to 3 times its diameter. The mouth pieces are of uniform as well as varying
sections, A mouth piece, has the basic effect of increasing the Cd through an increase of
Cc by running full and limiting the extent of contraction of the jet. Mouthpieces are used
to determine the discharge through tanks etc,

Coefficient of discharge Cd of a mouth piece is given by the ratio of = Qa/Qth i.e.,

Cd= Qa/2gh

where h=head under which water flows out of the mouth piece.
Qa is the actual discharge flowing out of the mouth piece, Qth is the theoretical discharge,
which can pass through the mouth piece under ideal conditions.

Coefficient of velocity Cv = Actual velocity at the vena-contracta/ Theorctical velocity of jet coming out of mouth piece.
Coefficient of contraction = Area of jet at vena-contracta/ Area of mouth piece

For an external mouth piece Ce is equal to 1 as it runs full.

Cd=Cc Cv

The coefficient of velocity can also be determined as

Cv = x2/4yh

where x and y (measured +ve downward) are the horizontal and vertical components of the point on the centreline of the jet. The origin is
taken at the centre of the jet section at the vena-contracta. Values of Cc, Cv and Cd for some of the common types of mouth pieces are

Mouth piece Rounded External Borda's Borda's

flowing full flowing free
Cc 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5
Cv 0.98 0.80 0.75 1.0
Cd 0.98 0.80 0.7 0.5

Experimental Setup
The experimental set up consists of

1. An inlet tank with a piezometric tube, in which the flow is kept steady for one of reading.
2. Mouth piece attached to tank.
3. Water main pipe with regulating valve for water supply in the inlet tank.
4. The hook gauge is fixed at the centre of the jet of water to measure the horizon and vertical coordinates of the jet at locations.
5. A scale fixed to the tank on which the hook gauge can slide horizontally ~ vertically.
6. Discharge measuring tank for collecting and measuring the volume of w collected in a particular time.

Procedure
1. Fix the mouth piece to the steady flow tank for which the Cd, Cc and Cv are to determined.

Lab Manual Fluid Mechanics 2012 8

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 2. Open the valve of the main water supply and fill the tank with water upto certain level.
3. Adjust the valve of main water supply and valve of the outlet pipe to keep the flow steady in tank. Measure the height of water 'h' in
the tank.
4. Measure the actual discharge from the mouth piece.
5. Measure x and y co-ordinates· of the jet.
6. Repeat steps from (iii) to (iv) for different values of h.

Observations
Diameter of the mouth piece= Area of the mouth piece, a=
1 2 3 4
Height of water in the Piezometric tube fitted with the measming tank =
Volume of water col:ected in the tank = length >< breadth X H
Time taken to fill tank for height H, T
Actual discharge of mouth-piece Q a =Volume/Time
Diameter of jet at vena contracta d v
Area of jet at vena contracta a o
Co-efficient of contraction Cc=ao/a
Head in the supply tank h
Theoretical discharge Qth=a2gh
Coefficient of discharge Cd= Qa/Qth
Horizontal co ordinate x
Vertical co-ordinate y
Coefficient of velocity C v = x2/4yh
Cd=Cc Cv

Sample Calculations of Reading No ( )

Graphical Exercise
Plot log Qa vs log h

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Results:

Discussion
1. Verify the relationship Cd=CcCv.
2. The basic difference between a mouthpiece and orifice be brought out.
3. Under what conditions does a mouthpiece behave like an orifice.
4. Compare the experimentally ascertained values of Cd, Cv and Cc with the standard values.
5. Sources of error be highlighted.
6. The value of Cd in a mouth piece should be equll to l. Discuss whether the value of Cd is equal to one, kss tban one or greater than one.
7. Plot graph of log Qa vs log(h). Discuss the shape of the curve and the significance of the graph.
8. Discuss the practical utility and application of the experiment.

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4.Bounday Layer thickness over a flat plate

You Need: a graph paper.

Laminar Boundary layer Transition zone Turbulent Boundary Layer

Theory
According to the Prandtl theory, the fluid flow may be divided into two portioos
(a) a thin la)er close to the surface of the body through which the variati velocity
between the surface of the body and the fluid is transmitted. (b) the remaining
portion of the fluid.

