Computer Organization and Architecture by William Stallings

COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION AND
ARCHITECTURE
Slides Courtesy of Carl Hamacher,”Computer Organization,” Fifth edition,McGrawHill

www.EngineeringPdfBook.com
COMPUTER
ORGANISATION AND
ARCHITECTURE
• The components from which computers are built,
i.e., computer organization.
• In contrast, computer architecture is the science of
integrating those components to achieve a level of
functionality and performance.
• It is as if computer organization examines the
lumber, bricks, nails, and other building material
• While computer architecture looks at the design of
the house.
UNIT-I INTRODUCTION
•Evolution of Computer Systems

•Computer Types
•Functional units
•Basic operational concepts
•Bus structures
•Memory location and addresses
•Memory operations
•Addressing modes
•Design of a computer system
•Instruction and instruction sequencing,
•RISC versus CISC.
INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the computer hardware,
software and their interconnection, and it also
discusses concepts like computer types,
evolution of computers, functional units, basic
operations, RISC and CISC systems.
Brief History of Computer
Evolution
Two phases:
VLSI = Very Large
1. before VLSI 1945 – 1978 Scale Integration
• ENIAC
• IAS
• IBM
• PDP‐8
2. VLSI 1978 Æ present day
• microprocessors !
Evolution of Computers
FIRST GENERATION (1945 –
1955)
• Program and data reside in the same memory
(stored program concepts – John von Neumann)
• ALP was made used to write programs
• Vacuum tubes were used to implement the functions
(ALU & CU design)
• Magnetic core and magnetic tape storage devices are
used
• Using electronic vacuum tubes, as the switching
components
SECOND GENERATION
(1955 – 1965)
• Transistor were used to design ALU & CU
• HLL is used (FORTRAN)
• To convert HLL to MLL compiler were used
• Separate I/O processor were developed to operate in
parallel with CPU, thus improving the performance
• Invention of the transistor which was faster, smaller
and required considerably less power to operate
THIRD GENERATION
(1965‐1975)
• IC technology improved
• Improved IC technology helped in designing low cost, high
speed processor and memory modules
• Multiprogramming, pipelining concepts were incorporated
• DOS allowed efficient and coordinate operation of computer
system with multiple users
• Cache and virtual memory concepts were developed
• More than one circuit on a single silicon chip became
available
FOURTH GENERATION
(1975‐1985)
• CPU – Termed as microprocessor
• INTEL, MOTOROLA, TEXAS,NATIONAL
semiconductors started developing microprocessor
• Workstations, microprocessor (PC) & Notebook
computers were developed
• Interconnection of different computer for better
communication LAN,MAN,WAN
• Computational speed increased by 1000 times
• Specialized processors like Digital Signal Processor
were also developed
BEYOND THE FOURTH GENERATION
(1985 – TILL DATE)
• E‐Commerce, E‐ banking, home office
• ARM, AMD, INTEL, MOTOROLA
• High speed processor ‐ GHz speed
• Because of submicron IC technology lot of
added features in small size
COMPUTER TYPES
Computers are classified based on the
parameters like
• Speed of operation
• Cost
• Computational power
• Type of application
DESK TOP COMPUTER
• Processing &storage units, visual display &audio uits,
keyboards
• Storage media‐Hard disks, CD‐ROMs
• Eg: Personal computers which is used in homes and offices
• Advantage: Cost effective, easy to operate, suitable for general
purpose educational or business application
NOTEBOOK COMPUTER
• Compact form of personal computer (laptop)
• Advantage is portability
WORK STATIONS
• More computational power than PC
•Costlier
•Used to solve complex problems which arises in
engineering application (graphics, CAD/CAM etc)
ENTERPRISE SYSTEM (MAINFRAME)

•More computational power
•Larger storage capacity
•Used for business data processing in large organization
•Commonly referred as servers or super computers
SERVER SYSTEM
• Supports large volumes of data which frequently need to

be accessed or to be modified
•Supports request response operation
SUPER COMPUTERS
•Faster than mainframes

