Energies: Performance Analysis and Optimization of A Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine With A High Tip-Speed Ratio

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energies

Article
Performance Analysis and Optimization of a Vertical-Axis
Wind Turbine with a High Tip-Speed Ratio
Liang Li 1,2, *,† , Inderjit Chopra 2 , Weidong Zhu 3 and Meilin Yu 3

1 School of Mechanics and Optoelectronic Physics, Anhui University of Science and Technology,
Huainan 232001, China
2 Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA;
chopra@umd.edu
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD 21250,
USA; wzhu@umbc.edu (W.Z.); mlyu@umbc.edu (M.Y.)
* Correspondence: 2014060@aust.edu.cn; Fax: +86-554-6662696
† Postal Address: No. 168 Taifeng Road, Huainan 232001, China.

Abstract: In this work, the aerodynamic performance and optimization of a vertical-axis wind
turbine with a high tip-speed ratio are theoretically studied on the basis of the two-dimensional
airfoil theory. By dividing the rotating plane of the airfoil into the upwind and downwind areas, the
relationship among the angle of attack, azimuth, pitch angle, and tip-speed ratio is derived using
the quasi-steady aerodynamic model, and aerodynamic loads on the airfoil are then obtained. By
applying the polynomial approximation to functions of lift and drag coefficients with the angle of
attack for symmetric and asymmetric airfoils, respectively, explicit expressions of aerodynamic loads
as functions of the angle of attack are obtained. The performance of a fixed-pitch blade is studied by

 employing a NACA0012 model, and influences of the tip speed ratio, pitch angle, chord length, rotor
radius, incoming wind speed and rotational speed on the performance of the blade are discussed.
Citation: Li, L.; Chopra, I.; Zhu, W.;
Furthermore, the optimization problem based on the dynamic-pitch method is investigated by
Yu, M. Performance Analysis and
considering the maximum value problem of the instantaneous torque as a function of the pitch angle.
Optimization of a Vertical-Axis Wind
Turbine with a High Tip-Speed Ratio.
Dynamic-pitch laws for symmetric and asymmetric airfoils are derived.
Energies 2021, 14, 996. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en14040996 Keywords: performance; optimization; vertical-axis wind turbine; dynamic pitch

Academic Editors: Andrzej Bielecki


and Davide Astolfi
1. Introduction
Received: 24 December 2020 Because of advantages such as its compact configuration, safety, convenience of
Accepted: 9 February 2021
installation, and the low tower effect, the vertical-axis wind turbine (VAWT) has become
Published: 14 February 2021
an attractive system to extract wind energy. However, unlike a horizontal-axis wind
turbine (HAWT), angles of attack of VAWT blades change with azimuths. Furthermore, the
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
aerodynamic performance of a VAWT is more involved, and the VAWT usually has low
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
power efficiency and low self-starting proficiency. The performance and optimization of
published maps and institutional affil-
VAWTs are important issues for their widespread use.
iations.
There has been significant research on the performance of VAWTs conducted at the
Sandia National Laboratories since 1970s [1–6], which provided a lot of data for designing
and optimizing VAWTs. Most of these studies focused on fixed-pitch machines in a steady
wind environment. Recently, researchers investigated the performance of VAWTs from
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
many other aspects. Wind is a key influencing factor, and the state of the wind field has
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
an important effect on the performance of a VAWT. Kooiman and Tullis [7] tested the
This article is an open access article
performance of a VAWT within the urban environment, and they discussed effects of wind
distributed under the terms and
conditions on the performance of the turbine. Danao et al. [8] carried out an experimen-
conditions of the Creative Commons
tal investigation on the performance of a wind tunnel-scale VAWT in an unsteady wind
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
condition, and they analyzed influences of the unsteady wind and tip-speed ratio on the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
power coefficient. Mertens et al. [9] carried out an experimental test on the performance

Energies 2021, 14, 996. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14040996 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies


Energies 2021, 14, 996 2 of 27

of an H-Darrieus wind turbine in skewed flow on a roof-top, and results showed that
the H-Darrieus wind turbine produces an increased power output in skewed flow, which
contradicts the conclusion of a typical HAWT. Möllerström et al. [10] analyzed the impact
of turbulence on energy extraction of a VAWT H-rotor using data from cup anemometer
measurements over a period of about 14 months. Li et al. [11] tested the power performance
of a straight-bladed VAWT with the NACA0021 airfoil profile, and they discussed effects
of the pitch angle, Reynolds number, and wind velocity on the performance of the turbine.
Wekesa et al. [12] studied the influence of operating conditions on the performance of the
VAWT in an unsteady wind environment using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
method. Lei et al. [13] investigated the impact of pitch motion of the platform on the
performance of an offshore floating VAWT by applying the CFD method. Mohamed [14]
investigated effects of solidity and a hybrid system on the performance of a Darrieus wind
turbine by using numerical and experimental methods. Joo et al. [15] discussed the impact
of solidity and tip-speed ratio on the performance of a two-bladed H-Darrieus wind turbine
by using three-dimensional unsteady numerical analysis. Shahizare et al. [16] analyzed the
influence of different omni-direction-guide-vane (ODGV) angles on the performance of the
VAWT by applying the two-dimensional CFD and experimental methods. Chen et al. [17]
studied the power output of two straight-bladed VAWTs in various operating conditions
by applying the Taguchi method, and they discussed impacts of the incoming flow an-
gle, tip-speed ratio, turbine spacing, and rotational direction on the power coefficient.
Chen et al. [18] researched the effect of opening (a starting device) on the performance of
a Darrieus VAWT using CFD simulation. Fiedler and Tullis [19] investigated the impact
of the preset angle on the performance of a high-solidity VAWT by using a wind tunnel
test. Liu et al. [20] designed a new hybrid Darrieus–modified Savonius (HDMS) VAWT
and studied the self-starting capability and power efficiency under different external loads
of the turbine by using a two-way fluid–structure interaction approach.
To obtain more accurate results, many computational methods were introduced.
Orlandi et al. [21] proposed a method based on three-dimensional unsteady Reynolds-
averaged Navier–Stokes equations to predict the influence of skewed winds on the per-
formance of an H-type VAWT, and they validated this method by using numerical and
experimental results. Peng et al. [22] introduced a hybrid double-disc multiple stream-
tube (DMST) model to optimize pitch angles and assess the performance for high-solidity
straight-bladed VAWTs. These researches provided valuable results and insights for de-
signing, controlling, and optimizing the aerodynamic performance of VAWTs.
Improving the performance of VAWTs has been a major focus for many researchers.
Many effective measures were put forward. From the aspect of changing airflow,
Zhao et al. [23] proposed a method to reformulate the flow field where energy extrac-
tion is weak, and they validated the feasibility of this method by using the DMST model.
Li et al. [24] introduced an innovative truncated-cone-shaped wind gathering device that
could improve the starting efficiency of a straight-bladed VAWT, and they discussed the
influence of the device on the performance of the turbine by using both numerical and
experimental methods. Greenblatt et al. [25] studied the impact of plasma actuators on
the performance of a small high-solidity VAWT by applying an experimental test, where
plasma actuators were used to control dynamic flow separation.
Airfoil profile optimization is another effective method to improve the performance
of a VAWT. Ma et al. [26] proposed a multi-island genetic algorithm to optimize air-
foil profiles of VAWTs with moderate tip-speed ratios to improve energy extraction.
Chen et al. [27] put forward a methodology to assess the performance of a VAWT using a
family of airfoils by employing an orthogonal algorithm and one-factor at a time (OFAAT)
algorithm with an automatic computational fluid dynamic analysis (ACFDA) module.
Ismail and Vijayaraghavan [28] carried out a profile modification of the NACA0015 airfoil
by applying the response surface approximation (RSA) method to improve the average
torque of a VAWT. Dynamic rotor morphing was considered by a few researchers. For
example, Antar et al. [29] proposed an optimized design of VAWTs that can control the
Energies 2021, 14, 996 3 of 27

self-start proficiency and energy extraction of the turbine by changing the rotor radius in
starting and rotating conditions.
Dynamic pitch (variable pitch) in a rotor revolution is another important measure to
improve the performance of a VAWT. Kirke and Lazauskas [30] put forward a variable-
pitch design to overcome drawbacks of the low self-start proficiency and over-speed
behavior in high winds for fixed-pitch VAWTs, and they validated this design by using
the extended DMST method. Benedict et al. [31] designed a small-scale VAWT with
periodically varying blade pitch, and they studied the influence of the dynamic pitch on the
performance of the turbine by using CFD and experimental methods. Elkhoury et al. [32]
studied the performance of a micro VAWT with the variable pitch by applying the three-
dimensional simulation and wind tunnel test, and they analyzed effects of the wind speed,
turbulence intensity, airfoil shape, strut mechanism, and variable pitch on the performance
of the turbine. Paraschivoiu et al. [33] introduced the CARDAAV code to determine the
performance of straight-bladed VAWTs, and they provided an optimization of the pitch
angle of an H-Darrieus wind turbine on the basis of this code. Li et al. [34] established a
variable-pitch automatic optimization platform composed of genetic algorithm and CFD
simulation modules to optimize the pitch angle and improve the power efficiency of a
VAWT. Kiwata et al. [35] conducted an experimental test on the performance of a micro
VAWT with variable-pitch straight blades in an open-circuit wind tunnel, and they found
that the performance of the turbine depends on the pitch angle, size of the turbine, number
of blades, and airfoil profile. Zhang et al. [36] put forward a synchronous variable-pitch
control law that can optimize pitch angles of VAWTs in the range of low tip-speed ratios.
Kirke and Paillard [37] compared the starting proficiency and over-speed control ability of
variable-pitch and fixed-pitch Darrieus VAWTs by using both DMST and CFD methods,
which showed good efficiency for the variable-pitch turbine. Horb et al. [38] discussed the
effect of optimized pitch laws on the power extraction and thrust of a VAWT using the
three-dimensional vortex method.
In order to obtain an accurate methodology, most investigations on the performance
and optimization of VAWTs used either experimental tests or numerical simulations to solve
the problem. However, both numerical and experimental methods are less convenient,
especially for design trend studies. Furthermore, there are few works on the VAWT
performance related to theoretical methods. This work presents a theoretical analysis
of the performance and optimization of the VAWT with a high tip-speed ratio on the
basis of the two-dimensional airfoil theory. Coefficients of lift and drag forces are fitted
as polynomial functions of the angle of attack; the performance of the wind turbine is
discussed theoretically, and expressions of the dynamic-pitch rule are presented. This
method can be extended to solve the aeroelastic stability problem of VAWTs.

2. Analysis of Aerodynamic Loads


By using a two-dimensional rotating-airfoil model, the performance of a VAWT at a
fixed height can be studied. Figure 1 shows such a model by using two airfoils that rotate
around the point o counterclockwise with an angular speed Ω and a constant radius R.
The i-th airfoil is connected to struts at the point oi . Cartesian right-handed coordinate
systems (see Figure 1) are defined to describe the motion of the structure. An inertial
coordinate system o-yz has its origin at the rotating center, and the z-axis is along the wind
direction that is assumed to be fixed, where vin is the incoming wind velocity. A body
coordinate system oi -si ni is fixed on the i-th airfoil at the connecting point oi , where the
si -axis is along the tangential direction, and the ni -axis is along the inner normal direction.
Rt
The counterclockwise angle Ψi (t) = 0 Ωdt + Ψi0 from the y-axis to the si -axis is defined
as the azimuth of the i-th blade, where t is time and Ψi0 is the initial azimuth. A section
coordinate system oi -η i ζ i has the η i -axis along the chord line and the ζ i -axis along the
thickness direction. The counterclockwise angle from the si -axis to the η i -axis is the pitch
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 30
Energies 2021, 14, 996 4 of 27

thickness direction. The counterclockwise angle from the si-axis to the ηi-axis is the pitch
angle θθpipi. Unit Unit vectors
vectors of of the
the coordinate
coordinatesystems
systemso-yz,
o-yz,ooi-s ini in
i -s , iand
, andoi-η iζii ζ
oi -η are denoted
i are byby
denoted (j,
k),k),
(j, , ksini, ),kniand
(jsi(j (jηi,(jkηiζi,),krespectively.
), and ζi ), They
respectively. satisfy
They the
satisfy following
the following relationships:
relationships:

jsi
 jsi cos
 Ψ  cos Ψsini Ψ sin
Ψ   j    j    cosθ
ij jηi ηi cos θ pi
pi sinθθpipi   jsi jsi
sin  
=   =  and  = =
  − sin 
cosi ΨicosΨki  k 
i i
cosθθpipi k nikni
and . (1)
. (1)
kni k ni− sinΨ i Ψ
− sin kζik ζ i  − sinθθpipi cos

Figure 1. Rotating-airfoil
Figure 1. Rotating-airfoil model
model and
and coordinate
coordinate systems.
systems.