When a real fluid flows past a solid boundary, a layer, of fluid which comes in
contact with the boundary surface adheres to it on account of viscosity. Since
this layer of cannot slip away from the boundary surface it attains the same
velocity as that boundary. In other words, at the boundary sucface there is no
relative motion between fluid and the boundary. This condition is known as 'no
slip' condition. If the boundary is moving, the fluid adhering to it will have the
same velocity as that of the boo However for a stationary boundary, the fluid velocity at the boundary surface will be Thus at the boundary
surface the layer of fluid undergoes retardation This retarded of fluid further causes retardation for the adjacent layer of the fluid, thereby
develop small region in the immediate vicinity of the boundary surface in which the velocity flowing fluid increases gradually from zero at
the boundary surface to the velocity of the stream. The region is known as boundary layer.

Let us consider a long thin plate as shown in Figure (1), held stationary in the direction parallel to the flow in a uniform stream of velocity,
Uo. The flow is said to be 'ambient flow' and the plate is said to be held at zero incidence. At the leading edge of the plate the thickness of
the boundary layer is zero, but on downstream, at some point  away from the boundary the velocity is nearly U o

As the boundary layer develops, upto a certain portion of the plate from the edge, the flow in the boundary layer exhibits all the
characteristics of laminar flow, known as laminar boundary layer. After the transition region, there is a rapid increase in the thickness and it
is
5. known as turbulent boundary layer. If the plate is very smooth
in the region of turbulent boundary layer, there is a very thin layer just adjacent to the boundary, in which the flow is laminar sub-
layer,
7.
6. This thin layer is known as laminar sub-layer, '.
The boundary layer thickness  is considered equal to the distance y from the boundary surface at which u=0.99Uo (see Figure
(2)). Here  is termed as normal thickness of the boundary layer.' The displacement thickness  * is defined as the distance by which the
boundary surface would have to be displaced outwards so that the total actual discharge would be same as that of an ideal fluid past the
displaced boundary. In other words, it can be defined as an additional "wall thickness" that would have to be added to compensate for the
reduction in flow rate on account of boundary layer formation.
In Figure (2i) the area ABC represents the reduction in flow rate (per unit width of plate) due to boundary layer effects.
Mathematically, the displacement thickness ( *) may be expresed by the equation
∞
Uo * = (Uo – u) dy
0
∞ 
 * =  (1-u/ Uo) dy = (1-u/ Uo)dy
0 0
The retardation of flow due to viscosity in the boundary layer wouid cause reduction in the momentum flux. Accordingly the momentum
thickness () is defined as distance from the actual boundary surface such that the momentum flux corresponding to main stream velocity U o
through this distance e is equal to the deficiency or loss in momen1 due to the boundary layer formation. Thus
∞
 U o2 = (Uo – u)udy

 = u/ Uo (1-u/ Uo)dy
Further the retardation of flow due to viscosity in the boundary layer would cause reduction in the flux of energy. As such the energy
thickness E is defined as the distance from the actual boundary surface such that the energy flux corresponding to the mainstream velocity
Uo through this distance E is equal to the deficiency or loss of energy due t, boundary layer formation. Thus

E = u2/ U o2 (1-u2/ Uo2)dy

For parallel flow past a flat plite held at zero incidence, approximate relatioship among the three thicknesses of a boundary layer described
above is =3 *=7.5

The variation of velocity in a boundary layer with the distance' normal to the surface is given by

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u=Uo y/ (2-y/) (1)

for laminar boundary layer, and

u/U o=(y/)n (2)

for turbulent boundary layer, where n=1/5 to 1/10 depending upon the Reynolds number.

Experimental Setup
It consists of a wind tunnel of net length of about 7 m, having a test section 320 x 340 mm size. A Prandtl tube fitted to an inclined tube
manometer is placed mid-way in the flume. The Prandtl tube is fixed in such a way that it can be moved from one end in the mid-flume to
the other end.