•Helps in calculating large scale numerical and algorithm
calculation in short span of time
•Used for aircraft design and testing, military application
and weather forecasting
HANDHELD
• Also called a PDA (Personal
Digital Assistant).
• A computer that fits into a
pocket, runs on batteries, and
is used while holding the unit
in your hand.
• Typically used as an
appointment book, address
book, calculator, and notepad.
• Can be synchronized with a
personal microcomputer as a
backup.
Basic Terminology
• Computer • Software
– A device that accepts input, – A computer program that tells
processes data, stores data, and the computer how to perform
produces output, all according to particular tasks.
a series of stored instructions.
• Network
• Hardware – Two or more computers and
– Includes the electronic and other devices that are
mechanical devices that process connected, for the purpose of
the data; refers to the computer sharing data and programs.
as well as peripheral devices.
• Peripheral devices
– Used to expand the computer’s
input, output and storage
capabilities.
Basic Terminology
• Input
– Whatever is put into a computer system.
• Data
– Refers to the symbols that represent facts, objects, or ideas.
• Information
– The results of the computer storing data as bits and bytes; the words,
numbers, sounds, and graphics.
• Output
– Consists of the processing results produced by a computer.
• Processing
– Manipulation of the data in many ways.
• Memory
– Area of the computer that temporarily holds data waiting to be processed,
stored, or output.
• Storage
– Area of the computer that holds data on a permanent basis when it is not
immediately needed for processing.
Basic Terminology
•Assembly language program (ALP) – Programs are written

using mnemonics
•Mnemonic – Instruction will be in the form of English like

form
•Assembler – is a software which converts ALP to MLL

(Machine Level Language)
•HLL (High Level Language) – Programs are written using

English like statements
•Compiler - Convert HLL to MLL, does this job by reading

source program at www.EngineeringPdfBook.com
once
Basic Terminology
•Interpreter – Converts HLL to MLL, does this job
statement by statement
•System software – Program routines which aid the

user in the execution of programs eg: Assemblers,
Compilers
•Operating system – Collection of routines

responsible for controlling and coordinating all the
activities in a computer system
Computing Systems
Computers have two kinds of components:
• Hardware, consisting of its physical devices
(CPU, memory, bus, storage devices, ...)
• Software, consisting of the programs it has
(Operating system, applications, utilities, ...)
Calvin College
FUNCTIONAL UNITS OF
COMPUTER
• Input Unit
• Output Unit
• Central processing Unit (ALU and Control Units)
• Memory
• Bus Structure
The Big Picture
Processor
Input
Control
Memory
ALU
Output
Since 1946 all computers have had 5 components!!!
IMPORTANT
Function SLIDE !
• ALL computer functions are:
– Data PROCESSING
– Data STORAGE Data = Information
– Data MOVEMENT
– CONTROL Coordinates How
Information is Used
• NOTHING ELSE!
INPUT UNIT:
•Converts the external world data to a binary format, which

can be understood by CPU
•Eg: Keyboard, Mouse, Joystick etc
OUTPUT UNIT:
•Converts the binary format data to a format that a common

man can understand
•Eg: Monitor, Printer, LCD, LED etc

CPU
•The “brain” of the machine
•Responsible for carrying out computational task
•Contains ALU, CU, Registers
•ALU Performs Arithmetic and logical operations
•CU Provides control signals in accordance with some

timings which in turn controls the execution process
•Register Stores data and result and speeds up the

operation
Example
Add R1, R2
T1 Enable R1
T2 Enable R2
T3 Enable ALU for addition operation
T4
•Control unit works with
a reference signal called
T1 processor clock
T2 •Processor divides the

operations into basic
steps
R1 R2
•Each basic step is

executed in one clock
cycle
R2
MEMORY
•Stores data, results, programs
•Two class of storage

(i) Primary (ii) Secondary
•Two types are RAM or R/W memory and ROM read only memory
•ROM is used to store data and program which is not going to

change.
•Secondary storage is used for bulk storage or mass storage
Basic Operational Concepts
Basic Function of Computer
• To Execute a given task as per the appropriate program
• Program consists of list of instructions stored in
memory
Interconnection between Processor and Memory
Registers
Registers are fast stand-alone storage locations that hold data
temporarily. Multiple registers are needed to facilitate the
operation of the CPU. Some of these registers are
Two registers-MAR (Memory Address Register) and