Variable aerodynamic forces are generated when blades rotate around the tower.
Variable aerodynamic forces are generated when blades rotate around the tower. In
In this work, the quasi-steady aerodynamic model is considered. The tip-speed ratio
this work, the quasi-steady aerodynamic model is considered. The tip-speed ratio λ =
λ = RΩ/vin is defined as the ratio of the blade speed RΩ to the incoming wind speed vin . It
RΩ/vin is defined as the ratio of the blade speed RΩ to the incoming wind speed vin. It is
is assumed that the tip-speed ratio λ is high here. For the i-th airfoil, the resultant wind
assumed that the tip-speed ratio λ is high here. For the i-th airfoil, the resultant wind
velocity vri at a fixed azimuth can be expressed as follows (see Figure 2):
velocity vri at a fixed azimuth can be expressed as follows (see Figure 2):

vvriri =
= vvind − vbi = vind k − RΩjsi = vind [(sin Ψi − λind )jsi + cos Ψi kni ], (2)
 ( sin Ψ i − λ in d ) j si + co sΨ i k n i  ,
in d − v b i = v in d k − R Ω j si = v in d  (2)
where
where vvind and vbi are
ind and vbi
are the
the induced
induced wind
wind velocity
velocity and
and the i-th airfoil
the i-th airfoil section
section velocity,
velocity,
respectively; λ
respectively; λind = RΩ/v
ind = RΩ/vind
is the induced tip-speed ratio; and expressions of
ind is the induced tip-speed ratio; and expressions of ind
v and
vind andλλind
ind
are
are given at the end of this section. The acute angle between vriri and vbibi is denoted as
given at the end of this section. The acute angle between v and v is denoted ϑii..
as ϑ
The
The angle
angleofofattack
attackatateach
eachazimuth
azimuth can bebe
can obtained by by
obtained dividing thethe
dividing rotation plane
rotation intointo
plane the
following two parts (see Figure 2):
the following two parts (see Figure 2):
(1) Upwind Area: 2kπ − π2 ≤ Ψi ≤ 2kπ+ π2 (k = 0, 1, 2 . . . .)
vind cos Ψi
In this case, the angle ϑi satisfies tan(π − ϑi ) = − tan ϑi = vind sin Ψi − RΩ , i.e., ϑi =
ind cos Ψi
arctan RΩv− vind sin Ψi . The angle of attack can be described as −αi = ϑi + θ pi , i.e., αi =
vind cos Ψi
arctan v sin Ψ − RΩ − θ pi .
ind i

(2) Downwind Area: 2kπ + π


2 ≤ Ψi ≤ 2kπ+ 3π
2 (k = 0, 1, 2 . . . .)
cos Ψi cos Ψi
The angle ϑi satisfies tan(π + ϑi ) = tan ϑi = v vind , i.e., ϑi = arctan v vind .
ind sin Ψi − RΩ ind sin Ψi − RΩ
However, the pitch angle should be divided into the following two cases:
[A] Large positive pitch angle (θ pi ≥ ϑi >0) (see Figure 2a)
cos Ψi
The angle of attack satisfies −αi = θ pi − ϑi , i.e., αi = arctan v vind − θ pi .
ind sin Ψi − RΩ
[B] Small positive or nonpositive pitch angles (0 < θ pi ≤ ϑi or θ pi ≤ 0) (see Figure 2b)
Energies 2021, 14, 996 5 of 27

cos Ψi
The angle of attack satisfies αi = ϑi − θ pi , i.e., αi = arctan v vind − θ pi .
ind sin Ψi − RΩ
One can see from the above analysis that the angle of attack always satisfies the
following equation:

vind cos Ψi cos Ψi


αi = arctan − θ pi = arctan − θ pi . (3)
vind sin Ψi − RΩ sin Ψi − λind

By transforming the right-handed inertial coordinate system o-yz of this work to the left-
handed system o-xy in [23] and neglecting the pitch angle, the expression of the angle of
attack in Equation (3) is the same as that in [23].
The lift force Li and drag force Di acting at the aerodynamic center oai of the i-th airfoil
element in a rotating circle are shown in Figure 3. According to the positive regulations,
the real direction of Li is opposite to that given in Figure 3, and the real direction of Di that
is along the resultant wind velocity vri coincides with its positive direction. Expressions of
Li and Di can be written as follows [22,39]:

1 1
Li = CL (αi )clρ a v2ri , Di = CD (αi )clρ a v2ri , (4)
2 2
where c is the chord length, l is the length of an airfoil element, ρa is the air density, and
CL and CD are lift and drag coefficients that depend on the angle of attack αi , respectively.
There is also a residual aerodynamic moment Mri for unsteady flow. One can obtain the
instantaneous torque Mi of the i-th airfoil element according to Figures 2 and 3 as

−( Li sin ϑi + Di cos ϑi ) R + Mri 2kπ − π2 ≤ Ψi ≤ 2kπ+ π2



Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 30

Mi = . (5)
( Li sin ϑi − Di cos ϑi ) R + Mri 2kπ + π2 ≤ Ψi ≤ 2kπ+ 3π
2

(a) (b)
Figure2.2.Schematic
Figure Schematicdiagram
diagramof ofresultant
resultantwind
windvelocities
velocitiesand
andangles
anglesofofattack:
attack:(a)
(a)large
largepositive
positivepitch
pitchangles
anglesand
and(b)
(b)small
small
positive or nonpositive pitch angles in the downwind
positive or nonpositive pitch angles in the downwind area.area.

π π
(1) Upwind Area: 2kπ − ≤Ψ i ≤ 2kπ+ (k = 0, 1, 2….)
2 2
vind cosΨ i
In this case, the angle ϑi satisfies tan ( π − ϑi ) = − tan ϑi = , i.e.,
vind sinΨ i − R Ω
vind cosΨ i
ϑi = arctan . The angle of attack can be described as −α i = ϑi + θ pi , i.e.,
R Ω − vind sinΨ i
vind cosΨ i
α i = arctan − θ pi .
vind sinΨ i − R Ω
π 3π
Energies 2021,14,
Energies2021, 14,996
x FOR PEER REVIEW 67of
of27
30

Figure 3. Aerodynamic
Figure3. Aerodynamicloads
loadsacting
actingon
onan
anairfoil
airfoilsection
sectionin
inaarevolution.
revolution.

The instantaneous torque coefficient CMi of the i-th airfoil element can be derived as
Induced flow can be expressed by defining induction factors au and ad in the upwind
follows [23]:
and downwind areas, respectively. The upstream Mi velocity vu, equilibrium velocity ve in
the downwind area, downstream =
C Mi velocity vdAR ,
, upstream tip-speed ratio λu, and (6)
0.5ρ a v2in
downstream tip-speed ratio λd can be written as follows [34]:
where A = Dl is the swept area, D = 2R = Nc/σ is the rotor diameter, N is the number of
vu =
blades, and σ (is au )solidity.
1 −the (1 −average
vin , ve =The 2au ) vin , torque
vd = (1M−iav
ad, )average
ve = (1 −torque
ad )(1 −coefficient
2au ) vin , CMiav ,
instantaneous power Pi , average power PiavR ,Ωinstantaneous λ power coefficient Cpi , and
RΩ λ (8)
average power coefficient , λd = to the
λu = Cpiav= corresponding = i-th airfoil element . can be defined as
follows [23]: vu 1 − au vd (1 − ad )(1 − 2au )
Induction factors au and ad depend R on many factors such M
1 2π as the azimuth, rotational speed,
Miav = 2π Mi dΨi , C Miav = 0.5ρ viav
0 can 2 AR ,
wind speed, and solidity, which be obtained by a using
in the methods in [23,34].(7)
2π P 1 2π
Pi = Mi Ω, 1
R i
R
Integrating Piav = 2π
quantities of0 airfoil , C pi = 0.5ρ
Pi dΨielements along 3 =
blade
λC Mi , C
expansion,
Piav = 2πone 0 C
canPi dΨ i.
obtain the
a vin A
aerodynamic performance of the whole wind turbine [23,34]. Changes in incoming wind
Induced
speed in the flow candirection
vertical be expressed by defining
should be consideredinduction factors
for large au and
wind ad in the
turbines upwind
(e.g., [2,5]).
and downwind areas, respectively. The p upstream velocity v
The shear flow model vin2/vin1 = (h2/h1) can be adopted in uanalysis, where vin1 ande vin
, equilibrium velocity v in2 the
are
downwind area, downstream velocity v , upstream tip-speed
incoming wind speeds at two heights h1 dand h2, respectively, and p is the ratio λ , and downstream
u velocity gradient
tip-speed ratiodepends
constant that λd can be onwritten as follows [34]:
the geographical position of a turbine.

vu = (1 −Analysis
3. Performance 1 − 2au )vin , VAWT
au )vin , veof=a(Fixed-Pitch vd = (1 − ad )ve = (1 − ad )(1 − 2au )vin ,
(8)
λ = vu = 1− au , λd = RΩ
RΩ λ
= (1−a )(λ1−2au ) .
3.1. Analytical Method foruthe Turbine Performancevd d

A theoretical
Induction factors auanalysis for the performance
and ad depend on many factorsof fixed-pitch
such as theVAWTs
azimuth,is rotational
presentedspeed,
in this
section. In order to obtain explicit expressions of aerodynamic loads
wind speed, and solidity, which can be obtained by using the methods in [23,34]. Integrating on each airfoil
element, the
quantities of lift coefficient
airfoil elementsCL along
(αi) and dragexpansion,
blade coefficient C D (αcan
one i) asobtain
functions
the of the angle of
aerodynamic
attack αi should
performance be whole
of the obtainedwindfirst, but these
turbine coefficients
[23,34]. Changesdepend on thewind
in incoming Reynolds
speednumber
in the
and airfoil
vertical profile.
direction The polynomial
should be considered approximation
for large wind is turbines
a simple(e.g.,
method to The
[2,5]). fit curves of CL
shear flow
and C that can be p
obtained from experiments or numerical simulations
model vin2 /vin1 = (h2 /h1 ) can be adopted in analysis, where vin1 and vin2 are incoming
D (e.g., [28,36,37]),
and there
wind speedshave beenheights
at two severalhexperimental results for
1 and h2 , respectively, andclassic airfoils
p is the [39,40].
velocity If oneconstant
gradient can use
simple-type
that depends polynomials to describe
on the geographical CL and
position CD curves, the analysis is simplified. For
of a turbine.
Energies 2021, 14, 996 7 of 27

3. Performance Analysis of a Fixed-Pitch VAWT


3.1. Analytical Method for the Turbine Performance
A theoretical analysis for the performance of fixed-pitch VAWTs is presented in this
section. In order to obtain explicit expressions of aerodynamic loads on each airfoil element,
the lift coefficient CL (αi ) and drag coefficient CD (αi ) as functions of the angle of attack
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 30
αi should be obtained first, but these coefficients depend on the Reynolds number and
airfoil profile. The polynomial approximation is a simple method to fit curves of CL and
CD that can be obtained from experiments or numerical simulations (e.g., [28,36,37]), and
example,
there have Afzali
beenetseveral
al. [41] used polynomials
experimental to express
results CL and
for classic CD curves
airfoils of the
[39,40]. NACA0012
If one can use
airfoil in analyzing
simple-type vibrational
polynomials responses
to describe CL of
anda VAWT
CD curves,blade. There
the should
analysis be a correction
is simplified. For
for aerodynamic
example, Afzali etloads when
al. [41] useddynamic stall occurs.
polynomials However,
to express CL anddynamic
CD curves stall
of is
theavoided,
NACA0012 and
the stall
airfoil incorrection is not needed
analyzing vibrational for highoftip-speed
responses ratios.There
a VAWT blade. Figure 4 shows
should be achange
correctiontrendsfor
of the angle of attack with the azimuth at five different tip-speed ratios λ = 3, 4, 5, 6, and
aerodynamic loads when dynamic stall occurs. However, dynamic stall is avoided, and the
stall
7, correction
which is not needed
are obtained for high tip-speed
from Equation ratios.
(3) by letting λindFigure
= λ and 4 shows change
θp = 0°. trends
It reveals that of the
angle of
angle of attack
attack αwith the azimuth
at each azimuth at ψ five
is nodifferent
more thantip-speed
15° when ratios = 3, 4, 5, ratio
the λtip-speed 6, and λ 7,
is which
larger
are obtained
than 4, and α from
is lessEquation
than 10° (3)whenby letting
λ is larger = λ and
λind than θ p = 0◦ . It dynamic
6. Therefore, reveals thatstallthe angle of
is avoided
attack α at each azimuth is no more than 15 ◦ when the tip-speed
for large tip-speed ratios. ψ
This work focuses on the performance of aratio is larger
windλturbine than
with a
4, and is less than 10 ◦ when λ is larger than 6. Therefore, dynamic stall is avoided for
high tip-speed ratio, where the stall correction is not needed. Some future work can
α
large tip-speed
emphasize ratios.
the case This tip-speed
of low work focuses on where
ratios, the performance of a windneeds
the stall correction turbineto with a high
be studied.
tip-speed ratio, where the stall correction is not needed. Some future work can emphasize
the case of low tip-speed ratios, where the stall correction needs to be studied.