Procedure
1. Fix the Pitot tube in such a way that it touches the flat plate. Note the initial reading.
2. Start the fan at the end of the wind tunnel at a suitable load and note the meter reading (which gives the air velocity directly in fps)
3. Gradually raise the Pitot tube and take the corresponding manometer readings till there is no change in the manometer reading.
4. Shift the position of Pitot tube horizontally and repeat steps (1) and (3).
5. On an ordinary graph paper, plot y v/s u (with u on x-axis), to obtain the velocity profile. Determine U o and the value of y (=) at
which u=0.99 Uo. Estimate the area ABC on the plotted velocity profile. Also determine momentum () and energy () thickness.
6. Compare the values *,  and  obtained in step (5) and verify Equation ().
7. On a log-log graph paper, plot u/Uo vs y/ (with y/ on x-axis), to obtain a straight line, the slope of which gives the exponent 'n' in
Equation (2) and thus determine the nature of flow.

Observations
Room temperature=……..

Run No. Pointer gauge Distance from Velocity u u/Uo y/

reading boundary

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Specimen Calculation For Run No ()

Results

Precautions
1. The velocity of air in the wind tunnel should neither be very high nor too low.
2. The manometer readings should be taken only when the flow stabilizes and there is no fluctuation in the level of manometric liquid in
the tube.
3. Lower meniscus of the liquid should be read in case of alcohol and water.
4. A white piece of paper having straight edge should be used below the manometer tube to have a clear view of the reading.
5. For one set-up of readings, the Prandtl tube should not be moved in the horizontal d irection.

Discussion
8.

1. Explain 'velocity defect' or 'velocity deficit' for a flat plate i.e. the difference between the maximum
velocity Uo and the local velocity at any point U, that is (Uu-U) is commonly known as 'velocity
deficit'. Explain it diagrammatically.
2. To show nominal limit of boundary layer referring to Figure in theoretical section y=, u=0.99Uo in
which  is the boundary layer thickness, known as nominal thickness boundary layer.
3. To find momentum thickness () for laminar profile, and for turbulent profile.
4. To find displacement thickness ( *) using the relation  *= /3 for laminar profile
 * =  /8 for turbulent profile. ,

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Lab Manual Fluid Mechanics 2012 14

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5.Determination of Reynolds number by means of different flow patterns.

You Need: Stopwatch, 2litre cylinder

Theory
Reynolds number is defined as R = Qd / A ν , where Q = Volumetric now rate, d = Diameter, A =: Area, ν= Kinematics viscosity of water.
Reynolds number described as the ratio of inertial forces (νs ρ) to viscous forces (µ/L) and, consequently, it quantities the relative importance
of two types of forces for given flow conditions. It is used to identify and predict different flow regimes, such as laminar or turbulent flow.
Laminar flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers, where viscous forces are dominant, and is characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion,
while turbulent flow, on the other hand, occurs at high Reynolds numbers and is dominated by inertial forces, which tend to produce
random eddies, vortices and other flow fluctuations.

The Reynolds Number can be used to determine if flow is laminar, transient or Turbulent. The flow is laminar for Re < 2000 , its transient
for 2300 < Re < 4000, and turbulent if Re > 4000

Observations
Inner diameter of pipe (d) = ______ m
Area of pipe (A) = _____ m2
Kinematics viscosity (v) = ______ m2/sec
Volume of water =_____ml

Flow Time(s) Volume (m3) Flow Pattern Flow Rate (m3/s) Reynolds Number
1

Calculations
1. Report your calculated result and compare it with text.
2.Draw a graph between Flow rate (x-axis) and Reynolds numbers (y-axis) and discuss it from text. '

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Discussion
1. Discuss various pattern of flow and factors affecting them.

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6.Verification of Bernoulli equation in a flow system

You Need : Stop watch

Theory
Bernoulli’s principle states that for an inviscid flow, an increase in the speed
of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease
in the fluid’s gravitational potential energy. Bernoulli's principle is
equivalent to the principle of conservation of energy. This states that the
sum of all forms of mechanical energy in a fluid along a streamline is the
same at all points on that streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic
energy and potential energy remains constant. If the fluid is flowing out of a
reservoir the sum of all forms of energy is the same on all streamlines
because in a reservoir the energy per unit mass (the sum of pressure and
gravitational potential ρgh) is the same everywhere.