MDR (Memory Data Register) : To handle the data
transfer between main memory and processor. MAR-
Holds addresses, MDR-Holds data
Instruction register (IR) : Hold the Instructions that is
currently being executed
Program counter: Points to the next instructions that is
to be fetched from memory
•(PC) (MAR)( the contents
of PC transferred to MAR)
•(MAR) (Address bus) Select a

particular memory location
•Issues RD control signals
•Reads instruction present in memory

and loaded into MDR
•Will be placed in IR (Contents

transferred from MDR to IR)
•Instruction present in IR will be decoded by
which processor understand what operation it
has to perform
•Increments the contents of PC by 1, so that it

points to the next instruction address
•If data required for operation is available in

register, it performs the operation
•If data is present in memory following

sequence is performed
•Address of the data MAR
•MAR Address bus select memory

location where is issued RD signal
•Reads data via data bus MDR
•From MDR data can be directly routed to ALU

or it can be placed in register and then
operation can be performed
•Results of the operation can be directed

towards output device, memory or register
•Normal execution preempted (interrupt)

Interrupt
• An interrupt is a request from I/O device for
service by processor
• Processor provides requested service by
executing interrupt service routine (ISR)
• Contents of PC, general registers, and some
control information are stored in memory .
• When ISR completed, processor restored, so
that interrupted program may continue
BUS STRUCTURE
Connecting CPU and memory
The CPU and memory are normally connected by three
groups of connections, each called a bus: data bus, address
bus and control bus
Connecting CPU and memory using three buses
BUS STRUCTURE
•Group of wires which carries information form CPU to peripherals or
vice – versa
•Single bus structure: Common bus used to communicate between

peripherals and microprocessor
INPUT MEMORY PROCESSOR OUTPUT
SINGLE BUS STRUCTURE

Continued:-
• To
improve performance multibus structure can be
used
•In two – bus structure : One bus can be used to fetch

instruction other can be used to fetch data, required
for execution.
•Thus improving the performance ,but cost increases
A2 A1 A0 Selected
CONTROL BUS location
0 0 0 0th Location
0 0 1 1st Location
0 1 0
W/R
CS RD 0 1 1
A0 PROCESSOR
A1 1 0 0
A2
1 0 1
ADDRESS BUS
1 1 0
D7 D0
D0 D7
1 1 1
DATA BUS
Cont:-
•23 = 8 i.e. 3 address line is required to select 8

location
•In general 2x = n where x number of address lines

(address bit) and n is number of location
•Address bus : unidirectional : group of wires

which carries address information bits form
processor to peripherals (16,20,24 or more parallel
signal lines)
Cont:-
•Databus: bidirectional : group of wires which

carries data information bit form processor to
peripherals and vice – versa
•Controlbus: bidirectional: group of wires

which carries control signals form processor to
peripherals and vice – versa
•Figure below shows address, data and control

bus and their connection with peripheral and
microprocessor
PERFORMANCE
•Time taken by the system to execute a program
•Parameters which influence the performance are
•Clock speed
•Type and number of instructions available
•Average time required to execute an instruction
•Memory access time
•Power dissipation in the system
•Number of I/O devices and types of I/O devices

connected
•The data transfer capacity of the bus

MEMORY LOCATIONS AND ADDRESSES
•Main memory is the second major subsystem in a
computer. It consists of a collection of storage locations,
each with a unique identifier, called an address.
•Data is transferred to and from memory in groups of

bits called words. A word can be a group of 8 bits, 16
bits, 32 bits or 64 bits (and growing).
•If the word is 8 bits, it is referred to as a byte. The term

“byte” is so common in computer science that
sometimes a 16-bit word is referred to as a 2-byte word,
or a 32-bit word is referred to as a 4-byte word.
Figure 5.3 Main memory
Address space
•To access a word in memory requires an identifier. Although

programmers use a name to identify a word (or a collection
of words), at the hardware level each word is identified by an
address.
•The total number of uniquely identifiable locations in

memory is called the address space.
•For example, a memory with 64 kilobytes (16 address line