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Angle
Angle of
of attack
attack at
at each
each azimuth
azimuth for
for different
different tip-speed
tip-speed ratios.
ratios.

Symmetric airfoils are


Symmetric airfoils areresearched
researchedfirst,
first,
andand
thethe NACA0015
NACA0015 airfoil
airfoil is used
is used as an
as an exam-
example.
ple. Figure Figure
5 shows 5 shows
steadysteady aerodynamic
aerodynamic experimental
experimental results results
of CL andof CLD and
withCrespect
D with

to α at different
respect to α at Reynolds numbers for
different Reynolds NACA0015
numbers before stall,before
for NACA0015 which stall,
were which
obtained by
were
using theby
obtained software
using theProfili from steady
software Profili aerodynamic experimentalexperimental
from steady aerodynamic results (e.g., [39,40]). One
results (e.g.,
can find One
[39,40]). that these
can findcurves
thathave
thesesimilar
curvesshapes in the region
have similar shapesofinsmall anglesofofsmall
the region attack; thus,
angles
they
of can be
attack; fitted
thus, to polynomials
they can be fittedof tothe same form.ofCthe
polynomials L -functions
same form.are odd, and CD -functions
CL-functions are odd,
are even,
and approximately;
CD-functions are even, hence, they can behence,
approximately; expressed
they as the
can befollowing
expressedpolynomials with
as the following
orders no more than four:
polynomials with orders no more than four:

CL (α i ) ≈ c1α i + c3α i3 , C D (α i ) ≈ c0 + c2α i2 . (9)

Equation (9) is also available for other symmetric airfoils (e.g., NACA0012, NACA63-018,
etc.), although it is derived on the basis of the NACA0015 airfoil.
Energies 2021, 14, 996 8 of 27

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 30


Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW CL (αi ) ≈ c1 αi + c3 α3i , CD (αi ) ≈ c0 + c2 α2i . 9 of(9)
30

Equation (9) is also available for other symmetric airfoils (e.g., NACA0012, NACA63-018,
etc.), although it is derived on the basis of the NACA0015 airfoil.
0.06
0.06 Re=1*105
5
0.05 Re=4*105
Re=1*10
5
0.05 Re=1*106
Re=4*10
6
0.04 Re=1*107
Re=1*10
0.04 Re=1*107

0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0
0-10 -5 0 5 10 15
-10 -5 0 (deg)5 10 15
(a) (deg)
(b)
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Variations of (a) CL and (b) CD with α of NACA0015 at different Reynolds numbers.
Figure
Figure 5. 5. Variations
Variations ofof
(a)(a)
CLCand
L and (b)CC
(b) D with α of NACA0015 at different Reynolds numbers.
D with α of NACA0015 at different Reynolds numbers.
Next, asymmetric airfoils (e.g., NACA6409, NACA6411, etc.) are studied by selecting
Next,asymmetric
theNext,
NACA6409 asymmetric airfoils
airfoilairfoils (e.g.,NACA6409,
(e.g.,
as an example. NACA6409, NACA6411,
Figure 6 NACA6411,
presents etc.) are
etc.)
variations areofstudied
CL and by CD selecting
with α at
the
the NACA6409
NACA6409
different Reynolds airfoil
airfoil asasan
numbersanexample.
example. Figure66presents
Figure
for the NACA6409 presents variations
airfoilvariations
before ofwhich
of
stall, CCLL and
andwereCDD with
C αα at
obtained
different
different
using the Reynolds
Reynolds
software numbers
numbers
Profili from forthe
for the NACA6409
NACA6409
steady aerodynamic airfoilexperimental
airfoil before stall,
before stall, which
which were
resultswere obtained
[39].obtained
One can
using
using the
observe thesoftware
software
from Figure Profili
Profili
6 that from
from steady
steady
forms aerodynamic
ofaerodynamic
CL- and CD-functions experimental
experimental results
are results
the same [39].
[39].as Onethosecan of
observe
observe from
from Figure
Figure 6 6
that that
forms
symmetric airfoils if axis translations forms
of CL -of
andC C -
are
L D used. Therefore, CL- and CD- functions of
and C
-functionsD -functions
are the are
same the
as same
those ofas those
symmetric of
symmetric
airfoils if axisairfoils
asymmetric airfoilsifcan
translations axis translations
aredescribed
be as are used.
used. Therefore, CL - and Therefore, CL- and
CD - functions CD- functions
of asymmetric of
airfoils
asymmetric
can be described airfoils
as can be described as
C L (α i ) ≈ c 0 L + c1 (α i + bL ) + c3 (α i + bL ) , C D (α i ) ≈ c 0 D + c 2 (α i + bD ) , (10)
3 2

(αLi )(α≈i )c≈0Lc+ 1( α + b ) +c3c(3α(iα+i +bLb)L ), ,CDC(Dαi()α≈ i )c c2c(2α(iα+i +bDb)D ), , (10)


3 2
C LC +1 (cα
0L c i +i b L )L+
3 ≈0D D +
c0 + 2
(10)
where bL and bD reflect translations of CL and CD in the horizontal direction, respectively,
where andc0D
and cb0LbLand bDreflect
reflecttranslations
translationsofofCCL Land andCC D Dininthethevertical
horizontal direction,
direction, respectively,
respectively.
where L and bD reflect translations of CL and CD in the horizontal direction, respectively,
and c 0L and c0D reflect translations of CL and CD in the vertical direction, respectively.
and c and c reflect translations of C and C in the vertical direction, respectively.
0L 0D L D

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 6. Variations
6. Variations of (a)
of (a) CL Cand
L and
(b)(b)
CDCwith
D with
α αofofNACA6409
NACA6409atatdifferent
differentReynolds
Reynoldsnumbers.
numbers.
Figure 6. Variations of (a) CL and (b) CD with α of NACA6409 at different Reynolds numbers.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 30
Energies 2021, 14, 996 9 of 27

In order to verify the accuracy of Equations (9) and (10), comparisons of original
values and polynomial
In order to verify thevalues
accuracyfor symmetric
of Equations airfoils
(9) and(NACA0012 and NACA0015)
(10), comparisons of original and
asymmetric
values airfoils (NACA6409
and polynomial and NACA6411)
values for symmetric airfoils at different Reynolds
(NACA0012 and NACA0015) numbers and are
shown in Figure
asymmetric airfoils7(NACA6409
and Figure and 8, respectively.
NACA6411)Original values
at different are experimental
Reynolds numbers areresults
shownin
inthe database
Figures 7 andof 8,
airfoils in the software
respectively. OriginalProfili.
values Good correlationsresults
are experimental are observed except for
in the database
ofthe CD-curve
airfoils in theofsoftware
asymmetric airfoils
Profili. Goodat Re = 3 × 105 for
correlations arelarge anglesexcept
observed of attack.
for This
the Cis the case
D -curve
ofbecause
asymmetric airfoils = 3 × 10 by5
pressure dragatisReinfluenced forthelarge angles
airfoil of attack.
profile This is the
dramatically at acase
low because
Reynolds
pressure
numberdrag and isa influenced
higher angle by the airfoil profile
of attack, and the dramatically
translationatofa the low C Reynolds
d expression numberfrom
and a higher
Equation (9)angle of attack,
to Equation (10)and the translation
generates of the C
a poor fitting. d expression
However, this from Equation
difference (9) to
disappears
Equation (10) generates
with increasing Reynoldsa poor fitting. However,
numbers (see Re = this 5 × difference
105). In fact, disappears
very good with increasing
fitting can be
Reynolds
obtainednumbers
by using(seethe Re = 5 × 105 ).polynomial
fourth-order In fact, veryapproximation
good fitting canfor beasymmetric
obtained byairfoils,
using the but
fourth-order polynomial approximation for asymmetric airfoils, but
it can result in a more involved analysis. Equations (9) and (10) are accurate enough for it can result in a more
involved
lift-typeanalysis. Equations
VAWTs because (9)drag
the and (10)
forceare accurate
plays enough
a minor role.for lift-type VAWTs
Furthermore, because
the Reynolds
the drag force
number plays turbine
of a wind a minorwithrole.aFurthermore,
high tip-speed theratio
Reynolds
is aboutnumber of a wind
10 , which
6 turbine
can avoid this
with a high Substituting
tip-speed ratio is about(9)10and6 , which can avoid this deviation. Substituting
deviation. Equations (10) into Equations (4)–(7) for symmetric and
Equations
asymmetric (9) airfoils,
and (10)oneintocanEquations (4)–(7) expressions
obtain explicit for symmetric and asymmetric
of aerodynamic loadsairfoils, one
and power
can obtain explicit expressions of aerodynamic
and solve the performance problem analytically. loads and power and solve the performance
problem analytically.

1.5
Original Values, Re=3*105
Polynomial Values, Re=3*105
Original Values, Re=1*107
1
Polynomial Values, Re=1*107

0.5

-0.5

-1
-10 -5 0 5 10 15
(deg)
(a1) (a2)

0.035
Original Values, Re=3*105
0.03 Polynomial Values, Re=3*105
Original Values, Re=1*107
Polynomial Values, Re=1*107
0.025

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005
-10 -5 0 5 10 15
(deg)
(b1) (b2)
Figure
Figure 7.7.Comparison
Comparisonofof original
original and
and polynomial
polynomial values
values of of
CLCand
L and
CDCDcurves
curvesfor
forsymmetric
symmetricairfoils:
airfoils:(a1,a2)
(a1,a2)the
theNACA0012
NACA0012
airfoil; and (b1,b2) the NACA0015 airfoil.
airfoil; and (b1,b2) the NACA0015 airfoil.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 30
Energies 2021, 14, 996 10 of 27

2 0.03
Original Values, Re=3*105
Polynomial Values, Re=3*105
Original Values, Re=5*105
Polynomial Values, Re=5*105
1.5
Original Values, Re=1*107
0.02 Polynomial Values, Re=1*107

1
5
Original Values, Re=3*10
Polynomial Values, Re=3*105
0.01
5
0.5 Original Values, Re=5*10
5
Polynomial Values, Re=5*10
7
Original Values, Re=1*10
Polynomial Values, Re=1*107
0 0
-5 0 5 10 15 -5 0 5 10 15
(deg) (deg)
(a1) (a2)

2 0.04
Original Values, Re=3*105
Polynomial Values, Re=3*105
1.5 Original Values, Re=5*105
0.03 Polynomial Values, Re=5*105
Original Values, Re=1*107
1 Polynomial Values, Re=1*107

0.02
0.5 5
Original Values, Re=3*10
5
Polynomial Values, Re=3* 10
Original Values, Re=5*10
5 0.01
0 Polynomial Values, Re=5* 10
5
7
Original Values, Re=1*10
7
Polynomial Values, Re=1* 10
-0.5 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
(deg) (deg)
(b1) (b2)
Figure
Figure 8.8.Comparison
Comparison ofoforiginal
original and
and polynomial
polynomial values
values ofof
CLCand
L and
CDCDcurves
curvesfor
forasymmetric
asymmetricairfoils:
airfoils:(a1,a2)
(a1,a2)the
theNACA6409
NACA6409
airfoil; and (b1,b2) the NACA6411
airfoil; and (b1,b2) the NACA6411 airfoil.airfoil.