For the present system, the energy relationship will include the head losses:

P1/γ + V2/2g + z1 = P 2/γ + V2/2g + z2 + hL

Procedure
1. Fill reservoir tank to full.
2. Turn on motor / pump to full.
3. Measure pressure from guage.
4. Find Q for flow rate
5. Repeat for different flow rates.

Observations
Elevation (Z2) =
Atmosphere Pressure (P1) =
Specific weight of water (y) =
S.NO. Guage Pressure Flow Rate
(N/m2) ( m3/ sec)
1
2
3

Calculations
1. Apply Bernoulli’s equation to point 1 and point 3 to find hL for equivalent length.
2. Estimate equivalent length head loss for point 1 to point 2.
3. Total head loss i.e. from point 2 to point 3 and point 1 to point 2.
4. Calculate head losses for bends, elbows, unions, entrance, exit and guage.

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Discussion

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7.Determination of discharge coefficient of V and rectangular notches.
Theory
A weir is an obstruction placed across a free surface flow such that the flow takes
place over it. Notches are openings cut in metallic plates and installed in flumes or
small channels. Installation of a notch is exclusively for the purpose of measuring
the discharge in the stream.

A sharp crested weir or notch for the measurement of discharge generally have a
regular geometrical shape like rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal etc. The free
surface related to the head H over the crest of the notch measured at a distance
about 3 to 4 times H from the crest towards upstream.

The discharge over a rectangular notch is given by the formula

Q = 0.66 Cd 2gBH3/2

And the constant K = 2/3 √2gB, where B= width of the rectangular notch.

The discharge over a triangular or V notch is given by the formula

Q = 0.53 Cd 2g tan/H5/2

here the constant is K= 8/15 √2g tan/2

Where  is the angle of triangular notch.

The value of Cd is given by the ratio of Qactual to Qtheoretical. In actual practice, the discharge over a notch is considerably less than indicated
by the above formula without considering Cd i.e. the formula is derived on the basis of frictionless one dimensional flow

Procedure
1. Record the geometrical features of the notch.
2. Allow the water in to the tank till it just start passing over the notch.
3. Stop the supply of water and record the level of water by hook gauge when no water passes over the notch. This gives level of (fill of
the crest (h1))
4. Increase the supply of water till the head over the fill of the notch becomes constant. Record the level (h2) of the free liquid (surface.
difference of the two reading (h2-h1) gives the head over the sill causing flow.
5. Measure the flow rate (Q) with the help of discharge measuring tank and stop watch.
6. Vary the flow rate through the system with the regulating valve and take eight different readings.

Observations
S.No. Observation Rectangular Notch Triangular Notch
Large Medium Small
1 Level of the crest of the notch = h1
2 Level of the free liquid
Surface = h2
3 Head of water over notch = h2 - h1
4 Initial level of water in measuring tank = X 1
5 Final level of water in measuring tank = X2
6 Height of water collected in measuring tank = h =
X2 - X1
7 Time of collection of water = t
8 Volume

Lab Manual Fluid Mechanics 2012 19

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Calculations

Volume Time Qactual H (m) K Qtheor Cd

(sec) m3/sec m3/sec
Rectangular

Triangular

Large

Medium

Small

Cd = Qactual / Q theoretical

Flow rate for rectangular notch is given by Q= KH where K = 2/3 √2gB and B is the width of the notch. The flow rate for triangular notch
Q=KH where K= 8/15 √2g tan/2

Discussion

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8.Determination of the friction factor of pipes of different material of construction
Theory
The analysis of laminar flow in pipes rests on the principles of the application of momentum equation to an element of flow within the
conduit, the application of shear stress-velocity gradient relationship, and the knowledge of flow condition at the pipe wall with the help of
no-slip condition. The use of these conditions allows for the measurement of pressure loss through the well-known Hagen-Poiseuille
equation:

∆P = 128µ l Q / πd4

Turbulent flow conditions are far more likely in most engineering situations than the laminar flow conditions. Expressions have been
developed for the losses incurred in turbulent flow in both closed and open conduits. However, completely analytical solutions are not
available and empirical relationships are needed in order to produce necessary expressions.