required) and a word size of 1 byte has an address space that
ranges from 0 to 65,535.
i
Memory addresses are defined using unsigned
binary integers.
Example 1
A computer has 32 MB (megabytes) of memory. How many bits
are needed to address any single byte in memory?
Solution
The memory address space is 32 MB, or 225 (25 × 220). This
means that we need log2 225, or 25 bits, to address each byte.
Example 2
A computer has 128 MB of memory. Each word in this computer
is eight bytes. How many bits are needed to address any single
word in memory?
Solution
The memory address space is 128 MB, which means 227.
However, each word is eight (23) bytes, which means that we
have 224 words. This means that we need log2 224, or 24 bits, to
address each word.
Assignment of byte addresses
• Little Endian (e.g., in DEC, Intel)
» low order byte stored at lowest address
» byte0 byte1 byte2 byte3
• Eg: 46,78,96,54 (32 bit data)
• H BYTE L BYTE
• 8000 54
• 8001 96
• 8002 78
• 8003
46
• 8004
|
Big Endian
• Big Endian (e.g., in IBM, Motorolla, Sun, HP)
» high order byte stored at lowest address
» byte3 byte2 byte1 byte0
• Programmers/protocols should be careful
when transferring binary data between Big
Endian and Little Endian machines
• In case of 16 bit data, aligned words begin at
byte addresses of 0,2,4,………………………….
byte address of 0,4,8,………………………….
byte addresses of 0,8,16,………………………..
• In some cases words can start at an arbitrary
byte address also then, we say that word
locations are unaligned
MEMORY OPERATIONS
• Today, general‐purpose computers use a set of instructions called a
program to process data.
• A computer executes the program to create output data from input
data
• Both program instructions and data operands are stored in memory
• Two basic operations requires in memory access
• Load operation (Read or Fetch)‐Contents of specified
memory location are read by processor
• Store operation (Write)‐ Data from the processor is stored in
specified memory location
• INSTRUCTION SET ARCHITECTURE:‐Complete
instruction set of the processor
• BASIC 4 TYPES OF OPERATION:‐
• Data transfer between memory and
processor register
• Arithmetic and logic operation
• Program sequencing and control
• I/O transfer
Register transfer notation (RTN)
Transfer between processor registers & memory, between
processor register & I/O devices
Memory locations, registers and I/O register names are
identified by a symbolic name in uppercase alphabets
• LOC,PLACE,MEM are the address of memory location
• R1 , R2,… are processor registers
• DATA_IN, DATA_OUT are I/O registers
•Contents of location is indicated by using square
brackets [ ]
•RHS of RTN always denotes a values, and is

called Source
•LHS of RTN always denotes a symbolic name

where value is to be stored and is called destination
•Source contents are not modified
•Destination contents are overwritten

Examples of RTN
statements
• R2 [LOCN]
• R4 [R3] +[R2]
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
NOTATION (ALN)
• RTN is easy to understand and but cannot be
used to represent machine instructions
• Mnemonics can be converted to machine
language, which processor understands
using assembler
Eg:
1. MOVE LOCN, R2
2. ADD R3, R2, R4
TYPE OF INSTRUCTION
¾Three address instruction
•Syntax: Operation source 1, source 2, destination

•Eg: ADD D,E,F where D,E,F are memory
location
•Advantage: Single instruction can perform the
complete operation
•Disadvantage : Instruction code will be too large to
fit in one word location in memory
TWO ADDRESS INSTRUCTION
•Syntax : Operation source, destination
•Eg: MOVE E,F MOVE D,F
ADD D,F OR ADD E,F
Perform ADD A,B,C using 2 instructions

MOVE B,C
ADD A,C
Disadvantage: Single instruction is not sufficient to

perform the entire operation.
ONE ADDRESS
INSTRUCTION
• Syntax‐ Operation source/destination
• In this type either a source or destination
operand is mentioned in the instruction
• Other operand is implied to be a processor
register called Accumulator
• Eg: ADD B (general)
• Load D; ACC [memlocation _D]
• ADD E; ACC (ACC) +(E)
• STORE F; memlocation_ F (ACC )
Zero address
instruction
• Location of all operands are defined implicitly
• Operands are stored in a structure called
pushdown stack
Continued
¾ If processor supports ALU operations one data in memory and
other in register then the instruction sequence is
• MOVE D, Ri
• ADD E, Ri
• MOVE Ri, F
¾ If processor supports ALU operations only with registers then
one has to follow the instruction sequence given below
• LOAD D, Ri
• LOAD E, Rj
• ADD Ri, Rj
• MOVE Rj, F
Basic Instruction Cycle
• Basic computer operation cycle
– Fetch the instruction from memory into a control
register (PC)
– Decode the instruction
– Locate the operands used by the instruction
– Fetch operands from memory (if necessary)
– Execute the operation in processor registers
– Store the results in the proper place
– Go back to step 1 to fetch the next instruction
INSTRUCTION EXECUTION & STRIAGHT LINE
SEQUENCING
Address Contents
}
Begin execution here i Move A,R0
i+4 Add B,R0
3-instruction program
i+8 Move R0,C
. segment
.
.
A
.
.
.
B Data for Program