3.2.Performance
3.2. Performanceofofa aFixed-Pitch
Fixed-PitchTurbine
Turbine
Next,the
Next, theperformance
performanceofofa astraight
straightblade
bladewithwithlength
lengthL L= =1 1mmisisanalyzed
analyzedbybyselecting
selecting
the NACA0012 airfoil element from the Sandia 17 m
the NACA0012 airfoil element from the Sandia 17 m diameter Darrieus VAWT [2] diameter Darrieus VAWT [2]asasa a
computationalmodel.
computational model.Parameters
Parametersare areset
setasasfollows:
follows:the thechord
chordlength
lengthc = c =0.53
0.53m,m,the
therotor
rotor
radius R = 3.79 m, the air density ρ a = 1.25 kg/m3, and 3 the average
radius R = 3.79 m, the air density ρa = 1.25 kg/m , and the average Reynolds number Reynolds number Re =
3.23 × 10
Re = 3.23 × 10 . Expressions of the lift and drag coefficients are given as CL (αi ) ≈as
6. 6 Expressions of the lift and drag coefficients are given
CL (α ii )−≈2.9916α
4.4287α 4.4287α 3 and
i i CD (αiα) i ≈ 0.0094
− 2.9916 3
(αi ) ≈2i0.0094
and C+D 1.185α + 1.185α
, respectively
2
i , respectively
[39,41], where the unit [39,41],
of
is rad.the
αiwhere The residual aerodynamic moment M
unit of αi is rad. The residual aerodynamic moment Mr is neglected since itais
r is neglected since it is very small for
high
very small forratio.
tip-speed a high The single-stream-tube
tip-speed aerodynamic model
ratio. The single-stream-tube is used for performance
aerodynamic model is used
v cos( Ψare
Nc RΩ
prediction, where the induction factors
for performance prediction, where the induction are defined as a u = 2πR factorsin
ad = 0 [42].as
i ) anddefined
Nc R Ω
au =Validationcos
3.2.1. (Ψ i ) and ad = 0 [42].
2πR vin of Results
In order to validate the method and accuracy of results, the output power of the
Sandia 17 m diameter
3.2.1. Validation Darrieus VAWT [2] is calculated. The present theoretical predictions
of Results
are compared with the test data [2] for zero-pitch setting by selecting two experimental
In order to validate the method and accuracy of results, the output power of the
rotational speeds: (1) Ω = 42 rpm (Figure 9a) and (2) Ω = 52.5 rpm (Figure 9b). Variation
Sandia 17 m diameter Darrieus VAWT [2] is calculated. The present theoretical
of power with the incoming wind speed vin at the 44 ft (13.4 m) height is presented. The
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 30
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 30

predictions are compared with the test data [2] for zero-pitch setting by selecting two
predictions are compared with the test data [2] for zero-pitch setting by selecting two
Energies 2021, 14, 996 experimental rotational speeds: (1) Ω = 42 rpm (Figure 9a) and (2) Ω = 52.5 rpm (Figure
experimental rotational speeds: (1) Ω = 42 rpm (Figure 9a) and (2) Ω = 52.5 rpm 11 of 27
(Figure
9b). Variation of power with the incoming wind speed vin at the 44 ft (13.4 m) height is
9b). Variation of power with the incoming wind speed vin at the 44 ft (13.4 m) height is
presented. The comparison shows a good agreement of the predicted results here with
presented. The comparison shows a good agreement of the predicted results here with
test data for two cases except some differences occurring in regions near peak values,
test data for two cases
comparison except some differences occurring inhere regions near peakfor values,
possibly dueshows a good
to stalled agreement
flow or testoferror.
the predicted
Overall, results
the results with testwork
in this data two
appear
possibly
cases due
except some to stalled
differencesflow or
occurring test inerror.
regionsOverall,
near peakthe results
values, in this
possibly work
due to appear
stalled
acceptable. As expected, the output power increases with the incoming wind speed,
acceptable.
flow or test As expected,
error. Overall, the
theandoutput in
results power increases
this work appear with the incoming
acceptable. wind speed,
As expected, the
reaches the maximum value, then decreases with the wind speed when the turbine
reaches
output the maximum
power increases value,the
with and then decreases
incoming wind with reaches
speed, the wind thespeed
maximum whenvalue,the turbine
and
operates at a constant rotational speed. This may be attributed to stalled flow after
operates
then at a with
decreases constant rotational
thepower
wind speed speed. This may beoperates
attributedat a to stalled rotational
flow after
reaching the maximum value. when As thethe turbine
rotational speed is increased, constant
the maximum
reaching
speed. the maximum power value. As the rotational speed is increased, the maximum
outputThis mayincreases,
power be attributed to stalled
because flowflow
stalled aftertakes
reaching
placetheatmaximum
a high windpowerspeed. value.The
As
output
the power
rotational speedincreases,
is because
increased, the stalled
maximum flow output
takes place
power atincreases,
a high wind because speed. The
stalled
maximum value of the power is the optimal power of the turbine at this fixed rotational
maximum
flow takes valueatofa thehighpower is the optimal power ofvalue
the turbine at this fixed rotational
speed. Theplace
power efficiencywind speed.
of the The can
turbine maximum
be improved of bythe power
operating is
at the
the optimal
optimal
speed.ofThe
power the power
turbine efficiency
at this fixedof the turbinespeed.
rotational can beTheimproved
power by operating
efficiency of theatturbine
the optimal
can
rotational speed that corresponds to the optimal power for each specific wind speed.
berotational
improved speed
by that corresponds
operating at the optimalto the optimalspeed
rotational power forcorresponds
that each specific to wind
the speed.
optimal
Figure 10 presents comparison results of Cp–λ curves derived from experimental tests and
Figurefor
power 10each
presents comparison
specific wind speed. results of C10
Figure p–λpresents
curves derived
comparisonfromresults
experimental
of Cp –λtests and
curves
current analytical predictions; it shows that the two results coincide well.
currentfrom
derived analytical predictions;
experimental testsitand
shows that analytical
current the two results coincideit well.
predictions; shows that the two
results coincide well.
45 80
45 80
17m =0.14 17m =0.14
17m42rpm=0.14 17m
42rpm 52.5rpm=0.14
60 52.5rpm
60
30
30
40
40
15
15
20
Test Data 20 Test Data
Test Data Prediction Test Data Prediction
Theoretical
Theoretical Theoretical Prediction
Theoretical Prediction
0 0
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0
10 20 30 40 50
10 Wind
15 Speedv
20 (mph):25 44-ft30Reference
35 40 10 Wind Speedv
20 30 44-ft Reference
(mph): 40 50
Wind Speedvinin (mph): 44-ft Reference Wind Speedvinin (mph): 44-ft Reference
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 9. Performance of the Sandia turbine [2]: comparison of results at (a) Ω = 42 rpm and (b) Ω = 52.5 rpm.
Figure9.9.Performance
Figure Performanceofofthe
theSandia
Sandiaturbine
turbine[2]:
[2]:comparison
comparisonofofresults (a)(a)ΩΩ
resultsatat = =4242rpm
rpmand (b)ΩΩ= =52.5
and(b) 52.5rpm.
rpm.

Figure 10.
10. Comparison of experimental and
and analytical
analytical results
results for
for the
the power
power coefficient.
coefficient.
Figure 10. Comparison of experimental and analytical results for the power coefficient.
The influence of pitch setting on the power is discussed according to theoretical
predictions by selecting seven pitch angles θ p = 0◦ , ±4◦ , ±8◦ , and ±10◦ for two constant
rotational speeds Ω = 42 rpm (Figure 11a) and Ω = 52.5 rpm (Figure 11b), where “±”
denotes directions of the pitch angle (“+” stands for turning the leading edge toward
Energies 2021, 14, 996 12 of 27

the tower). The largest value of the power appears at θ p = 0◦ for each fixed rotational
speed and fixed wind speed, which implies that the optimal pitch angle is near zero for
this turbine. The direction of the pitch angle has little influence on the output power of
the turbine at a low wind speed; this is the case because the natural angle of attack (no
pitch setting) at each azimuth is very small (see Equation (3)), and the torque is symmetric
about the zero pitch when the pitch setting is considered. However, the natural angle of
attack corresponding to the zero pitch becomes large at a high wind speed. Thus, setting
the same pitch at two different directions brings two different angles of attack; this can
influence the output of the power. This reveals that using a negative pitch (i.e., putting
the trailing edge toward the tower) can extract more power than setting the same positive
pitch. This is the case because a negative pitch setting can reduce the angle of attack and
influence of stalled flow. The power at each fixed wind speed is reduced by setting a large
pitch angle, which is the case because a larger pitch is prone to introducing a larger angle
of attack and causing stall of a blade. The influence of rotational speed setting on the
power of the turbine with a constant rotational speed is analyzed by taking five constant
rotational speeds Ω = 35 rpm, 42 rpm, 48 rpm, 52.5 rpm, and 55 rpm for two fixed pitch
settings θ p = 0◦ and 8◦ . One can see that the optimal rotational speed that corresponds to
the maximum value of power increases with the wind speed; thus, increasing the rotational
speed at a high wind speed can extract more power. However, the wind speed needed to
start the wind turbine increases somewhat with a higher rotational speed.

3.2.2. Performance of a Constant-Speed Blade


Blades rotate around the tower with a constant speed to obtain constant power in
the region of rated wind speed. The performance of the turbine is influenced by the pitch
setting, rotational speed setting, wind velocity, and solidity. A discussion of these effects
is given by using the blade model. Figure 12 shows variation of the instantaneous torque
coefficient CM (see Figure 12a) and instantaneous power coefficient CP (see Figure 12b)
of the blade with respect to the azimuth Ψ at two sets of induction factors au = 0 (ne-
glecting induced flow) and au 6= 0 (considering induced flow), where the rotational speed
Ω = 37.84 rpm, pitch angle θ p = 0◦ , and incoming wind speed vin = 11.18 mph (5 m/s).
Changing trends of both CM and CP are approximately harmonic when loss of wind energy
(au = 0) is neglected, which are consistent with results in [3,8,13,15–17,20,26,32]. When
induced flow (au 6= 0) is considered, Figure 12 shows that both the torque and power of the
turbine are reduced. The maximum values of CM and CP occur in the upstream direction
Ψ = 0◦ (CM (0◦ ) = 0.1799, CP (0◦ ) = 0.5785) and downstream direction Ψ = 180◦ (CM (180◦ )
= 0.1556, CP (180◦ ) = 0.5388), respectively. Negative values of the torque and power appear
near the positions Ψ = 90◦ (CM (90◦ ) = −0.002632, CP (90◦ ) = −0.007896) and Ψ = 270◦
(CM (270◦ ) = −0.01053, CP (270◦ ) = −0.03158). The minimum values of CM and CP occur at
Ψ = 90◦ and Ψ = 270◦ , which are much smaller than the maximum values. Two regions
of negative torques are small in this case. These analytical results agree with CFD results
in [15,16,18,20,23,31].
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 30
Energies 2021, 14, 996 13 of 27

80
52.5rpm
=0o
p
60
p
=4o
=−4 o
p
=8o
40 p
o
p
=−8

p
=10o
20 p
=−10 o

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Wind Speedv in (mph): 44-ft Reference

(a) (b)

80 80
=0 o
p
=8o
p
Turbine Rotor Power (kW)

Turbine Rotor Power (kW)

60 35rpm 60 35rpm
42rpm 42rpm
48rpm 48rpm
40 52.5rpm 40 52.5rpm
55rpm 55rpm

20 20
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 30

0 0
10 20 0 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Wind Speedv in (mph):
positions = 90° (CM (90°) = −0.002632, CWind
44-ftΨReference Speedv
P (90°) (mph):
= −0.007896)
in
44-ft
and Reference
Ψ = 270° (C M (270°) =

−0.01053, CP (270°) = −0.03158). The minimum values of CM and CP occur at Ψ = 90° and Ψ
(c) (d)
= 270°, which are much smaller than the maximum values. Two regions of negative
Figure
Figure 11. 11. Performance
Performance of the torques
of the Sandia
Sandia are
turbine:small
turbine: (a) in
(a) the the this
influence case.
influence These
of pitch
of the the pitch
setting at Ω at
analytical
setting results
Ω
= 42 agree
= 42 rpm;
rpm; (b) with
(b)influence
the the CFD
of theresults
influence the in
ofpitch
pitch setting at Ω = 52.5 rpm; (c) the influence of the rotational speed at θ p = 0°; and (d) the influence of the rotational speed
setting at Ω = 52.5 rpm; (c) the influence of the rotational speed at θ p = 0 ; and (d) the influence of the rotational speed at θp = 8◦ .
[15,16,18,20,23,31]. ◦
at θp = 8°.
0.3 1
CM : a u = 0 CP : a u = 0
3.2.2. Performance of a Constant-Speed Blade
CMav : a u= 0 C :a =0
0.25 Blades Crotate around the tower0.8
with a constant speed to obtainPav u
constant power in the
M
: a u≠ 0 CP : a u ≠ 0
region of rated wind
CMav : a u≠ 0
speed. The performance of the turbine is influenced by the pitch
0.2 CPav : a u≠ 0
setting, rotational speed setting, wind
0.6 velocity, and solidity. A discussion of these effects
0.15
is given by using the blade model. Figure 12 shows variation of the instantaneous torque
coefficient CM (see Figure 12a) and 0.4 instantaneous power coefficient CP (see Figure 12b) of
0.1 the blade with respect to the azimuth Ψ at two sets of induction factors au = 0 (neglecting
induced flow) and au ≠ 0 (considering 0.2
induced flow), where the rotational speed Ω = 37.84
0.05 rpm, pitch angle θp = 0°, and incoming wind speed vin = 11.18 mph (5 m/s). Changing
trends of both CM and CP are approximately harmonic when loss of wind energy (au = 0) is
0 0
neglected, which are consistent with results in [3,8,13,15–17,20,26,32]. When induced flow
(au ≠ 0) is considered, Figure 12 shows that both the torque and power of the turbine are
-0.05 -0.2
0 90 reduced.
180 The 270maximum 360values of CM0and CP occur
90 in 180
the upstream
270 direction
360 Ψ = 0° (CM
(0°) = (deg)
0.1799, CP (0°) = 0.5785) and downstream direction (deg)
Ψ = 180° (CM (180°) = 0.1556, CP
(180°)
(a) = 0.5388), respectively. Negative values of the (b) torque and power appear near the
Figure
Figure 12. 12. Variations
Variations of (a)
of (a) thethe instantaneous
instantaneous torque
torque coefficient
coefficient andand
(b)(b) instantaneous
instantaneous power
power coefficient
coefficient with
with thethe azimuth
azimuth at
at R = 3.79 m, Ω = 37.84 rpm, θ◦p = 0°, and vin = 11.18 mph.
R = 3.79 m, Ω = 37.84 rpm, θ p = 0 , and vin = 11.18 mph.