The friction loss due to length l of a conduit is denoted by hf and for a circular conduit is given by:

hf = 4f lv2 / 2dg (1)

It is known as Darcy-Weisbach equation for head loss in circular pipes, where f the friction factor, v the mean flow velocity, d and l the pipe
diameter and length respectively. Except for the friction factor f all the other parameters are measurable. Results of extensive experiments in
this area have led to establishment of the following relationships: hf α l, hf αv2, hfαl/d hf depends on the surface roughness of the pipe walls,
hf depends on the fluid density and viscosity and hf is independent of pressure. The value of f must be selected so that the correct value of h f
will always be given by the Darcy equation and so cannot be a single-value constant. The value of f must depend on all the parameters as
shown above. For smooth pipes, an accurate empirical relation by Blasius is f = 0.079 / Re0.24 for Re < 10 5. For rough pipes Nikuradse
proved that the validity of f depends on the relative roughness ratio, k/d, by investigating the head loss in different pipe lengths.
The Moody Chart is the most famous and widely used for both circular and non circular ducts and is a logarithmic plot of f Vs Re for a
range of k/d values. The straight line labeled laminar flow is a graphical representation of the Poiseuille equation and provides the friction
factor for laminar flow by the equation f =16/Re.

Procedure
I. Measure the pipe diameters, length l between the sections attached to the piezorneters. Note the room temperature and from handbooks
find the water density (ρ), and fluid kinematic (µ/ρ) or dynamic viscosity (µ) at this temperature.
2. Turn on the suction pump connected to the supply lines of the Hose, GI and PVC pipes. Make sure that the outlet valve of the GI pipe is
1/5 th open.
3. Note the volumetric flow rate through the flow meter attached to the exit from the supply tank. Calculate the average velocity through
the pipe and the Reynolds number Re = ρdν/µ .
4. Open the pressure taps and make sure that air bubbles are removed by overflowing the piezometric tubes. For a low flow rate measure the
difference in heights of the piezometric tubes for the GI sections.
5. Repeat the above steps for different discharges (i.e. by increasing the outlet valve further l/5 for each repetition).
6. Repeat the above steps for Hose and PVC pipes.
7. Find the value off for each Reynolds number and each pipe from Moody's Chart.

Lab Manual Fluid Mechanics 2012 21

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Observations
Temperature of water °C =………. Kinematic or dynamic viscosity = ……..

GI PVC Rubber
Distance b/w sections
Tube internal diameter
2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Flowmerter rounds (x 0.0001m3)
Time
Flow rate Q m3/s
Average velocity v
Reynolds Number
Left limb height (cm)
Right limb height (cm)
Head loss, h f (cm)
Pressure Drop (N/m2)
Friction factor f
Moody’s Chart f

Average value of f for each pipe =

Results
1. Draw a graph between Re and f (experimental and Moody Chart's).
2. Draw a graph between V vs h f/l.
3. Draw a graph between Q vs ∆P.

Discussion
Discuss why the experimental and theoretical values for the various pipes are different

Lab Manual Fluid Mechanics 2012 22

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Experimental Discussions-How to Write Them
It is often' noticed that the statements and facts stated in the theorems and laws don’t coincide with the observations recorded in the laboratory.
This could be due to numerous pertinent factors. The variance in the experimental and analytical results could be due human error performing the
experiment or may be due to some fault in the laboratory apparent This variance can also be ascribed to the fact that the conditions and assumptions
made in t theoretical derivations are not viable practically. For example, non-viscous fluids do not occur in reality.
The basic aim of writing a discussion is to try and find the very root of the basic difference in the theoretical analysis and the practical results. The
discussion further aims make lucid to the student the subject fundamentals and their perspective.
The following guidelines on how to write the experimental discussions would facilitate the student in performing his experimentation exercise
satisfactorily and also the job of teacher is made easier.

Lab Manual Fluid Mechanics 2012 23

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