. C [A]+[B]
.
C
• PC – Program counter: hold the address of the next
instruction to be executed
• Straight line sequencing: If fetching and executing of
instructions is carried out one by one from
successive addresses of memory, it is called straight
line sequencing.
• Major two phase of instruction execution
• Instruction fetch phase: Instruction is fetched form
memory and is placed in instruction register IR
• Instruction execute phase: Contents of IR is decoded
and processor carries out the operation either by
reading data from memory or registers.
BRANCHING
A straight line program for adding n

numbers
Using a loop to add n numbers
BRANCHING
• Branch instruction are those which changes the
normal sequence of execution.
• Sequence can be changed either conditionally or
unconditionally.
• Accordingly we have conditional branch instructions
and unconditional branch instruction.
• Conditional branch instruction changes the sequence
only when certain conditions are met.
• Unconditional branch instruction changes the
sequence of execution irrespective of condition of
the results.
CONDITION CODES
¾ CONDITIONAL CODE FLAGS: The processor keeps track of
information about the results of various operations for
use by subsequent conditional branch instructions
• N – Negative 1 if results are Negative
0 if results are Positive
• Z – Zero 1 if results are Zero
0 if results are Non zero
• V – Overflow 1 if arithmetic overflow occurs
0 non overflow occurs
• C – Carry 1 if carry and from MSB bit
0 if there is no carry from MSB bit
Figure Format and different instruction types
Processing the instructions
Simple computer, like most computers, uses machine cycles.
A cycle is made of three phases: fetch, decode and execute.
During the fetch phase, the instruction whose address is determined by

the PC is obtained from the memory and loaded into the IR. The PC is
then incremented to point to the next instruction.
During the decode phase, the instruction in IR is decoded and the