The power output of the blade depends on the pitch setting and rotational speed
when the turbine rotates with a uniform wind velocity. Figure 13a shows variation of the
power coefficient CPav (Z-coordinate) with the rotational speed Ω (X-coordinate) and pitch
angle θp (Y-coordinate) at the wind speed vin = 11.18 mph. For a given pitch setting, the
Energies 2021, 14, 996 14 of 27

The power output of the blade depends on the pitch setting and rotational speed
when the turbine rotates with a uniform wind velocity. Figure 13a shows variation of the
power coefficient CPav (Z-coordinate) with the rotational speed Ω (X-coordinate) and pitch
angle θ p (Y-coordinate) at the wind speed vin = 11.18 mph. For a given pitch setting, the
largest power output, i.e., the optimal coefficient CPmax , appears at a specific rotational
speed Ω0 . The three-dimensional optimal-power curve (Ω0 , θ p , CPmax ) is also given in
Figure 13a, and its projection on the Ω–θ p plane is presented in Figure 13b. One can observe
that the optimal pitch setting of this blade is θ p0 = −4◦ ; the optimal rotational speed of
this pitch setting is Ω0 = 66 rpm. Both the optimal power coefficient CPmax and optimal
rotational speed Ω0 decrease when the pitch setting is far away from θ p0 = −4◦ ; this is
the case because a pitch setting deviating from the optimal pitch could make stalled flow
appear at a low rotational speed and reduce the power. The highest optimal rotational
speed Ω0 = 67 rpm appears at θ p = −2.8◦ , but the power of this setting is not the largest
optimal power. There are two optimal pitch angles distributed on both sides of θ p = −2.8◦
(θ p0 > −2.8◦ and θ p0 < −2.8◦ ) for a fixed rotational speed. Moreover, the pitch setting on the
side of θ p0 < −2.8◦ can generate more power (see Figure 13b, θ p = 2.2◦ versus θ p = −10◦ );
this is the case because turning the trailing edge toward the tower can reduce the influence
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
of stalled flow for this blade at a fixed wind speed. However, use of a larger negative16pitch
of 30

angle can also increase the stall effect and decrease the power.
(deg)
C Pav

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 13.
13. Variation
Variation of
of the
the power
power coefficient
coefficient with
with the
the rotational
rotational speed
speed and
and pitch
pitch angle
angle at
at the fixed vin
in == 11.18
11.18 mph:
mph: (a)
(a)
three-dimensional
three-dimensional surface;
surface; and
and (b)
(b) two-dimensional
two-dimensional projection
projection of
of the
the optimal-power
optimal-power curve.
curve.

Figure
Figure14 14 illustrates
illustrates the
the optimal
optimal power coefficient curve (Ω (Ω00, θθpp, CPmax
Pmax))at
atfour
four wind
wind
speedsvvinin= =1010
speeds mph,mph, 2020mph,
mph,30 30
mph,
mph, andand40 mph,
40 mph,where P1 =P1
where (58.6 rpm,rpm,
= (58.6 −4◦ , 0.175),
‒4°, 0.175), P2 =
P2 = (117.2
(117.2 rpm, ‒4°, −4◦ , 0.175),
rpm,0.175), P3 = rpm,
P3 = (175.8 (175.8‒4°,
rpm, −4◦ ,and
0.175), 0.175),
P4 and P4 =rpm,
= (234.4 (234.4 rpm,
‒4°, −4◦are
0.175) , 0.175)
the
are the optimal
optimal points points corresponding
corresponding to fourto four
windwind speeds,
speeds, respectively.
respectively. TheTheoptimal
optimalpower
power
coefficientCCPmax
coefficient Pmaxis aisconstant
a constant 0.175
0.175 for each
for each fixedfixed
windwind
speed.speed. The optimal
The optimal rotational
rotational speed
speed increases with the wind speed for each fixed pitch setting;
increases with the wind speed for each fixed pitch setting; this is the case because this is the case because
increasingthe
increasing therotational
rotationalspeed
speedcan
canreduce
reducethe theangle
angleofofattack
attackandandavoid
avoidstalled
stalledflow
flowin in aa
highwind
high windspeed.
speed.This Thisimplies
impliesthat
thatincreasing
increasingthe therotational
rotationalspeed
speedcancanextract
extractmore
morepower
power
ataa high
at high wind
wind speed.
speed. Variation
Variationofof the
the wind
wind speed
speed does
does not
not influence
influence the the optimal
optimal pitch
pitch
setting(θ
setting −4◦because
(θp0p0==−4°) ) becausethis
thispitch
pitchangle
anglecorresponds
correspondstotothe thelargest
largest power
power coefficient
coefficient
CCPmax
Pmax== 0.175.
0.175.
increases with the wind speed for each fixed pitch setting; this is the case because
increasing the rotational speed can reduce the angle of attack and avoid stalled flow in a
high wind speed. This implies that increasing the rotational speed can extract more power
at a high wind speed. Variation of the wind speed does not influence the optimal pitch
Energies 2021, 14, 996 setting (θp0 = −4°) because this pitch angle corresponds to the largest power coefficient
15 of 27
CPmax = 0.175.

Figure14.
Figure 14.Optimal
Optimalcurve
curveof
ofthe
thepower
powercoefficient
coefficientCCpmax
pmax at
at different
different wind
wind speeds.
speeds.

A fixed-pitch blade with a constant rotational speed cannot always reach the largest
power output with change of the wind speed. Changing trends of the power Pav and power
coefficient CPav with the incoming wind speed vin at different pitch angles and rotational
speeds are illustrated in Figures 15 and 16, respectively. Figure 15 presents the average
power Pav (see Figure 15a) and power coefficient CPav (see Figure 15b) with the wind speed
vin at five different pitch settings θ p = 0◦ , ±4◦ , and ±8◦ for a constant rotational speed
Ω = 40 rpm. It shows that, for each fixed pitch setting and a constant rotational speed,
the power Pav increases first, reaches the maximum value, and then decreases with the
increase in vin ; this changing trend agrees with the experimental and numerical results
in [2,6,33]. A larger power output and coefficient appear at θ p = −4◦ at a low wind speed.
However, the power decreases at a high wind speed because stalled flow is reached with a
further increase in the wind speed. Turning the leading edge toward the tower can reduce
the influence of stall; hence, the power output at a positive pitch setting (θ p = 0◦ , 4◦ , and
8◦ ) becomes larger than that of θ p = −4◦ , and the maximum power for the pitch setting
θ p = −8◦ becomes smaller. Figure 16 shows the power Pav (see Figure 16a) and power
coefficient CPav (see Figure 16b) at six different rotational speeds Ω = 20 rpm, 25 rpm,
30 rpm, 35 rpm, 40 rpm, and 45 rpm for the fixed pitch setting θ p = −4◦ . One can see that
using a higher rotational speed at a high wind speed can extract more power. The optimal
rotational speed corresponding to the maximum power coefficient increases with the wind
speed, which agrees with the results in Figure 14.
The solidity σ (or Nc/(2R) for straight uniform blades without curvatures) is an
important design parameter of a VAWT. One can change σ by changing the number of
blades N, chord length c, or rotor radius R. Influences of R and c on the power Pav (see
Figures 17a and 18a) and power coefficient CPav (see Figures 17b and 18b) of the blade
with the pitch setting θ p = 4◦ and rotational speed Ω = 40 rpm are revealed. Figure 17
shows Pav and CPav at three rotor radius settings R = 3.79 m, 3.99 m, and 4.19 m, where
the chord length c = 0.53 m. Figure 18 presents variations of Pav and CPav with vin at three
different chord lengths c = 0.23 m, 0.53 m, and 0.83 m, where the rotor radius is fixed as
R = 3.79 m. It can be found that increasing both the rotor radius and chord length can
enhance the power of a fixed-pitch blade with a constant rotational speed; this is the case
because extending both the rotor radius and chord length can enhance the torque of the
blade (see Equations (4) and (5)), and the power is increased when the rotational speed is
constant. However, increasing the rotor radius R decreases the optimal power coefficient
CPmax , which contradicts the effect of the chord length c on CPmax .
setting θp = −8° becomes smaller. Figure 16 shows the power Pav (see Figure 16a) and power
coefficient CPav (see Figure 16b) at six different rotational speeds Ω = 20 rpm, 25 rpm, 30
rpm, 35 rpm, 40 rpm, and 45 rpm for the fixed pitch setting θp = −4°. One can see that using
a higher rotational speed at a high wind speed can extract more power. The optimal
Energies 2021, 14, 996 rotational speed corresponding to the maximum power coefficient increases with the
16 of 27
wind speed, which agrees with the results in Figure 14.

Energies 0.6
2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 0.2 18 of 30
o
p
=0 =0o
p
0.5 =4 o =40rpm
p =4o
0.15 p

0.40.6 p
= −4 o =−4 o
p

p
=8=20rpm
o
p
=8o
0.30.5 =25rpm
0.1 =−8 o
= −8 o
p =30rpm p
=35rpm
0.20.4
=40rpm
=45rpm =40rpm 0.05
0.10.3
0.2
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
0.1 v in (mph) = −4o v in (mph)
p
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 30
0 (a) (b)
0 10 20 30 40
Figure15.
Figure 15.Variations
Variationsofof
(a)(a) the
the power
(mph)
vpower andand
(b)(b) power
power coefficient
coefficient with
with thethe incoming
incoming wind
wind speed
speed forfor
thethe fixed
fixed ΩΩ = 40
= 40 rpm.
rpm.
in
(a) (b)
0.6
=20rpmof (a) the power and (b) power coefficient with the incoming wind speed for the fixed θp = −4°.
Figure 16. Variations
0.5 =25rpm
=30rpm The solidity σ (or Nc/(2R) for straight uniform blades without curvatures) is an
0.4 =35rpm
important design parameter of a VAWT. One can change σ by changing the number of
=40rpm
blades N, chord length c, or rotor radius R. Influences of R and c on the power Pav (see
0.3 =45rpm
Figures 17a and 18a) and power coefficient CPav (see Figures 17b and 18b) of the blade with
the pitch setting θp = 4° and rotational speed Ω = 40 rpm are revealed. Figure 17 shows Pav
0.2 and CPav at three rotor radius settings R = 3.79 m, 3.99 m, and 4.19 m, where the chord
length c = 0.53 m. Figure 18 presents variations of Pav and CPav with vin at three different
0.1 chord lengths c = = 0.23
−4m,
o 0.53 m, and 0.83 m, where the rotor radius is fixed as R = 3.79 m.
It can be found thatp increasing both the rotor radius and chord length can enhance the
0 power of a fixed-pitch blade with a constant rotational speed; this is the case because
0 10 20
extending both30 40
the rotor radius and chord length can enhance the torque of the blade (see
v (mph)
Equations
in (4) and (5)), and the power is increased when the rotational speed is constant.
However, increasing the rotor radius R decreases the (b)
(a) optimal power coefficient CPmax,
which contradicts the effect of the chord length c on CPmax.
Figure
Figure 16. Variations
16. Variations of the
of (a) (a) the power
power andand
(b)(b) power
power coefficient
coefficient with
with thethe incomingwind
incoming windspeed
speedfor
forthe
thefixed
fixedθθpp== − 4◦ .
−4°.

The solidity σ (or Nc/(2R) for straight uniform blades without curvatures) is an
important design parameter of a VAWT. One can change σ by changing the number of
blades N, chord length c, or rotor radius R. Influences of R and c on the power Pav (see
Figures 17a and 18a) and power coefficient CPav (see Figures 17b and 18b) of the blade with
the pitch setting θp = 4° and rotational speed Ω = 40 rpm are revealed. Figure 17 shows Pav
and CPav at three rotor radius settings R = 3.79 m, 3.99 m, and 4.19 m, where the chord
Pav (kW)

length c = 0.53 m. Figure 18 presents variations of Pav and CPav with vin at three different
chord lengths c = 0.23 m, 0.53 m, and 0.83 m, where the rotor radius is fixed as R = 3.79 m.
It can be found that increasing both the rotor radius and chord length can enhance the
power of a fixed-pitch blade with a constant rotational speed; this is the case because
extending both the rotor radius and chord length can enhance the torque of the blade (see
Equations (4) and (5)), and the power is increased when the rotational speed is constant.
However, increasing the rotor radius R decreases the optimal power coefficient CPmax,
which contradicts the effect of the chord length c on CPmax.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 17. Effect
17. Effect of the
of the rotor
rotor radius
radius on on
(a)(a)
thethe power
power andand
(b)(b) powercoefficient,
power coefficient,where
whereθθ p = 4°
◦ and Ω = 40 rpm.
p = 4 and Ω = 40 rpm.
(kW)
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 30
Energies 2021, 14, 996 17 of 27

Pav (kW)

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 18. Effect
18. Effect of the
of the chord
chord length
length onon
(a)(a)
thethe power
power and
and (b)power
(b) powercoefficient,
coefficient,where ◦ and
whereθθp p== 44° and Ω
Ω == 40
40rpm.
rpm.

3.2.3. Performance of a Variable-Speed Blade


3.2.3. Performance of a Variable-Speed Blade
A variable rotational speed method is usually used to improve the power efficiency
A variable rotational speed method is usually used to improve the power efficiency
of a VAWT. Variation of the rotational speed that depends on the pitch setting and wind
of a VAWT. Variation of the rotational speed that depends on the pitch setting and wind
speed should keep the largest power coefficient. A variation rule of the rotational speed
speed should keep the largest power coefficient. A variation rule of the rotational speed Ω
Ω with the pitch angle θp and wind speed vin can be obtained by considering the maximum
with the pitch angle θ p and wind speed vin can be obtained by considering the maximum
value problem of the power coefficient function CPav = CPav (θp, Ω, vin) = CPav (θp, λ); the two
value problem of the power coefficient function CPav = CPav (θ p , Ω, vin ) = CPav (θ p , λ); the
variables Ω and vin are usually merged into one variable λ = RΩ/vin, which stands for the
two variables Ω and vin are usually merged into one variable λ = RΩ/vin , which stands
proportional relationship between the blade speed RΩ and wind speed vin. For a specific
for the proportional relationship between the blade speed RΩ and wind speed vin . For
pitch setting θp, one can get the optimal tip-speed ratio λ (denoted as λ0 = λ0 (θp)) that
a specific pitch setting θ p , one can get the optimal tip-speed ratio λ (denoted as λ0 = λ0
corresponds to the maximum power coefficient CPav (called the optimal power coefficient
(θ pand
)) that corresponds to the maximum power coefficient CPavrotational
denoted as CPmax) at this pitch setting. Finally, the optimal
(called the optimal power
speed Ω0 at each
coefficient
fixed pitch and denoted
and as CPmax
wind speed can) be
at derived
this pitch assetting.
Ω0 = λ0(θ Finally, the optimal rotational speed
p)vin/R; the rotational speed follows
Ω0thisat each fixed pitch and wind speed can be derived
rule with change of the wind speed to track the largest power as Ω 0 = λ0 (θoutput.
p )vin /R; the rotational
speed follows this rule with change of the wind speed to
Variation of the power coefficient CPav with the pitch angle θp, rotational track the largest powerspeed
output. Ω,
Variation of the power coefficient C Pav with the pitch
and wind speed vin are calculated and shown in Figure 19a. From the variation in CPav angle θ p , rotational speed Ω, and
, one
windcanspeed
find thevin optimal
are calculated and shown
proportional in Figure
relationship λ019a.
(θp) =From RΩ0/v the variation in CPav , one
in between the blade
can
speed
find the optimal proportional relationship
RΩ0 and wind speed vin for each fixed pitch0 setting, λ (θ p ) = RΩ /v
as0well between the blade
in as see variation of the optimal0 speed RΩ
and power speed vin for
wind coefficient eachwith
CPmax fixedthepitch setting,
pitch as well
setting; theasoptimal
see variation curve ofCthe optimal power
Pmax–λ0–θp is also

presentedCPmax
coefficient with 19a,
in Figure the pitch
and its setting; the optimal
projection on the λcurve 0–θp plane
CPmaxis–λgiven 0 –θ p isin also presented
Figure 19b. It
in shows
Figurethat 19a,Cand its projection
Pav increases on the λ
first, reaches 0 –θmaximum
the p plane is value, given and in Figure 19b. It shows
then decreases with that
the
CPav increases
increase in λfirst, reaches
for each fixedthe maximum
pitch setting; value,
similarand thencan
results decreases
be foundwith the increase in λ
in [1,2,6,7,10–19,22–
for27,29–35,37].
each fixed pitchTheresetting;
is only onesimilar results
optimal can be found
proportional ratioinλ0[1,2,6,7,10–19,22–27,29–35,37].
= RΩ0/vin for each fixed pitch
There is only one optimal proportional ratio
setting. The largest CPmax appears at the pitch setting λ 0 = RΩ /v for each fixed
0θp0 =in−4°, where pitch setting.
the optimal tip-speed The
largest C appears at the pitch setting = − 4 ◦ , where the optimal tip-speed ratio
ratio λ0Pmax= 5.23. Therefore, the variation rulep0of the rotational speed with the wind speed
θ
= 5.23. be
λ0 should Therefore,
set as Ω0the variation
= 5.23v in/R atrule
thisof the rotational
pitch setting, which speed canwithextractthe wind
more speedpower.should
Both
bethe as Ω0 =power
setoptimal 5.23vin /R at this pitch setting, which can extract
coefficient CPmax and optimal tip-speed ratio λ0 decrease when the more power. Both the
pitch
optimal
settingpower coefficient
is far away from θ Cp0Pmax andthis
= −4°; optimal
is the tip-speed
case because ratio λ0 decrease
a pitch when the from
setting deviating pitch
setting is far away
the optimal pitchfrom
couldθ p0make 4◦ ; thisflow
= −stalled is the case because
appear at a low arotational
pitch setting speeddeviating
and decreasefrom
thetheoptimal
powerpitch couldfor
coefficient make eachstalled flow appear
fixed wind speed. The at a maximum
low rotational valuespeed of theand decrease
optimal tip
thespeed
power coefficient
ratio for each
is λ0 = 5.23, which fixed
existswindin thespeed.
region The[−2°,maximum −4°] of the value pitchof the optimal
angle, but the tip
speed
optimalratiopower
is λ0 =coefficient
5.23, which exists
CPmax in constant
is not the region −2◦ region.
in [this , −4◦ ] of For thea pitch
givenangle, but the
proportional
relationship
optimal powerλcoefficient
= RΩ/vin ofCtwo Pmaxspeeds in the region
is not constant in this(1, 5.23),
region. there
Forare two optimal
a given pitch
proportional
angles distributed
relationship λ = RΩ/v onintwo
of twosidesspeeds
of the inregion [−2°, −4°]
the region (1, (θ p0 > −2°
5.23), there and are θp0two
< −4°). The pitch
optimal pitch
setting on the side of θ p0 < −4° can extract more ◦
angles distributed on two sides of the region [−2 , −4 ] (θ p0 > −2 and θ p0 < −4 ).θThe
power ◦
(see Figure ◦
19b, θ p = 0° versus ◦ p =

pitch setting on the side of θ p0 < −4 can extract more power (see Figure 19b, θ p = 0 versus ◦

θ p = −6.4◦ ); this is the case because turning the trailing edge toward the tower can reduce
the influence of stalled flow for this blade. Figure 19c illustrates the variation rule of the
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 30

Energies 2021, 14, 996 18 of 27


−6.4°); this is the case because turning the trailing edge toward the tower can reduce the
influence of stalled flow for this blade. Figure 19c illustrates the variation rule of the
rotational speed Ω0 = λ0(θp)vin/R with the wind speed at seven different pitch settings θp =
rotational speed
0°, ±4°, ±8°, andΩ0±10°.
= λ0Even
(θ p )vinthough
/R withthe
thelargest
wind speed at seven
CPmax occurs different
at θ pitch settings
p0 = −4°, higher optimal
= 0◦ , ±4◦ ,speeds
θ protational ±8◦ , and ◦ . Even though the largest C
appear at the lower wind speed due to the high λ0 for this−pitch
± 10 Pmax occurs at θ p0 = 4◦ , higher
setting;
optimal
hence,rotational
the optimalspeeds appearspeed
rotational at themay
lower windthe
exceed speed due to the
maximum high λ0 speed.
allowable for thisOne
pitchcan
setting; hence, the optimal rotational speed may exceed the maximum
solve this problem by increasing the rotor radius R or changing the pitch setting.allowable speed.
One can solve this problem by increasing the rotor radius R or changing the pitch setting.

(deg)
p

(a) (b)

150

100

p
=0 o

p
=4 o

p
=−4o
50 =8 o
p

p
=−8o

p
=10o

p
=−10 o
0
0 20 40 60
v in (mph)

(c)
Figure
Figure 19.19. Variation
Variation of of
thethe power
power coefficient
coefficient with
with thethe pitch
pitch angle,
angle, rotational
rotational speed,
speed, and and wind
wind speed:
speed: (a)(a) three-dimensional
three-dimensional
surface;
surface; (b)(b) two-dimensional
two-dimensional projection
projection of the
of the optimal
optimal curve;
curve; and and (c) variation
(c) variation rule
rule of theofoptimal
the optimal rotational
rotational speedspeed with
with the
theand
pitch pitch and speed.
wind wind speed.

Influences
Influences ofof the
the rotor
rotor radius
radius R and
R and chord
chord length
length c onc on
thethe optimal
optimal power
power PmaxPmax
of of
a a
variable-speed
variable-speed blade
blade with
with thethe
fixedfixed pitch
pitch setting
setting θ p θ=p 0=◦0°areare revealed
revealed inin Figure
Figure 20,20, where
where
thethe rotational
rotational speed
speed has
has been
been setset to to satisfy
satisfy thethe variation
variation rule
rule at at
thethe zero
zero pitch.
pitch. Figure
Figure 20a20a
shows
shows variationofofPP
variation max
max with
with v
v in
in for
for three
three rotor
rotor radius
radius settings
settings R R = 8.33
= m,
8.33 m,3.79 m,
3.79 m,and 2.41
and
m at
2.41 m the fixed
at the chord
fixed length
chord c = 0.53
length m. One
c = 0.53 can see
m. One canthat
see increasing
that increasingthe rotor radius
the rotor cannot
radius
change
cannot powerpower
change extraction if induced
extraction flow isflow
if induced neglected (au = 0),
is neglected (auwhich is the case
= 0), which is thebecause
case
because increasing
increasing R can decrease
R can decrease the optimal the optimal
rotational rotational
speed and speed and the
increase increase
torquetheat torque
the same
at time.
the same time. when
However, However, when
induced induced
flow flow is considered,
is considered, the power outputthe power output
of the bladeofcanthebe
blade can be improved by extending R because increasing the rotor radius can reduce the
influence of induced flow. Figure 20b presents variation of Pmax with vin at three different
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 30

Energies 2021, 14, 996 19 of 27


improved by extending R because increasing the rotor radius can reduce the influence of
induced flow. Figure 20b presents variation of Pmax with vin at three different chord length
selections c = 0.23 m, 0.53 m, and 0.83 m for a fixed rotor radius R = 3.79 m. It can be found
that increasing
chord the chord
length selections length
c = 0.23 canm,enhance
m, 0.53 and 0.83the power
m for of rotor
a fixed the blade;
radiusthis
R = is them.case
3.79 It
because
can extending
be found the chordthe
that increasing length can
chord increase
length canthe torquethe
enhance of power
the blade without
of the blade;changing
this is
the
thecase because
optimal extending
rotational the chord length can increase the torque of the blade without
speed.
changing the optimal rotational speed.

8 8
au≠ 0: R=8.83m c=0.23m
au≠ 0: R=3.79m c=0.53m
6 6 c=0.83m
au≠ 0: R=2.41m
au =0: R=8.83m
4 au =0: R=3.79m 4
au =0: R=2.41m
2 2

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
v in (mph) v in (mph)

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 20.Effect
20. Effectofofthe
thesolidity
solidityononthe
thepower
power output
output ofof a variable-speed
a variable-speed blade
blade with
with thethe pitch
pitch θ p θ=p 0=◦0°:
setting
setting (a)the
: (a) theinfluence
influence
of the rotor radius; and (b) the influence of the chord
of the rotor radius; and (b) the influence of the chord length. length.

Toshow
To showthe theefficiency
efficiencyofofthe
thevariable-speed
variable-speedmethod,
method,the thepower
poweroutput
outputofofconstant-
constant-
speed and variable-speed blades is compared by selecting four pitch settings θ p = 0=◦ 0°,
speed and variable-speed blades is compared by selecting four pitch settings θ p ◦,
, ±4±4°,
and−−8°
and ◦
8 and andfour
fourrotational speedsΩΩ==60
rotationalspeeds 60rpm,
rpm,4040rpm,
rpm,6666rpm,
rpm,andand5555rpm.
rpm.Changing
Changing
trendsofofthe
trends the power
power with
with thethe wind
wind speed
speed areare presented
presented in Figure
in Figure 21. 21.
OneOnecan can see that
see that use
use of
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
a of a variable
variable rotational
rotational speedspeed can extract
can extract more power
more power for eachfor each
pitch pitch The
setting. setting.
power 22 of 30
Theoutput
power
ofoutput of constant-speed
constant-speed blades atdecreases
blades decreases high windatspeeds
high winddue tospeeds
stalled due
flow.to stalled flow.
However, the
power of variable-speed
However, the power ofblades always increases
variable-speed bladeswith
alwaysthe wind speed
increases because
with the power
the wind speed
coefficient
because the does not change
power withdoes
coefficient the wind speed.with the wind speed.
not change
3
p
=0 o , =60rpm

=0 o , Variable
2.5 p

p
=4 o , =40rpm
o
=4 , Variable
2 p

p
=−4o , =66rpm
o
=−4 , Variable
1.5 p

p
=−8o , =55rpm

p
=−8o , Variable
1

0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
v in (mph)
Figure21.
Figure 21.Comparison
Comparisonof
ofthe
thepower
poweroutput
outputofofconstant-
constant-and
andvariable-speed
variable-speedblades.
blades.