required operands are fetched from the register or from memory.
During the execute phase, the instruction is executed and the results are
placed in the appropriate memory location or the register.
Once the third phase is completed, the control unit starts the cycle again,
but now the PC is pointing to the next instruction.
The process continues until the CPU reaches a HALT instruction.
Types of Addressing Modes
The different ways in which the location of the operand is
specified in an instruction are referred to as addressing
modes
• Immediate Addressing
• Direct Addressing
• Indirect Addressing
• Register Addressing
• Register Indirect Addressing
• Relative Addressing
• Indexed Addressing
Immediate Addressing
• Operand is given explicitly in the instruction
• Operand = Value
• e.g. ADD 5
– Add 5 to contents of accumulator
– 5 is operand
• No memory reference to fetch data
• Fast
• Limited range
Instruction
opcode
operand
Direct Addressing
• Address field contains address of operand
• Effective address (EA) = address field (A)
• e.g. ADD A
– Add contents of cell A to accumulator
– Look in memory at address A for operand
• Single memory reference to access data
• No additional calculations to work out effective address
• Limited address space
Direct Addressing Diagram
Instruction
Opcode Address A
Memory
Operand
Indirect Addressing (1)
• Memory cell pointed to by address field
contains the address of (pointer to) the
operand
• EA = [A]
– Look in A, find address (A) and look there for
operand
• e.g. ADD (A)
– Add contents of cell pointed to by contents of A to
accumulator
Indirect Addressing (2)
• Large address space
• 2n where n = word length
• May be nested, multilevel, cascaded
– e.g. EA = (((A)))
• Draw the diagram yourself
• Multiple memory accesses to find operand
• Hence slower
Indirect Addressing Diagram
Instruction
Opcode Address A
Memory
Pointer to operand
Operand
Register Addressing (1)
• Operand is held in register named in address
field
• EA = R
• Limited number of registers
• Very small address field needed
– Shorter instructions
– Faster instruction fetch
Register Addressing (2)
• No memory access
• Very fast execution
• Very limited address space
• Multiple registers helps performance
– Requires good assembly programming or compiler
writing
Register Addressing Diagram
Instruction
Opcode Register Address R
Registers
Operand
Register Indirect
Addressing
• C.f. indirect addressing
• EA = [R]
• Operand is in memory cell pointed to by
contents of register R
• Large address space (2n)
• One fewer memory access than indirect
addressing
Register Indirect
Addressing Diagram
Instruction
Opcode Register Address R
Memory
Registers
Pointer to Operand Operand
Indexed Addressing
• EA = X + [R]
• Address field hold two values
– X = constant value (offset)
– R = register that holds address of memory
locations
– or vice versa
`(Offset given as constant or in the index register)
Add 20(R1),R2 or Add 1000(R1),R2
Indexed Addressing Diagram
Instruction
Opcode Register R Constant Value
Memory
Registers
Pointer to Operand + Operand
Relative Addressing
• A version of displacement addressing
• R = Program counter, PC
• EA = X + (PC)
• i.e. get operand from X bytes away from
current location pointed to by PC
• c.f locality of reference & cache usage
Auto increment mode
• The effective address of the operand is the
contents of a register specified in the instruction.
• After accessing the operand, the contents of this
register are automatically incremented to point
to the next item in the list
• EA=[Ri]; Increment Ri ‐‐‐‐ (Ri)+
Eg: Add (R2)+,R0
Auto decrement mode
• The contents of a register specified in the
instruction are first automatically
decremented and are then used as the
effective address of the operand
• Decrement Ri; EA= [Ri] ‐‐‐‐‐ ‐(Ri)
Addressing Architecture
• Memory‐to‐Memory architecture
– All of the access of addressing ‐> Memory
– Have only control registers such PC
– Too many memory accesses
• Register‐to‐Register architecture
– Allow only one memory address
• “load”, “store” instructions
• Register‐to‐Memory architecture
– Program lengths and # of memory accesses tend to be intermediate
between the above two architectures
• Single accumulator architecture
– Have no register profile
– Too many memory accesses
• Stack architecture
– Data manipulation instructions use no address.
– Too many memory (stack) accesses
– Useful for rapid interpretation of high‐level lang. programs in which the
intermediate code representation uses stack operations.
Addressing Modes
• Implied mode
– The operand is specified implicitly in the definition
of the opcode.
• Immediate mode
– The actual operand is specified in the instruction
itself.
Addressing Modes (Summary)
Base register LDA #ADRS(R1) ACC <- M[R1+ADRS]
Instruction Set Architecture
• RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) Architectures
– Memory accesses are restricted to load and store instruction, and data
manipulation instructions are register to register.
– Addressing modes are limited in number.
– Instruction formats are all of the same length.
– Instructions perform elementary operations
• CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) Architectures
– Memory access is directly available to most types of instruction.
– Addressing mode are substantial in number.
– Instruction formats are of different lengths.
– Instructions perform both elementary and complex operations.
Instruction Set Architecture
• RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)
Architectures
– Large register file
– Control unit: simple and hardwired
– pipelining
• CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer)
Architectures
– Register file: smaller than in a RISC
– Control unit: often micro‐programmed
– Current trend
• CISC operation Æ a sequence of RISC‐like operations
CISC Examples
• Examples of CISC processors are the
– System/360(excluding the 'scientific' Model 44),
– VAX,
– PDP‐11,
– Motorola 68000 family
– Intel x86 architecture based processors.
Pro’s
• Emphasis on hardware
• Includes multi-clock complex
instructions
• Memory-to-memory:
"LOAD" and "STORE"
incorporated in instructions
• Small code sizes,
high cycles per second
• Transistors used for storing
complex instructions
Con’s
• That is, the incorporation of older instruction sets
into new generations of processors tended to force
growing complexity.
• Many specialized CISC instructions were not used
frequently enough to justify their existence.
• Because each CISC command must be translated by
the processor into tens or even hundreds of lines of
microcode, it tends to run slower than an equivalent
series of simpler commands that do not require so
much translation.
RISC Examples
• Apple iPods (custom ARM7TDMI SoC)
• Apple iPhone (Samsung ARM1176JZF)
• Palm and PocketPC PDAs and smartphones (Intel
XScale family, Samsung SC32442 ‐ ARM9)
• Nintendo Game Boy Advance (ARM7)
• Nintendo DS (ARM7, ARM9)
• Sony Network Walkman (Sony in‐house ARM based
chip)
• Some Nokia and Sony Ericsson mobile phones
Pro’s
• Emphasis on software
• Single-clock,
reduced instruction only
• Register to register:
"LOAD" and "STORE"
are independent instructions
• Low cycles per second,
large code sizes
• Spends more transistors
on memory registers
Performance
• The CISC approach attempts to