4. Performance Optimization Based on a Dynamic-Pitch Method


The performance of a VAWT can be further improved by adopting a dynamic-pitch
method. In this section, the dynamic-pitch optimization is discussed using a theoretical
method. One can consider the instantaneous torque at each fixed azimuth as a function of
the pitch angle, i.e., Mi = Mi (θpi). The optimized pitch angle at each azimuth can be
obtained by solving the maximum value problem of the torque function. This means that
Energies 2021, 14, 996 20 of 27

4. Performance Optimization Based on a Dynamic-Pitch Method


The performance of a VAWT can be further improved by adopting a dynamic-pitch
method. In this section, the dynamic-pitch optimization is discussed using a theoretical
method. One can consider the instantaneous torque at each fixed azimuth as a function
of the pitch angle, i.e., Mi = Mi (θ pi ). The optimized pitch angle at each azimuth can be
obtained by solving the maximum value problem of the torque function. This means that
dMi d2 Mi
the conditions dθ pi = 0 and 2 < 0 hold at the optimized pitch angle. One can first
d(θ pi )
consider the symmetric airfoil and approximate functions of Equation (9). By denoting
Ψi
Γi = arctan sincos
Ψ −λ , the optimized pitch angle is analyzed for the following two cases:
i ind

(1) Upwind Area: 2kπ − π


2 ≤ Ψi ≤ 2kπ+ π2 (k = 0, 1, 2 . . . .)

nh 2 i o
dMi
= 21 clρ a v2ri R c1 + 3c3 Γi − θ pi sin ϑi + 2c2 Γi − θ pi cos ϑi = 0,
 
dθ pi
d2 Mi
(11)
= − 12 clρ a v2ri R 6c3 Γi − θ pi sin ϑi + 2c2 cos ϑi < 0.
  
2
d(θ pi )

(2) Downwind Area: 2kπ + π


2 ≤ Ψi ≤ 2kπ+ 3π
2 (k = 0, 1, 2 . . . .)

nh 2 i o
dMi
= − 12 clρ a v2ri R c1 + 3c3 Γi − θ pi sin ϑi − 2c2 Γi − θ pi cos ϑi = 0,

dθ pi
d2 Mi
(12)
= 12 clρ a v2ri R 6c3 Γi − θ pi sin ϑi − 2c2 cos ϑi < 0.
  
2
d(θ pi )

For these two cases,


√ one can obtain the same changing rule of the optimized pitch angle
2c − 4c2 −12c c tan2 Γ
as θ pi = Γi − 2 2 1 3
6c3 tan Γi
i
, which reveals that the optimized pitch angle rule of
symmetric airfoils depends on the tip-speed ratio λ, azimuth Ψi , induced factor a, and
three coefficients c1 , c2 , and c3 . Neglecting the subscript i, the dynamic-pitch rule of the
symmetric airfoils at a fixed Reynolds number is obtained as
q
2c2 − 4c22 − 12c1 c3 tan2 Γ
θp = Γ − , (13)
6c3 tan Γ
Ψ
where Γ = arctan sincosΨ−λind .
If an airfoil is asymmetric, one can consider functions of Equation (10) and study the
following maximum problem of the torque:
(1) Upwind Area: 2kπ − π
2 ≤ Ψi ≤ 2kπ+ π2 (k = 0, 1, 2 . . . .)

nh 2 i o
dMi
= 21 clρ a v2ri R c1 + 3c3 Γi − θ pi + bL sin ϑi + 2c2 Γi − θ pi + bD cos ϑi = 0,
 
dθ pi
d2 Mi
(14)
= − 21 clρ a v2ri R 6c3 Γi − θ pi + bL sin ϑi + 2c2 cos ϑi < 0.
  
2
d(θ pi )

(2) Downwind Area: 2kπ + π


2 ≤ Ψi ≤ 2kπ+ 3π
2 (k = 0, 1, 2 . . . .)

nh 2 i o
dMi
= − 21 clρ a v2ri R c1 + 3c3 Γi − θ pi + bL sin ϑi − 2c2 Γi − θ pi + bD cos ϑi ,

dθ pi
d2 M i
(15)
= 21 clρ a v2ri R 6c3 Γi − θ pi + bL sin ϑi − 2c2 cos ϑi < 0.
  
2
d(θ pi )

The dynamic-pitch rule at a fixed Reynolds number can be obtained as


q
2c2 − 4c22 − 24c2 c3 (bL − bD ) tan Γ − 12c1 c3 tan2 Γ
θ p = Γ + bL − , (16)
6c3 tan Γ
Energies 2021, 14, 996 21 of 27

where Γi and Γ are the same as those for symmetric airfoils. This reveals that the dynamic-
pitch rule of an asymmetric airfoil depends on the tip-speed ratio λ, azimuth Ψ, induced
factor a, and five aerodynamic coefficients c1 , c2 , c3 , bL , and bD .
In the remainder of this section, the performance of the optimized VAWT is discussed
by using the blade model in Section 3 and the optimization rule in Equation (13). In order
to obtain the optimal proportional ratio λ0 = RΩ0 /vin between the blade speed and wind
speed, the CPav –λ curve of the dynamic-pitch blade is calculated and compared with that of
the fixed-pitch blade by selecting four pitch settings θ p = 0◦ , ±4◦ , and −8◦ (see Figure 22a).
The changing trend of the CPav –λ curve of the dynamic-pitch blade is the same as that of the
fixed-pitch blade. The power coefficient CPav of the dynamic-pitch blade is larger than that
of the fixed-pitch blade for each pitch setting θ p and tip speed ratio λ. The optimal power
coefficient CPmax appears at the proportional ratio λ0 = 5.32 for the dynamic-pitch blade.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 30
Both CPmax and λ0 of the dynamic-pitch blade are larger than those of the fixed-pitch blade.
As a function of the optimal tip-speed ratio λ0 = 5.32, one can obtain the variation rule of
the rotational speed with the wind speed as Ω0 = 5.32vin /R for the dynamic-pitch blade.
ThetheΩdynamic-pitch
0 –vin curves are presented
blade almostin Figure 22b.
coincides thatΩof0 –v
withThe in curve
the of theblade
fixed-pitch dynamic-pitch
at the pitch
blade almost
setting coincides
θp = −4°, which with
is thethat
caseof the fixed-pitch
because values of blade
λ0 of twoat the pitch
cases aresetting θ p = −4◦ ,of
close. Variation
which is the casepitch
the optimized because
anglevalues of λazimuth
with the 0 of two atcases are close.
λ = 5.32 Variation
is illustrated of the optimized
in Figure 23. One can
pitch angle with the azimuth at = 5.32 is illustrated in Figure 23. One
find that the θp–Ψ curve looks approximately like a cosine function, which supports
λ can find that the
the
–Ψ curve looksoptimization
θ pdynamic-pitch approximately like a cosine function, which
by using a sinusoidal pitch [31,37]. supports the dynamic-pitch
optimization by using a sinusoidal pitch [31,37].

150
Dynamic Pitch
Fixed p =0 o
Fixed p
=4 o
Fixed p
= −4o
100 Fixed = −8o
p

50

0
0 10 20 30 40
v in (mph)

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 22.22. Optimizationprinciple
Optimization principleofofthe
the blade:(a)(a)the
blade: the powercoefficient
power coefficient versus
versus the
the tip-speed
tip-speed ratio;
ratio; and
and (b)(b) the
the optimal
optimal
rotational
rotational speed
speed versus
versus thethe incoming
incoming windwind speed.
speed.

To verify the efficiency of the dynamic pitch optimization, the power output of the
6
dynamic-pitch and fixed-pitch blades is compared. Figure 24a presents variation of the
X: 0 the wind speed for the dynamic-pitch and fixed-pitch blades at a constant
power Pav with
Y: 5.8 =R /v =5.32 ◦ ◦ ◦
rotational4 speed Ω = 40 rpm and fiveinpitch settings θ p = 0 , ±4 , and ±8 . One can see that
the use of the dynamic-pitch method improves the power output of constant-speed blades
at each pitch setting, especially for a higher wind speed. This is contrary to constant-speed
blades, 2 where the power of the dynamic-pitch blade always increases with the wind speed,
X: 90 X: 270
which is the case because the dynamic-pitch
Y: 2.133e-15 Y: 1.665e-15setting reduces the influence of stalled flow by
improving 0 the effective angle of attack at each azimuth. Figure 24b shows comparison of
results of the dynamic-pitch and fixed-pitch variable-speed blades at four pitch settings
θ p = 0◦ , ±4◦ , and −8◦ . One can observe that the power output of variable-speed blades
-2
can be further improved by adopting the dynamic-pitch setting. The optimal power Pmax
of the dynamic-pitch blade is larger than that of fixed-pitch blades at each pitch setting
-4 X: 180
Y: -5.441

-6
0 90 180 270 360
0
0 10 20 30 40
Energies 2021, 14, 996 v in (mph) 22 of 27

(a) (b)
Figure 22. Optimization principle of the blade: (a) the power coefficient versus the tip-speed ratio; and (b) the optimal
and windwind
rotational speed versus the incoming speed; this is the case because the effective angle of attack at each azimuth is
speed.
optimized by using the dynamic-pitch setting.

6
X: 0
Y: 5.8 =R /v in=5.32
4

2
X: 90 X: 270
Y: 2.133e-15 Y: 1.665e-15
0
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 30

-2

flow by improving the effective angle of attack at each azimuth. Figure 24b shows
-4 X: 180
comparison of results of the dynamic-pitch and fixed-pitch variable-speed blades at four
Y: -5.441
pitch settings θp = 0°, ±4°, and −8°. One can observe that the power output of variable-
-6 blades can be further improved by adopting the dynamic-pitch setting. The optimal
speed
0 90 180 270 360
power Pmax of the dynamic-pitch blade is larger than that of fixed-pitch blades at each pitch
(deg)
setting and wind speed; this is the case because the effective angle of attack at each
azimuth
Figure
Figure 23. is optimized
23. Variation
Variation of the by
of the using the
optimized
optimized dynamic-pitch
pitch
pitch angle with
angle thesetting.
with the azimuth.
azimuth.

To verify the efficiency of the dynamic pitch optimization, the power output of the
0.8 dynamic-pitch and fixed-pitch blades 15 is compared. Figure 24a presents variation of the
Dynamic Pitch Dynamic Pitch
power P av with the wind speed for the dynamic-pitch and fixed-pitch blades at a constant
o
Fixed p=0 rotational speed Ω = 40 rpm and five pitch settings Fixed p=0o, Variable
θp = 0°, ±4°, and ±8°. One can see that
0.6 Fixed p=4o the use of the dynamic-pitch method improvesFixed =4o, Variable
the power
p output of constant-speed blades
10 wind
o at each pitch setting, especially for a higher speed.
Fixed =−4 o
This
, is contrary to constant-speed
Variable
Fixed p= −4 p
blades, where the power of the dynamic-pitch blade oalways increases with the wind
Fixed p=−8 , Variable
0.4 Fixed p=8o speed, which is the case because the dynamic-pitch setting reduces the influence of stalled
Fixed p
= −8 o
5
0.2
=40rpm

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 10 20 30 40 50 60
v in (mph) v in (mph)

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 24.24. Verification
Verification of of
thethe efficiency
efficiency of of
thethe dynamic-pitch
dynamic-pitch optimization
optimization forfor
(a)(a) constant-speed
constant-speed blades
blades and
and (b)(b) variable-
variable-
speed
speed blades.
blades.