minimize the number of instructions
per program, sacrificing the number
of cycles per instruction. RISC does
the opposite, reducing the cycles per
instruction at the cost of the number
of instructions per program.
Characteristics of RISC Vs CISC
processors
No RISC CISC
1 Simple instructions taking one Complex instructions taking
cycle multiple cycles
2 Instructions are executed by Instructions are executed by
hardwired control unit microprogramed control unit
3 Few instructions Many instructions
4 Fixed format instructions Variable format instructions
5 Few addressing mode, and most Many addressing modes

instructions have register to
register addressing mode
6 Multiple register set Single register set
7 Highly pipelined Not pipelined or less pipelined

SUMMARY
Computer components and its function
Evolution and types of computer
Instruction and instruction sequencing
Addressing modes
RISC Vs CISC
REFERENCES
• Carl Hammacher,”Computer
Organization,”Fifth Edition,McGrawHill
International Edition,2002
• P.Pal Chaudhuri,”Compter Organization and
Design”,2nd Edition ,PHI,2003
• William Stallings,”Computer organization and
Architecture‐Designing for
Performance”,PHI,2004

Computer Organization and Architecture by William Stallings

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Computer Organization and Architecture by William Stallings

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COMPUTER

Slides Courtesy of Carl Hamacher,”Computer Organization,” Fifth edition,McGrawHill

•Evolution of Computer Systems

ENTERPRISE SYSTEM (MAINFRAME)

• Supports large volumes of data which frequently need to

•Faster than mainframes

•Assembly language program (ALP) – Programs are written

•Mnemonic – Instruction will be in the form of English like

•Assembler – is a software which converts ALP to MLL

•HLL (High Level Language) – Programs are written using

•Compiler - Convert HLL to MLL, does this job by reading

•System software – Program routines which aid the

•Operating system – Collection of routines

•Converts the external world data to a binary format, which

•Eg: Keyboard, Mouse, Joystick etc

•Converts the binary format data to a format that a common

•Eg: Monitor, Printer, LCD, LED etc

•Responsible for carrying out computational task

•Contains ALU, CU, Registers

•ALU Performs Arithmetic and logical operations

•CU Provides control signals in accordance with some

•Register Stores data and result and speeds up the

T3 Enable ALU for addition operation

T2 •Processor divides the

•Each basic step is

•Stores data, results, programs

•Two class of storage

•ROM is used to store data and program which is not going to

•Secondary storage is used for bulk storage or mass storage

 Two registers-MAR (Memory Address Register) and

•(MAR) (Address bus) Select a

•Issues RD control signals

•Reads instruction present in memory

•Will be placed in IR (Contents

•Increments the contents of PC by 1, so that it

•If data required for operation is available in

•If data is present in memory following

•MAR Address bus select memory

•Reads data via data bus MDR

•From MDR data can be directly routed to ALU

•Results of the operation can be directed

•Normal execution preempted (interrupt)

Connecting CPU and memory using three buses

•Single bus structure: Common bus used to communicate between

INPUT MEMORY PROCESSOR OUTPUT

SINGLE BUS STRUCTURE

•In two – bus structure : One bus can be used to fetch

•Thus improving the performance ,but cost increases

•23 = 8 i.e. 3 address line is required to select 8

•In general 2x = n where x number of address lines

•Address bus : unidirectional : group of wires

•Databus: bidirectional : group of wires which

•Controlbus: bidirectional: group of wires

•Figure below shows address, data and control

•Time taken by the system to execute a program

•Parameters which influence the performance are

•Type and number of instructions available

•Average time required to execute an instruction

•Memory access time

Two registers-MAR (Memory Address Register) and

Disadvantage: Single instruction is not sufficient to