Although
Although anan egg-beater-style
egg-beater-style Darrieus
Darrieus VAWT
VAWT cannot
cannot bebe entirely
entirely optimized
optimized using
using the
the
dynamic-pitch
dynamic-pitch method,
method, it it
cancanbebe partly
partly optimized
optimized byby dividing
dividing each
each blade
blade into
into many
many linear
linear
segments.An
segments. Anidealized
idealizedoptimization
optimizationisisgiven
giveninin this
this work
work byby employing
employing thethe Sandia
Sandia 1717
mm
diameter
diameter VAWT
VAWT [2],[2], which
which is is
anan egg-beater-style
egg-beater-style turbine.
turbine. TheThe power
power ofof this
this turbine
turbine before
before
andafter
and afteroptimization
optimizationwas wascalculated
calculatedbyby selecting
selecting two experimental
experimental rotational
rotational speeds
speedsΩ
Ω==4242rpm
rpm (see Figure 25a) and Ω
(see Figure = 52.5 rpm (see Figure 25b). One can find
Ω = 52.5 rpm (see Figure 25b). One can find that that power
power
proficiency
proficiencyof of
thethe
turbine is improved
turbine well well
is improved for each
for incoming wind speed
each incoming wind for
speedthe for
twothe
cases,
two
especially at a higher
cases, especially at awind
higher speed.
wind speed.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 30

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 30


Energies 2021, 14, 996 23 of 27

60 120
Test Data: Before Optimization Test Data: Before Optimization
60 Theoretical Prediction: Before Optimization 120 Theoretical Prediction: Before Optimization
50 100

Turbine Rotor Power (kW)


Theoretical Prediction:
Test Data: After Optimization
Before Optimization Test Data:
Theoretical Before Optimization
Prediction: After Optimization
Theoretical Prediction: Before Optimization Theoretical Prediction: Before Optimization
50 100

Turbine Rotor Power (kW)


Theoretical Prediction: After Optimization Theoretical Prediction: After Optimization
40 80
40 80
30 60
30 60
20 40
40 17m =0.14
20 17m =0.14
10 20 52.5rpm
42rpm 17m =0.14
17m =0.14 20
10 52.5rpm
0 42rpm 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 10 20 30 40 50
0 Wind Speedv (mph): 44-ft Reference 0 Wind Speedv (mph): 44-ft Reference
10 15 in
20 25 30 35 40 10 20 in 30 40 50
Wind Speedv in(a)
(mph): 44-ft Reference (mph): 44-ft Reference
Wind Speedv in(b)
(a) optimization for the Sandia VAWT [2]: (a) Ω = 42 rpm and (b)
Figure 25. Idealized (b)Ω = 52.5 rpm.
Figure
Figure 25.25.Idealized
Idealizedoptimization
optimizationfor
forthe
the Sandia
Sandia VAWT
VAWT [2]:
[2]: (a)(a)
Ω Ω = 42
= 42 rpm
rpm and
and (b)(b)
ΩΩ = 52.5
= 52.5 rpm.
rpm.
In order to validate the efficiency of the current dynamic-pitch optimization method,
a three-bladed VAWT with the NACA0018 profile in [37] is taken as a computational
InInorder
ordertotovalidate
validatethe theefficiency
efficiencyofofthe thecurrent
currentdynamic-pitch
dynamic-pitchoptimization
optimizationmethod,
method,
model. The aerodynamic experimental result for the NACA0018 in [39] is adopted, where
a athree-bladed
three-bladedVAWT VAWTwith withthetheNACA0018
NACA0018profile profileinin[37]
[37]isistaken
takenasasa acomputational
computational
c0 = 0.013, c1 = 3.995, c2 = 1.041, and c3 = −9.499. Changing trends of the torque coefficient
model.
model.The Theaerodynamic
aerodynamicexperimental
experimentalresult resultfor
forthe
theNACA0018
NACA0018inin[39] [39]isisadopted,
adopted,where
where
CMav with the tip-speed ratio λ before (denoted as “fixed pitch”) and after optimization are
c0c0==0.013, c = 3.995, c = 1.041, and c = − 9.499. Changing trends of the
0.013, 1c1 = 3.995, 2c2 = 1.041, and 3c3 = −9.499. Changing trends of the torque coefficienttorque coefficient
shown
CC in Figuretip-speed
26. It reveals that the current analytical results of the fixed-pitch turbine
Mavwith
Mav with the
the before
ratio λλ before (denoted
(denoted as“fixed
as “fixed pitch”)
pitch”) andafter
and after optimization
optimization are
agree
are quite well
shown with CFD
in Figure results in [37]; some differences occur results
at small tip-speed ratios
shown in Figure 26. 26. It reveals
It reveals that that the current
the current analytical
analytical results of theof the fixed-pitch
fixed-pitch turbine
may
turbinebe agree
due to stalled
quite wellCFDflow. A good
withresults
CFD results optimization
insome
[37]; some isdifferences
achieved occurin [37] by using
at small the
tip-speed
agree quite well with in [37]; differences occur at small tip-speed ratios
sinusoidal-pitch
ratios method, which improves CMav when λ is less than 3.7 and improves the
may may be duebe due to stalled
to stalled flow.
flow. AA goodoptimization
good optimizationisisachieved
achieved in in [37] by byusing
usingthethe
maximum
sinusoidal-pitch CMav; however,
value ofmethod, which optimization
improves C iswhen
not achieved
is less when
than λ exceeds
3.7 and 3.7. When
improves the
sinusoidal-pitch method, which improves Mav CMav when λ is less than 3.7 and improves the
λ
the dynamic-pitchofmethod based on Equation (13) in achieved
this work is adopted, CMav and its
maximum
maximumvalue value ofCMav
CMav; ;however,
however,optimization
optimizationisisnot not achievedwhen whenλ λexceeds
exceeds3.7.3.7.When
When
maximum
the value are improved well. CMav
thedynamic-pitch
dynamic-pitchmethodmethodbased basedononEquation
Equation(13) (13)ininthis
thiswork
work is is
adopted,
adopted, CMavandanditsits
maximum
maximumvalue valueare
areimproved
improvedwell. well.
Torque Coefficient
Torque Coefficient

Figure
Figure26.
26.Comparison
Comparisonofofthe
thecurrent
currentoptimization
optimizationwith
withCFD
CFDresults
resultsinin[37].
[37].

5.Figure 26. Comparison of the current optimization with CFD results in [37].
Conclusions
This work presents a theoretical study of the performance and dynamic-pitch opti-
mization of a VAWT with a high tip-speed ratio according to the two-dimensional airfoil
Energies 2021, 14, 996 24 of 27

theory. By considering the quasi-steady aerodynamic model and dividing the rotating
plane of the airfoil into the upwind and downwind areas, the relationship among the angle
of attack, azimuth, pitch angle, and tip-speed ratio is derived, and then expressions of the
torque, torque coefficient, power, and power coefficient are obtained.
By applying the polynomial approximation to functions of the lift and drag coeffi-
cients for symmetric and asymmetric airfoils, explicit expressions of aerodynamic loads
are obtained, and the performance of a fixed-pitch VAWT is then analyzed theoretically.
Effects of some important key factors on the turbine performance are discussed by using a
NACA0012 blade model, and the following conclusions are obtained:
(1) Changing trends of the instantaneous torque and instantaneous power with the
azimuth are cyclic. Maximum values of the instantaneous torque and instantaneous
power appear at the upstream and downstream directions, while minimum (negative)
values occur at two lateral directions of the wind field. This means that one can improve
the performance of a VAWT by changing aerodynamic characteristics of blades at two
perpendicular directions of wind flow.
(2) The power output of a constant-speed blade can be reduced at a higher wind speed
due to stalled flow.
(3) Increasing the rotor radius and chord length can improve the power output of a
constant-speed blade.
(4) Variation rule Ω = λ0 vin /R can be used to design the variable rotational speed
for a fixed-pitch blade to track the maximum power coefficient, where λ0 is the optimal
tip-speed ratio that depends on the pitch setting.
(5) Increasing the rotor radius and chord length can also improve the power output of
a variable-speed blade; the influence of the rotor radius mainly depends on induced flow.
(6) Variable-speed design can improve the power output of a constant-speed blade,
especially at high wind speeds; it can reduce the influence of stalled flow.
(7) By dealing with the maximum value problem of the aerodynamic torque function
with respect to the pitch angle at each fixed azimuth, dynamic-pitch rules for symmetric
and asymmetric airfoils are obtained, showing that the optimal pitch angle depends on the
azimuth, tip-speed ratio, and aerodynamic coefficients. Variable-pitch rules can be used to
design the controlling technology of a VAWT.
(8) The efficiency of the optimization method is validated by using some blade models
and CFD results. The performance of blades before and after optimization is compared
and a good qualitative agreement was seen overall.
This work focused on the performance of a wind turbine with a high tip-speed ratio.
When a turbine with a low tip-speed ratio is taken into consideration, a stall correction
should be added in the current model. The aeroelastic stability, linear vibration, and non-
linear vibration problems of a wind turbine with a high tip-speed ratio can be considered
by using the current model.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.L. and I.C.; methodology, L.L., I.C., W.Z., and M.Y.;
software, L.L.; validation, I.C., W.Z., and M.Y.; formal analysis, L.L. and I.C.; investigation, L.L.;
resources, I.C., W.Z., and M.Y.; data curation, L.L. and I.C.; writing—original draft preparation, L.L.
and I.C.; writing—review and editing, W.Z. and M.Y.; visualization, I.C. and W.Z.; supervision, I.C.
and W.Z.; project administration, L.L.; and funding acquisition, L.L. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The first author would like to thank the support from the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 11902002 and 51705002) and Lifting Project of Young Researchers
of Anhui University of Science and Technology.
Data Availability Statement: The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Energies 2021, 14, 996 25 of 27

Nomenclature
The subscript i denotes characteristics of the i-th airfoil or blade; the subscript ind
denotes characteristics of an airfoil or blade associated with induced flow.
ad Induction factor in the downwind area
au Induction factor in the upwind area
A Swept area, m2
c Chord length, m
c0L , c1 , c3 , bL Coefficients of CL as a function of α
c0 , c0D , c2 , bD Coefficients of CD as a function of α
CL Lift coefficient
CD Drag coefficient
CM Instantaneous torque coefficient
CMav Average torque coefficient in one revolution
Cp Instantaneous power coefficient
CPav Average power coefficient in one revolution
CPmax Optimal power coefficient
D Rotor diameter, m
Di Drag force of the i-th airfoil, N
l Length of the airfoil element, m
Li Lift force of the i-th airfoil, N
M Instantaneous torque, N·m
Mav Average torque in one revolution, N·m
Mr Residual aerodynamic moment, N·m
N Number of blades
o-yz Inertial coordinate system with unit vectors (j, k)
oi -si ni Body coordinate system of the i-th airfoil with unit vectors (jsi , kni )
oi -η i ζ i Section coordinate system of the i-th airfoil with unit vectors (jηi , kζi )
P Instantaneous power, W
Pav Average power in one revolution, W
Pmax Optimal power, W
R Rotor radius, m
Re Reynolds number
t Time, s
vb Blade velocity, vb = RΩ, mph = 0.447 m/s
ve Equilibrium incoming wind velocity in the downwind area, mph
vin Incoming wind velocity, mph
vr Resultant wind velocity, mph
vd Downstream velocity in the downwind area, mph
vu Upstream velocity in the upwind area, mph
α Angle of attack, ◦ or rad
λ = vb /vin Tip-speed ratio
λ0 Optimal tip-speed ratio
λd Tip-speed ratio in the downwind area
λu Tip-speed ratio in the upwind area
ρa Air density, kg/m3
σ = Ncl/A=Nc/D Solidity for a straight uniform blade with zero tilt angle
ϑ Acute angle between vr and vb , ◦ or rad
Ω Rotational speed, rpm
Ω0 Optimal rotational speed, rpm
Ψ, Ψ0 Azimuth and the initial azimuth of the airfoil, ◦ or rad
θp Pitch angle, ◦ or rad
Energies 2021, 14, 996 26 of 27

References
1. Blackwell, B.F.; Sheldahl, R.E.; Feltz, L.V. Wind Tunnel Performance Data for the Darrieus Wind Turbine with NACA 0012 Blades;
Sandia Laboratories: Washington, DC, USA, 1976; ISBN SAND76-0130.
2. Worstell, M.H. Aerodynamic Performance of the 17-Meter-Diameter Darrieus Wind Turbine; Sandia Laboratories: Washington, DC,
USA, 1978; ISBN SAND78-1737.
3. Reuter, R.C.; Worstell, M.H. Torque Ripple in a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine; Sandia Laboratories: Washington, DC, USA, 1978; ISBN
SAND78-0577.
4. Ashwill, T.D.; Leonard, T.M. Developments in Blade Shape Design for a Darrieus Vertical Axis Wind Turbine; Sandia National
Laboratories: Albuquerque, NM, USA, 1986; ISBN SAND86-1085.
5. Sutherland, H.J.; Stephenson, W.A. Rotor Instrumentation Circuits for the Sandia 34-Meter Vertical Axis Wind Turbine; Sandia National
Laboratories: Albuquerque, NM, USA, 1988; ISBN SAND88-1144.
6. Ashwill, T.D. Measured Data for the Sandia 34-Meter Vertical Axis Wind Turbine; Sandia National Laboratories: Albuquerque, NM,
USA, 1991; ISBN SAND91-2228.
7. Kooiman, S.; Tullis, S. Response of a vertical axis wind turbine to time varying wind conditions found within the urban
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